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Reducing the Health Risks of the Copper, Rare Earth and Cobalt Industries the Transition to a Low-Carbon Economy

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Reducing the Health Risks of the Copper, Rare Earth and Cobalt Industries the Transition to a Low-Carbon Economy 2019 Greening heavy #GGSD and extractive 26 & 27 November OECD, Paris Forum industries Issue Paper Conference version Reducing the health risks of the copper, rare earth and cobalt industries The transition to a low-carbon economy Dr. Mike Holland EMRC and Imperial College London OECD GREEN GROWTH AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT FORUM The GGSD Forum is an OECD initiative aimed at providing a dedicated space for multi-disciplinary dialogue on green growth and sustainable development. It brings together experts from different policy fields and disciplines and provides them with an interactive platform to encourage discussion, facilitate the exchange of knowledge and ease the exploitation of potential synergies. By specifically addressing the horizontal, multi-disciplinary aspects of green growth and sustainable development, the GGSD Forum constitutes a valuable supplement to the work undertaken in individual government ministries. The GGSD Forum also enables knowledge gaps to be identified and facilitates the design of new works streams to address them. AUTHORSHIP & ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This issue note was prepared for the 2019 GGSD Forum to steer discussion around the theme of Parallel Session A on “Greening extractive sectors: mission possible?”. This paper considers the health and environmental burdens and impacts of the extraction and refining of selected metals (copper, rare earth elements and cobalt) and how impacts can be reduced through the transition to a circular, low-carbon economy. Performance in the global industry is extremely variable. Some businesses operate to high standards within a framework that facilitates the re-use and recycling of metals and other materials. Others cause significant harm to workers (including child labour) and the people and environment around their facilities. Mining for metal ore remains a highly hazardous occupation in some countries. Pollutant emission standards vary substantially between regions. Life cycle analysis has repeatedly demonstrated the benefits of recycling metals. The report includes a number of recommendations to policy makers and the metals and manufacturing industries The opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of the OECD member countries. This document, as well as any data and map included herein, are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area. 3 │ Table of Contents Abbreviations and acronyms .................................................................................................................... 7 Executive Summary .................................................................................................................................. 9 1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 13 1.1. Objectives of this report ................................................................................................................. 13 1.2. The Circular Economy ................................................................................................................... 13 1.3. Metals and the Circular Economy ................................................................................................. 14 2. Environmental health risks associated with primary and secondary metals production ............. 21 2.1. Production chains and induced hazards ........................................................................................ 21 2.2. Hazards associated with mining, and collection of secondary materials ...................................... 21 2.3. Hazards associated with initial processing of materials ............................................................... 25 2.4. Hazards associated with smelting and refining ............................................................................. 27 2.5. Comparative life cycle analysis of metals ...................................................................................... 27 2.6. Comparative analysis of primary and secondary metal flows ....................................................... 28 3. Environmental risks to human health associated with the primary and secondary production of copper, rare earth elements (REEs), and cobalt. .................................................................................. 31 3.1. Key insights .................................................................................................................................... 31 4. Discussion ............................................................................................................................................. 35 4.1. Examples of existing good practice in the global metals industry ................................................. 35 4.2. Examples of existing bad practice in the global metals industry ................................................... 35 4.3. Comparing primary and secondary metals production systems .................................................... 36 4.4. Knowledge gaps ............................................................................................................................. 37 4.5. Key policy questions ....................................................................................................................... 38 4.6. The roles of government and industry ............................................................................................ 40 Annex A. Copper ..................................................................................................................................... 43 Production and reserves ....................................................................................................................... 43 Copper production processes ................................................................................................................ 43 Occupational health risks of copper mining and production of copper concentrate ............................ 45 Environmental risks of copper mining and production of copper concentrate ..................................... 47 Health risks from collecting and initial processing of copper waste .................................................... 49 Emissions from copper smelting and refining ....................................................................................... 50 4 │ Life-cycle emissions to air and associated health impacts ................................................................... 52 Damage cost assessment for health impacts of air pollutants .............................................................. 53 Summary of the risks of copper production and health ........................................................................ 56 Annex B. Rare earths .............................................................................................................................. 59 The Rare Earth Elements ...................................................................................................................... 59 Current production and reserves of rare earth elements ...................................................................... 60 Processes for the production of refined rare earth metals .................................................................... 61 Rare earth mining and processing of ores ............................................................................................ 63 Collecting rare earths for secondary production, and initial processing ............................................. 65 Purification processes ........................................................................................................................... 66 Health impacts of the processing chain for production of refined rare earth metals ........................... 66 Life-cycle emissions to air and associated health impacts ................................................................... 67 Summary of the risks of rare earth production and health ................................................................... 71 Annex C. Cobalt ...................................................................................................................................... 75 Extraction and reserves ........................................................................................................................ 75 Cobalt and health .................................................................................................................................. 76 Cobalt mining and health ...................................................................................................................... 77 Health risks from collecting cobalt for secondary production, and initial processing ......................... 78 Primary and secondary cobalt production processes, and their burdens ............................................. 79 Life cycle analysis and associated health impacts ................................................................................ 83 Summary of the risks of cobalt production and health.......................................................................... 84 References ................................................................................................................................................ 87 Tables Table 1.1. Recycling rates for metals. .....................................................................................
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