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Weak Diasporas and the Mass Mobilization of Solidarity Activists

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Weak Diasporas and the Mass Mobilization of Solidarity Activists Mobilizing for Distant Rebels: Weak Diasporas and the Mass Mobilization of Solidarity Activists by David Zarnett Thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science University of Toronto © Copyright by David Zarnett 2017 Mobilizing for Distant Rebels: Weak Diasporas and the Mass Mobilization of Solidarity Activists David Zarnett Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science University of Toronto 2017 Abstract This dissertation examines the causes of grassroots organizing in support of distant rebel groups. In most discussions of this kind of transnational activism, scholars often focus on the mobilization of ethnic kin, or diasporas. By contrast, I focus on the mass mobilization of grassroots activists who have no ethnic tie to the distant rebels they support. I refer to these mobilizations as “mass solidarity mobilizations.” The emergence of these mobilizations is puzzling given not only that those who make them up often have weak historical, cultural and material ties to the distant rebels they support, but also that only some rebels but not others receive this kind of external assistance. Why do mass solidarity mobilizations form in support of some distant rebels but not others? This question matters since these mobilizations can shape distant intra-state conflicts by influencing third-party state policies and distant rebel resistance strategies. Contrary to most recent scholarship which focuses on how distant rebels frame their cause internationally and on international gatekeeper NGO advocacy, I focus on rebel recruitment strategies abroad. Drawing on more than 150 interviews with solidarity ii activists, a statistical analysis of an original dataset, and a comparative case of the grassroots solidarity organizing in North America and Europe for Palestinians and its absence for the Kurdish struggle in Turkey, I show that mass solidarity mobilizations are more likely to form for distant rebels that cannot rely on their ethnic kin abroad for meaningful support. In the absence of a strong external ethnic constituency, rebel activists are more likely to look beyond their ethnic kin and recruit non-diasporans instead. When they actively recruit non-diasporans, mass solidarity mobilizing on their behalf becomes more likely. iii Acknowledgments In completing this dissertation, I have many people to thank. I offer a sincere thanks to my supervisor Professor Wendy Wong, whose advice and guidance over the last 5 years has been invaluable. I could not have completed this degree without Wendy’s attentiveness and consistent encouragement when I struggled, as well as her ability to see the bigger picture when my thinking narrowed. In working with Wendy, I have a learned a lot about what it means to be a mentor and mentee. I also owe a great deal of thanks to my committee members, Professors Matthew Hoffmann and Oded Haklai whose insights and guidance greatly improved the quality of this dissertation. I benefited significantly from Matt’s close reading of my theoretical arguments, his ability to breakdown causal processes into constituent parts, and his ability to clarify my central narrative. I also benefited immensely from Oded’s expertise on social movements as well as, most importantly, Israel-Palestine. His insights greatly improved my case study chapters. Beyond my committee, I also owe much thanks to my internal and external reviewers, Professors Lilach Gilady and Steve Saideman, both of whom have offered invaluable thoughts on what I need to do to turn my dissertation into a book manuscript. I am also indebted to a number of faculty members who were willing to sit down with me on a number of occasions to help me think through my project and clarify my thoughts. I am especially grateful to Professors Peter Loewen and Chris Cochrane for their assistance on my quantitative chapters, Ron Levi for his insights on Qualitative Comparative Analysis and Jeff Kopstein who read early versions of my dissertation proposal and theory chapters. I am also grateful to Fahd Husain who helped me learn the basics of statistical reasoning and analysis. Although they did not have a direct hand in the dissertation, I have also learned a great deal from Professors Rod Haddow and Rob Vipond about the job market, book publishing, and the behind the scene workings of a university department. And last but not least, I owe a considerable amount of thanks to the departmental staff who made sure that all my administrative matters were in order – Mary-Alice Bailey, Carolynn Branton, Julie Guzzo, Elizabeth Jagdeo, Jennifer O’Reilly, Sari Sherman, and Louis Tentsos. iv I am also deeply grateful to my many colleagues in Toronto and beyond, whose support and guidance was in abundance. I am fortunate to have seemingly unfettered access to an especially smart and ambitious group of friends, including Kiran Banerjee, Megan Dersnah, Souha Ezzedeen, Aarie Glas, Will Greaves, Jamie Levin, Joe McKay, Craig Smith. Their wisdom on all matters, academic or not, is indispensable. Beyond Toronto, I am especially indebted to Miriam Bradley who, whether in Oxford or Barcelona, was always there (via G-chat or email) to offer her thoughts on various aspects of my project, to read drafts, and to generally just listen without judgment as I struggled to make sense of what I was trying to do. And I also owe much thanks to my American Foxhound, Do(u)g, whose ability to discern patterns would put any social scientist to shame. He has taught me invaluable life lessons about bond, self-discipline, and being in the moment. I have also benefited from having a strong family support network, who consistently reminded me that there is life beyond the dissertation. To my parents Ben and Susie, and my sister Dara, I could not have completed this without your support and ability to cultivate the traits in me I needed to see this through to the end. Thank you! David Zarnett Toronto, Canada April 2017 v Table of Contents Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. iv Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Key Terms: Rebels, Mass Solidarity Mobilizations, and Diaspora Strength .............................. 7 1.2 Central Argument ........................................................................................................................................... 9 1.3 Scope Conditions ........................................................................................................................................ 11 1.4 Alternative Explanations .......................................................................................................................... 13 1.5 Scholarly Contributions ............................................................................................................................ 16 1.6 Plan of the Dissertation ............................................................................................................................. 21 Chapter 2 Explaining Mass Solidarity Mobilizations – Rebels, Recruitment and Diaspora Strength 23 2.1 The Three-Step Process of Mass Solidarity Mobilizations ............................................................ 23 2.2 Grassroots Issue Adoption and the Importance of Recruitment ................................................... 32 2.3 Diaspora Strength and Entrepreneur Recruitment Strategies ........................................................ 36 2.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 40 Chapter 3 A Quantitative Test .......................................................................................... 42 3.1 Universe of Cases: Amnesty International Campaigns ................................................................... 42 3.2 Dependent Variable: Mass Solidarity Mobilization ......................................................................... 44 3.3 Independent Variable: Diaspora Strength ........................................................................................... 45 3.4 Control Variables ........................................................................................................................................ 52 3.5 Results ............................................................................................................................................................ 55 3.6 Robustness Checks ..................................................................................................................................... 58 3.7 Model Predictions ....................................................................................................................................... 62 3.8 Unpredictability and Agency in Mass Solidarity Mobilizing ....................................................... 64 3.9 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 66 Chapter 4 Why Compares Palestinians and Kurds? ......................................................... 68 4.1 Palestinian and Kurdish Grievances: Ethnic Discrimination and Occupation ......................... 70 4.2 Conflict Severity ........................................................................................................................................
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