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Reading & Resource List on Information Literacy

Articles & Reports

Adegoke, Yemisi. "Like. Share. Kill.: Nigerian police say false information on Facebook is killing people." BBC News. Accessed November 21, 2018. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt- sh/nigeria_fake_news. See how Facebook posts are fueling ethnic violence.

ALA Public Programs Office. “News: Fake News: A Library Resource Round-Up.” American Library Association. February 23, 2017. http://www.programminglibrarian.org/articles/fake-news-library-round.

ALA Public Programs Office. “Post-Truth: Fake News and a New Era of Information Literacy.” American Library Association. Accessed March 2, 2017. http://www.programminglibrarian.org/learn/post-truth- fake-news-and-new-era-information-literacy. This has a 45-minute webinar by Dr. Nicole A. Cook, University of Illinois School of Information Sciences, which is intended for librarians but is an excellent introduction to fake news.

Albright, Jonathan. “The Micro-Propaganda Machine.” Medium. November 4, 2018. https://medium.com/s/the-micro-propaganda-machine/. In a three-part series, Albright critically examines the role of Facebook in spreading lies and propaganda.

Allen, Mike. “Machine learning can’g flag false news, new studies show.” Axios. October 15, 2019. ios.com/machine-learning-cant-flag-false-news-55aeb82e-bcbb-4d5c-bfda-1af84c77003b.html.

Allsop, Jon. "After 10,000 'false or misleading claims,' are we any better at calling out Trump's lies?" Columbia Journalism Review. April 30, 2019. https://www.cjr.org/the_media_today/trump_fact- check_washington_post.php.

Allsop, Jon. “Our polluted information ecosystem.” Columbia Journalism Review. December 11, 2019. https://www.cjr.org/the_media_today/cjr_disinformation_conference.php.

Amazeen, Michelle A. and Erik P. Bucy. “Conferring Resistance to Digital Disinformation: The Inoculating Influence of Procedural News Knowledge.” Taylor & Francis Online. September 20, 2019. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08838151.2019.1653101.

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Andrews, Becca. “Conspiracy Theories Are More Destructive Than Ever Before. There’s a Reason for That.” Mother Jones. April 16, 2019. https://www.motherjones.com/media/2019/04/anna-merlan- republic-of-lies-rise-conspiracy-theories-donald-trump/.

Associated Press. “Facebook says it purged more than 800 spam accounts, pages. Associated Press. October 11, 2018. https://www.apnews.com/2e3a88aeb2e74e8e9b1bdb134f94a500. These pages contained “politically-tinged garbage links and clickbait.”

Badke, William. “Post-Truth, False News, and Information Literacy. Online Searcher. July/August 2017. http://www.infotoday.com/OnlineSearcher/Articles/InfoLit-Land/PostTruth-False-News-and- Information-Literacy-119319.shtml. Badke, a librarian at Trinity Western University, writes: “The most pressing enemy at the gates today is conjecture and speculation masquerading as authority.”

Bago, Bence, David Rand, and Gordon Pennycock. “Fake news, fast and slow: Deliberation reduces belief in false (but not true) news headlines.” PsyArXiv Preprints. January 6, 2020. https://psyarxiv.com/29b4j.

Ball, Philip, and Amy Maxmen. “The epic battle against coronavirus misinformation and conspiracy theories.” Nature. May 27, 2020. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-01452-z.

Banias, MJ. “QAnon and UFO Conspiracies Are Merging.” Vice. October 29, 2019. https://www.vice.com/en/article/xwepqk/qanon-and-ufo-conspiracies-are-merging.

Barrett, Paul M. "Tackling Domestic Disinformation: What the Social Media Companies Need to Do." New York University. March 2019. https://issuu.com/nyusterncenterforbusinessandhumanri/docs/nyu_domestic_disinformation_digital?e =31640827/68184927.

Barber, Gregory. “Deepfakes Are Getting Better, But They’re Still Easy to Spot.” Wired. May 26, 2019. https://www.cnn.com/2019/05/28/politics/facebook-pro-iranian-influence- campaign/index.html?utm_source=CNN+Media%3A+Reliable+Sources&utm_campaign=7b522a429a- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2018_09_11_04_47_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_e95cdc16a9- 7b522a429a-83856117.

Barker, David and Morgan Marietta. "Fact-checking can't do much when people's 'dueling facts' are driven by values instead of knowledge." Nieman Lab. May 8, 2019. https://www.niemanlab.org/2019/05/fact-checking-cant-do-much-when-peoples-dueling-facts-are- driven-by-values-instead-of- knowledge/?utm_source=Daily+Lab+email+list&utm_campaign=40e92abca2- dailylabemail3&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_d68264fd5e-40e92abca2-396163909.

Barrett, Paul M. “Disinformation and the 2020 Election: How the Social Media Industry Should Prepare.” New York University. September 2019. https://issuu.com/nyusterncenterforbusinessandhumanri/docs/nyu_election_2020_report?fr=sY2QzYzI 0MjMwMA.

Barrett, Paul M. and J. Grant Sims. “False Accusation: The Unfounded Claim that Social Media Companies Censor Conservatives,” New York University. February 2021.

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https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5b6df958f8370af3217d4178/t/60187b5f45762e708708c8e9/16 12217185240/NYU+False+Accusation_2.pdf.

Bauerlein, Monika and Clara Jeffery. “It’s the End of News as We Know It (and Facebook Is Feeling Fine).” December 4, 2018. https://www.motherjones.com/media/2018/12/facebook-propaganda- trump/.

Bell, Emily. “The Fact-Check Industry.” Columbia Journalism Review. Fall 2019. https://www.cjr.org/special_report/fact-check-industry-twitter.php.

Bellemare, Andrea, et. al. “Chiropractors told to remove posts claiming their methods boost immune system and prevent COVID-19.” CBC. March 30, 2020. https://www.cbc.ca/news/health/chiropractors- immune-system-covid-19-1.5511008.

Benjamin, Daniel and Steven Simon. “How Fake News Could Lead to Real War.” Politico. July 5, 2019. https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2019/07/05/fake-news-real-war-227272. It has happened in the past, and it could happen again.

Benton, Joshua. “If you hate the media, you’re more likely to be fooled by a fake headline.” NiemanLab. November 19, 2018. http://www.niemanlab.org/2018/11/if-you-hate-the-media-youre-more-likely-to- be-fooled-by-a-fake- headline/?utm_source=CNN+Media%3A+Reliable+Sources&utm_campaign=0be63aa302- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2018_09_11_04_47_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_e95cdc16a9- 0be63a.

Benveniste, Alexis. “Biden lies less than Trump, fact-checkers say. But he’s not perfect.” CNN Business. February 21, 2021. https://www.cnn.com/2021/02/21/media/biden-trump-factchecking/index.html.

Bergen, Mark. “YouTube Executives Ignored Warnings, Letting Toxic Videos Run Rampant.” Bloomberg. April 2, 2019. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2019-04-02/youtube-executives-ignored- warnings-letting-toxic-videos-run-rampant. Subtitle: “Proposals to change recommendations and curb conspiracies were sacrificed for engagement, staff say.”

Bergstrom, Carl and Jevin West. “Case Study: Foodstamp Fraud.” Calling Bullshit. 2016. http://callingbullshit.org/case_studies/case_study_foodstamp_fraud.html.

Bergstrom, Carl and Jevin West. “Visualization: Misleading axes on graphs.”Calling Bullshit. 2016. http://callingbullshit.org/tools/tools_misleading_axes.html. The authors show how graphs can be set up to create misleading visuals.

Beville, Becky. “Fake News & the Importance of Information Literacy.” ProQuest.com. accessed March 16, 2017. http://blogs.proquest.com/general/fake-news-the-importance-of-information-literacy/. This includes links to “How to Identify Fake News in 10 Steps,” and an extensive list of unreliable, partisan, conspiracy, biased, or fake news websites: https://docs.google.com/document/d/10eA5- mCZLSS4MQY5QGb5ewC3VAL6pLkT53V_81ZyitM/preview.

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Binion, Billy. "News Posts With Moral and Emotional Language Spread Quickly, But Deepen Polarization." AllSides. January 7, 2019. https://www.allsides.com/blog/news-posts-moral-and- emotional-language-spread-quickly-deepen-polarization.

Binkowski, Brooke. "I Was A Facebook Fact-Checker. It Was Like Playing A Doomed Game of Whack-A- Mole. BuzzFeed. February 8, 2019. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/brookebinkowski/fact- checking-facebook-doomed.

Binkowski, Brooke. "Facebook's 'fake news' problem won't be solved by banning right-wing, anti-Semitic trolls." USA Today. May 8, 2019. https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/voices/2019/05/08/facebook-bans-alex-jones-social-media- rohingya-column/1127869001/.

Bloom, David. “Tristan Harris And ‘The Social Dilemma:’ Big Ideas To Fix Our Social Media Ills,” Forbes. October 7, 2020. https://www.forbes.com/sites/dbloom/2020/10/07/tristan-harris-and-the-social- dilemma-big-ideas-to-fix-our-social-media-ills/?sh=1547972c33e4.

Bloomfield, Emma Frances. “How to talk to someone you believe is misinformed about the coronavirus.” The Conversation. March 17, 2020. https://theconversation.com/how-to-talk-to-someone-you-believe- is-misinformed-about-the-coronavirus-133044.

Bomey, Nathan. "Why 'NBC Nightly News' anchor Lester Holt is teaching teens about fact-checking." USA Today. February 13, 2019. https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2019/02/13/nbc-ester-holt- poynter-institute-mediawise-fact-checking/2857328002/.

Bonazzo, John. “YouTube’s Wikipedia Partnership Doesn’t Solve Either Site’s Fact Checking Issues.” Observer. March 15, 2018. http://observer.com/2018/03/youtube-wikipedia-fake-news-conspiracy- theories-fact-checking/?utm_source=Pew+Research+Center&utm_campaign=04934b6d76- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2018_03_15&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_3e953b9b70-04934b6d76- 400067733.

Bond, John-Michael. “3 Chrome extensions to cut fake news out of your life.” The Daily Dot. 2016 December 2. https://www.dailydot.com/debug/chrome-extensions-to-filter-fake-news/. Boseley, Sarah. "How disgraced anti-vaxxer Andrew Wakefield was embraced by Trump's America." The Guardian. July 18, 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/jul/18/how-disgraced-anti-vaxxer- andrew-wakefield-was-embraced-by-trumps-america.

Bosilkovski, Igor. “Checking in with the Macedonian fake news strategist.” Columbia Journalism Review. April 16, 2019. https://www.cjr.org/politics/checking-in-with-the-macedonian-fake-news- strategist.php?utm_source=Pew+Research+Center&utm_campaign=bf8272efd3- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2019_04_17_01_36&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_3e953b9b70-bf8272efd3- 400451153.

Boyd, Sophia Alvarez. “5 ways teachers are fighting fake news.”Minnesota Public Radio. February 16, 2017. http://www.mprnews.org/story/2017/02/16/npr-5-ways-teachers-fighting-fake-news.

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Bradshaw, Samantha. “The Global Disinformation Order: 2019 Global Inventory of Organised Social Media Manipulation.” Oxford Internet Institute. 2019. https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/wp- content/uploads/sites/93/2019/09/CyberTroop-Report19.pdf.

Braga, Matthew. “Harmless viral Facebook post is another reminder how easy it is to make online fakes.” CBC News. November 21, 2018. https://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/viral-facebook-post- misinformation-trust-1.4913930.

Brandt, Jessica, and Torrey Taussig. “The Kremlin’s disinformation playbook goes to Beijing.” Brookings. May 19, 2020. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/05/19/the-kremlins- disinformation-playbook-goes-to-beijing/.

Breland, Ali. “Fake News Is Getting a Big Boost From Real Companies.” Mother Jones. May 9, 2019. https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2019/05/fake-news-advertising-networks/.

Breland, Ali. “In 2018, Americans Took a Page From the Russian Disinformation Playbook.” December 28, 2018. https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2018/12/in-2018-americans-took-a-page-from-the- russian-disinformation-playbook/.

Brito, Christopher. “What is the broom challenge? Internet hoax sweeps social media.” CBS News. February 11, 2020. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/broom-challenge-nasa-internet-hoax-02-11-2020/.

Broad, William J. “Your 5G Phone Won’t Hurt You. But Russia Wants You to Think Otherwise.” The New York Times. May 12, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/12/science/5g-phone-safety-health- russia.html?module=inline. Brown, Eileen. “Online fake news is costing us $78 billion globally each year.” ZDNet. December 18, 2019. https://www.zdnet.com/article/online-fake-news-costing-us-78-billion-globally-each-year/.

Brown, Shelby. “FTC cracks down on companies for deceptive online marketing practices.” C|Net. October 21, 2019. https://www.cnet.com/news/ftc-continues-to-crack-down-on-companies-with- deceptive-marketing- practices/?utm_campaign=The%20Interface&utm_medium=email&utm_source=Revue%20newsletter.

Browne, Ryan. “5G cell towers torched in U.K. amid bogus coronavirus theories.” CNBC. April 6, 2020. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/5g-cell-towers-torched-u-k-amid-bogus-coronavirus-theories- n1177361.

Boutilier, Alex, and Tonda MacCharles. “COVID-19 ‘infodemic’ reaching Canadians through social media and apps, survey suggests.” Toronto Star. May 12, 2020. https://www.thestar.com/politics/federal/2020/05/12/facebook-says-it-flagged-covid-19- misinformation-50-million-times-in-april.html.

Calderone, Michael. “Democrats decry double standard in fact checking.” Politico. September 11, 2019. https://www.politico.com/story/2019/09/11/democrats-fact-checking-1489135.

Canegallo, Kristie. “Fighting disinformation across our products.” Google. February 16, 2019. https://blog.google/around-the-globe/google-europe/fighting-disinformation-across-our-products/. Click on the “white paper” link for the full document.

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Carey, John M., et. al. “The effects of corrective information about disease epidemics and outbreaks: Evidence from Zika and yellow fever in Brazil.” ScienceAdvances. January 29, 2020. https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/6/5/eaaw7449.

Carmichael, Flora and Juliana Gragnani. “YouTube advertises big brands alongside fake cancer cure videos.” BBC. September 13, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-49483681.

Cartwright, Lachlan, and Justin Baragona. “Fox News Cuts Ties with Diamond & Silk, Unofficial Trump ‘Advisers’ Who Spread Bonkers Coronavirus Claims.” Daily Beast. April 27, 2020. https://www.thedailybeast.com/fox-news-cuts-ties-with-diamond-and-silk.

Caulfield, Mike. “For online media literacy that works, speed and ease matters.” Medium. August 30, 2018. https://medium.com/trust-media-and-democracy/for-online-media-literacy-that-works-speed- and-ease-matters-896dba85b54c.

Caulfield, Mike. “Recognition is Futile (and also dangerous).” Hapgood. December 3, 2018. https://hapgood.us/2018/12/03/recognition-is-futile-and-also-dangerous/.

Chan, Man-pui Sally et al. "Debunking: A Meta-Analysis of the Psychological Efficacy of Messages Countering Misinformation." Sage Journals. September 12, 2017. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0956797617714579. Repetition of misinformation, even in the context of debunking, strengthens the belief in it.

Cheadle, Harry. “These Are the Comedians Behind the Fake ‘Bloomberg Dance’ Viral Video.” Vice. December 13, 2019. https://www.vice.com/en/article/3a88ej/these-are-the-comedians-behind-the- fake-bloomberg-dance-viral-video.

Check, Africa. “How to Debunk Bogus Health Claims, Quacks and Cures.” Poynter Institute. Accessed May 7, 2019. https://factcheckingday.com/articles/34/how-to-debunk-bogus-health-claims-quacks-and- cures.

Chesney, Robert and Danielle Citron. “Deepfakes and the New Disinformation War: The Coming Age of Post-Truth Geopolitics.” Foreign Affairs. January/February 2019. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/world/2018-12-11/deepfakes-and-new-disinformation- war?cid=Chesney_Citron_121118&spJobID=1541538472&spMailingID=58005753&spReportId=MTU0M TUzODQ3MgS2&spUserID=Mzg1MDI3MzY4NTA1S0&sp_mid=58005753&sp_rid=emhoQGNhbGlib2d1Z. Free registration is required to read the article online.

Cockrell, Isobel. “How anti-vaxxers get around Instagram’s new hashtag controls.” Coda. December 6, 2019. https://codastory.com/disinformation/antivax-instagram-hashtag/.

Collier, Kevin. “Facebook deletes fake accounts used in pro-Iranian influence campaign. CNN. May 28, 2019. https://www.cnn.com/2019/05/28/politics/facebook-pro-iranian-influence- campaign/index.html?utm_source=CNN+Media%3A+Reliable+Sources&utm_campaign=7b522a429a- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2018_09_11_04_47_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_e95cdc16a9- 7b522a429a-83856117

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Collins, Ben. "After Mueller report, Twitter bots pushed 'Russiagate hoax' narrative." NBC News. April 23, 2019. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/after-mueller-report-twitter-bots-pushed- russiagate-hoax-narrative- n997441?utm_campaign=The%20Interface&utm_medium=email&utm_source=Revue%20newsletter. This is just one example of a type of propaganda called "influence seeding."

Collins, Ben. “False coronavirus rumors surge in ‘hidden viral’ text messages.” NBC News. March 16, 2020. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/false-coronavirus-rumors-surge-hidden-viral-text- messages-n1160936.

Collins, Ben. “On Amazon, a Qanon conspiracy book climbs the charts—with an algorithmic push. NBC News. March 4, 2019. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/amazon-qanon-conspiracy-book- climbs-charts-algorithmic-push-n979181.

Collins, Ben, et.al. “White nationalist group posing as antifa called for violence on Twitter.” NBC News. June 1, 2020. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/security/twitter-takes-down-washington-protest- disinformation-bot-behavior-n1221456.

Common, Dr. MacKenzie, and Rasmus Kleis Nielsen. “How to respond to disinformation while protecting free speech.” Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. February 19, 2021. https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/risj-review/how-respond-disinformation-while-protecting-free- speech.

Conan, Neil. “Political Fact-Checking Under Fire.” Wisconsin Public Radio. January 10, 2012. http://www.npr.org/2012/01/10/144974110/political-fact-checking-under-fire. Mark Hemingway of the Weekly Standard and Glenn Kessler of the Washington Post discuss whether the fact-checkers are biased.

Confessore, Nicholas, and Matthew Rosenberg. "Damage Control at Facebook: 6 Takeaways From The Times's Investigation." The New York Times. November 14, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/14/technology/facebook-crisis-mark-zuckerberg-sheryl- sandberg.html?action=click&module=RelatedCoverage&pgtype=Article®ion=Footer. See the Frenkel article below for the investigation.

Cook, Jesselyn. “How Instagram Became A Hotspot For Vile Conspiracies And 2020 Disinformation.” Huffington Post. October 8, 2019. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/instagram-disinformation- 2020_n_5d9c1401e4b03b475f9ee29e.

Cook, Jesselyn. “YouTube’s Plan to Rein In Conspiracy Theories Is Failing.” Huffington Post. July 23, 2019. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/youtube-conspiracy-theories_n_5d320f69e4b004b6adafbb99. Conspiracy theory channels such as JustInformed Talk, Next News Network, and TRUreporting spread outlandish conspiracy theories while at the same time making money for their creators.

Couts, Andrew. “Here are all the ‘fake news’ sites to watch out for on Facebook.” The Daily Dot. January 19, 2017. https://www.dailydot.com/layer8/fake-news-sites-list-facebook/.

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Dagnall, Neil and Ken Drinkwater. “The ‘Mandela Effect’ and how your mind is playing tricks on you.” The Conversation. February 12, 2018. https://theconversation.com/the-mandela-effect-and-how-your- mind-is-playing-tricks-on-you-89544.

Dancyger, Lilly. "Researchers Retract Widely Cited Fake-News Study. RollingStone. January 10, 2019. https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/fake-news-study-retracted-777422/.

Darcy, Oliver. "How Twitter's algorithm is amplifying extreme political rhetoric." CNN Busness. March 22, 2019. https://www.cnn.com/2019/03/22/tech/twitter-algorithm-political-rhetoric/index.html.

Davies, Jessica. The Guardian’s sales chief: The digital ad system rewards fake news.” Digiday. March 15, 2017. https://digiday.com/media/guardian-hamish-nicklin-fake-news/.

D’Costa, Krystal. “Three Historical Examples of ‘Fake News.’” Scientific American. December 1, 2016. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/anthropology-in-practice/three-historical-examples-of-fake-news/. Misinformation created by the Catholic Church, Sultan Baibars, and Benjamin Franklin.

“Defamation Law-Guide to Libel and Slander Law.” HG.org. Accessed November 1, 2018. https://www.hg.org/defamation.html.

Dewey, Caitlin. “Absolutely everything you need to know to understand 4chan, the Internet’s own bogeyman. Washington Post. September 25, 2014. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the- intersect/wp/2014/09/25/absolutely-everything-you-need-to-know-to-understand-4chan-the-internets- own-bogeyman/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.3023585fe316.

Dicker, Rachel. “Avoid These Fake News Sites at All Costs.” U.S. News & World Report. November 14, 2016. https://www.usnews.com/news/national-news/articles/2016-11-14/avoid-these-fake-news-sites- at-all-costs.

“Dirty Tricks: 9 Falsehoods that Could Undermine the 2020 Election.” Brennan Center for Justice. July 30, 2020. https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/dirty-tricks-9-falsehoods-could- undermine-2020-election.

Dixit, Pranav. “How WhatsApp Destroyed a Village.” BuzzFeed. September 9, 2018. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/pranavdixit/whatsapp-destroyed-village-lynchings-rainpada- india. Read how five people in India were beaten to death because of rumors on social media.

Doffman, Zak. “Warning: This Malicious Coronavirus Tracker Will Lock Out Your Phone.” Forbes. March 16, 2020. https://www.forbes.com/sites/zakdoffman/2020/03/16/new-warning-you-must-not-open- this-malicious-coronavirus-app/?sh=17c699c55763.

Domonoske, Camila. “Students Have ‘Dismaying’ Inability To Tell Fake News From Real, Study Finds.” National Public Radio. November 23, 2016. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo- way/2016/11/23/503129818/study-finds-students-have-dismaying-inability-to-tell-fake-news-from- real?fbclid=IwAR3xYJc5YXIWK72LpnuOR3YLMFi_Z3IOPdZ-tkind9JeO8zVyGdQ_zwsXrU.

Donath, Judith. “Why fake news stories thrive online.” CNN. November 20, 2016. http://www.cnn.com/2016/11/20/opinions/fake-news-stories-thrive-donath/index.html.

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Donovan, Joan and Brian Friedberg. “Source Hacking: Media Manipulation in Practice.” Data & Society. https://datasociety.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Source-Hacking_Hi-res.pdf.

Dougan, Michael B. "Norman Baker (1852-1958)." The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture. April 23, 2013. http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=4885. Norman Baker, although not a doctor, claimed that he could cure cancer, much of which he said was caused by aluminum pots and pans, with a concoction of clover, corn silk, watermelon seed, and water. See also: Spence, Stephen. "Pure Hoax: The Norman Baker Story." Crescent Hotel. Accessed October 27, 2017. https://www.crescent-hotel.com/bakerstory.shtml.

Darbha, Vishakha and Amanda Mull. "Health Misinformation Is Rampant on Instagram." The Atlantic. January 10, 2019. https://www.theatlantic.com/video/index/579880/instagram-wellness/. There is a video with this brief article.

Dave, Paresh and Christopher Bing. "Russian disinformation on YouTube draws ads, lacks warning labels: researchers." Reuters. June 7, 2019. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-alphabet-google-youtube- russia/russian-disinformation-on-youtube-draws-ads-lacks-warning-labels-researchers- idUSKCN1T80JP?utm_campaign=The%20Interface&utm_medium=email&utm_source=Revue%20newsle tter.

Dennis, Alan R. “Fake news: source ratings and better user interface design help us see deception.” London School of Economics. June 26, 2019. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/businessreview/2019/06/26/fake- news-source-ratings-and-better-user-interface-design-help-us-see-deception/.

Dickson, E. J., and Andrea Marks. “How to Spot Misinformation During George Floyd Protests.” RollingStone. June 2, 2020. https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-features/misinformation- facebook-george-floyd-protest-1008909/.

Diresta, Renee, and Shelby Grossman. “Potemkin Pages & Personas: Assessing GRU Online Operations, 2014-2019.” Stanford Internet Observatory. 2019. https://fsi-live.s3.us-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3fs- public/potemkin-pages-personas-sio-wp.pdf.

Donovan, Joan. “Social-media companies must flatten the curve of misinformation.” Nature. April 14, 2020. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-01107-z.

Duffy, Clare. “Websites that peddle disinformation make millions of dollars in ads, new study finds.” CNN Business. August 18, 2019. https://www.cnn.com/2019/08/18/tech/advertising-disinformation- money-reliable-sources/index.html.

Dufour, Nick and Andrew Gully. “Contributing Data to Deepfake Detection Research.” Google. September 24, 2019. https://ai.googleblog.com/2019/09/contributing-data-to-deepfake-detection.html.

D’Urso, Joey. “Two British Yoga Teachers Built A Huge Facebook Page Sharing Spiritual Memes. Now It’s Been Named A Coronavirus ‘Misinformation Superspreader.’” BuzzFeedNews. April 27, 2020. https://www.buzzfeed.com/joeydurso/energy-therapy-uk-facebook-yoga-misinformation.

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Dwoskin, Elizabeth. “Facebook says private groups are its future. Some are hubs for misinformation and hate. The Washington Post. July 5, 2019. https://beta.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/07/05/facebook-says-private-groups-are-its-future- some-are-hubs-misinformation-hate/.

Effron, Daniel A. and Medha Raj. “Misinformation and Morality: Encountering Fake-News Headlines Makes Them Seem Less Unethical to Publish and Share.” Psychological Science. November 21, 2019. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797619887896?journalCode=pssa&utm_campaign =fact_checker&utm_medium=Email&utm_source=Newsletter&wpisrc=nl_fact&wpmm=1#articleShareC ontainer. The abstract of this article can be viewed, as well as some abstracts and full articles in the References list.

“Evaluating Images.” Washington State University. Accessed October 21, 2019. http://libguides.libraries.wsu.edu/c.php?g=616286&p=4301109. “Facebook ‘still making money from anti-vax sites,’” The Guardian. January 30, 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/jan/30/facebook-letting-fake-news-spreaders-profit- investigators-claim.

Eveleth, Rose. “Teddy Roosevelt on a Moose: Fake News, or Fake Fake News?” Wired. March 24, 2020. https://www.wired.com/story/teddy-roosevelt-on-a-moose-fake-news-or-fake-fake-news/.

Al Fahim, Maha. “Inauthentic Editing: Changing Wikipedia to Win Elections and Influence People. Stanford Internet Observatory. 2021 January 7. https://cyber.fsi.stanford.edu/io/news/wikipedia-part- one.

“Fake news can lead to false memories.” ScienceDaily. August 21, 2019. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/08/190821082228.htm.

Farooqui, Salmaan. “Journalism group launches anti-fake news campaign ahead of election.” National Observer. October 2, 2019. https://www.nationalobserver.com/2019/10/02/news/journalism-group- launches-anti-fake-news-campaign-ahead-election.

Farr, Christina. “How to stop friends and relatives from spreading misinformation about Covid-19.” CNBC. May 26, 2020. https://www.cnbc.com/2020/05/26/how-to-stop-covid-19-misinformation-from- spreading-on-social-media.html.

Faure, Gaelle. “My Favorite Tools: Malachy Browne.” Global Investigative Journalism Network. November 25, 2019. https://gijn.org/2019/11/25/my-favorite-tools-malachy-browne/. See some of the tools journalists use to verify information.

Fazio, Lisa. “Fact or Fake? The role of knowledge neglect in misinformation.” Vanderbilt University. https://news.vanderbilt.edu/2020/05/15/fact-or-fake-the-role-of-knowledge-neglect-in- misinformation/.

Fazio, Lisa. “Pausing to consider why a headline is true or false can help reduce the sharing of false news.” Misinformation Review. February 10, 2020. https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/article/pausing-reduce-false-news/.

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Fazio, Lisa. "Why you stink at fact-checking." The Conversation. March 29, 2018. https://theconversation.com/why-you-stink-at-fact-checking-93997. Fazio is a psychology professor at Vanderbilt University, and she explains a concept called "the Moses Illusion." Even when we know something is wrong, we often do not notice an error.

“Fighting a pandemic needs good information.” FullFact.org. January 2021. https://fullfact.org/media/uploads/full-fact-report-2021.pdf.

“Final report on the High Level Expert Group on Fake News and Online Disinformation.” European Commission. March 12, 2018. https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/final-report-high- level-expert-group-fake-news-and-online-disinformation.

Fischer, Sara. “’Fake news’ laws on the rise globally during the coronavirus pandemic.” Axios. May 26, 2020. https://www.axios.com/fake-news-laws-coronavirus-pandemic-4def8720-9ad8-4b8d-abfa- 762581865463.html.

Fischer, Sara. “Local media falls victim to partisan politics.” Axios. July 30, 2019. https://www.axios.com/local-news-media-partisan-websites-11a39f2d-362f-4f51-b6d6- 899a693a7700.html?utm_source=newsletter&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=newsletter_axiosm ediatrends&stream=top.

Fischer, Sara. “Politicians are using fake news schemes to get elected.” Axios. July 17, 2018. https://www.axios.com/politicians-fake-news-schemes-elections-1cc1fc82-5ef6-4c52-b586- 881ec01e18e3.html.

Fischer, Sara, and Alison Snyder. “How memes became a major vehicle for misinformation.” Axios. February 23, 2021. https://www.axios.com/memes-misinformation-coronavirus-56-2c3e88be-237e- 49c1-ab9d-e5cf4d2283ff.html?utm_campaign=organic&utm_medium=socialshare&utm_source=twitter.

Fischer, Sara, and Kaveh Waddell. “Misinformation haunts 2020 primaries.” Axios. August 6, 2019. https://www.axios.com/misinformation-haunts-2020-primaries-76bbcbac-1cd1-4c45-bab8- a7d50cb23328.html.

Flam, Faye. "Smart People May Be More Likely to Fall for Fake News (or Not). Bloomberg. January 2, 2019. https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2019-01-02/why-smart-people-may-be-more- likely-to-fall-for-fake-news.

Flamini, Daniela. “Across the world, politicians promote conspiracy theories to get ahead.” Poynter Institute. July 25, 2019. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2019/across-the-world-politicians- promote-conspiracy-theories-to-get-ahead/.

Flamini, Daniela. “Hoaxes about Greta Thunberg go after her family, image and activism. But why?” Poynter Institute. September 30, 2019. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2019/hoaxes-about- greta-thunberg-go-after-her-family-image-and-activism-but-why/.

Flamini, Daniela. “Where misinformation kills, fact-checkers hope to save lives.” Poynter Institute. July 8, 2019. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2019/where-misinformation-kills-fact-checkers-hope-to- save-lives/.

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Fletcher, Richard. "The Impact of Greater News Literacy." Digital News Report. Accessed December 7, 2018. http://www.digitalnewsreport.org/survey/2018/the-impact-of-greater-news-literacy/.

“Four killed in Bangledesh over Facebook post.” Reuters. October 20, 2019. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bangladesh-clash-facebook/four-killed-in-bangladesh-over- facebook-post-idUSKBN1WZ0G8.

Fowler, Hayley. “’Truth is not the goal.’ Facebook ‘news’ site admits to misleading 50,000 NC followers.” Raleigh (North Carolina) News Observer. February 18, 2020. https://www.newsobserver.com/news/local/article240366106.html.

"Fred Fact Doesn't Fall for Fake News." Aos Fatos. Accessed July 23, 2018. https://factcheckingday.com/assets/files/hs2xhbfskr.pdf.

French, Sally. “This person makes $10,000 a month writing fake news.” Marketwatch.com. November 18, 2016. https://www.marketwatch.com/story/this-person-makes-10000-a-month-writing-fake-news- 2016-11-17. That person is the notorious Paul Horner, who died in 2017 of a drug overdose.

Frenkel, Sheera, and Nicholas Confessore, Cecilia Kang, Matthew Rosenberg and Jack Nicas. "Delay, Deny and Deflect: How Facebook's Leaders Fought Through Crisis." The New York Times. November 14, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/14/technology/facebook-data-russia-election- racism.html?wpisrc=nl_fact&wpmm=1. Read an investigation of how Russia used Facebook to spread disinformation on Facebook during the 2016 election season. Almost 126 million people saw posts created by Russian agents or bots. It also discusses the use of Facebook user information by Cambridge Analytica for political purposes.

Frier, Sarah. “He Got Rich by Sparking the Fake News Boom. Then Facebook Broke His Business.” Bloomberg. December 12, 2017. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-12-12/business- takes-a-hit-when-fake-news-baron-tries-to-play-it-straight. This website also includes a three-minute video about the role of Facebook and Twitter in this issue.

Funke, Daniel. “Anti-vaccine conspiracies are still getting engagement on Facebook—despite being fact- checked as false.” Poynter Institute. February 20, 2019. https://www.poynter.org/fact- checking/2019/anti-vaccine-conspiracies-are-still-getting-engagement-on-facebook-despite-being-fact- checked-as-false/.

Funke, Daniel. “Facebook’s fact-checking project sometimes forces hoaxers to change their content.” Poynter Institute. March 13, 2019. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2019/facebooks-fact- checking-project-is-making-hoaxers-change-their-content/.

Funke, Daniel. “Fact-checkers have debunked this fake news 80 times. It’s still publishing on Facebook. Poynter Institute. July 20, 2018. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2018/fact-checkers-have- debunked-this-fake-news-site-80-times-its-still-publishing-on-facebook/.

Funke, Daniel. “Fifty years after Apollo 11, moon landing hoaxes still thrive online.” Poltifact. July 18, 2019. https://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/article/2019/jul/18/fifty-years-after-apollo-11-moon- landing-hoaxes-st/.

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Funke, Daniel. “From Pants on Fire to Pinocchio: All the ways that fact-checkers rate claims.” Poynter Institute. June 18, 2019. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2019/from-pants-on-fire-to-pinocchio- all-the-ways-that-fact-checkers-rate-claims/.

Funke, Daniel. “A guide to anti-misinformation actions around the world.” Poynter Institute. Accessed May 10, 2019. https://www.poynter.org/ifcn/anti-misinformation-actions/.

Funke, Daniel. “Health misinformation website rebrands as pro-Trump outlet to get around ban from Facebook.” Politifact. June 5, 2020. https://www.politifact.com/article/2020/jun/05/health- misinformation-website-rebrands-pro-trump-o/.

Funke, Daniel. "Here's why fighting fake news is harder on WhatsApp than on Facebook. Poynter Institute. October 5, 2017. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2017/here%C2%92s-why-fighting- fake-news-is-harder-on-whatsapp-than-on-facebook/.

Funke, Daniel. “How a disinformation network exploited satire to become a popular source of false news on Facebook.” Politifact, January 23, 2020. https://www.politifact.com/article/2020/jan/23/one-most- popular-false-news-sites-facebook-part-pa/.

Funke, Daniel. “Hyperpartisan Facebook groups are the next big challenge for fact-checkers.” Poynter Institute. November 28, 2018. https://www.poynter.org/news/hyperpartisan-facebook-groups-are-next- big-challenge-fact-checkers.

Funke, Daniel. “Misinformation transcends platforms, languages and countries. How can fact-checkers stop it?” Poynter Institute. May 15, 2019. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2019/misinformation- transcends-platforms-languages-and-countries-how-can-fact-checkers-stop-it/.

Funke, Daniel. “On Facebook, health misinformation is king. And it’s a global problem.” Poynter Institute. February 28, 2019. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2019/on-facebook-health-misinformation- is-king-and-its-a-global-problem/?wpisrc=nl_fact&wpmm=1.

Funke, Daniel. “Snopes is feuding with one of the internet’s most notorious hoaxers.” Poynter Institute. August 1, 2018. https://www.poynter.org/news/snopes-feuding-one-internets-most-notorious-hoaxers.

Funke, Daniel. “Study: On Twitter, you’re better off fact-checking your crazy uncle than a complete stranger.” Poynter Institute. September 11, 2017. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2017/study- on-twitter-youre-better-off-fact-checking-your-crazy-uncle-than-a-complete-stranger/.

Funke, Daniel. “This fact-checker got several news outlets to correct a false story about a mini-Ice Age.” Poynter Institute. November 29, 2018. https://www.poynter.org/news/fact-checker-got-several-news- outlets-correct-false-story-about-mini-ice-age. See how a misunderstanding of legitimate scientific information morphed into false story in media outlets.

Funke, Daniel. “What’s the matter with Twitter?” Poynter Institute. August 9, 2018. https://www.poynter.org/news/whats-matter-twitter .

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Funke, Daniel. “Why fact-checkers couldn’t contain misinformation about the Notre Dame fire.” Poynter Institute. April 17, 2019. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2019/why-fact-checkers-couldnt- contain-misinformation-about-the-notre-dame-fire/.

Funke, Daniel and Alexios Mantzarlis. “Here’s what to expect from fact-checking in 2019.” Poynter Institute. December 18, 2018. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2018/heres-what-to-expect- from-fact-checking-in-2019/.

Garrett, R. Kelly, Robert Bond, and Shannon Poulsen. “Maybe you know that article is satire, but a lot of people can’t tell the difference.” NiemanLab. August 19, 2019. https://www.niemanlab.org/2019/08/maybe-you-know-that-article-is-satire-but-a-lot-of-people-cant- tell-the-difference/?utm_source=API+Need+to+Know+newsletter&utm_campaign=bc6c1d1529- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2019_08_21_12_09&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_e3bf78af04-bc6c1d1529- 45836530.

“Getting it Right: Strategies for truth-telling in a time of misinformation and polarization.” American Press Institute. December 18, 2019. https://www.americanpressinstitute.org/publications/reports/strategy-studies/truth-telling-in-a-time- of-misinformation-and-polarization/.

Gilbert, David. “The U.S. Is Exporting Viral Anti-Vaxxer Content to Brazil.” Vice News. November 11, 2019. https://www.vice.com/en/article/59n83k/the-us-is-exporting-viral-anti-vaxxer-content-to-brazil.

Gillam, Carey. “Revealed: Bayer AG discussed plans to give not-for-profit funding for influence.” The Guardian. November 21, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/nov/21/bayer-ag-emails- business-interests-funding.

Gillin, Josh. “Real or fake? Take our fake news quiz to find out.” Politifact. June 19, 2017. http://www.politifact.com/punditfact/article/2017/jun/19/real-or-fake-tour-fake-news-quiz-find-out//. This brief quiz points out ten things to look for when analyzing a story.

Glynn, Erin. “’It is frightening.’ A Cincinnati pediatrician created a viral TikTok video supporting vaccinations. Then things got ugly.” Cincinnati Enquirer. January 17, 2020. https://www.cincinnati.com/story/news/2020/01/17/pediatrician-refuse-back-down-amid-anti-vaccine- backlash/4499119002/.

Golding, Barrett. “Mainstream media funds fake news.” Iffy.news. March 1, 2021. https://iffy.news/2021/mainstream-media-funds-fake-news/.

Goldstein, Josh A. and Shelby Grossman. “How disinformation evolved in 2020.” Brookings. January 4, 2021. https://www.brookings.edu/techstream/how-disinformation-evolved-in-2020/.

Grabmeier, Jeff. “You create your own false information, study finds.” Ohio State News. December 9, 2019. https://news.osu.edu/you-create-your-own-false-information-study-finds/.

Gregory, Sam. “Deepfakes Will Challenge Public Trust in What’s Real. Here’s How to Defuse Them.” Defusing Disinf. February 19, 2019. https://defusingdis.info/2019/02/19/deepfakes-will-challenge- public-trust-in-whats-real-online-heres-how-to-defuse-them/.

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Gregory, Sam. “The Pros and Cons of Facebook’s New Deepfakes Policy.” Witness. Accessed February 17, 2021. https://blog.witness.org/2020/01/pros-cons-facebooks-new-deepfakes-policy/.

Grim, Ryan. “The Washington Post Nominated Glenn Kessler for a Pulitzer Prize.” The Intercept. September 7, 2019. https://theintercept.com/2019/09/07/glenn-kessler-fact-checker-washington-post- pulitzer/.

Grimes, David Robert. "How to survive the fake news about cancer." The Guardian. July 14, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jul/14/cancer-fake-news-clinics-suppressing-disease-cure.

Guarino, Ben. “Misinformation is everywhere. These scientists can teach you to fight BS.” Washington Post. June 24, 2019. https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2019/06/24/misinformation-is- everywhere-these-scientists-can-teach-you-fight-bs/.

Gupta, Sujata. “Climate misinformation may be thriving on YouTube, a social scientist warns.” Science News. August 19, 2019. https://www.sciencenews.org/article/climate-misinformation-may-be-thriving- youtube-social-scientist-warns.

Guynn, Jessica. “George Floyd protests: How to avoid disinformation and misinformation on Facebook and Twitter.” USA Today. June 1, 2020. https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2020/06/01/george- floyd-protests-disinformation-misinformation-surging-online/5313920002/.

Hameleers, Michael, et.al. “Feeling ‘disinformed lowers compliance with COVID-19 guidelines: Evidence from the US, UK, Netherlands, and Germany.” Misinformation Review. May 31, 2020. https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/article/feeling-disinformed-lowers-compliance-with-covid-19- guidelines-evidence-from-the-us-uk-netherlands-and-germany/.

Hananoki, Eric. “Businesses are using Facebook to promote supposed anti-EMF products by pushing the false link between 5G and the coronavirus.” Media Matters. May 5, 2020. https://www.mediamatters.org/coronavirus-covid-19/businesses-are-using-facebook-promote- supposed-emf-protection-products-pushing.

Harkin, James. "Journalism is now the second draft of history." Columbia Journalism Review. January 14, 2019. https://www.cjr.org/opinion/journalism-is-now-the-second-draft-of-history.php.

Hay, Mark. “The Strange, Centuries-Long History of Satanic Pedophile Panics.” Vice. November 15, 2018. https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/59vgwa/the-strange-centuries-long-history-of-satanic-pedophile- panics?utm_source=vicetwitterus.

Hazlehurst, John. “Locally based Lead Stories sniffs out online fake news.” Colorado Springs Independent. July 10, 2019. https://www.csindy.com/coloradosprings/locally-based-lead-stories-sniffs- out-online-fake-news/Content?oid=19976290.

Hebert-Dufresne, Laurent, and Vicky Chuqiao Yang. “Misinformation about an outbreak like Covid-19 is important public health data. Stat. April 7, 2020. https://www.statnews.com/2020/04/07/misinformation-outbreak-is-important-public-health-data/.

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Heer, Jeet. "Trump's Lies Destroy Logic As Well As Truth." The New Republic. November 28, 2016. https://newrepublic.com/article/139025/trumps-lies-destroy-logic-well-truth.

Heilweil, Rebecca. “Facebook is finally banning vaccine misinformation.” Vox. February 8, 2021. https://www.vox.com/recode/2021/2/8/22272798/facebook-vaccine-misinformation-covid-19- conspiracy-theories.

Henry, Emeric, et. al. “Checking and Sharing Alt-Facts.” SSRN. January 18, 2021. https://poseidon01.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=8180781150661071060130651251201271221270400380 27075004027087006009124024118095121109050006019042105058018091097089070122001029117 03700402303611512607211211108609206502505304111209412000208011408709100900108601006 8117027123009017104006000083108083030027&EXT=pdf&INDEX=TRUE.

Henry, Emeric, et. al. “Fact-checking reduces the propagation of false news in social networks.” VoxEU. May 21, 2020. https://voxeu.org/article/fact-checking-reduces-propagation-false-news.

Hepworth, Shelley. “The New Yorker’s chief fact-checker on how to get things right in the era of ‘post- truth.’” Columbia Journalism Review. March 8, 2017. https://www.cjr.org/the_delacorte_lectures/new- yorkers-fact-checker-post-truth-facts-fake-news-trump.php. Hess, Amanda. “They Kinda Want to Believe Apollo 11 Was Maybe a Hoax.” The New York Times. July 1, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/01/science/moon-landing-hoax-conspiracy-theory.html.

Higgins, Andrew, Mike McIntire and Gabriel J. X. Dance. “Inside a Fake News Sausage Factory: ‘This Is All About Income.’” New York Times. November 25, 2016. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/25/world/europe/fake-news-donald-trump-hillary-clinton- georgia.html?_r=0.

Higgins-Dunn, Noah. “NY attorney general orders InfoWars’ Alex Jones to stop selling coronavirus ‘treatment’ products.” CNBC. March 12, 2020. https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/12/ny-attorney-general- orders-alex-jones-to-stop-selling-coronavirus-cures.html.

Holan, Angie Drobnic. “Opinion: To control online misinformation, we need real-world solutions.” Poynter. February 4, 2021. https://www.poynter.org/commentary/2021/opinion-to-control-online- misinformation-we-need-real-world-solutions/.

Holan, Angie Drobnic. "The Principles of the Truth-O-Meter: PolitiFact’s methodology for independent fact-checking.” PolitiFact. February 12, 2018. http://www.politifact.com/truth-o- meter/article/2018/feb/12/principles-truth-o-meter-politifacts-methodology-i/.

Holan, Angie Drobnic. "Politifact is not biased--here's why." Politifact. November 6, 2018. https://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/article/2018/nov/06/politifact-not-biased-heres-why/.

Holan, Angie Drobnic. "When George Washington fought fake news." Politifact. July 2, 2018. http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/article/2018/jul/02/when-george-washington-fought-fake- news/.

Hoover, Margaret. "We Can't Learn If We Don't Listen." Time. November 5, 2018. Page 58. Hoover writes about the danger of partisan echo chambers to our political system.

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Huang, Frankie. “China’s Most Popular App Is Full of Hate.” Foreign Policy. November 27, 2018. https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/11/27/chinas-most-popular-app-is-full-of-hate/.

Hussain, Murtaza. "An Iranian Activist Wrote Dozens of Articles for Right-Wing Outlets. But is He a Real Person? The Intercept. June 9, 2019. https://theintercept.com/2019/06/09/heshmat-alavi-fake-iran- mek/.

“Identifying Fake News Series: ‘Contact Us’ Pages.” TruthorFiction. September 30, 2018. https://www.truthorfiction.com/identifying-fake-news-series-contact-us/.

“Identifying Fake News Series: Fake News Generators. TruthorFiction. September 26, 2018. https://www.truthorfiction.com/identifying-fake-news-series-fake-news-generators/.

Ingram, Matthew. “Wikipedia’s co-founder wanted to let readers edit the news. What went wrong?” Columbia Journalism Review. November 19, 2018. https://www.cjr.org/analysis/jimmy-wales- wikitribune.php?utm_source=Daily+Lab+email+list&utm_campaign=8a3180ae27- dailylabemail3&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_d68264fd5e-8a3180ae27-395940705.

“Instagram ‘fact’ pages make money through misinformation; IG and FTC say they don’t necessarily violate policies.” Poynter Institute. August 20, 2019. https://www.poynter.org/reporting- editing/2019/instagram-fact-pages-make-money-through-misinformation-ig-and-ftc-say-they-dont- necessarily-violate-policies/.

Isikoff, Michael. “Exclusive: The true origins of the Seth Rich conspiracy theory. A Yahoo News investigation.” Yahoo News. July 9, 2019. https://news.yahoo.com/exclusive-the-true-origins-of-the- seth-rich-conspiracy-a-yahoo-news-investigation-100000831.html.

Jack, Caroline.” Lexicon of Lies: Terms for Problematic Information.” Data & Society. https://datasociety.net/pubs/oh/DataAndSociety_LexiconofLies.pdf.

Jackson, Brooks. "Our 15th Anniversary." FactCheck.org. December 5, 2018. https://www.factcheck.org/2018/12/our-15th-anniversary/. Jackson writes about the history of FactCheck and how fact checking has evolved over the last 15 years.

Jacobson, Louis. "The age of cherry-picking. Politifact. February 5, 2018. http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/article/2018/feb/05/age-cherry-picking/. Although cherry- picking has been around for a long time, this article explains the factors that have made it a favored tactic today.

Jacobson, Savannah. “The Animal Fact Checker.” Columbia Journalism Review. May 8, 2020. https://www.cjr.org/the_profile/natasha-daly-national-geographic.php.

Jankowicz, Nina. “Ukraine’s Election Is an All-out Disinformation Battle.” The Atlantic. April 17, 2019. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/04/russia-disinformation-ukraine- election/587179/.

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Jankowicz, Nina, and Cindy Otis. “Facebook Groups Are Destroying America.” Wired. June 17, 2020. https://www.wired.com/story/facebook-groups-are-destroying-america/.

“John R. Brinkley.” Kansas Historical Society. April 2014. https://www.kshs.org/kansapedia/john-r- brinkley/11988. Robert W. Butler. “The story of Kansas doctor John R. Brinkley is ‘Nuts!’” The Kansas City Star. June 25, 2016. http://www.kansascity.com/entertainment/movies-news- reviews/article85982192.html. "Brinkley v. Fishbein, 110 F.2d 62 (5th Cir. 1940). Justia. Accessed October 27, 2017. https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/110/62/1505172/. Read about the fake doctor in the early 1900's who made his fortune implanting goat testicles into the bodies of men who wanted to regain their sexual prowess.

Johnson, Tim. “New tactic by politicians: Set up fake news websites as a campaign gambit.” McClatchy DC Bureau. July 18, 2018. https://www.mcclatchydc.com/news/politics- government/article215084495.html.

Jurecic, Quinta and Jacob Schulz. “How the Schiff Report Deals with Disinformation.” Lawfare. December 8, 2019. https://www.lawfareblog.com/how-schiff-report-deals-disinformation.

Jurkowitz, Mark, and Amy Mitchell. “Concern about influence of made-up news on the election is lowest among those paying the least attention.” Pew Research Center. February 19, 2020. https://www.journalism.org/2020/02/19/concern-about-influence-of-made-up-news-on-the-election-is- lowest-among-those-paying-the-least-attention/.

Kalim, Faisal. “Fighting fake news: 5 free (but powerful) tools for journalists.” What’s New in Publishing. July 29, 2019. https://whatsnewinpublishing.com/fighting-fake-news-5-powerful-and-free-tools-for- journalists/.

Kantrowitz, Alex. “’Social Dilemma’ Star Tristan Harris Responds to Criticisms of the Film, Netflix’s Algorithm, and More.” Medium. October 7, 2020. https://onezero.medium.com/social-dilemma-star- tristan-harris-responds-to-criticisms-of-the-film-netflix-s-algorithm-and-e11c3bedd3eb.

Kaplan, Alex. “Despite rules about misinformation, a YouTube video calling coronavirus a ‘false flag’ related to 5G racked up millions of views.” MediaMatters. April 20, 2020. https://www.mediamatters.org/coronavirus-covid-19/despite-rules-about-misinformation-youtube- video-calling-coronavirus-false.

Kasprak, Alex. "Disguising Hate: How Radical Evangelicals Spread Anti-Islamic Vitriol on Facebook." Snopes. May 15, 2019. https://www.snopes.com/news/2019/05/15/radical-evangelical-facebook/. At least 24 Facebook pages are linked to a small group of people, or even one person, in Columbus, Ohio.

Kasprak, Alex, Jordan Liles, and Vinny Greeb. “Popular ‘USA’ Facebook Page Run by Ukrainians Targeted Older Americans.” Snopes. October 1, 2019. https://www.snopes.com/news/2019/10/01/usa-facebook- page-ukrainians/.

Kearney, Michael W. “Trusting News Project Report 2017.” Reynolds Journalism Institute, University of Missouri. July 25, 2017. https://www.rjionline.org/reporthtml.html. See what the respondents chose as their “most trusted” and “least trusted” news sources.

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Kessler, Glenn. “Fact-checking Trump: He’s on a dangerous path that must be documented and discouraged.” USA Today. June 2, 2020. https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2020/06/02/fact- checking-donald-trump-essential-american-politics- column/5301135002/?fbclid=IwAR3wq7kbRM_l3W6uq4gF4wcef85cPIEu7UwdUgGzCCNauQ- EUbn4Tevj6sE.

Kessler, Glenn. “Introducing The Fact Checker’s guide to manipulated video.” The Washington Post. June 25, 2019. https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/06/25/introducing-fact-checkers-guide- manipulated-video/.

Kiely, Eugene and Lori Robertson. “How to Spot Fake News.” FactCheck.org. November 18, 2016. http://cf.factcheck.org/2016/11/how-to-spot-fake-news/.

Kinetz, Erika. “Anatomy of a conspiracy: With COVID, China took leading role.” Associated Press. February 14, 2021. https://apnews.com/article/pandemics-beijing-only-on-ap-epidemics-media- 122b73e134b780919cc1808f3f6f16e8.

Klass, Gary. "Just Plain Data Analysis: Common Statistical Fallacies in Analyses of Social Indicator Data." Internet Archive Wayback Machine. Accessed March 12, 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20140325173711/http://www.statlit.org/pdf/2008KlassASA.pdf . Klass explains the fallacies of cherry picking data, rate of change, ecological fallacy, regression artifact, and causal fallacies.

Korecki, Natasha. "'Sustained and ongoing' disinformation assault targets Dem presidential candidates." Politico. February 20, 2019. https://www.politico.com/story/2019/02/20/2020-candidates-social-media- attack-1176018.

Kostovski, Ljubomir. “Do Antivaxxers Find Support in Certain Proclamations of the Russian Orthodox Church?” Truthmeter. November 12, 2019. https://truthmeter.mk/do-antivaxxers-find-support-in- certain-proclamations-of-the-russian-orthodox-church/.

Kruzel, John. “How Russian trolls exploited Parkland mass shooting on social media.” Politifact. February 22, 2018. http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/article/2018/feb/22/how-russian-trolls-exploited- parkland-mass-shootin/.

Kumar, Sunaina. “Q&A with Craig Silverman: Misinformation, deepfakes and democracy.” Ijnet. November 14, 2019. https://ijnet.org/en/story/qa-craig-silverman-misinformation-deepfakes-and- democracy.

Kwan, Victoria. “How journalists can responsibly report on manipulated pictures and video.” Firstdraftnews.org. October 7, 2019. https://firstdraftnews.org/how-journalists-can-responsibly-report- on-manipulated-pictures-and-video/.

Kylstra, Carolyn. “Who Cares What Celebrities Think About Vaccines?” The New York Times. August 23, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/23/opinion/anti-vaccine.html.

LaCapria, Kim. "Snopes' Field Guide to Fake News Sites and Hoax Purveyors." Snopes. December 8, 2017. https://www.snopes.com/2016/01/14/fake-news-sites/.

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LaFrance, Adrienne. “The Prophecies of Q.” The Atlantic. June 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/06/qanon-nothing-can-stop-what-is- coming/610567/.

Lamoureux, Mack. "People Tell Us How QAnon Destroyed Their Relationships." Vice. July 11, 2019. https://www.vice.com/en_ca/article/xwnjx4/people-tell-us-how-qanon-destroyed-their-relationships.

Lamphere, Carly. "Does New Media Generation Technology Pose an Existential Threat to Factual Information?" Online Searcher. January/February 2018. Page 27.

Large, Jerry. “Librarians take up arms against fake news.” Seattle Times. February 6, 2017. http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/librarians-take-up-arms-against-fake-news/.

Leber, Rebecca. “Want To Avoid Spreading Coronavirus Misinformation? Think Like A Science Journalist.” Mother Jones. March 18, 2020. https://www.motherjones.com/media/2020/03/want-to- avoid-spreading-coronavirus-misinformation-think-like-a-science-journalist/.

Leetaru, Kalev. “Fact-Checking: A Business or a Public Service.” RealClearPolitics. May 4, 2018. https://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2018/05/04/fact- checking_a_business_or_a_public_service_136972.html . Leetaru writes that fact-checkers should be more transparent about their methodology and procedures.

Legum, Judd. “Facebook allows Trump campaign to run deceptive Census ads [UPDATED].” Popular Information. March 5, 2020. https://popular.info/p/facebook-allows-trump-campaign-to.

Legum, Judd. “Rise of the quacks.” Popular Information. May 20, 2020. https://popular.info/p/rise-of- the-quacks.

Leskin, Paige. “Anti-quarantine protesters are being kicked off Facebook and quickly finding refuge on a site loved by conspiracy theorists.” Business Insider. May 3, 2020. https://www.businessinsider.com/anti-quarantine-protesters-mewe-facebook-groups-conspiracy- theorists-social-media-2020-5.

“Letter from Africa: Fake news and Nigeria’s media.” BBC. March 3, 2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-51706840.

Leung, Wendy. “How do our brains fall for disinformation?” The Globe and Mail. October 14, 2019. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-how-do-our-brains-fall-for- disinformation/?utm_source=First+Draft+Subscribers&utm_campaign=75c6daaad4- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2019_09_10_11_59_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_2f24949eb0- 75c6daaad4-264030885&mc_cid=75c6daaad4&mc_eid=8837f50206.

Levin, Sam. “’They don’t care’: Facebook factchecking in disarray as journalists push to cut ties.” The Guardian. December 13, 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/dec/13/they-dont-care- facebook-fact-checking-in-disarray-as-journalists-push-to-cut-ties.

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Levy, Anna. “Why I wrote my parents a guide to social media.” ABC Everyday. December 15, 2019. https://www.abc.net.au/everyday/why-i-wrote-my-parents-a-guide-to-social-media/11792648.

Li, Jianing, and Michael W. Wagner. “When are readers likely to believe a fact-check?” Brookings. May 27, 2020. https://www.brookings.edu/techstream/when-are-readers-likely-to-believe-a-fact-check/.

Lim, Gabrielle. "Disinformation Annotated Bibliography." May 2019. The Citizen Lab. https://citizenlab.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Disinformation-Bibliography.pdf. This 72-page document has lengthy annotations listing the highlights of each study or article.

Lorenz, Taylor. "Instagram Is the Internet's New Home for Hate." The Atlantic. March 21, 2019. https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2019/03/instagram-is-the-internets-new-home-for- hate/585382/.

Luthra, Shefali. “Pharma’s Take On The Pelosi Drug-Pricing Bill: Fair Warning Or Fearmongering?” Kaiser Health News. December 5, 2019. https://khn.org/news/pharmas-take-on-the-pelosi-drug-pricing-bill- fair-warning-or-fearmongering/.

Luxner, Larry. “Activists fight COVID-19 disinformation in the Caucasus.” Atlantic Council. May 19, 2020. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/activists-fight-covid-19-disinformation-in-the- caucasus/.

Lytvynenko, Jane. “The El Paso And Dayton Shootings Show How Disinformation Spreads On Messaging Apps.” BuzzFeed. August 7, 2019. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/janelytvynenko/telegram- disinformation-fake-news.

Lytvynenko, Jane. “Here’s A Running List Of The Latest Hoaxes Spreading About The Coronavirus.” BuzzFeedNews. March 24, 2020. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/janelytvynenko/coronavirus- fake-news-disinformation-rumors-hoaxes.

Lytvynenko, Jane. “’I Found Election Interference And No One Cared’: One US Veteran’s Fight to Protect His Compatriots Online.” BuzzFeedNews. December 30, 2019. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/janelytvynenko/kristofer-goldsmith-veteran-disinformation.

Lytvynenko, Jane. “Police Departments Are Spreading Coronavirus Misinformation As A Joke.” BuzzFeednews. February 28, 2020. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/janelytvynenko/police- spreading-false-claim-coronavirus-meth.

Lytvynenko, Jane. "This Fake Press Release About Rep. Adam Schiff May Have Originated In Russia." BuzzFeed. May 1, 2019. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/janelytvynenko/fake-schiff-release.

McCammon, Sarah. “Disinformation Fuels Distrust And Even Violence At All Levels Of Government.” National Public Radio. March 1, 2021. https://www.npr.org/2021/03/01/971436680/from-the-u-s- capitol-to-local-governments-disinformation-disrupts.

Macaraeg, Pauline. “CrowdTangle rolls out new, better search tool for fact checkers.” Rappler. December 7, 2019. https://www.rappler.com/technology/news/246658-crowdtangle-rolls-out-new- better-search-tool-fact-checkers.

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McGowan, Michael. “Australian ‘myth-busting’ unit established to take on Covid misinformation.” The Guardian. February 28, 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/mar/01/australian-myth- busting-unit-established-to-take-on-covid-misinformation.

Mackintosh, Eliza. “Finland is winning the war on fake news. What it’s learned may be crucial to Western democracy.” CNN. May 2019. https://www.cnn.com/interactive/2019/05/europe/finland-fake-news- intl/.

Mantzarlis, Alexios. "Fact-checking changes minds but not votes, according to new research. Poynter Institute. March 1, 2017. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2017/fact-checking-changes-minds- but-not-votes-according-to-new-research/.

Marechal, Nathalie, and Ellery Roberts Biddle. “It’s Not Just the Content, It’s the Business Model: Democracy’s Online Speech Challenge.” NewAmerica. March 17, 2020. https://www.newamerica.org/oti/reports/its-not-just-content-its-business-model/.

Martineau, Paris. “Why People Keep Falling for Viral Hoaxes: It’s not because they’re stupid.” Wired. August 22, 2019. https://www.wired.com/story/why-people-keep-falling-viral-hoaxes/?verso=true.

Mason, Lance E., Dan Krutka and Jeremy Stoddard (2018) "Media Literacy, Democracy, and the Challenge of Fake News," Journal of Media Literacy Education, 10(2), 1 -10. https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/jmle/vol10/iss2/1.

Masterson, Kathryn. “How to Spot Fake Political Ads and Posts on Social Media.” AARP. February 27, 2020. https://www.aarp.org/money/scams-fraud/info-2020/fake-political-ads.html.

Matthews, Julian. “A cognitive scientist explains why humans are so susceptible to fake news and misinformation.” NiemanLab. April 17, 2019. https://www.niemanlab.org/2019/04/a-cognitive-scientist- explains-why-humans-are-so-susceptible-to-fake-news-and-misinformation/.

"Measuring the 'Filter Bubble': How Google is influencing what you click." Spreadprivacy.com. December 4, 2018. https://spreadprivacy.com/google-filter-bubble-study/.

Merlan, Anna. "Peddlers of Medical Misinformation Are Using Social Media 'Censorship' as a Selling Point." Gizmodo. July 12, 2019. https://gizmodo.com/peddlers-of-medical-misinformation-are-using- social-med-1836280487.

Merlan, Anna. "Why we are addicted to conspiracy theories." The Guardian. May 2, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/may/02/why-we-are-addicted-to-conspiracy- theories?utm_source=Welcome+to+Coda+Story+News+Briefings&utm_campaign=c622b4e438- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2019_04_25_01_03_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_610841f0e2- c622b4e438-180780113.

Merrefeld, Clark. "Deepfake technology is changing fast--use these 5 resources to keep up." Journalist's Resource. June 27, 2019. https://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/deepfake-technology-5- resources/?utm_source=JR-email&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=JR- email%22%20target=%22_self%22&utm_source=Journalist%27s+Resource&utm_campaign=f2f796147d

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-EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2019_01_28_02_40_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_12d86b1d6a- f2f796147d-80387345.

Miller, Kerri and Elizabeth Shockman. “7 ways to recognize and deal with fake news.” Minnesota Public Radio. July 18, 2017. https://www.mprnews.org/story/2017/07/18/how-to-recognize-fake-news.

Milman, Oliver. “Revealed: quarter of all tweets about climate crisis produced by bots.” The Guardian. February 21, 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/feb/21/climate-tweets-twitter- bots-analysis.

“Misinformation: 3 tips to help journalists avoid being part of the problem.” Journalist’s Resource. November 6, 2019. https://journalistsresource.org/tip-sheets/reporting/misinformation-thomas- patterson/.

“’Misinformation’ vs. ‘Disinformation’: Get Informed On The Difference.” Dictionary.com. Accessed March 2, 2021. https://www.dictionary.com/e/misinformation-vs-disinformation-get-informed-on-the- difference/.

Moore, Jennifer E. and Michael J. Socolow. “Violence against the media isn’t new—history shows why it largely disappeared and has now returned.” The Conversation. September 10, 2018. https://theconversation.com/violence-against-the-media-isnt-new-history-shows-why-it-largely- disappeared-and-has-now-returned-102756.

“More than 10% of the news websites Americans rely on spread misinformation about health issues such as vaccines.” NewsGuard. July 30, 2019. https://www.newsguardtech.com/press/more-than-10-of- the-news-websites-americans-rely-on-spread-misinformation-about-health-issues-such-as-vaccines/. “More than 140 Zuckerberg-funded scientists call on Facebook to rein in Trump.” The Guardian. June 6, 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/jun/06/mark-zuckerberg-facebook-trump- scientists.

Moses, Lucia. “With conspiracy-peddling sites under the microscope, Taboola yanks its content ads off Infowars.” Digiday. February 27, 2018. https://digiday.com/media/conspiracy-peddling-sites- microscope-taboola-yanks-content-ads-off- infowars/?utm_content=bufferc00ac&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign= buffer .

Motta, Matthew, Dominik Stecula and Kathryn Haglin. “’Fake flus!’ When it comes to health, battling misinformation requires strategic thinking.” NiemanLab. December 6, 2018. http://www.niemanlab.org/2018/12/fake-flus-when-it-comes-to-health-battling-misinformation- requires-strategic-thinking/. Using the example of myths about flu shots, the authors offer methods of combating misinformation.

Muddiman, Ashley and Joshua Scacco. “Clickbait Content May Not Be Click-worthy.” Center for Media Engagement. Accessed January 30, 2021. https://mediaengagement.org/research/clickbait-content- may-not-be-click-worthy/.

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Murray, Jessica. “Cranky Uncle game takes on climate crisis denial and fake news.” December 7, 2019. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/games/2019/dec/07/cranky-uncle-game-takes-on- climate-crisis-denial-and-fake-news.

Newell, Terry. “Feelings Are Not Facts: A Dangerous Confusion.” HuffPost. December 5, 2016. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/terry-newell/feelings-are-not-facts-a_b_8726718.html.

Newman, Nic. “Trust, misinformation, and the declining use of social media for news: Digital News Report 2018.” Reuters. Accessed August 7, 2018. https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/risj- review/trust-misinformation-and-declining-use-social-media-news-digital-news-report-2018.

Newton, Casey. “People older than 65 share the most fake news, a new study finds.” The Verge. January 9, 2019. https://www.theverge.com/2019/1/9/18174631/old-people-fake-news-facebook-share-nyu- princeton?wpisrc=nl_fact&wpmm=1.

Newton, Casey. “Pinterest’s work in public health shows the good a smaller social network can do,” The Verge. August 29, 2019. https://www.theverge.com/interface/2019/8/29/20837660/pinterest-vaccine- information-search-results-public-health.

“’No Comparison’ Fact-checking Democrats and Trump.” CNNBusiness. Accessed February 24, 2021. https://www.cnn.com/videos/business/2020/03/01/no-comparison-fact-checking-democrats-and- trump.cnn.

Notopoulos, Katie. “Black Salve Is A Dangerous Fake Cancer Cure, But It Continues To Flourish In Facebook Groups.” BuzzFeedNews. October 30, 2019. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/katienotopoulos/how-a-flesh-eating-fake-cancer-cure-spread- across-facebook.

Nyhan, Brendan. "Why Fears of Fake News Are Overhyped." Medium. February 4, 2019. https://medium.com/s/reasonable-doubt/why-fears-of-fake-news-are-overhyped-2ed9ca0a52c9.

Oh, Inae and Kanyakrit Vongkiatkajorn. “A Brief History of How Fake News Spreads So Easily on Facebook.” November 22, 2016. https://www.motherjones.com/media/2016/11/fake-news-election- 2016/.

Ohlheiser, Abby. “How to protect yourself online from misinformation right now.” MIT Technology Review. June 2, 2020. https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/06/02/1002505/black-lives-matter- protest-misinformation-advice/.

“Older users share more misinformation. Your guess why might be wrong.” MIT Technology Review. May 26, 2020. https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/05/26/1002243/misinformation-older-adults/.

Omstead, Jordan. “Alberta health advocates alarmed by anti-vaxx documentary screened in theatres, libraries.” CBC News. January 28, 2020. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/anti-vaxx- documentary-misinformation-alberta-1.5442573.

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Ordway, Denise-Marie. “11 questions journalists should ask about public opinion polls.” Journalist’s Resource. June 14, 2018. https://journalistsresource.org/tip-sheets/reporting/public-opinion-polls-tips- journalists.

Ordway, Denise-Marie. “Fake news and fact-checking: 7 studies you should know about.” Journalist’s Resource. January 13, 2020. https://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/news-media/fake-news- fact-checking-research-2019/?utm_source=JR-email&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=JR- email"%20target="_self"&utm_source=Journalist%27s+Resource&utm_campaign=42 384a7e57- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2019_01_28_02_40_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_12d86b1d6a- 42384a7e57-80387345.

Ordway, Denise-Marie. "Fake news and the spread of misinformation." Journalist's Resource. Accessed January 2, 2019. https://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/internet/fake-news-conspiracy- theories-journalism-research/?utm_source=JR-email&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=JR- email&utm_source=Journalist%27s+Resource&utm_campaign=f4a98bca99- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2018_12_14_05_46_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_12d86b1d6a- f4a98bca99-80387345.

Ordway, Denise-Marie. “How to tell good research from bad: 13 questions journalists should ask,” Journalist’s Resource. March 21, 2017. https://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/news- media/good-research-bad-quality-journalism-tips.

Ordway, Denise-Marie. “Information disorder: The essential glossary. Journalist’s Resource. July 23, 2018. https://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/internet/information-disorder-glossary-fake-news.

Ordway, Denise-Marie. “New research: Russian trolls used Twitter to attack liberals, conservatives and news media.” Journalist’s Resource. June 17, 2019. https://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/elections/russians-twitter-tactic- research/?utm_source=JR-email&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=JR- email%22%20target=%22_self%22&utm_source=Journalist%27s+Resource&utm_campaign=5f7c032e5a -EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2019_01_28_02_40_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_12d86b1d6a- 5f7c032e5a-80387345.

Ordway, Denise-Marie. "Partisanship of journalists' Twitter networks tends to show in their work." Journalist's Resource. November 9, 2018. https://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/news- media/twitter-partisanship-journalist-bias-research?utm_source=JR- email&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=JR- email%22%20target=%22_self%22&utm_source=Journalist%27s+Resource&utm_campaign=135f5cd1e5 -EMAIL_CAM.

Ordway, Denise-Marie. “10 tips for covering white supremacy and far-right extremists.” Journalist’s Resource. July 22, 2019. https://journalistsresource.org/tip-sheets/white-supremacy-alt-right-wing-tips/.

Ordway, Denise-Marie. “What research says about how bad information spreads online.” Journalist’s Resource. July 19, 2018. https://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/news-media/fake-news-bad- information-online-research.

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Ordway, Denise-Marie. “Why do Americans share so much fake news? One big reason is they aren’t paying attention, new research suggests.” The Journalist’s Resource. March 17, 2021. https://journalistsresource.org/media/share-fake-news-social-media/.

Oremus, Will. "Just Trust Us." Slate. January 25, 2019. https://slate.com/technology/2019/01/newsguard-nuzzelrank-media-ratings-fake-news.html. Oremus points out some of the pitfalls of reliability ratings by companies such as NewsGuard.

O’Sullivan, Donie. “A lesson in Russian disinformation from the pages of a 1982 TV Guide.” CNN Business. March 11, 2019. https://www.cnn.com/2019/03/11/tech/tv-guide-russian- disinformation/index.html.

O’Sullivan, Donie. “He’s running for governor to run false ads on Facebook. Now Facebook is stopping him.” CNN Business. October 30, 2019. https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/29/tech/facebook-california- candidate-false-ads/index.html?utm_term=video&utm_medium=social&utm_content=2019-10- 30T17%3A15%3A05&utm_source=twbusiness.

Otis, Cindy L. “Americans could be a bigger fake news threat than Russians in the 2020 presidential campaign.” USA Today. July 19, 2019. https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2019/07/19/disinformation-attacks-americans-threaten- 2020-election-column/1756092001/.

Owen, Laura Hazard. “People who are given correct information still misremember it to fit their own beliefs.” NiemanLab. December 13, 2019. https://www.niemanlab.org/2019/12/people-who-are-given- correct-information-still-misremember-it-to-fit-their-own- beliefs/?utm_source=Daily+Lab+email+list&utm_campaign=b7d9815e9b- dailylabemail3&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_d68264fd5e-b7d9815e9b-395955085.

Oxenham, Simon. “’I was a Maedonian fake news writer.’” BBC. May 29, 2019. http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20190528-i-was-a-macedonian-fake-news-writer.

Paris, Britt and Joan Donovan. “Deepfakes and cheap fakes: the manipulation of audio and visual evidence. Data&Society. Accessed February 5, 2021. https://datasociety.net/wp- content/uploads/2019/09/DS_Deepfakes_Cheap_FakesFinal-1-1.pdf.

“Parler’s First 13 Million Users.” Stanford Internet Obervatory. January 28, 2021. https://cyber.fsi.stanford.edu/io/news/sio-parler-contours.

Patterson, Thomas E. “Election Beat 2020: How news outlets become misinformation superspreaders.” Journalist’s Resource. October 27, 2020. https://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/news- media/news-misinformation- superspreaders/?utm_source=Journalist%27s+Resource&utm_campaign=e725bfd239- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2019_01_28_02_40_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_12d86b1d6a- e725bfd239-80387345.

Patterson, Thomas E. “A Tale of Two Elections: CBS and Fox News’ Portrayal of the 2020 Presidential Campaign.” December 2020. https://shorensteincenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Patterson- 2020-Election-Coverage.pdf.

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Paulin, Emily. “How You Can Spot Inaccurate News.” AARP. July 8, 2020. https://www.aarp.org/politics- society/government-elections/info-2020/how-to-spot-fake-news/.

Phillips, Whitney. “The Oxygen of Amplification: Better Practices for Reporting on Extremists, Antagonists, and Manipulators Online.” Data&Society. https://datasociety.net/wp- content/uploads/2018/05/FULLREPORT_Oxygen_of_Amplification_DS.pdf.

Phillips, Whitney. “The Toxins We Carry: Disinformation is polluting our media environment. Facts won’t save us.” Columbia Journalism Review. Fall 2019. https://www.cjr.org/special_report/truth-pollution- disinformation.php.

Pilkington, Ed. "Trapped in a hoax: survivors of conspiracy theories speak out." The Guardian. January 24, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/jan/23/conspiracy-theories-internet- survivors-truth.

Pinsker, Joe. “If Someone Shares the ‘Plandemic’ Video, How Should You Respond?” The Atlantic. May 9, 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/family/archive/2020/05/plandemic-video-what-to-say- conspiracy/611464/.

Policinski, Gene. “We’re a Big Part of the Fix for ‘Junk News.’” Newseum.org. November 8, 2017. http://www.newseum.org/2017/11/08/were-a-big-part-of-the-fix-for-junk-news/.

“Political fake news: they might be a liar but they’re my liar.” University of Bristol. April 16, 2019. https://www.bristol.ac.uk/news/2019/april/fake-news.html.

Popken, Ben. “Trolls for hire: Russia’s freelance disinformation firms offer propaganda with a professional touch.” NBC News. October 1, 2019. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/security/trolls-hire- russia-s-freelance-disinformation-firms-offer-propaganda-professional- n1060781?cid=sm_npd_nn_tw_ma.

Prince, Matthew. “Terminating Service for 8Chan.” Cloudflare. August 5, 2019. https://blog.cloudflare.com/terminating-service-for-8chan/?wpisrc=nl_fact&wpmm=1. Network provider Cloudflare dropped 8chan as a customer because it was linked to three mass shootings. See also: Douek, Evelyn. “The Lawless Way to Disable 8chan.” The Atlantic. August 6, 2019. https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/08/how-disabling-8chan-became-cloudflares- job/595606/?wpisrc=nl_fact&wpmm=1.

Purtill, James. “Can a ‘psychological vaccine’ protect against fake news and COVID misinformation?” Australian Broadcasting Corporation. February 8, 2021. https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2021-02- 08/covid-19-coronavirus-vaccine-misinformation-inoculation-theory/13125164.

“The Quarter Billion Dollar Question: How is Disinformation Gaming Ad Tech?” Global Disinformation Index. Accessed February 5, 2021. https://disinformationindex.org/wp- content/uploads/2019/09/GDI_Ad-tech_Report_Screen_AW16.pdf.

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Quint, Barbara. “Intellectual Tribalism.” Online Searcher. November/December 2016. http://www.infotoday.com/OnlineSearcher/Articles/Searchers-Voice/Intellectual-Tribalism- 114487.shtml.

“Quiz: How well can you tell factual from opinion statements?” Pew Research Center. Accessed December 22, 2018. http://www.pewresearch.org/quiz/news-statements-quiz/.

Rangarajan, Sinduja. “WhatsApp is a Petri Dish of Coronavirus Misinformation.” Mother Jones. March 20, 2020. https://www.motherjones.com/media/2020/03/whatsapp-coronavirus-misinformation/.

Rauch, Jonathan. "Fact-Checking the President in Real Time." The Atlantic. June 2019. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2019/06/fact-checking-donald-trump-ai/588028/. "Inventing and disseminating falsehoods is quick and cheap and fun, whereas identifying and debunking falsehoods is slow and expensive and boring."

Read, Max. “With Social Media Disinformation, What—and Who—Should We Be Afraid Of? Intelligencer. February 13, 2019. http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2019/02/what-and-who-should-we- be-afraid-of-on-social- media.html?utm_campaign=The%20Interface&utm_medium=email&utm_source=Revue%20newsletter.

“Readers of the Bee,” The Babylon Bee. Accessed August 25, 2019. https://mailchi.mp/babylonbee/reparations-for-everyone-83635. This satire publication objects to being fact-checked by Snopes, which they state unfairly equates them with “intentionally misleading fake news.”

Reality Check team. “European elections 2019: Investigating false and misleading video. BBC. May 27, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-48345019.

Redden, Elizabeth. “Rush to Publish Risks Undermining COVID-19 Research.” Inside Higher Ed. June 8, 2020. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2020/06/08/fast-pace-scientific-publishing-covid-comes- problems.

“Red-flagging misinformation could slow the spread of fake news on social media.” ScienceDaily. April 28, 2020. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/04/200428112542.htm.

"Research Reveals Strategies For Combating Science Misinformation." ScienceBlog. January 15, 2019. https://scienceblog.com/505290/research-reveals-strategies-for-combating-science-misinformation/.

Reichel, Chloe. "Beyond Gab: The widespread social problem of online extremism." Journalist's Resource. October 30, 2018. https://journalistsresource.org/tip-sheets/reporting/gab-online-extremism- pittsburgh?utm_source=Journalist%27s+Resource&utm_campaign=135f5cd1e5- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2018_11_08_09_29&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_12d86b1d6a-135f5cd1e5- 80387345.

Reichel, Chloe. “Covering health research? Choose your studies (and words) wisely. Journalist’s Resource. August 20, 2018. https://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/news-media/health-

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research-misinformation-tips?utm_source=JR-email&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=JR- email"%20target="_self".

Reichel, Chloe. "Covering viral research: Tips from Harvard's '6 french fries' guy." Journalist's Resource. January 10, 2019. https://journalistsresource.org/tip-sheets/reporting/six-fries-eric-rimm- media/?utm_source=JR-email&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=JR- email%22%20target=%22_self%22&utm_source=Journalist%27s+Resource&utm_campaign=d38257287 e-EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2018_12_14_05_46_CO. This article is worth reading for two important paragraphs: 6. Beware of false balance; and 8. Know how research and researchers are funded.

Reichel, Chloe. “How to combat health misinformation online: A research roundup.” Journalist's Resource. June 13, 2019. https://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/internet/health- misinformation-debunk-facebook-twitter/?utm_source=JR- email&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=JR- email%22%20target=%22_self%22&utm_source=Journalist%27s+Resource&utm_campaign=5f7c032e5a -EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2019_01_28_02_40_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_12d86b1d6a- 5f7c032e5a-80387345.

Reichel, Chloe. “New research suggests journalists should defend their profession.” Journalist’s Resource. December 13, 2018. https://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/news-media/defend- journalism-media-bias/?utm_source=JR-email&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=JR- email%22%20target=%22_self%22&utm_source=Journalist%27s+Resource&utm_campaign=fbdd5c2372 -EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2018_12_14. We need to trust journalists if we want address issues based on facts.

Reichel, Chloe. “News stories about the flu shot spawn debates about vaccines in general.” Journalist’s Resource. March 25, 2019. https://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/public-health/vaccine- debates-anti-vax-flu/?utm_source=JR-email&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=JR- email%22%20target=%22_self%22&utm_source=Journalist%27s+Resource&utm_campaign=d83815ab2 c-EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2019_01. This study shows how comment sections become polarized echo chambers.

Reichel, Chloe. "Political polarization increases after local newspapers close." Journalist's Resource. November 19, 2018. https://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/polarization/political-polarization- local-news-research/?utm_source=JR-email&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=JR- email%22%20target=%22_self%22&utm_source=Journalist%27s+Resource&utm_campaign=d38257287 e-EMAIL_CA.

Renner, Nausicaa. “To fight polarization, give yourself some breathing room.” Columbia Journalism Review. November 6, 2018. https://www.cjr.org/covering_trump/election-day-midterms-social- media.php.

Reynolds, Matt. “Amazon sells ‘autism cure’ books that suggest children drink toxic, bleach-like substances.” Wired. March 11, 2019. https://www.wired.co.uk/article/amazon-autism-fake-cure-books.

Ricci, Alexander Damiano. “French opposition parties are taking Macron’s anti-misinformation law to court.” Poynter Institute. December 4, 2018. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2018/french- opposition-parties-are-taking-macrons-anti-misinformation-law-to-court/.

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Rid, Thomas. “Who’s Really to Blame for the ‘Ukraine Did It’ Conspiracy Theory.” The Atlantic. December 5, 2019. https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/12/who-created-ukraine-did-it-conspiracy- theory/602992/.

Riley, Tonya. “How Q-Anon Hijacked the White House Petition Site to Push the Next Pizzagate.” Mother Jones. March 28, 2019. https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2019/03/q-anon-white-house-petition/. Rizoiu, Marian-Andrei. “A thumb on the scale: Research says hiding likes can make Facebook fairer and reduce misinformation.” NiemanLab. October 9, 2019. https://www.niemanlab.org/2019/10/a-thumb- on-the-scale-research-says-hiding-likes-can-make-facebook-fairer-and-reduce- misinformation/?utm_source=Pew+Research+Center&utm_campaign=0c1af59feb- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2019_10_10_02_02&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_3e953b9b70-0c1af59feb- 400451153.

Robert W. Van Houten Library. “How to Evaluate Information Sources.” New Jersey Institute of Technology. December 12, 2016. http://researchguides.njit.edu/content.php?pid=179145&sid=1507086.

Roberts, Jane. "Libraries Walk a Fine Line: As vanguards of intellectual freedom, public libraries face difficult questions regarding what vaccine materials to make available. How to decide?" Undark. March 22, 2018. https://undark.org/article/libraries-vaccine-misinformation-vaxxed/.

Robertson, Adi. “Facebook says it won’t remove politicians’ posts for breaking its rules.” The Verge. September 24, 2019. https://www.theverge.com/2019/9/24/20882401/facebook-political-posts-fact- checking-nick-clegg-speech.

Robertson, Lori. “That Chain E-mail Your Friend Sent to You is (Likely) Bogus. Seriously.” FactCheck.org. November 19, 2014. http://www.factcheck.org/2008/03/that-chain-e-mail-your-friend-sent-to-you-is- likely-bogus-seriously/. Originally written in 2008, the examples are dated, but the “Key Characteristics of Bogusness” still hold true.

Roff, Peter. “Who’s Checking the Fact Checkers?” U.S. News & World Report. May 28, 2013. https://www.usnews.com/opinion/blogs/peter-roff/2013/05/28/study-finds-fact-checkers-biased- against-republicans. Roff comments on a study showing that fact-checkers are biased against Republicans.

Rogers, Kaleigh. “More fake newspaper sites claiming to be based in Quebec pop up—two years after they were exposed.” CBC News. July 29, 2019. https://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/quebec-fake- newspapers-1.5228905?utm_source=Pew+Research+Center&utm_campaign=30cac29102- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2019_07_30_01_50&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_3e953b9b70-30cac29102- 400451153.

Romano, Alessandro, et. al. “The public do not understand logarithmic graphs used to portray COVID- 19.” London School of Economics. May 19, 2020. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/covid19/2020/05/19/the-public- doesnt-understand-logarithmic-graphs-often-used-to-portray-covid-19/.

Romer, Daniel, et. al. “Misleading tobacco content is on the rise on YouTube.” Misinformation Review. March 9, 2020. https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/article/misleading-tobacco-content-is-on-the-

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rise-on-youtube/?utm_source=Media+%26+Entertainment&utm_campaign=4e162f9399- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2020_03_09_05_42_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_12b8e6570b- 4e162f9399-521068029.

Romm, Tony and Colby Itkowitz. “Trump shares Twitter accounts linked to conspiracy theory QAnon.” Washington Post. July 30, 2019. https://beta.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-shares-twitter- accounts-linked-to-conspiracy-theorist-qanon/2019/07/30/175e59ee-b2ef-11e9-8f6c- 7828e68cb15f_story.html.

Roose, Kevin. “YouTube Unleashed a Conspiracy Theory Boom. Can It Be Contained?” The New York Times. February 19, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/19/technology/youtube-conspiracy- stars.html.

Rosenberg, Matthew. “Tracing Disinformation With Custom Tools, Burner Phones and Encrypted Apps.” New York Times. September 5, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/04/technology/personaltech/disinformation-politics- reporting.html.

Rothman, Joshua. “In The Age of A.I., Is Seeing Still Believing?: Advances in digital imagery could deepen the fake-news crisis---or help us get out of it. The New Yorker. November 12, 2018. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/11/12/in-the-age-of-ai-is-seeing-still-believing.

Rowen, Ben. "The politics of fact-checking from Pacific Standard." The Week. February 16, 2019. https://theweek.com/articles/820544/politics-factchecking.

Rowland, Darrel. “You’re going to face a tsunami of disinformation again this election cycle, experts warn.” The Columbus (Ohio) Dispatch. February 24, 2020. https://www.usatoday.com/in- depth/news/investigations/2020/02/24/2020-election-disinformation-presidential-race/4725496002/.

Ryan, Jamie, and Mike Wendling. “Russian network used BuzzFeed’s Community site to spread false news stories.” BBC News. December 17, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-50808296.

Sample, Ian. “Study blames YouTube for rise in number of Flat Earthers.” The Guardian. February 17, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/feb/17/study-blames-youtube-for-rise-in-number- of-flat-earthers.

Sarkis, Stephanie A. “11 Warning Signs of Gaslighting.” Psychology Today. January 22, 2017. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/here-there-and-everywhere/201701/11-warning-signs- gaslighting. Among the signs: blatant lies, constant lies, denial of lies even in the face of proof, using confusion, actions do not match words.

Saslow, Eli. "'Nothing on this page is real': How lies become truth in online America." Washington Post. November 17, 2018. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/nothing-on-this-page-is-real-how-lies- become-truth-in-online-america/2018/11/17/edd44cc8-e85a-11e8-bbdb- 72fdbf9d4fed_story.html?utm_term=.eed2a695cee2&wpisrc=nl_fact&wpmm=1. Christopher Blair, a liberal blogger in Maine, created a satirical Facebook page called "America's Last Line of Defense" to spew fabricated stories that would appeal to conservatives. Then he skewers people who comment and

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share the stories by revealing the joke is on them. Despite his disclaimers, his fake stories often go viral when they are shared by people who accept them as fact.

Satter, Raphael. "Experts: Spy used AI-generated face to connect with targets." Associated Press. June 13, 2019. https://apnews.com/bc2f19097a4c4fffaa00de6770b8a60d?wpisrc=nl_fact&wpmm=1.

Schaffer, Amanda. “Fear, Misinformation, and Measles Spread in Brooklyn.” Wired. June 24, 2019. https://www.wired.com/story/fear-misinformation-measles-spread-in-brooklyn/.

Schenk, Maarten. "How A Tattoo Led Us To The Macedonian Trucker Delivering Loads of Fake News To The Internet." Lead Stories. January 18, 2019. https://hoax-alert.leadstories.com/3470102-how-a- tattoo-led-us-to-the-macedonian-trucker-delivering-loads-of-fake-news-to-the-internet.html.

Schenk, Maarten. "The Kumanovo-connection: Macedonian Spam Clans Still Make Money With Fake News About Muslims and Migrants." Lead Stories. January 18, 2019. https://hoax- alert.leadstories.com/3470115-the-kumanovo-connection-macedonian-spam-clans-still-make-money- with-fake-news-about-muslims-and-migr.html.

Schenk, Maarten. “Malinformation, Misinformation, Disinformation: Lead Stories NOT Using The Term F*ke N*ws Anymore.” Lead Stories. April 1, 2019. https://satire.leadstories.com/3470321-fake-news- 76.html. “For a long time academic experts like Claire Wardle have argued against using the phrase because it simply covers too many meanings to be useful and not everybody understands it to be the same thing.”

Schenk, Maarten. “Old Network of Anti-Islam Fake News Websites Turns to Twitter Trolling.” Lead Stories. November 27, 2018. https://hoax-alert.leadstories.com/3469931-old-network-of-anti-islam- fake-news-websites-turns-to-twitter-trolling.html.

Schenk, Maarten. “On The Difference Between Fake News and Satire—Why Lead Stories Needed A Satire Policy.” Lead Stories. March 7, 2019. https://hoax-alert.leadstories.com/3470243-lead-stories- satire-policy.html.

Schetzer, Alana. "Governments making 'fake news' a crime risk stifling real journalism--accidentally or intentionally." Nieman Lab. July 11, 2019. https://www.niemanlab.org/2019/07/governments-making- fake-news-a-crime-risk-stifling-real-journalism-accidentally-or- intentionally/?utm_source=Daily+Lab+email+list&utm_campaign=73d678f6e3- dailylabemail3&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_d68264fd5e-73d678f6e3-396163909.

Schneider, Howard. “A pandemic of misinformation.” Newsday. March 24, 2020. https://www.newsday.com/opinion/commentary/pandemic-coronavirus-misinformation-1.43421602.

Schneier, Bruce. “Bots Are Destroying Political Discourse As We Know It.” The Atlantic. January 7, 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2020/01/future-politics-bots-drowning-out- humans/604489/.

Schwirtz, Michael and Sheera Frenkel. “In Ukraine, Russia Tests a New Facebook Tactic in Election Tampering.” The New York Times. March 29, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/29/world/europe/ukraine-russia-election-tampering-

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propaganda.html?utm_campaign=The%20Interface&utm_medium=email&utm_source=Revue%20news letter.

Schwitzer, Gary. “Conflicts of interest in health care journalism. Who’s watching the watchdogs? We are. Part 1 of 3. HealthNewsReview.org. June 12, 2017. https://www.healthnewsreview.org/2017/06/conflicts-of-interest-in-health-care-journalism-1-of-3/.

Schwitzer, Gary. “7 words (and more) you shouldn’t use in medical news.” HealthNewsReview.org. Accessed July 16, 2019. https://www.healthnewsreview.org/toolkit/just-journalists-writing-tips-case- studies/7-words-and-more-you-shouldnt-use-in-medical-news/. If you see these words—cure, miracle, breakthrough, promising, dramatic, hope (“victim” is the 7th)—be skeptical.

Sebenius, Alyza. “Russian Trolls Shift Strategy to Disrupt U.S. Election in 2020.” Bloomberg. March 9, 2019. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-09/russian-trolls-shift-strategy-to-disrupt-u- s-election-in-2020.

“Seeing Isn’t Believing: The Fact Checker’s guide to manipulated video.” Washington Post. Accessed February 12, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/politics/fact- checker/manipulated-video- guide/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.985468bf6c1e&itid=lk_inline_manual_9&itid=lk_inline_manual_1&u tm_campaign=wp_fact_checker&utm_medium=email&utm_source=newsletter&wpisrc=nl_fact.

Shah, Dhruti. “Snopes: How do you survive 25 years debunking fake news?” BBC. September 23, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-48867870.

Shalby, Colleen. "Facts about fake news's influence on U.S. elections and the fight against misinformation." Los Angeles Times. March 19, 2019. https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la- sci-sn-fake-news-election-20190319-story.html.

Shane, Scott. “The Fake Americans Russia Created to Influence the Election.” New York Times. September 7, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/07/us/politics/russia-facebook-twitter- election.html.

Shapiro, Ari. “’A Thousand Cuts’ Documentary Tracks Disinformation In Duterte’s Philippines.” National Public Radio. February 3, 2020. https://www.npr.org/2020/02/03/802392333/a-thousand-cuts- documentary-tracks-disinformation-in-dutertes-philippines?ft=nprml&f=1004.

Sharot, Tali. “Why People Can’t Agree on Basic Facts.” Time. September 19, 2017. http://time.com/4946513/twitter-facts-fake-news-neuroscience/. Sharot is an Associate Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience at University College London and the author of The Influential Mind: What the Brain Reveals About Our Power to Change Others.

Shephard, Alex. The Real News Crisis Isn’t Fake News.” The New Republic. December 2, 2019. https://newrepublic.com/article/155860/real-news-crisis-isnt-fake-news.

Siddiqui, Danish. “Hindu group offers cow urine in a bed to ward off coronavirus.” Reuters. March 14, 2020. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-india-cow-urine-pa/hindu-group-offers- cow-urine-in-a-bid-to-ward-off-coronavirus-idUSKBN2110D5.

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Silverman, Craig. “Facebook Removed Over 2 Billion Fake Accounts, But The Problem Is Getting Worse.” Buzzfeed News. May 14, 2019. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/facebook-fake- accounts-afd.

Silverman, Craig. “Here Are 50 Of The Biggest Fake News Hits On Facebook From 2016.” BuzzFeedNews. December 30, 2016. https://www.buzzfeed.com/craigsilverman/top-fake-news-of- 2016?utm_term=.mrjEnQxJ6#.eaYQW0n9Z. If you use Facebook, you probably saw at least several of the fake stories cited here.

Silverman, Craig. “How A Massive Facebook Scam Siphoned Millions Of Dollars From Unsuspecting Boomers.” BuzzFeed News. October 16, 2019. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/facebook-subscription-trap-free-trial-scam-ads- inc.

Silverman, Craig. “How Facebook Groups Are Being Exploited To Spread Misinformation, Plan Harassment, And Radicalize People. BuzzfeedNews. March 19, 2018. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/how-facebook-groups-are-being-exploited-to- spread#.ppXJevNNr.

Silverman, Craig. “How To Spot A Deepfake Like The Barack Obama-Jordan Peele Video.” BuzzfeedNews. April 17, 2018. https://www.buzzfeed.com/craigsilverman/obama-jordan-peele-deepfake-video- debunk-buzzfeed?utm_term=.bheO5b8ew#.jjjRb7grN.

Silverman, Craig. “Lies, Damn Lies and Viral Content.” Columbia Academic Commons. April 2016. https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8Q81RHH. Download his 149-page report.

Silverman, Craig. “A Marketing Site Deleted Over 7,000 Articles After It Was Caught Stealing Fact-Checks and Plagiarizing.” BuzzFeedNews. June 14, 2018. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/this-prolific-fact-checker-is-a- plagiarist#.qswYKm7jZ.

Silverman, Craig. “Old, Online, And Fed On Lies: How An Aging Population Will Reshape The Internet.” BuzzFeedNews. April 3,2019. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/old-and-online- fake-news-aging-population?bfsource=relatedmanual.

Silverman, Craig. “These Hugely Popular Local News Sites In The US and Canada Are Fake.” BuzzFeedNews. November 6, 2019. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/fake-local- news-sites-albany-edmonton.

Silverman, Craig. “What To Do If The Older People In Your Life Are Sharing False or Extreme Content.” BuzzFeedNews. July 23, 2019. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/young-people- worry-about-older-people-sharing-fake-news.

Silverman, Craig, and Jane Lytvynenko. "How A Liberal Troll Became Spammers' Favorite Fake News Source." BuzzFeedNews. March 9, 2017. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/fake- news-turf-war.

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Silverman, Craig, et. al. “Disinformation For Hire: How A New Breed Of PR Firms Is Selling Lies Online.” BuzzFeedNews. January 6, 2020. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/disinformation-for-hire-black-pr- firms?utm_source=API%2BNeed%2Bto%2BKnow%2Bnewsletter&utm_campaign=4600121eb8- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2020_01_07_12_57&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_e3bf78af04-4600121eb8- 45838153.

Silverman, Craig and Scott Pham. "These Are 50 Of The Biggest Fake News Hits on Facebook in 2018." BuzzFeedNews. December 28, 2018. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/facebook- fake-news-hits-2018. These fake stories "generated roughly 22 million total shares, reactions, and comments on Facebook."

“Singapore’s Fake News and Contempt Laws a Threat to Media, Journalists Say.” Voice of America. May 6, 2000. https://www.voanews.com/press-freedom/singapores-fake-news-and-contempt-laws-threat- media-journalists-say.

Sippitt, Amy. “The backfire effect: Does it exist? And does it matter for factcheckers?” Fullfact.org. March 2019. https://fullfact.org/media/uploads/backfire_report_fullfact.pdf. “. . . while backfire may occur in some cases, the the (sic) evidence now suggests it is rare rather than the norm, and that generally debunking can make people’s beliefs in specific claims more accurate.”

Sisson, Christye. “I create ‘convincing’ manipulated images and videos—but quality may not matter much.” NiemanLab. September 10, 2019. https://www.niemanlab.org/2019/09/i-create-convincing- manipulated-images-and-videos-but-quality-may-not-matter- much/?utm_source=Daily+Lab+email+list&utm_campaign=2f0a961c1b- dailylabemail3&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_d68264fd5e-2f0a961c1b-396163909.

Smith, Darrell. “The Twitter conspiracy that sabotaged a small-town California festival: ‘It’s pretty nutty.’” Sacramento Bee. May 8, 2019. https://www.motherjones.com/media/2016/11/fake-news- election-2016/.

Soares, Isa. “The Fake News Machine.” CNN Money. Accessed February 12, 2021. https://money.cnn.com/interactive/media/the-macedonia-story/.

Socolow, Michael J. “Wriggling out of accountability: Misinformation, evasion, and the informational problem of live TV interviews.” Niemanlab. October 2, 2019. https://www.niemanlab.org/2019/10/wriggling-out-of-accountability-misinformation-evasion-and-the- informational-problem-of-live-tv-interviews/. Socolow writes that people being interviewed live by journalists have come to ignore questions and just parrot talking points. Live interviews have also become platforms to spread misinformation. He even says, “There’s no journalistic obligation to disseminate views that mislead, misdirect, or offer irrelevant information designed to intentionally confuse viewers.”

Spring, Marianna. “Coronavirus: The human cost of virus misinformation.” BBC News. May 27, 2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/stories-52731624.

Spring, Marianna. “Coronavirus: The seven types of people who start and spread viral misinformation.” BBC News. May 4, 2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/amp/blogs-trending-52474347.

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Srinivasan, Santhosh. “Rating Disinformation Risk: The GDI approach to news sites.” Global Disinformation Index. December 17, 2019. https://disinformationindex.org/2019/12/rating- disinformation-risk-the-gdi-approach-to-news-sites/.

Stewart, Emily. “#KamalaHarrisDestroyed debate signals how much we still don’t understand about social media manipulation.” Vox. August 2, 2019. https://www.vox.com/recode/2019/8/2/20751789/kamala-harris-destroyed-tulsi-gabbard-bots-google.

Stibel, Jeff. "Why is fake news so dangerous? Blame your easily-fooled brain." USA Today. April 8, 2019. https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/columnist/2019/04/08/fake-news-dangerous-brain- science/3329765002/.

Stone, Maddie. “Whole Foods is selling dangerous anti-vaccine propaganda in its checkout aisles.” Insider. December 10, 2019. https://www.insider.com/whole-foods-amazon-anti-vaxxer-vaccines-2019- 12.

Stoll, Jacob. “The Long and Brutal History of Fake News.” PoliticoMagazine. December 18, 2016. http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/12/fake-news-history-long-violent-214535.

Stubbs, Jack and Christopher Bing. “Special Report: How Iran spreads disinformation around the world.” Reuters. November 30, 2018. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cyber-iran-specialreport/special- report-how-iran-spreads-disinformation-around-the-world-idUSKCN1NZ1FT.

Sullivan, Mark. “How scientists are fighting back against the coming deepfake sh*t-show.” FastCompany. June 20, 2019. https://www.fastcompany.com/90367288/how-scientists-are-fighting-back-against-the- coming-deepfake-sht-show.

Sunstein, Cass R. “Why Coronavirus (and Other) Falsehoods Are Believable.” Bloomberg. March 31, 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2020-03-31/coronavirus-and-other-falsehoods-are- believable-research-shows.

Swan, Betsy Woodruff. “State report: Russian, Chinese and Iranian disinformation narratives echo one another.” Politico. April 21, 2020. https://www.politico.com/news/2020/04/21/russia-china-iran- disinformation-coronavirus-state-department-193107.

“Tackling the Information Crisis: A Policy Framework for Media System Resilience.” The London School of Economics and Political Science. Accessed November 21, 2018. http://www.lse.ac.uk/media-and- communications/assets/documents/research/T3-Report-Tackling-the-Information-Crisis.pdf.

Tanakasempipat, Patpicha. “Thailand unveils ‘anti-fake news’ center to police the internet.” Reuters. November 1, 2019. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-thailand-fakenews/thailand-unveils-anti-fake- news-center-to-police-the-internet-idUSKBN1XB48O.

Tardaguila, Cristina. “Against all odds, fact-checking is flourishing in Venezuela.” Poynter. November 7, 2019. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2019/against-all-odds-fact-checking-is-flourishing-in- venezuela/.

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Tardaguila, Cristina. “Don’t be the one spreading false news about mass shootings. Here are some tips from fact-checkers.” Poynter Institute. August 5, 2019. https://www.poynter.org/reporting- editing/2019/dont-be-the-one-spreading-false-news-about-mass-shootings-here-are-some-tips-from- fact-checkers/.

Tardaguila, Cristina. “How to use your phone to spot fake images surrounding the U.S.-Iran conflict.” Poynter. January 7, 2020. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2020/how-to-use-your-phone-to- spot-fake-images-surrounding-the-u-s-iran-conflict/.

Tardaguila, Cristina, and Harrison Mantas. “A man wearing a buffalo cap proves how far mis/disinformation can go and how dangerous it can be.” Poynter. January 6, 2021. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2021/a-man-wearing-a-buffalo-cap-proves-how-far-mis- disinformation-can-go-and-how-dangerous-it-can-be/.

Tardaguila, Cristina. “Six tips to make science and health fact-checks sexier (and trustworthy).” Poynter. February 26, 2020. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2020/six-tips-to-make-science-and-health- fact-checks-sexier-and-trustworthy/.

Tardaguila, Cristina. “Yes, there is money behind COVID-19 hoaxes and predators are profiting from despair.” Poynter. May 7, 2020. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2020/yes-there-is-money- behind-covid-19-hoaxes-and-predators-are-profiting-from-despair/.

Taylor, Chloe. “Scientists claim online game ‘vaccinates’ players against fake news.” CNBC. June 25, 2019. https://www.cnbc.com/2019/06/25/scientists-claim-online-game-vaccinates-players-against-fake- news.html.

Taylor, Josh. “5G fires: Australian mobile companies work with police to prevent arson attacks.” The Guardian. May 26, 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/may/27/5g-fires-australian- mobile-companies-work-with-police-to-prevent-arson-attacks.

Thaker, Aria. “Fake news on WhatsApp swayed Brazil’s election. India should be worried. Quartz India. October 31, 2018. https://qz.com/india/1445013/whatsapp-fake-news-helped-bolsonaro-win-brazil-is- india-next/.

Thomas, Elise. “Qanon Deploys ‘Information Warfare’ to Influence the 2020 Election.” Wired. February 17, 2020. https://www.wired.com/story/qanon-deploys-information-warfare-influence-2020-election/.

Thompson, Carol. “Dozens of new websites appear to be Michigan local news outlets, but with political bent.” Lansing State Journal. October 20, 2019. https://www.lansingstatejournal.com/story/news/local/2019/10/21/lansing-sun-new-sites-michigan- local-news-outlets/3984689002/.

Thompson, Nicholas, and Fred Vogelstein. "Inside the Two Years That Shook Facebook---And the World." Wired. February 12, 2018. https://www.wired.com/story/inside-facebook-mark-zuckerberg-2-years-of- hell/?utm_content=buffer9d79b&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffe r. This is the story of Facebook's uneasy relationship with journalism, and how hyperpartisan misinformation, some of it produced by foreign governments, played a role in the 2016 presidential

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election. It addresses the question: is Facebook just a platform for all, or is it a publisher with responsibilities?

Tighe, Mark. “Fake news gets more love than the real thing on Facebook.” London Times. September 22, 2019. etimes.co.uk/article/fake-news-gets-more-love-than-the-real-thing-on-facebook- sdmcn5ztg?utm_source=First+Draft+Subscribers&utm_campaign=b241014188- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2019_09_10_11_59_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_2f24949eb0- b241014188-264030885&mc_cid=b241014188&mc_eid=8837f50206.

Toler, Aric. “Guide To Using Reverse Image Search For Investigations.” bellingcat. December 26, 2019. https://www.bellingcat.com/resources/how-tos/2019/12/26/guide-to-using-reverse-image-search-for- investigations/.

“Tracking coordinated disinformation campaigns online made easier with new BotSlayer tool.” Indiana University. September 12, 2019. https://news.iu.edu/stories/2019/09/iub/releases/12-botslayer- launch.html.

Tran, Lucky. “Firehosing: the systemic strategy that anti-vaxxers are using to spread misinformation.” November 7, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/nov/07/firehosing-the- systemic-strategy-that-anti-vaxxers-are-using-to-spread-misinformation?CMP=share_btn_tw.

Tsfati, Yariv, et.al. “Causes and consequences of mainstream media dissemination of fake news: literature review and synthesis.” Annals of the International Communication Association. May 19, 2020. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23808985.2020.1759443.

Tuccille, J. D. “’Fake News Is a Really Dangerous Excuse for Censorship.” Reason. May 13, 2019. https://reason.com/2019/05/13/fake-news-is-a-really-dangerous-excuse-for-censorship/.

Tufekci, Zeynep. "'He Who Must Not Be Named': What Alex Jones and Voldemort Have In Common." Wired.com. November 19, 2018. https://www.wired.com/story/infowars-alex-jones-voldemort- platform-attention-gaming/.

Tufekci, Zeynep. "YouTube, the Great Radicalizer." The New York Times. March 10, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/10/opinion/sunday/youtube-politics-radical.html.

Tucker, Eric, and Amanda Seitz. “Vote-by-mail debate raises fears of election disinformation.” Associated Press. May 5, 2020. https://apnews.com/article/ee8dd4051a53b5e7471c8a6a2ca1b8f3.

Umansky, Eric. “An Illustrated History of Government Agencies Twisting the Truth to Align With White House Misinformation.” ProPublica. June 22, 2020. https://www.propublica.org/article/an-illustrated- history-of-government-agencies-twisting-the-truth-to-align-with-white-house-misinformation.

Urbani, Shaydanay. “First Draft’s Essential Guide to Verifying Online Information.” First Draft. October 2019. https://firstdraftnews.org/wp- content/uploads/2019/10/Verifying_Online_Information_Digital_AW.pdf.

Usher, Nikki. "What to look for before writing a story about an academic study." Columbia Journalism Review. February 19, 2019. https://www.cjr.org/analysis/academic-study-journalism.php. All academic

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journal articles are not created equal. The news media sometimes gives them more publicity than they warrant.

Van de Weghe, Tom. "Six lessons from my deepfakes research at Stanford." Medium. May 29, 2019. https://medium.com/jsk-class-of-2019/six-lessons-from-my-deepfake-research-at-stanford- 1666594a8e50.

Vedantam, Shankar. “When It Comes To Vaccines And Autism, Why Is It Hard To Refute Misinformation?” National Public Radio. July 22, 2019. https://www.npr.org/2019/07/22/744023623/when-it-comes-to-vaccines-and-autism-why-is-it-hard-to- refute-misinformation.

Vincent, James. “New deepfake tech turns a single photo and audio file into a singing video portrait.” The Verge. June 20, 2019. https://www.theverge.com/2019/6/20/18692671/deepfake-technology- singing-talking-video-portrait-from-a-single-image-imperial-college-samsung.

Waddell, Kaveh. “Revenge of the deepfake detectives.” Axios. September 28, 2019. https://www.axios.com/deepfake-detectors-artificial-intelligence-bc86b182-0ca6-45fc-aecf- a1c9ce5563c9.html.

Walker, Chris. “Fake News Sites: These are the websites spreading fake news and conspiracy theories.” News Mic. December 8, 2016. https://mic.com/articles/161611/fake-news-sites-these-are-the-websites- spreading-fake-news-and-conspiracy-theories#.m1Vf00HoZ.

Walsh, Joan. “Do Joe Biden’s Mistakes Matter?” The Nation. September 3, 2019. https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/joe-biden-gaffe-mistake-democratic-presidential-primary/.

Wardle, Claire. "5 Lessons for Reporting in an Age of Disinformation." FirstDraft. December 28, 2018. https://medium.com/1st-draft/5-lessons-for-reporting-in-an-age-of-disinformation-9d98f0441722.

Wardle, Claire. “First Draft’s Essential Guide to Understanding Information Disorder.” FirstDraft. October 2019. https://firstdraftnews.org/wp- content/uploads/2019/10/Information_Disorder_Digital_AW.pdf?x38061.

Wardle, Claire. “Misinformation Has Created a New World Disorder.” Scientific American. September 2019. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/misinformation-has-created-a-new-world-disorder/.

Wardle, Claire. “The role of cable television news in amplifying Trump’s tweets about election integrity.” First Draft. February 12, 2021. https://firstdraftnews.org/long-form-article/cable-news-trumps-tweets/.

Waterson, Jim. “Revealed: Johnson ally’s firm secretly ran Facebook propaganda network.” The Guardian. August 1, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/aug/01/revealed-johnson-allys- firm-secretly-ran-facebook-propaganda- network?utm_source=Sailthru&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=The%20Fake%20Newsletter%20A ugust%202&utm_term=The%20Fake%20Newsletter%20confirmed.

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Weintraub, Karen. “’Fake News’ Web Sites May Not Have a Major Effect on Elections.” Scientific American. March 2, 2020. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fake-news-web-sites-may-not- have-a-major-effect-on-elections/.

Weiser, Wendy R., and Harold Ekeh. “The False Narrative of Vote-by-Mail Fraud.” Brennan Center for Justice. April 10, 2020. https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/analysis-opinion/false-narrative-vote- mail-fraud.

Weiskott, Eric. “Before ‘Fake News’ Came False Prophecy.” The Atlantic. December 27, 2016. https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/12/before-fake-news-came-false- prophecy/511700/.

Wells, Ione. “Celery Juice: The big problem with a viral Instagram ‘cure.’” BBC News. September 22, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-49763144.

Wen, Tiffanie. “The hidden signs that can reveal a fake photo.” BBC. June 30, 2017. http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20170629-the-hidden-signs-that-can-reveal-if-a-photo-is-fake.

Wenzel, Andrea. “To Verify or to Disengage: Coping with ‘Fake News’ and Ambiguity.” International Journal of Communication. 13(2019), 1977-1995. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/10025/2636.

Wereschagin, Mike. “Why disinformation and misinformation are thriving in the COVID-19 pandemic.” LancasterOnline. April 22, 2020. https://lancasteronline.com/news/politics/why-disinformation-and- misinformation-are-thriving-in-the-covid-19-pandemic/article_d761464a-83d0-11ea-862a- c3bfc0626c6a.html.

Whitney, Lance. “How to Spot Fake News Online.” PC Magazine. March 4, 2019. https://www.pcmag.com/feature/366512/how-to-spot-fake-news-online. Whitney explains browser extensions NewsGuard, TrustedNews, and the Official Media Bias Fact Check Icon that can give immediate information on the trustworthiness or political bias of websites.

Whitaker, Bill. “Maria Ressa: Reporting in the Philippines.” 60 Minutes. November 10, 2019. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/rappler-news-ceo-maria-ressa-60-minutes-interview-2019-11-10/.

“Who Owns the Media?” Freepress.com. Accessed March 14, 2017. https://www.freepress.net/ownership/chart. Did you know the Walt Disney Company owns ABC, ESPN, and The History Channel?

Wineburg, Sam and Sarah McGrew. "To Avoid Getting Duped By Fake News, Think Like A Fact Checker." Huffingtonpost. December 18, 2018. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/opinion-fake-news-web- literacy-propaganda-fact-checkers_us_5c1812f5e4b0432554c332e3.

Wojcik, Stefan, Solomon Messing, Aaron Smith, Lee Rainie, and Paul Hitlin. "Bots in the Twittersphere." Pew Research Center. April 9, 2018. http://www.pewinternet.org/2018/04/09/bots-in-the- twittersphere/. "An estimated two-thirds of tweeted links to popular websites are posted by automated accounts--not human beings." Some of these provide useful information or marketing services, but others can be used to spread misinformation.

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Wood, Molly. “Everything’s on Wikipedia. Misinformation too. But Wiki says its editing process quickly shuts that down.” Marketplace. February 12, 2020. https://www.marketplace.org/shows/marketplace- tech/everythings-on-wikipedia-misinformation-too-but-wiki-says-its-editing-process-quickly-shuts-that- down/.

Wood, Thomas, and Ethan Porter. “The Elusive Backfire Effect: Mass Attitudes’ Steadfast Factual Adherence.” SSRN. December 31, 2017. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2819073.

Woodcock, Andrew. “Nearly half of social media users who share articles have passed on fake news, study suggests.” Independent. May 10, 2019. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home- news/fake-news-facebook-twitter-share-misinformation-survey-a8908361.html.

Woolf, Nicky. “Destroyer of worlds: How a childhood of anger led the founder of 8chan to create one of the darkest corners of the internet.” June 29, 2019. Tortoisemedia. https://members.tortoisemedia.com/2019/06/29/8chan/content.html.

Wood, Mike. “How Does Misinformation Spread Online?” Psychology Today. December 6, 2018. https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/web-mistrust/201812/how-does-misinformation-spread- online.

Wood, Michael J. and Karen M. Douglas. “’What about building 7?’ A social psychological study of online discussion on 9/11 conspiracy theories.” Frontiers in Psychology. July 3, 2013. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00409/full.

Wood, Molly. “How social media bots can amplify fake news. Marketplace.org. February 27, 2018. chttps://www.marketplace.org/2018/02/27/tech/how-social-media-bots-can-amplify-fake-news.

Wood, Molly. “One problem with fake news? It really, really works.” Marketplace.org. August 27, 2018. https://www.marketplace.org/2018/08/24/tech/one-problem-fake-news-it-really-really-works.

Zadrozny, Brandy. “Parents are poisoning their children with bleach to ‘cure’ autism. These moms are trying to stop it.” NBC News. May 21, 2019. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/internet/moms-go- undercover-fight-fake-autism-cures-private-facebook-groups-n1007871?wpisrc=nl_fact&wpmm=1. Private Facebook groups are spreading fake cures for autism.

Zadrozny, Brandy, and Aliza Nadi. “How anti-vaxxers target grieving moms and turn them into crusaders against vaccines.” NBC News. September 24, 2019. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/social-media/how- anti-vaxxers-target-grieving-moms-turn-them-crusaders-n1057566.

Zadrozny, Brandy, and Ben Collins. “As ‘#Plandemic’ goes viral, those targeted by discredited scientist’s crusade warn of ‘dangerous’ claims.” NBC News. May 7, 2020. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech- news/plandemic-goes-viral-those-targeted-discredited-scientist-s-crusade-warn-n1202361.

Zadrozny, Brandy, and Erika Edwards. “Anti-vaccine groups take dangerous online harassment into the real world.” NBC News. December 6, 2019. https://www.nbcnews.com/health/kids-health/anti-vaccine- groups-take-dangerous-harassment-offline-real-world-n1096461.

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Zamecnik, Adam. “An army of volunteer ‘elves’ fights disinfo in the Czech Republic.” Coda. May 15, 2020. https://www.codastory.com/disinformation/volunteers-fight-disinfo-czech-republic/.

Zengerle, Patricia. “U.S. lawmakers demand firms do more to fight fake social media.” Reuters. August 1, 2018. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-election-security/u-s-lawmakers-demand-firms-do-more- to-fight-fake-social-media-idUSKBN1KM55C.

Zweig, Mark, and Emily DeVoto. “Observational studies: Does the language fit the evidence? Association vs. causation.” HealthNewsReview.org. https://www.healthnewsreview.org/toolkit/tips-for- understanding-studies/does-the-language-fit-the-evidence-association-versus-causation/.

Useful Websites

American Association for Public Opinion Research; https://www.aapor.org/Education-Resources.aspx Resources for researchers and the media for analysis of public opinion polls.

Association of Health Care Journalists; https://healthjournalism.org/secondarypage-details.php?id=56 Statement of Principles of the Association of Health Care Journalists.

BBC News: fake news; https://www.bbc.com/news/topics/cjxv13v27dyt/fake-news

Center for Media Literacy; https://www.medialit.org/ Resources for media literacy education.

Climate Feedback; https://climatefeedback.org/ "Climate Feedback is a worldwide network of scientists sorting fact from fiction in climate change media coverage. Our goal is to help readers know which news to trust."

Digital Forensic Research Lab, Atlantic Council; http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/component/tags/tag/digital-forensic-research-lab News releases on disinformation and bots on social media.

Duke Reporters’ LAB; https://reporterslab.org/fact-checking/ It features a list of international fact-checkers.

Factitious; https://www.npr.org/sections/ed/2017/07/03/533676536/test-your-fake-news-judgement- play-this-game Quiz yourself on detecting real news versus fake news. Brought to you by National Public Radio.

Facts Matter; https://factcheckingday.com/articles This webpage includes a variety of articles about fact checking.

First Draft; https://firstdraftnews.org/ “First Draft – a project of the Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy at Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of Government – uses research-based methods to fight mis- and disinformation online. Additionally, it provides practical and ethical guidance in how to find, verify and publish content sourced from the social web.”

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Flackcheck; http://flackcheck.org/ The Annenberg Public Policy Center provides a collection of videos that demonstrate “patterns of deception” in politics, science, and health.

Full Fact; https://fullfact.org/ Independent factchecking in the United Kingdom.

“Hands-On Fact-Checking: A Short Course.” https://factcheckingday.com/articles/28/develop-basic- fact-checking-skills-with-this-online-course This 90-minute course was developed by the International Fact-Checking Network at the Poynter Institute and the American Press Institute.

Health Feedback; https://healthfeedback.org/ A “worldwide network of scientists sorting fact from fiction in health and medical media coverage.”

Institute for Data, Democracy, and Politics; https://iddp.gwu.edu/ “To help the public, journalists, and policymakers understand digital media’s influence on national dialogue and opinion, and to develop sound solutions to disinformation.”

The Journalist’s Resource: Know Your Research; https://journalistsresource.org/type/know-your- research/ Tips for evaluating sources that are useful for everyone, not just journalists.

Karen Douglas, conspiracy theories researcher; https://www.kent.ac.uk/psychology/people/221/douglas-karen Douglas says, “Conspiracy theories are likely more successful when they confirm what people want to believe . . . They are also likely to be successful if they are interesting/exciting and offer a ‘big’ explanation for a ‘big’ event.” Angelo Fichera and Saranac Hale Spencer, “The Epstein Connections Fueling Conspiracy Theories.” Factcheck.org, August 19, 2019, https://www.factcheck.org/2019/08/the- epstein-connections-fueling-conspiracy-theories/.

Lead Stories; https://leadstories.com/ Staffed by a researcher in Europe and another in the United States, they operate by the motto: “Just Because It’s Trending Doesn’t Mean It’s True.” They strive to be the first to debunk fake news, hoaxes, and satire accepted as fact.

Master List of Logical Fallacies; http://utminers.utep.edu/omwilliamson/ENGL1311/fallacies.htm "A Short Course in Intellectual Self-Defense" is from the University of Texas-El Paso; it is a compilation of 146 types of faulty logic, or "fake or deceptive arguments."

Media Bias Chart; https://www.adfontesmedia.com/ This shows a subjective ranking/rating of news sources by an attorney in Denver, Colorado.

Media Bias/Fact Check; https://mediabiasfactcheck.com/ This website evaluates and classifies websites. Not sure about a website? Use their “Search Sources” to find their evaluation of it. They claim to be “the most comprehensive media bias resource on the internet.”

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Media Literacy Now; https://medialiteracynow.org/ Advocate for media literacy training in schools.

Media Manipulation Casebook https://mediamanipulation.org/case-studies

Metafact; https://metafact.io/ Scientists, medical doctors, engineers, and researchers offer their consensus on questions posed by readers.

Misinformation Review; https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/ Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics, and Public Policy at the Harvard Kennedy School.

The Museum of Hoaxes; http://hoaxes.org/ It includes sections for historical hoaxes, April Fool's Day, Hoax Photo Archive, and Tall-Tale Creature Gallery, as well as others.

National Association for Media Literacy Education; https://namle.net/ Promoting media literacy as an essential life skill.

NewsGuard; https://www.newsguardtech.com/ After downloading the NewsGuard extension to your browser, it will show "nutritional labels" for websites indicating their accuracy and accountability as rated by professional journalists.

News Literacy Project; https://newslit.org/ Information and quizzes on news literacy. It also sponsors the Checkology.org virtual classroom.

Nobias; https://nobias.com/ This is browser extension for Chrome and Firefox that indicates the political slant of websites.

Poynter Institute; https://www.poynter.org/ This is useful for its section on fact-checking and its weekly newsletter. It also includes the International Fact-Checking Network; https://www.poynter.org/ifcn/

The Psychology of Conspiracy Theories; https://conspiracypsychology.com/ Four academics study and write about conspiracy theories.

Quackwatch; https://www.quackwatch.org/ Founded by Dr. Stephen Barrett, this website exposes questionable health claims and products, misleading advertisements, and pseudoscientific claims.

Quote Investigator; https://quoteinvestigator.com/ Who really said it first?

Retractionwatch; http://retractionwatch.com/ Just because something is published in a scientific journal does not make it true.

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Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy; https://shorensteincenter.org/ This is part of the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University. It is a rich resource that includes a free one-hour online course in identifying misinformation online.

The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe; https://www.theskepticsguide.org/ "Science--Skepticism--Geekdom"

The Skeptics Society; https://www.skeptic.com/

Stanford Internet Observatory; https://cyber.fsi.stanford.edu/io/io

The Story of Fake News, Davidson College; https://www.edx.org/course/story-fake-news-davidsonx- davnowxfakenews

Trackback; https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/trackback-is-a-new-hoax-busting- series-from-buzzfeed-news BuzzFeed News debunks junk information using their YouTube channel.

Troll Factory; https://trollfactory.yle.fi/ This is game developed by the Finnish Broadcasting Company that shows how misinformation is spread online.

The Trust Project; https://thetrustproject.org/ News companies have formed a consortium to develop transparency standards that can be used to assess the “quality and credibility of journalism.”

Which Face is Real; https://www.whichfaceisreal.com/ Can you guess which person is real, and which one is a computer-generated?

Wikipedia; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fake_news_websites See a list of fake news websites.

Yourlogicalfallacyis: https://yourlogicalfallacyis.com/ Download posters of cognitive biases and logical fallacies.

Videos

“After Truth: Disinformation and the Cost of Fake News.” HBO Documentaries. Accessed August 22, 2020. https://www.hbo.com/documentaries/after-truth-disinformation-and-the-cost-of-fake-news.

Ajaka, Nadine, Elyse Samuels, and Glenn Kessler. "Seeing Isn't Believing: The Fact Checker's guide to manipulated video." Washington Post. Accessed July 5, 2019. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/politics/fact-checker/manipulated-video- guide/?utm_term=.da56cfc35780&wpisrc=nl_fact&wpmm=1. This shows examples of missing context, deceptive editing, and "malicious transformation."

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“Digital Disinformation and the Threat to Democracy: Information Integrity in the 2020 Elections.” September 17, 2019. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2P_Wxo5eop8&feature=youtu.be.

“Disinformation Is Being Used to Cause Chaos. Here’s How to Fight It.” NBC (Dallas-Fort Worth). June 9, 2020. https://www.nbcdfw.com/lx/disinformation-is-being-used-to-cause-chaos-heres-how-to-fight- it/2385522/.

Ellick, Adam B. and Adam Westbrook. "Operation Infektion: Russian Disinformation: From Cold War to Kanye." New York Times. Accessed November 19, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/12/opinion/russia-meddling-disinformation-fake-news- elections.html?wpisrc=nl_fact&wpmm=1. Learn about the long-standing Russian plan to destabilize the West with disinformation as part of a “divide and conquer” strategy.

Harris, Sam. “Welcome to the Cult Factory: A Conversation with Tristan Harris.” Making Sense. September 25, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1se6POdUcWM.

Lead Stories. https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCGrs9ygWWH8iccEQfM5uh_A/videos See YouTube for a variety of short videos that debunk fake stories.

Nilsen, Ingrid. “Are These Wellness Trends Legit? Deodorant, Detoxes, Matcha.” YouTube. October 25, 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QQ_csyqvsyg.

O’Brien, Miles. “How Facebook’s news feed can be fooled into spreading misinformation.” PBS News Hour. April 25, 2018. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/how-facebooks-news-feed-can-be-fooled- into-spreading-misinformation.

O'Brien, Miles. "Miles To Go podcast takes a behind-the-scenes tour of junk news." PBS News Hour. May 3, 2018. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/miles-to-go-podcast-takes-a-behind-the-scenes-tour- of-junk-news.

O’Brien, Miles. “Online anger is gold to this junk-news pioneer.” PBS News Hour. May 2, 2018. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/online-anger-is-gold-to-this-junk-news-pioneer . O’Brien profiles Cyrus Massoumi, a California grape grower who created the formula for making millions by catering to the emotions of both sides of the political divide.

Politifact on YouTube; https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCfyYK3GqcotDIAjcoReK3Hg.

Podcasts

International Fact-Checking Network. “(Mis)informed.” https://www.poynter.org/ifcn/misinformed/

Center for Humane Technology. “Your Undivided Attention.” https://www.humanetech.com/podcast

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Books

Abramson, Jill. Merchants of Truth: The Business of News and the Fight for Facts. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2019. (See also: Grady, Constance. "What the Jill Abramson book scandal tells us about publishing's fact-checking problem." Vox. January 15, 2019.) https://www.vox.com/culture/2019/1/15/18182634/jill-abramson-merchants-of-truth-fact-checking- controversy.

Andersen, Kurt. Fantasyland: How America Went Haywire: A 500-Year History. New York: Random House, 2017.

Atkins, Larrry. Skewed: A Critical Thinker’s Guide to Media Bias. New York: Prometheus Books, 2016.

Barclay, Donald A. Fake News, Propaganda, and Plain Old Lies: How to Find Trustworthy Information in the Digital Age. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2018. Barclay has been a college librarian since 1990.

Bartlett, Bruce. The Truth Matters: A Citizen’s Guide to Separating Facts from Lies and Stopping Fake News in Its Tracks. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press, 2017.

Boese, Alex. The Museum of Hoaxes: A Collection of Pranks, Stunts, Deceptions, and Other Wonderful Stories Contrived for the Public from the Middle Ages to the New Millennium. New York: Dutton, 2002. Boese is the creator and curator of The Museum of Hoaxes. The book contains a bibliography for further reading.

Brotherton, Rob. Suspicious Minds: Why We Believe Conspiracy Theories. New York: Bloomsbury, 2015.

Burkett, B. G., and Glenna Whitley. Stolen Valor: How the Vietnam Generation Was Robbed of Its Heroes and Its History. Dallas, Texas: Verity Press, 1998. The authors include cases of people who embellished or falsified their Vietnam War service.

Cairo, Alberto. How Charts Lie: Getting Smarter about Visual Information. New York: W. W. Norton, 2019. “Seeing is not always believing” and “correlation is not causation” are just two concepts discussed in this book about charts, graphs, and maps.

Carroll, Aaron E., and Rachel C. Vreeman. Don’t Cross Your Eyes . . . They’ll Get Stuck That Way!: and 75 Other Health Myths Debunked. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2011.

Carpenter, Amanda B. Gaslighting America: Why We Love It When Trump Lies to Us. New York: Broadside Books, 2018. Carpenter is a conservative political advisor and speechwriter. She has worked for Human Events, Townhall.com, The Washington Times, Senator Jim DeMint, Senator Ted Cruz, and is a contributor to CNN. “Carpenter outlines the steps in Trump's approach, which include taking a strong (if often ill-considered) stance on a hot-button political issue or scandal, casting the issue into the public realm (‘People say...’), creating suspense (‘We'll see or you'll find out’), discrediting the opponent (‘Sad!’) and declaring victory.” (Kirkus Reviews, May 15, 2018)

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Caulfield, Michael A. Web Literacy for Student Fact Checkers. Pressbooks. https://webliteracy.pressbooks.com/front-matter/web-strategies-for-student-fact-checkers/. This is not just for students. Caulfield discusses tactics such as "lateral reading," "going upstream," and using Google reverse image search.

Cercas, Javier. The Imposter: A True Story. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2018. Spaniard Enric Marco claimed for decades to be a survivor of the Holocaust when he was really just a con man in search of notoriety.

Charpak, Georges and Henri Broch. Debunked!: ESP, Telekinesis, and Other Pseudoscience. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2004. (La Crosse Public Library 130 C383D 2004)

Clancy, Susan A. Abducted: How People Come to Believe They Were Kidnapped by Aliens. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2005.

Cooke, Lucy. The Truth about Animals: Stoned Sloths, Lovelorn Hippos, and Other Tales from the Wild Side of Wildlife. New York: Basic Books, 2018. Leonardo da Vinci promoted the myth that beaver testicles had healing power. Learn about this and other wildlife myths; some of them have ancient roots but are still accepted today.

Del Re, Gerard. The Whole Truth: A Compendium of Myths, Mistakes, & Misconceptions. New York: Random House, 2004. Fortune cookies did not originate in China; the Trojans did not build the Trojan Horse; the Scots did not invent the bagpipe; and other misinformation morsels from history.

Duffy, Bobby. Why We’re Wrong About Nearly Everything: A Theory of Human Misunderstanding. New York: Basic Books, 2019.

Fawcett, Bill, ed. You Said What? Lies and Propaganda Throughout History. New York: Harper, 2007. Contributors show examples from politics, war, health, and other areas. Fawcett’s choice for the biggest liar in history-- Joseph Stalin.

Gladstone, Brooke and Josh Neufeld. The Influencing Machine: Brooke Gladstone on Media. New York: W. W. Norton, 2011. In this graphic novel, Gladstone, host of “On the Media” on National Public Radio, takes the reader through the history and future of the media. She also explains various biases.

Goldwag, Arthur. Cults, Conspiracies, and Secret Societies: The Straight Scoop on Freemasons, the Illuminati, Skull and Bones, Black Helicopters, the New World Order, and Many, Many More. New York: Vintage Books, 2009.

Gonzalez, Robbie. "Don't Want to Fall for Fake News: Don't Be Lazy." Wired. November 9, 2018. https://www.wired.com/story/dont-want-to-fall-for-fake-news-dont-be-lazy/. MIT behavioral scientist David Rand says mental laziness and lack of analytical thinking are to blame for people believing junk information.

Graves, Lucas. Deciding What’s True: The Rise of Political Fact-Checking in American Journalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 2016. Graves is an assistant professor at the School of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Wisconsin.

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Harrison, Guy P. 50 Popular Beliefs That People Think are True. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books, 2012. Astrology, Atlantis, ESP, Nostradamus, Homeopathy, and Bigfoot are among the targets of Harrison's take down.

Hicken, Melanie and Blake Ellis. A Deal with the Devil: The Dark and Twisted True Story of One of the Biggest Cons in America. New York: Atria Books, 2018. This is the story of a supposed French psychic who targeted elderly Americans for decades, raking in over $200 million from 1.4 million people in the United States alone.

Hochschild, Jennifer L. and Katherine Levine Einstein. Do Facts Matter?: Information and Misinformation in American Politics. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016.

Holiday, Ryan. Trust Me, I'm Lying: Confessions of a Media Manipulator. New York: Portfolio, 2013.

Hood, Bruce M. Why We Believe in the Unbelievable. New York: Harper Collins, 2009.

Kakutani, Michiko. The Death of Truth: Notes on Falsehood in the Age of Trump. New York: Tim Duggan Books/Crown, 2018.

Kay, Jonathan. Among the Truthers: A Journey Through America's Growing Conspiracist Underground. New York: HarperTorch, 2011.

Levitan, Dave. Not a Scientist: How Politicians Mistake, Misrepresent, and Utterly Mangle Science. New York: W. W. Norton, 2017.

Lewis, Charles. 935 Lies: The Future of Truth and the Decline of America's Moral Integrity. New York: Public Affairs, 2014. In 1989, Lewis founded The Center for Public Integrity, a nonprofit investigative news organization.

Lifton. Robert Jay. Losing Reality: On Cults, Cultism, and the Mindset of Political and Religious Zealotry. New York: The New Press, 2019.

Macdonald, Hector. Truth: How the Many Sides to Every Story Shape Our Reality. New York: Little, Brown, 2018.

McNair, Brian. Fake News: Falsehood, Fabrication and Fantasy in Journalism. New York: Routledge, 2017.

Mayo, Matthew P. Hornswogglers, Fourflushers & Snake-Oil Salesmen: True Tales of the Old West's Sleaziest Swindlers. Guilford, Connecticut: TwoDot Books, 2015.

Merlan, Anna. Republic of Lies: American Conspiracy Theorists and Their Surprising Rise to Power. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2019.

Nichols, Tom. The Death of Expertise: The Campaign Against Established Knowledge and Why It Matters. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.

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Novella, Steven et al. The Skeptic's Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake. New York: Grand Central Publishing, 2018.

O’Connell, Robert L. Fierce Patriot: The Tangled Lives of William Tecumseh Sherman. New York: Random House, 2014. See pages 180-184 for the story of how Secretary of War Edwin Stanton and Chief of Staff Henry Halleck concocted fake news to smear General William Tecumseh Sherman at the end of the Civil War.

O’Connor, Cailin and James Owen Weatherall. The Misinformation Age: How False Beliefs Spread. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2019.

Offit, Paul. Bad Advice: Or Why Celebrities, Politicians, and Activists Aren't Your Best Source of Health Information. New York: Columbia University Press, 2018.

O'Toole, Garson. Hemingway Didn't Say That: The Truth Behind Familiar Quotations. New York: Little A, 2017. The quoteinvestigator.com sets the record straight on incorrectly-attributed quotations.

Otto, Shawn Lawrence. Fool Me Twice: Fighting the Assault on Science in America. New York: Rodale, 2011.

Patterson, Thomas E. How America Lost Its Mind: The Assault on Reason That’s Crippling Our Democracy. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2019.

Rabin-Havt, Ari, and Media Matters. Lies, Incorporated: The World of Post-Truth Politics. New York: Anchor Books, 2016. Media Matters is a “progressive research and information center dedicated to comprehensively monitoring, analyzing, and correcting conservative misinformation in the U.S. media.” This is a view of the landscape from an extreme liberal perspective. A counter-weight would be the extreme conservative website Media Research Center.

Rice, Stanley A. Scientifically Thinking: How to Liberate Your Mind, Solve the World’s Problems, and Embrace the Beauty of Science. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books, 2018. A primer on using the scientific method, as well as avoiding bias and fallacies, to seek the truth.

Salvanto, Anthony. Where Did You Get This Number?: A Pollster's Guide to Making Sense of the World. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2018.

Schieffer, Bob and H. Andrew Schwartz. Overload: Finding the Truth in Today’s Deluge of News. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2017.

Shermer, Michael. The Believing Brain: From Ghosts to Gods to Politics and Conspiracies---How We Construct Beliefs and Reinforce Them as Truths. New York: Times Books, 2011. (La Crosse Public Library 153.4 SH56B 2011) "Using sensory data that flow in through the senses, the brain naturally looks for and finds patterns--and then infuses those patterns with meaning, forming beliefs. Once beliefs are formed, our brains subconsciously seek out confirmatory evidence in support of those beliefs, accelerating the process of reinforcing them--and round and round the process goes in a positive feedback loop." (book jacket)

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Schermer, Michael. Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Times. New York: W. H. Freeman, 1997.

Schermer, Michael. Denying History: Who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and Why Do They Say It? Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.

Silverman, Craig, ed. Verification Handbook For Disinformation and Media Manipulation. 2020. https://s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/datajournalismcom/handbooks/Verification-Handbook-3.pdf

Sorgatz, Rex. The Encyclopedia of Misinformation: A Compendium of Imitations, Spoofs, Delusions, Simulations, Counterfeits, Imposters, Illusions, Confabulations, Skullduggery, Frauds, Pseudoscience, Propaganda, Hoaxes, Flimflam, Pranks, Hornswoggle, Conspiracies & Miscellaneous Fakery. New York: Abrams, 2018.

Stengel, Richard. Information Wars: How We Lost the Global Battle Against Disinformation and What We Can Do about It. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2019.

Tattersall, Ian & Peter Nevraumont. Hoax: A History of Deception: 5,000 Years of Fakes, Forgeries, and Fallacies. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal, 2018.

Vaidhyanathan, S. Antisocial media: How Facebook Disconnects us and Undermines Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Walker, Jesse. The United States of Paranoia: A Conspiracy Theory. New York: Harper Perennial, 2014.

Warner, Melanie. The Magic Feather Effect: The Science of Alternative Medicine and the Surprising Power of Belief. New York: Scribner Book Company, 2019. The subtitle could be "the surprising power of the placebo effect."

Young, Kevin. Bunk: The Rise of Hoaxes, Humbug, Plagiarists, Phonies, Post-Facts, and Fake News. Minneapolis: Graywolf Press, 2017.

Top 10 books about fake news by Henry Hemming of The Guardian

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