Personal Perspective

A Reply to John Searle and Other Traditionalists

Robert Greenleaf Brice

In an article entitled Traditionalists education. The threat comes in many dif- were the very reasons people were denied & Their Challengers,1 John Searle says ferent forms; Searle lists seven: an education. there is “supposed to be a major debate” “Encourag[ing] self-definition by eth- 1. Too much emphasis is placed on sub- in the universities as to whether liberal groups and culture. This comes at the nicity, race, gender, or class,” says Searle, education should be replaced with mul- expense of “standard” interpretations of “has not been part of the theory of what the ticulturalism.2 He finds this debate “puz- history, social/political movements, etc. university was trying to do.”7 But Searle zling,” “disappointing,” even “depressing.” either overlooks or simply ignores the fact 2. There is the threat that if we accept By dividing academia into two groups, the that “encouragement of self-definition” all cultures as equal we shall slip into so-called “defenders of the tradition” and “cultural relativism.” may be necessary in places where simply their “challengers,” Searle says he hopes teaching information is not enough.8 In to “expose some common core assump- 3. The belief that every culture must be Teaching to Transgress, bell hooks re- tions of each side…by stating naïvely, the represented. counts how she “lost her love of school” traditionalists’ view of higher education 4. Education is political. It is an attempt when encouragement of self-definition was and equally naïvely, the most obvious of to make students share the same political removed. the challengers’ objections to it.”3 Despite views as those of the instructor. School changed utterly with racial inte- such claims to offer an even-handed ap- 5. Challengers have no objective standards. gration. Gone was the messianic zeal to proach to the debate, Searle unfairly and (Another threat posed by relativism.) transform our minds and beings that had inaccurately represents challengers’ as- characterized teachers and their peda- sumptions. 6. In the academy, a marriage exists gogical practices in our all-Black schools. between left-wing politics and anti-ra- Like other traditionalists, Searle Knowledge was suddenly about informa- tionalism. believes something will be lost if changes tion only. It had no relation to how one are made to the canon. A “standard” will And finally, lived, behaved. It was no longer connected to anti-racist struggle. Bussed to White be lowered, or worse—eliminated, if we 7. The belief that Western civilization is schools, we soon learned that obedience, make adjustments here. According to the oppressive. and not a zealous will to learn, was what traditionalists, there is a “body of works of was expected of us. Too much eagerness philosophy, literature, history, and art that I’d like to consider many of these as- to learn could easily be seen as a threat goes from the Greeks right up to the present sumptions/threats in some detail and show to white authority…Now, we were mainly day…[w]e call this the Western intellectual where traditionalists like Searle are in taught by White teachers whose lessons tradition.”4 The debate turns on an objection error. reinforced racist stereotypes. For Black to this “tradition”; challengers argue that it children, education was no longer about the practice of freedom. Realizing this, I is too restrictive, too exclusive, and not open Subgroup Matters lost my love of school.9 to new membership. When you look closely 1. The subgroup into which you were at the canon, you immediately notice that born—your ethnic, racial, class, and gen- Searle also overlooks the obvious fact it is comprised of almost nothing but dead, der background—matters enormously; it that “encouragement of self-definition” White, European males. is important for education.6 was never promoted in the universities For all his “best efforts,”5 Searle because an implicit framework was al- Searle is correct, challengers do presents the challengers’ position in such ready in place. Historically, students who believe the subgroup you were born a weak way that no sane person would attended the academy were predominantly into matters, it may even “matter enor- accept it. While some errors are more White males; their encouragement, if they mously,” but only to the extent that it has egregious than others, Searle’s list of chal- needed any, was simply by being around previously been excluded from discussion lengers’ assumptions expose a misplaced other White males. and consideration. Searle succeeds in dis- belief that he and other traditionalists By dismissing the “encouragement of torting the challengers’ assumption here share: challengers pose a threat to higher self-definition” approach to education in by not fully explaining why it matters. It favor of what hooks calls the “information- matters because not every group has had based” approach, Searle fails to appreciate Robert Greenleaf Brice is a professor the same opportunity at an education. It how this serves to reinforce dominate/ in the Department of Philosophy matters because historically, your ethnic, at Loyola University, submissive roles that have plagued us for racial, class, and/or gender background 10 New Orleans, Louisiana. centuries. Students from minority groups

WINTER 2008 37 Personal Perspective

(ethnic, racial, class, and gender) have This same principle applies when we look Representativeness been told time and time again, implicitly to cultures and their moral framework. 3. When it comes to selecting what you and explicitly, that they are not worthy “There is,” as Isaiah Berlin says, “a should read, representativeness is obvi- of education. Sometimes, and in some world of objective values,” but these values ously crucial. In a multicultural educa- places, “encouragement of self-definition” are distinct from absolute values. Absolute tional democracy, every culture must be is necessary. values are embodied in the Platonic notion represented.19 that there is something called “The Truth” Relativism which is changeless, eternal. This Platonic This is simply an inaccurate and dis- Truth is not simply a product of 17th cen- torted view of what challengers hold. Inac- 2. All cultures are equal. tury rationalism; enlightened thinkers of curate, because challengers do not insist 5. No such things as objective standards. the 18th century fomented this thought too. that “every culture” be represented—this As Berlin explains: is obviously impossible. Distorted, because I’ve grouped these two assumptions traditionalists have confused the issues together because Searle makes a similar The empiricists of the eighteenth cen- challengers are actually grappling with distortion in both. Challengers, he says, as- tury, impressed by the vast new realms here; challengers attempt to overcome 11 of knowledge opened by the natural sci- sume that all cultures are morally equal. racism and cultural bias by showing re- ences…asked themselves why the same Closely aligned with this assumption is a methods should not succeed in establish- spect for others and, in turn, underscoring 12 20 disregard for objectivity. Both assump- ing similar irrefutable laws in the realms similar human values. 13 tions point to a form of relativism. The of human affairs. With the new methods Just as we find with citizens in a idea is that we can never be certain about discovered by natural science, order could pluralist society, a classroom must also be anything so it is wrong to take a stand on be introduced into the social sphere as well- based on the belief that all students, re- an issue, especially a moral one. Values uniformities could be observed, hypotheses gardless of cultural background, share the and objectives are nothing but expressions formulated and tested by experiment; laws same need to develop tolerance, respect, could be based on them, and then laws in of taste, or the conventions of a society, cul- and cross-cultural understanding. John specific regions of experience could be seen ture, or subculture. What some individu- to be entailed by wider laws; and these in Dewey proposed a principle of education als regard as “right” others will regard as turn to be entailed by still wider laws, and based on two democratic ideals: (1) various “wrong.” With no independent or external so on upwards, until a great harmonious points of shared common interest and (2) standpoint for saying that one position is system, connected by unbreakable logical freer interaction among social groups.21 In better than another, moral standards are links and capable of being formulated in order to facilitate these ideals, challengers just what one particular culture holds at precise—that is mathematical terms, could have proposed including writers not tradi- 16 one particular time; these standards can be established. tionally received in the canon—non-tradi- easily change. Traditionalists believe in what Stuart tional writers that are capable of reaching Although terribly distorted, there is a Hampshire has called the “doctrine of beyond their own ethnic identities towards kernel of truth to what Searle says. Chal- moral harmony,”17 a single harmonious a higher understanding of what it means lengers do assume moral standards and scheme of morality. Similar to the 18th to be fully human. theories can (and do) change. There is a century empiricists’ view, the idea is that With the following counterfactual, plasticity associated with norms, customs, as we acquire more knowledge, as we im- Searle tries to make a point about the rules; they are not absolute. But because prove our reasoning, we will eventually be composition and representation of faculty something is not absolute does not mean able to agree on a single set of moral rules members. Imagine we find out that Plato we slip into what Richard Rorty has called and principles. and Aristotle were really Chinese women. 14 “vulgar relativism.” Moral standards are Despite this optimism, I think free- From the challengers’ point of view then, relative, but they are relative to the best dom and openness of thought preclude “Ms. Plato and Ms. Aristotle would now possible background data we have at the it. Freedom and openness will only foster acquire a new authenticity as genuine time. In this way our moral standards are new possibilities, possibilities we cannot representatives of a previously underrep- objective, but objective in accordance with imagine right now. As such, it is unlikely resented minority, and the most appropri- our best and most reflective practice. these new possibilities will converge into “a ate faculty to teach their works would then The mistake that Searle promulgates great harmonious system.” As the history be Chinese women.”22 is attributable to a common misunder- of science and the history of human affairs A revelation such as this would un- standing of antonyms. The antonym of show, solutions to even the most confound- doubtedly warrant a reassessment of their 15 “relative” is “absolute,” not “objective.” ing problems tend to lead to new, unseen works and perhaps Chinese women might Knowledge can be both objective and rela- problems—perhaps problems never previ- even be asked to teach courses in these ar- tive, e.g., scientific knowledge. Consider ously considered. eas. However, Searle’s implicit suggestion for instance, a certain medical treatment So moral standards are relative, here is that due to this new information, that’s shown through well-designed, ran- but they do not slip into “vulgar relativ- we will no longer be able to appreciate the domized, clinical trials to be a highly ef- ity.” Moral standards are relative to the works of these philosophers as we once fective treatment for a particular disease. best possible background data we have had. If challengers insist Plato and Aris- This is a matter of objective knowledge; at the time. They are also objective, but totle are to be taught by Chinese women, still it is relative to available knowledge objective in accordance with our best and from a Chinese perspective, we will lose and technology. In say, 20 years, well- most reflective practice. John Rawls once something; we will lose our traditional designed, randomized, clinical trials may described this sort of objective knowledge reading of these philosophers. show that some newer treatment is still in terms of “provisionally…fixed points,” But what would we really lose? Does more effective than the current treatment. potentially subject to revision.18 Searle fear Plato’s theory of forms would

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 38 Personal Perspective alter over time? Would Aristotle’s doctrine there been freer interaction among these Those in favor of non-disclosure, on of the mean no longer strike the right groups, perhaps it might have led to this the other hand, insist that balanced impar- balance? After making the monumental point of shared common interest. Darius tiality is paramount. A method of critical discovery that these Greek men were re- may not have felt that responsibility in examination requires that the instructor ally Chinese women, what is the worry if his court, but in the modern classroom, suspend personal judgment and provide we then scrutinize these works through the challenger does. (to the best of her ability) the evidence a new (Chinese) lens? Again, challengers for opposing sides.30 Non-disclosure, they attempt to overcome racism and cultural Education Is Political argue, respects the intellectual autonomy bias by showing respect for others and, in 4. All education always has been politi- of the student. Advocates of non-disclosure turn, underscoring similar human values. cal and always will necessarily be politi- argue that disclosure must be avoided for Challengers express their belief in human cal, so it might as well be beneficially the following reasons. values—values not tightly tied to a par- political.26 When a student is exposed to the instruc- ticular ethnic, cultural, or racial group. It Searle says that the primary purpose tor’s view, she may accept it simply by may be necessary to identify differences virtue of the instructor’s authority. before turning to similarities, but the aim of education in the humanities, for a chal- is “transcendent values” or “higher val- lenger, is to bring about political trans- Relatedly, when an instructor’s position ues”—those that ultimately reach beyond formation in our students. This however, has been aired, students will not give seri- ous thought to the complexities involved a single ethnic, cultural, or racial identity is inaccurate. Challengers hope to bring about political awareness in students that in the issue/s and instead “write to” the toward a higher vision of what it means to instructor’s point of view. be human. may, in turn, lead to political transforma- To treat the Chinese instructors as tion. Our responsibility as educators is to Searle and most traditionalists would, of an “underrepresented minority” misses challenge students with new ideas. Some- course, side with advocates of non-disclosure. the point.23 The wisdom we find in much times this includes new political ideas Disclosure is seen as an attempt by instruc- of Plato and Aristotle is precisely the kind and sometimes these political ideas are tors to transform students to accepting their 27 of thought capable of transcending beyond progressive. Challenging students often own “extreme left-wing” political views. Al- particular ethnicities or cultures. And even means presenting them with thoughts or though this disclosure/non-disclosure debate if we were to devote time to understanding beliefs quite different from the social, po- is a complex issue, I think there is a place the Chinese culture in which Ms. Plato and litical, ethical, and/or religious beliefs they between these two extremes. Ms. Aristotle flourished, what’s the harm? have when they first enter university. Before students can begin any sig- We might just learn something new about Opening students’ minds to new ideas nificant philosophical investigation, them, too!24 can be difficult. Within philosophy, instruc- moral or otherwise, they must be—at least I am reminded here of a story by tors of ethics and social/political theory minimally—familiar with the basic rules of Herodotus, the Greek historian of antiq- (among other courses) are often faced with argumentation. Logical tools are necessary uity. Herodotus describes a scene in the a choice: when introducing students to for philosophical, indeed cognitive matura- court of Darius, the ancient Persian king. moral disputes they can either include tion. We provide instruction in the prin- Darius was well traveled and knew that their own views or they can present the ciples of reasoning so that students can, in 28 different cultures often followed different material in an impartial, neutral manner. turn, employ them in future discussions. moral codes. Those defending “disclosure” argue that But as we bear witness to students’ matu- providing students with a working model, ration and sophistication in and of complex Darius…called into his presence certain that is, demonstrating how one actually philosophical issues, our own impartiality Greeks who were at hand, and asked, goes about reasoning and defending cer- ‘What he should pay them to eat the bod- becomes less and less important. tain issues, will engage and draw students ies of their fathers when they died.’ To With persistent and continuous exer- which they answered, that there was no into the discussion. Critics however, argue cise, reason affords students the ability to sum that would tempt them to do such a that “non-disclosure,” taking a balanced engage in philosophical discussion. Deci- thing. He then sent for certain Indians, and impartial approach to the material, sions here will vary from course to course of the race called Callatians, men, who provides students with all the information and instructor to instructor, but it seems eat their fathers, and asked them, while necessary for them to make an informed to me that in upper-level undergraduate the Greeks were standing by, and knew decision on their own. courses (and certainly in M.A. and Ph.D. by the aid of an interpreter all that was Advocates of disclosure insist that said—‘What he should give them to burn programs), the philosophy instructor can impartiality or “non-disclosure” should be the bodies of their fathers, at their de- and perhaps even should voice her own cease?’ The Indians exclaimed aloud, and avoided for a couple reasons: opinions and explain the reason/s how and 25 bade him forbear such language. First, non-disclosure fosters student rela- why she arrived at this or that conclusion. tivism. To the student, one view appears In so doing, we illustrate to students that Callatians believed by eating their just as good as any other. due to the gravity of these issues we, as dead fathers the dead would “live on” vicar- instructors, have given serious delibera- iously, through them. Greeks regarded the Also, non-disclosure is inconsistent with our expectations of the students. tion to these matters and have arrived at funeral pyre as the most natural and fit- this particular conclusion. ting way to honor their dead. Despite these If students are required to demonstrate reasoned positions, then, as instructors, Instead of engaging in a fair and ra- differences, a challenger might point to the we should not object to making our own tional debate, Searle remains staunchly “higher value” these two cultures shared: positions public, since these positions ideological. In a rather telling passage at whether Callatian or Greek, both placed were also arrived at through reasoned the end of his article he says, “we should 29 great value on respect for their dead. Had principles. not be embarrassed by the fact that a

WINTER 2008 39 Personal Perspective disproportionately large percentage of the challengers. “The true believer is the real dan- and insist further that the only individuals major cultural achievements in our society ger. The study of history and of culture teaches capable of teaching “Shakespeare” are English have been made by White males.”31 that all the world was mad in the past; men diplomats? always thought they were right, and that led to 25 Perhaps what we should be embar- Herodotus, History, pp. iii, 38. wars, persecutions, slavery, xenophobia, racism, 26 Searle, pp. 541-542. rassed—extremely embarrassed—about is and chauvinism. The point is not to correct the 27 Searle contemptuously refers to these the fact that John Searle, one of the most mistakes and really be right; rather it is not to ideas as “extreme left-wing” politics (Searle, p. respected and eminent philosophers of our think you are right at all,” p. 26. 543). This is but another problem with Searle’s time, is either incapable or uninterested 14 See Richard Rorty’s “Hermeneutics, representation of challenger assumptions. He in representing this debate fairly. Searle’s General Studies, and Teaching,” p. 524. Re- intentionally makes appeals to emotion by misrepresentation of the challengers’ posi- printed in Classic and Contemporary Readings saying things like “radical politics,” “extreme tion is so blatant, so dismissive, one cannot in the Philosophy of Education, ed. by Steven left-wing,” and “left-wing radicalism.” And he M. Cahn, 1997. be anything but embarrassed. honestly thinks he is being “even-handed”? This 15 My thanks to Martin Benjamin for point- sort of language only serves to evoke negative ing this out to me. emotions in the reader; it does nothing to sub- Notes 16 Isaiah Berlin, The Crooked Timber of stantiate his philosophical claim. 28 1 Reprinted in Classic and Contemporary Humanity, pp. 4-5. This debate is long and varied. For 17 Readings in the Philosophy of Education, ed. by Stuart Hampshire, Morality and Conflict, further reading on this topic see, Baumgarten, Steven M. Cahn, 1997. p. 144. Elias, “The Ethical and Social Responsibilities 18 2 His focus is primarily within the Humani- John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cam- of Philosophy Teachers,” Metaphilosophy 11:2, ties. bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971), (1980) pp. 182-91. Bomstad, Linda, “Advocating 3 “Traditionalists and Their Challengers,” p. 19. Procedural Neutrality,” Teaching Philosophy 19 John R. Searle, reprinted in Classic & Contem- Searle, p. 540, [my emphasis]. 18:3, (1995) pp. 197-210. Brod, Harry, “Phi- 20 porary Readings in the Philosophy of Education, It may of course be important to identify losophy Teaching as Intellectual Affirmative pp. 536-546. the differences before turning to the similarity Action,” Teaching Philosophy 9:1, (1986) pp. 4 “It extends in philosophy from Socrates that binds us together. 5-13. Goldman, Michael, “On Moral Relativ- 21 to Wittgenstein,” says Searle, “or, if you like, John Dewey, Democracy and Education, ism, Advocacy, and Teaching Normative Eth- from the pre-Socratics to Quine, in literature p. 292. Selections reprinted in Classic and ics,” Teaching Philosophy 4:1, (1981) pp. 1-10. from the Greek poets and playwrights right Contemporary Readings in the Philosophy of Marks, Joel, “Teaching Philosophy, Being a up to, for example, James Joyce and Ernest Education, ed. by Steven M. Cahn, 1997. Philosopher,” Teaching Philosophy 16:2, pp. 22 Hemingway. The idea is that if you are going Searle, p. 541. 99-104. Martin, Mike, “Advocating Values: 23 to be an educated person in the United States, Searle also says challengers assume Professionalism in Teaching Ethics,” Teaching you must have some familiarity with some that “since the canon consists of mostly White Philosophy (1997) pp. 19-34. 29 of the chief works in this tradition because it European males, the authors must have been The very same principles we are encour- defines our particular culture. You do not know selected because they are White European aging in these students. 30 who you are, in a sense, unless you have some males” (Searle, p. 541). Conveniently overlooked Of course global neutrality, i.e., neutral- familiarity with these works, because America however is the fact that oppression and dis- ity in and of everything in the course is impos- is a product of this tradition, and the United crimination have barred a significant number sible to attain as we certainly bring some degree States Constitution in particular is a product of of groups entry into the canon. Those awarded of bias in choosing a text, in our selection of a certain philosophical element in this tradition, access were mostly White European males. readings, allocation of time on particular issues, the European Enlightenment. And then, too, we Searle should stop to consider why women were etc. Yet, despite its elusiveness, global neutral- think that many works in this tradition, some of sometimes forced to use male pseudonyms or ity should not simply be discarded, nor does it those by Shakespeare and Plato for example, are even went anonymous (e.g., George Eliot and, mean advocacy therefore must be embraced. 31 really so good that they are of universal human for a time, Mary Shelly, respectively). Searle, p. 545. 24 interest” (Searle, p. 537). Let’s consider this kind of example in 5 He says he is “going to do my best to try the opposite direction: a wealthy, professional to state a widely held set of core assumptions English writer is, for many years, mistaken for made by the challengers” (Searle, p. 539). a poor English dilettante. Perhaps we learn of 6 Searle, p. 540. this mistake. Should we now read these works with an eye for English flair? For many years, 7 Searle, p. 540. there has been suspicion that the works of 8 Searle, p. 540. William Shakespeare were actually penned 9 bell hooks, Teaching to Transgress, p. 3. by someone else, a Tudor politician descended 10 hooks, p. 4. from King Edward III. Brenda James and Wil- 11 Searle, “p. 540. liam Rubinstein have proposed that the real 12 Searle, “p. 543. Shakespeare was Sir Henry Neville, an English 13 Allan Bloom, in his The Closing of the courtier and diplomat. If true, should we discard American Mind, makes a similar charge against the “higher values” we’ve taken from the bard

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