By Karlen Mooradian

The Press and the Sword: Armenian Journalism Since 1512

Among the first to use the press Persians, Alexander and Caesar, the to fight for nationalism, these Byzantines and Arabians, Genghis freedom-loving pioneers founded Khan and Tamerlane, and the Turks and Tsars. They founded printing and printing in the Near East; journalism in the Near East, influenced influenced Soviet journalism; Soviet journalism, and quite possibly and despite war, genocide, and were the first to use the printing press persecution, operated an effective as a purely nationalistic vehicle. international communications net Though the Armenoid Sumerians in 3500 B.C. invented writing, the earliest across five continents. school, and the cylinder seal which might rank as the initial form of print- *The Armenians have set up in the ing, the Armenians adopted these 1500 world's four quarters perhaps more years later at a time when other journals per capita than any other Armenoid relatives (Subarians, Ela- people. Their press network numbers mites, Minoans, Kassites, Hurrians, in the thousands and extends from the Mitanni, Urartians, Hittites, Phrygians, Far East to North and South America Lycians, Lydians, Etruscans) had either and from Europe and the Near East to begun writing or were about to. Dis- Africa and Oceania. It has been operat- tinct stages of Armenian proto- ing for 459 years. journalism led to the dawn of the Mysterious Armenia-land of the Armenian printing age. Tigris and Euphrates, Mount Ararat The Beverugir, or cuneiform record- and Lakes Van, Seven and Urmia, the ing era (2000-6OO B.C.) , systematized biblical Eden-is the only country recording and education and created an which helped create both Near Eastern alliance between scribes and empire. civilization and the U.S.S.R. The The Hinagir, or old alphabet recording Armenians were international pioneers era (600 B.C.-A.D. 396) perpetuated of journalism wirh a strong desire for the alliance, heightened nationalism, freedom: they fought 2,000 wars, one and saw the emergence of the Armenian for every two years of their domestic- Apostolic Church, earliest in Christen- ally recorded history, and outlasted 30 dom. The Noragir, or new alphabet empires including those of the recording era (396-15 12), witnessed Pharaohs, Babylonians, Assyrians, advanced literacy and an alliance be- tween recording and church. Karlen Mooradian is associate professor of journalism at the University of Oklahoma. He The Armenians entered the press era has taught at American University and Ball in 1512 when they founded the first State University. This article derives from his printing press of any Near Eastern doctoral dissertation at Northwestern Univer- nationality and introduced presses to sity in 1963 and a recent visit to Armenia. The dissertation is entitled, Artneninn Jour- the Ottoman Empire in 1567, Persia in nnlisin: A History and liiterpretotioti. 1639, Asia Minor in 1676, and Armenia 746

Downloaded from jmq.sagepub.com at UNIV OF OKLAHOMA LIBRARIES on January 20, 2016 Armenian Journalism 747 and the Caucasus in 1771. In 1794 the 16th Century Presses Armenians founded the first newspaper ~~~i~~ this period the Gautahd of any Near Eastern people. established six printing presses in Italy About a century later in lgo2 they and the Ottoman Empire. Venice, Rome became the Near Easterners and Constantinople had been ancient enter communism by Bolshe- Gautahai centers especially since early vik journalism in the Caucasus through Christian times when Armenian dy- such revolutionaries as Stepan Shau- nasties (~~~~~li~~,~~~~~i~~,M~~~- mian, Sum SPandarian, Kame der donian) ruled the Byzantine Empire Bedrossian and Anastas Mikoyan* for centuries, and Armenian soldiers, Stalin, a fellow Caucasian, himself artisans and traders settled the Empire a disciple of Shaumian and Spandarian, in great numbers. and the Caucasian mountaineering background they shared ruled Com- The father of Armenian printing and thereby the father of Near Eastern munism for decades. Since the late 18th century, Armen- printing was the Gautahai merchant of ian journalism has been mainly revolu- Venice Hakop Meghabardian who tionary. It survived the genocide policy printed, 1512-1513, five Armenian of the Turks who massacred almost books illustrated in black and red: the entire nation in World War I. In Barzadumar (Calendar), 118 pages; Badarak (Mass Ritual), 88 pages; 1920 East Armenia became Soviet; Urpatagirk (Friday Book), 108 pages; West Armenia, now largely populated Aghtark (Astrology Horoscope), Turkified and Kurdified 384 by pages; and Yerkngjrk (Song Book), remains under Turkish and Iranian rule. 160 pages.’ The deacon Abgar Tokatian Gautahai Presses also printed in Venice, 1564-1565,two Those remaining in Armenia are more Armenian Church books.* called Haik (Armenian) and form the An engraver named Hotorian became majority of the world’s seven million father of Ottoman or Turkish printing Armenians, but there is a tradition of when he set up an Armenian press in migration as forced exiles, missionaries 1567 in Constantinople, 56 years before and adventurers. These latter are termed the Greeks. But the Turks, fearing an Gautahai, literally Outside Armenians, Armenian revival, soon shut it down or colonists. They have played a key for its emphasis on freed~m.~Italy’s role in journalism since, with the fall greater hospitality encouraged HOV- of the Crusading Kingdom of Lesser hanes Derzenian to set up Armenian Armenia on the Mediterranean in 1375, presses in 1584 in Venice and Rome.4 the country’s independence ceased However the daring Tokatian, who had until 1918. Often living in lands freer set up the 1564 Venice press, moved to than their tragic homeland the Gautahai Constantinople where he established were able to keep Armenia abreast of another Armenian press in 1587.5 foreign developments long after the Because most Armenian books was no longer the hub printed on these six Gautahai presses of world civilization. were religious, their underlying theme remained patriotism: the Armenian Garegin Levonian, Haii~ofzBarperagerl Marnula (Yerevan, Armenia: HSKhH Lusavorudyan Apostolic Church was a national insti- Zhoghovurdagan Gomisaryat, 1934), p. xvii, col. 1. tution geared toward preserving Armen- 2 Ibid, p. xvii, col. 2. 3 H. Kurdian, “A History of Armenian Printing,” ian consciousness. Armenian Revfew (Boston: Summer 1955)__ D. 115.. col. 1. * G. W. Abgarian, The Matenadman (Yerevan, 17th Century Presses Armenia: Armenian State Publishing House, 1962), ~1~~ Gautdai during this era estab- p. 28. ’Levonian, op. cif, p. xvii, col. 2. lished 17 presses in Poland, Italy,

Downloaded from jmq.sagepub.com at UNIV OF OKLAHOMA LIBRARIES on January 20, 2016 748 JOURNALISM QUARTERLY France, Persia, Holland, the Ottoman presses were born in the Austrian Empire and Germany. capital in 1774 and two years later in The first Armenian presses in Poland Trieste, then under Austria.14 When were set up in Lvov in 1616 and 1640 Lord Byron in 1816 decided to learn for the nearly half-million Gautahai the Armenian language, then considered living in the region as forced exiles by fundamentalists to have been the from the great Armenian medieval tongue of Adam, he studied under the capital Ani, destroyed by the Turks in Mekhitarians on their Venetian island.15 the 11th century. Jesuit suppression of Today the artistic qualities of the the Apostolic Church created further Mekhitarian presses are among the migrations to western Europe and the finest in Venice and Vienna. They are need for more presses.6 Italy, the oldest also the third largest of the Armenian center of Armenian printing, witnessed religious presses of the world, ranking new presses in Rome in 1623, Milan in after the Armenian Apostolic Throne 1624, Leghorn in 1640 and 1643, and of Ejmiadzin in Armenia and the Padua in 1690.7 In France the Gautahai Armenian Apostolic Patriarchate of established presses in Paris in 1633 and Jerusalem.lG 1653 and Marseilles in 1640 and 1673.8 England's first Armenian press was More Armenian presses saw light in established in London in 1736 as a Amsterdam, Holland, in 1655 and Gautahai conduit but proved insignifi- 1660,9 and in Leipzig, Germany in cant since the Teutonic countries 1680.10 Books dealt with Armenian seldom attracted the people of Ararat.17 patriotic history, Apostolic theology, However in 1772 wealthy Hakop Armenian-Latin dictionaries, rhetoric Shahamirian founded an Armenian and freedom from Turkish oppression press in British-ruled Madras, India, for Armenia. where Gautahai had lived since the 8th But Gautahai pioneering proved century. Shahamirian, who blamed most significant in the Near East. The much of Armenia's historic woes on its first press in the history of Persia (Iran) selfish monarchies, published works was established in 1639 in the Armen- calling for creation of a democratic ian language by the priest Khatcha- Armenian republic centered first in durian in Nor Jougha (New Julfa) , the East Armenia, then gradually emanci- city founded near Ispahan by forced pating West Armenia from Turkish rule Armenian exiles. Khatchadurian there- "because there is nothing sweeter by became the father of Persian or among the sayings of men than the Iranian printing.ll Further west in word freedom."ls A second Armenian Smyrna (Izmir) , Ottoman Empire, press was set up in the Indian city in Armenians set up in 1676 the first press in Asia Minor or Anatolia,12 and in 6 Ibid. 1677 another Armenian press was born 7 Zbid. 8 0. Schutz, "Nicholas Misztotfalusi Kis and the in Con~tantinople.1~ Armenian Book Printing," Nor Ashkhar (New York: Sept. 17, 1960). p. 4, col. 2. I8th Century Presses 9Vahan Kurkjian, A History of Armenia (New York: Vantage, 1958), p. 454. The 13 Gautahai printing presses of 'OLevonian, op. cit, p. xvii, col. 2. this period were set up in Italy, Eng- 11 Kurdian, op. cit. p. 115, col. 2. land, India, Austria, Russia and Persia. 'ZAbgarian, op. cit, p. 28. 13 Joseph Shipley, Encyclopedia of Literature Purchase of San Lazaro island in (New York: Philosophical Library, 1946) p. 60, Venice in 1717 by the Armenian re- col. 1. Levonian, op. cit, p. xviii, col. 2. ligious Mekhitarian Brotherhood set "Kurkjian, op. cir, p. 368. off a printing chain reaction. Presses 'OZbid, p. 411. saw light there in 1717 and 1788 and 11 Levonian, op. cit, p. xviii, col. 2. upon establishment of another Mekhi- 1s Vartges Aharonian, "The Armenian Emanci- patory Struggle," Armenian Review (Boston: tarian branch in Vienna, Armenian Spring 1954), Part 11, p. 56, col. 1-2.

Downloaded from jmq.sagepub.com at UNIV OF OKLAHOMA LIBRARIES on January 20, 2016 Armenian Journalism 749 1789 by the priest Harutyun Shmavon- 17th and 18th centuries was a war- ian whose fame later rested on found- ravaged battleground put to the sword ing the first Armenian newspaper;19 a by the Turks and Persians. Second, it less important Gautahai press was born did not exist as an independent politi- in Calcutta in 1796.20 cal country, hence lacked city, provin- Archbishop Prince Hovsep Arghu- cial and national backing for presses. tian, scion of the royal Zakarian Third, Armenia was under the rule of dynasty and primate of all Armenians alien Turkish Moslems whose religion in Russia, established the first Armenian barred the new art of printing, especial- press in that land, 1783, in St. Peters- ly when drawings were reproduced, burg (Leningrad). In 1784 he also set since Islam maintains stipulations up a Gautahai press in Nor Nakhich- against human representation in art. evan (Rostov-on-Don) on the Russian Fourth, the Turkish rulers sensed that sea of Azov, a city he founded for the printing would heighten Haik nation- thousands of Armenians who lived in alism at a time when the sultan wanted the Crimea as exiles from Turkish to assimilate the Armenian Christians. oppression; it received another press Fifth, printing was linked to urbaniza- in 1787.21 Astrakhan, Armenian Apos- tion and the invading Turks, finding tolic diocesan headquarters in Russia, the large technological cities of imperial obtained an Armenian press in 1796. and medieval Armenia incompatible Prince Arghutian, decorated by Cath- with their nomadic way of life, denuded erine the Great for war services against the forests and essentially converted the Turkish invaders of Armenia, the cities into ghost towns and grazing printed patriotic and Apostolic works lands through destruction. While the and negotiated for re-creation of an West experienced economic and scien- Armenian royal state, centered in East tific advances, Armenia under the Turks Armenia. Its flag would be red, green was pushed back into a retrogressive and blue with a coat of arms consisting feudalism which sapped urban vitality. of an Armenian eagle flanked by two Under such conditions the first press lions, but the plan evaporated upon in Armenia was founded in Ejmiadzin Russian involvement in European af- in 1771, by Simyon I, Catholicos of the fairs.Z2 Birth of a second Armenian Armenian Apostolic Church, who there- press in 1787 in Nor Jougha, Persia, by became father of the press in completed the century’s Gautahai print- Armenia and the Caucasus. Lacking ing network.23 support from any Christian country and partitioned by the two Moslem The Haik Press empires of Turkey and Persia, Armenia, Armenia, lagging behind the Gauta- he reasoned, must seek reassurance hai in printing, received its first press from within and a Haik printing press 259 years after Meghabardian’s pioneer- ing achievement in Venice in 1512. could help. Since deliveries of paper Five factors forced such unprecedented from Europe to Armenia were often delay. First, Armenia during the 16th, confiscated by the Turks, Simyon called upon the Gautahai of India and Persia to aid the Haik in building a paper lo Hovhanes Bedrossian, Hai Barperagan Mamuli Bibllografia (Yerevan, Armenia: Bedagrabalad, factory in Armenia. The project began 1956). Vol. I, p. 1. col. 2. 10 “First Armenian Presses,” The Armenian on June 28, 1775, and by 1777 Church (New York: Diocese of the Armenian Armenia had its first paper factory. Church of America, August 1959), p. 1, col. 4. 21 Dikran Boyajian, The Pillars of rhe Armenian Shortly after Simyon’s death in 1780, Church (Watertown, Mass: Baikar 1962) pp. however, Moslem hordes destroyed 256-1. both the printing press and the paper ?? Ibid, pp. 259-60. ?3Levonian, op. cir, p. xviii, col. 1. factory and the Haik again had to re-

Downloaded from jmq.sagepub.com at UNIV OF OKLAHOMA LIBRARIES on January 20, 2016 750 JOURNALISM QUARTERLY linquish the printing baton to the TABLE I GautahaLZ4 Expansion of Armenian Press Network, 1512-1796 Analysis of Armenian Presses, Cities Countries 1512-1796 Region Presses 6 This 284-year period saw 37 Armen- West Europe 21 12 ian presses established in 22 cities in 12 Near East 7 4 3 countries at the rate of one every eight East Europe 6 4 2 years as cultural-nationalism vehicles. Far East 3 2 1 Conditions in the homeland proved so - - - inhospitable that the Gautahai set up 36 Totals 37 22 12 printing presses whereas the Haik type, and there is hardly a country could establish only one. (See Table 1). today where a book in that language Each succeeding century saw Armen- could not be turned out." ian presses distributed further east and west of Armenia. The widest geographi- Gautahai Journalism, 1794-18.58 cal extent of presses was from Italy to Suffering in Armenia again forced the Ottoman Empire in the 16th the Gautahai to outdistance the Haik in century when six presses were set up, journals as had been done in printing France to Persia in the 17th century presses, and 46 newspapers were rapidly when 17 presses were founded (the established in 13 cities in India, Italy, most prolific century), and England to Russia, the Ottoman Empire, Georgia, India in the 18th century when 14 Austria, Malaya and France at the rate presses were established. of one every 16 months. Average life- Urban distribution was relatively span during this 64-year period was 11 balanced: one city (Venice) had five years, ranging in longevity from one Armenian printing presses; one (Con- year to 128. Their generally short stantinople) had three; nine (Rome, existence was due to political oppres- Lvov, Paris, Nor Jougha, Marseilles, sion, lack of funds, and in the case of Leghorn, Madras, Amsterdam, Nor some poorly geared newspapers lack of Nakhichevan) had two; and 11 (Milan, readership. Nonetheless several stand Smyrna, Leipzig, Padua, London, out. Ejmiadzin, Vienna, Trieste, St. Peters- On October 16, 1794, Harutyun burg, Calcutta, Astrakhan) had one. National distribution proved less even: Shmavonian, the priest who inspired one country (Italy) had 11 Armenian the 1789 Madras press, printed in the printing presses; three (Ottoman same city the first newspaper in Armen- Empire, France, Russia) had four; one ian history, the monthly Azdarar (India) had three; four (Poland, Persia, (Intelligencer) . As this was also the Holland, Austria) had two; and three first newspaper of a Near Eastern (Germany, England, Armenia) had people, Shmavonian is considered the one. father of Armenian and of Near East- As missionaries of the press to the ern Journalism. It featured news from Near East, the Armenians provided a Armenia and the freedom movement; link between East and West, and this births, baptisms, marriages and deaths early golden age saw such a firm base of Gautahai; items on the French laid for the modern Armenian inter- national press network that a 20th cen- Revolution; and commodity prices. It tury historian could write: even took an editorial stand supporting

Subsequently, all great cities of the "Boyajian, op. cit, pp. 241-51. world have come to have their printing 21 Jacques dehlorgan, A History of the Armenian establishments equipped with Armenian People (Boston: Hairenik, undated), p. 364.

Downloaded from jmq.sagepub.com at UNIV OF OKLAHOMA LIBRARIES on January 20, 2016 Armenian Journalism 751 George Washington and the American Turkey, Persia, Russia, Armenia, experiment.26 Georgia, Italy and India. When he died The Mekhitarian publications of in 1887 at the hands of the Turks the Venice also set trends: Daregrutyun paper fell with him.31 But it contributed (Year’s Writing) became the first an- to the Armenian reader’s interest in nual in 179ga7 and the erudite 1843 foreign affairs. monthly Bazmaveb (Polyhistor) re- Another innovator was the republic- mains the oldest continuously published minded Banaser (Philologist), born in periodical in Armenian history and the Madras in 1848 as the first tri- era’s sole survivor.** The significance m0nthly.~2 The first migratory journal, of another Venice monthly, Didak a peculiarity of Armenian journalism, Buzandian (Byzantine Telescope) lies was the 1855 monthly Masyatz Aghavni in its founding in 1808 by an ungeru- (Dove of Great Ararat), established in tyun or comraderie, a fraternal organi- Paris, then moved to Feodosia on the zation that became characteristic of Crimean shores of the Black Sea.53The some Gautahai journalism. These cul- migration or moving of the editorial tural clubs, drawn from prominent and offices of such journals from one city nationalistic Gautahai, entered the or country to another resulted from newspaper field as sponsors of publica- oppression or nostalgia. The provoca- tions, sometimes becoming parties of tive 1858 monthly Huyisapail (North- revolutionary activity. It became the ern Gleam) of Moscow was printed by first bi-monthly in 1814, the first bi- the Lazarian Academy and inspired a weekly in 1815. and the first journal to generation of progressives. Its leading be written in vernacular as opposed to writers, Stepanos Nazarian who felt classical Armenian.28 Armenia’s future lay in capitalism, and In 18 15 Arevelian Dzanutzmalztz Mikayel Nalbandian who preferred (Eastern Acquainter) of Astrakhan, revolutionary socialism, both advocated Russia became the first weekly.30 The anti-feudalism and a revamping of first Armenian daily appeared in 1840 church conservatism, but their ideologi- when Ghukas Baldazarian founded in cal differences caused a split and the Smyrna, Ottoman Empire, one of the subsequent demise of this 64-80 page century’s most influential Gautahai newspaper.34 papers, Arshaluys Araratian (Dawn of Gautahai Analysis, 1794-1858 Ararat). Originally conservative and Using 1794 as the base year, it re- carrying on its nameplate the motto “Pa- quired five years for the Gautahai to triotism-Scholarship-Brotherhood,” the launch the first annual, 20 for the first paper took on a decidedly revolutionary bi-monthly, 21 for the first bi-weekly cast when Harutyun Svajian became its and weekly, 46 for the first daily, and editor in the and set up a net- 1860s 54 years for the first tri-monthly. Fre- work of foreign correspondents in quencies of four of the 46 newspapers remain unknown as they were suppres- Richard Hovanessian, “Armenian Communities of Southern and Eastern Asia,” Armeitlan Review sed by authorities. There were 15 (Boston: Autumn 1962), p. 36, col. 1. weeklies, 13 monthlies, eight bi-month- Levonian, op. cit. p. 3, wl. 1. ties, four annuals, one daily and one 38 Grikoris Kalemkarian, Badmutyun Nai Lragru- tyun (Vienna, Austria: Mekhitatian, 1893) p. 99. tri-monthly. The Gautahai had once zgBedrossian, op. cir, Vol. I, p. 16, col. 1-p. 17, again become the first journalistic col. 1. “Ibid, Vol. I, p. 13, col. 2-p. 15, col. I. missionaries among the Near Eastern 31Levonian, op. cir, p. 5, co!. 1. peoples. (Table 2). 32Bedrossian, op. cir, Vol. I, p. 135, col. 2-p. Conditions for some newspapermen 136, col. 1. were so severe that the city and fre- 33Levonian, op. cit, p. 9, col. 2. 3L Bedrossian, op. cir. Vol. I, p. 228, col. 1-p. 236, quency of the 1830 Gautahai journal col. 2. Diyezerk (Cosmos) of India are un-

Downloaded from jmq.sagepub.com at UNIV OF OKLAHOMA LIBRARIES on January 20, 2016 752 JOURNALISM QUARTERLY TABLE 2 Armenian Contributions to Near East Journalism Pioneering Armenian Year Achievement Journal city Country 1794 First Newspaper Azdarar Madras India 1794 First Monthly Azdarnr Madras India 1799 First Annual Daregrutyun Venice Italy 1814 First Bi-monthly Didak Buzandian Venice Italy 1815 First Bi-weekly Didak Buzandian Venice Italy 1815 First Weekly Arevelinn Dzanutzmantz Astrakhan Russia 1840 First Daily Arshaluys Araratian Smyrna Ottoman Empire 1843 Oldest Living Publication Bazrnaveb Venice Italy 1848 First Tri-monthly Banaser Madras India 1855 First Migratory Journal Masyatz Aghavni Paris/Feodosia France/Russia kn0wn.~5The center of Gautahai jour- witnessed the spread of greater literacy. nalism became Constantinople and the Armenia’s salvation was viewed as Ottoman Empire. Urban distribution stemming from the Haik within rather saw 14 Armenian newspapers in Con- than from the Gautahai without. There stantinople; six in Venice; five in was a rise of ideological socialism and Smyrna; three in Calcutta, Tiflis and nationalism linked to the printed word, Vienna; two in Madras, Singapore, followed by growth of revolutionary Moscow, and Paris; and one in parties which needed newspapers to Astrakhan, Bombay and Nicomedia. reach the people. And the public, tra- Nationally there were 20 Armenian ditional lovers of education, recognized newspapers in the Ottoman Empire; in the printed media avenues of seven in India; six in Italy; three in further enlightenment. Main parties in- Georgia, Russia and Austria; and two cluded Miutyun i Purkutyun (Union of in Malaya and France. Salvation) and Armenakan (Armen- During the Gautahai printing press ists), born in Van in 1872 and 1885 era (1512-1794), the network hub respectively; Bashdban Hairenyatz rested in west Europe. In contrast this (Defenders of the Fatherland), born in early Gautahai journalistic period Erzerum 1880; Hunchak (socialist (1794-1858), saw the Near East be- democrat) of Geneva, Switzerland, come the newspaper lodestone. (Table 1887; Dashnak (national socialist) of 3). Tiflis, Georgia, 1890; Hai Gomunisda- Thus, by 1858 the Near East had gun Gasmagerbutyun (Armenian Com- become the dominant region of Armen- munist Party), born 1902; and ian journalism, for in that year the Ramgavar (capitalist) of Alexandria, trend of Gautahai periodicals to close Egypt, 1908.36 in on the heartland at last reached Factors negative to journalism’s rise fruition: Armenia itself received its were burning of cities and massacres by first newspaper. the Turks of the Armenians who be- Haik Journalism, 1858-1920 Several factors consumed the Haik 351bid, p. 24, col. 1. 38 Louise Nalhandian. The Armenian Revolrition- with a spirit of journalism during these ary Movement (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Uni- 62 years. The vernacular revolution versity of California, 19631, pp. 80-131, 151-78.

Downloaded from jmq.sagepub.com at UNIV OF OKLAHOMA LIBRARIES on January 20, 2016 Armenian Journalism 75 3 TABLE 3 give up lives, without progressing for- ward.” Expansion of Armenian Newspaper Network, 1794-1858 Khrimian, eventual Catholicos of the Armenian Armenian Apostolic Church, founded Region Journals Cities Countries in similar vein the 1863 monthly Near East 23 4 2 Ardzvik Darono (Eaglet of Daron) in West Europe 11 3 3 ancient Moush and entrusted its editor- ship to his former pupil Garekin Far East 9 4 2 Servan tzdian.40 East Europe -3 -2 -1 Thereafter newspapers sprouted Totals 46 13 8 throughout the country. Typical of the bloody history of Haik journals was the came modern history’s first victims of 1909 Van bi-monthly Van-Dosp which ceased publication in when the genocide: 2,500,000 Armenians or 1917 Turks massacred the Van Armenians. 75% of the population perished along A year later it was resuscitated in with journalists and presses from 1914- Tiflis with the announcement: 1917. Armenia’s wounds remained open after World War I when the country The aim of Van-Dosp is to resurrect was instantly plunged from 1917 to the tragic and suffering voices from 1920 into three more wars with Turkey, under the ashes of the fatherland and to bring them to the hearts and minds Georgia, and Azerbaijan, and lastly a of the living Armenians and their civil war which saw Communism tri- friends. Van-Dosp was born in the umph?? reality of Turkish Armenia and as a true inheritor of the tradition of the Non-Communist Journalism newspaper, which was the voice of Despite genocide and destruction, the Turkish Armenians, it will always Haik in their journalistic passion mirror and echo their tragedy and suf- established 126 newspapers in this cate- ferings.” gory in 21 Armenian cities during the War forced it to move again in 1919 period at the rate of one every six to Yerevan, the Armenian capital, months. Average life was three years. where it died in the year of its final Mkrdich Khrimian became the father migration, a victim of renewed war- of journalism in Armenia when in fare.42 1858 he moved his migratory monthly The massacres, wars and ensuing Ardzvi Vaspurakan (Eagle of Vaspur- famine of the era proved so detrimental akan) , founded in Constantinople in to Haik journalism that 62 of the 126 1855, to the ancient Armenian city of newspapers survived only one year, his birth, Van.38 Its pages announced seven were migratory journals, and the his beliefs: frequencies of 39 are unknown. Forty- Has there ever been a kingdom or eight newspapers were party organs. nation on earth which has gained an Only the 1920 monthly Ejmiadzin still easy medal for victory without a exists. Exactly two-thirds of the known- revolution, without the willingness to frequency newspapers, numbering 86, fell into the weekly, bi-weekly and daily 37 V. A. Barsamian, S. B. Boghosian and Sh. R. categories, an indication that ambitious Harutunian, Hai Zhoghovurdi Badmutyun (Yere- editors tried to satisfy an audience van, Armenia: Haibedusmanghrad, 1962). pp. _-_1w-70 seeking to read as many journals as @Bedrossian, op. cit, Vol. I, p. 177, col. 2. conditions allowed. Distribution among 391bid, p. 178, col. 1. “Levonian, op. cit, p. 14, col. 1. cities was widespread, both in East 41 Hovhanes Bedrossian, Hai Barberagan Mamuli Armenia and West Armenia. Bibliografia (Yerevan, Armenia: Bedagrabalad, Yerevan led Armenian cities with 1957,), Vol. 11, p. 234, Cols. 1-2. “Levonian, op. cit, p. 70, col. 2. 30 newspapers, followed by Gumri

Downloaded from jmq.sagepub.com at UNIV OF OKLAHOMA LIBRARIES on January 20, 2016 754 JOURNALISM QUARTERLY (26); Shushi (13); Adana (10); Tre- tamable” by Trotsky for his Bolshevik bizond (9) ; Van (5); Kars, Ejmiadzin zealousness, came from a journalistic and Gesarya (4) ; Kharpert, Goris and Armenian family: his father had edited, Sebastya (3) ; Gandzak, Erzinjan and 1884-1908, the Tiflis Armenian politi- Erzerum (2) ; and Moush, Vagharsha- cal-literary journal Nor Dar (New pat, Ashdarak, Tarsus, Aintab and Day).47 Spandarian, also in Lenin’s Girason (1). There were 3 1 weeklies, ruling central committee, subsequently 17 bi-weeklies, 14 monthlies, 11 bi- became Bolshevik leader of Siberia monthlies, 10 dailies, three tri-weeklies where he was Stalin’s superior. He too and one quarterly. died in battle.48 The Armenian Party often obtained Pre-Soviet Communist Journalism printing presses and equipment through Communism was introduced to the efforts of Bolshevism’s famed Armenia and the Near East by Stepan revolutionary guerrilla leader, Simyon Shaumian in 1902 when he founded the Arshak der Bedrossian (fighting name Armenian Communist Party and Kamo), whom Soviets admire as a established in Tiflis that year the news- “medieval hero.”.J9 Born in Stalin’s paper Broleduriad (Proletariat). This home town, the Armenian Kamo re- was the first in the Near East. Shau- mained, according to some, the only mian, most powerful figure in 20th person for whom the Georgian truly century Armenian journalism, also cared.5” Kamo’s exploits were admired founded Bolshevism in the Caucasus. by Lenin, whose wife Krupskaya wrote He was chief of the Georgian Party and in her memoirs: creator the Azerbaijan Party, a of Dressed in Caucasian costume, with member of Lenin’s ruling central com- rows of white-tipped cartridge cases, he mittee, Extraordinary Commissar of the carried some spherical object in a Caucasus, and created and ruled in napkin. Every one in the restaurant left 1918 the Baku Soviet or Baku Com- off eating . . . “He has brought a mune, first Communist government in bomb!” . . . But it turned out to be Caucasian and Near Eastern history. a watermelon. Kamo had brought the Later that year he died in battle.43 As melon and some sugared nuts as a Lenin’s advisor on the Caucasus, present for Ilyich (Lenin) and me. “My aunt sent them,” he explained rather Shaumian joined the Bolshevik faction shyly. This fighting man, with his at its birth in 1903 and organized colossal courage . . . Kamo often travel- Armenian and Georgian revolutionary led between Finland and Petersburg, publishing committees. In antiquity always going fully armed. Mother used Georgia had been Armenia’s northern- to tie his revolvers on his back each most province and therefore the two time with particular care?’ peoples were closely related. In 1903 The 1918 Tiflis weekly Baikar Shaumian printed Broledariad Ter- tikneritz (Proletarian Pamphlets) ,4 and GKh. Barseghian and B. Ohanjanian, Sd. that year combined the Armenian Shahumiun (Yerevan Armenia: Haibedhrad, 1955). Broledariad with the Georgian Bretzela Vol. I, pp. 10-13. (Fight) to form the new Caucasian 4%Hovhanes Bedrossian, Hai Burperagan Mamuli Bibliogrufia (Yerevan, Armenia: Bedagrabalad, Party organ, Broledariad Grive (Prole- 1954), Vol. 111, P. 2, cOI. 2-P. 3, COl. 1. tarian Fight). In 1904 Stalin joined the 45 Ibid. p. 3, col. 2-p.4, col. 1. paper’s editorial staff as Shaumian’s ‘aLevonian, op. cit, p. 49, col. 1. 47 Ibid, p. 26, col. 1. lie~tenant..~b ** Marietta Shahinian, Journey Through Sovief Armenia (Moscow : Foreign Languages Publishing Shaumian founded the 1906 Tiflis House, 1954), p. 58. dailies Gaidz (Spark) and Nor Khosk 49 Bertram Wolfe, Three Who Made a Revolu- tion (Boston: Beacon, 1955), p. 391. (New Voice), aided by Suren Span- Zbid, pp. 390-5. da~ian.~~The latter, termed the “Un- 61 Ibid, p. 465.

Downloaded from jmq.sagepub.com at UNIV OF OKLAHOMA LIBRARIES on January 20, 2016 Armenian Journalism 755 TABLE 4 upon the Georgian throne Guaram Armenian Communist Newspaper Network, Bagradunian Of the house Of 1902-1920 north Armenia, and this Armenian Journals dynasty of the Bagradunians ruled Year Founded Frequency Journals Georgia for more than 12 centuries 11 until 1801 when Russia annexed it. 1902 1 Irregular Thus Tiflis, the Georgian capital, 1903 3 Daily figured prominently in Armenian jour- 1906 3 Weekly 4 nalism because Armenians outnumbered 1913 1 Bi-weekly 1 Georgians there and controlled it, 1914 3 Tri-weekly 1 making the city the largest Armenian 1917 4 colony in the Caucasus. The Armenian Communist Party 1918 4 established 13 newspapers in Tiflis, 1919 1 three in Yerevan and Baku, two in 1920 3 Gumri, and one in Shushi and Haghbat. Georgia had 13 Armenian Communist (Struggle) had on its staff another Party newspapers, Armenia had seven Armenian revolutionary journalist, and Azerbiajan three. Anastas Mikoyan, who assisted Shau- rnian.5z Mikoyan helped to establish the Journalism in the Armenian S.S.R. Armenian S.S.R. and the Azerbaijan The Transcaucasian Federation con- S.S.R., and became architect of Soviet sisting of East Armenia, Georgia and trade, a Politburo member, and even- Azerbaijan was established on Septem- tually President of the U.S.S.R. His ber 20, 1917, by anti-Communists, and brother Artem Mikoyan, once a jour- on May 28, 1918, the Haik segment of nalist also, designs the MIG fighter it declared itself the independent Re- planzs which bear his name. In 1917 public of Armenia, largely ruled by the Shaumian and Anastas Mikoyan right-wing Dashnak party. During the founded the Baku Armenian daily ensuing civil war the Armenian COm- Sotzial Demograd (Social Democrat) .53 munists defeated the Dashnaks and on Characteristically those Caucasians November 29, 1920, established the who played major leadership roles in Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic the Soviet Union (Shaumian, Span- which eventually became part of the darian, Kamo, Stalin, Mikoyan, Beria, U.S.S-R. Ordzhonikidze) had been molded by a Recognizing the importance of jour- unique journalism. Caucasian history nalism in the spread of Communist with its suffering and violence, its ideology, the Armenian Party leader simultaneous antiquity and modernity, produced a breed of activist revolution- TABLE 5 ary journalists, warriors in the literal sense. Book Publishing in the Armenian S.S.R. During the 18-year period, 1902- Year Titles Copies6B 1920, the Armenian Communist Party 1947 301 2,353,000 established 23 newspapers in seven 1948 342 2,500,000 cities in three countries at the rate of 1949 501 3,755,000 one every nine months. (Table 4). 1950 608 4,000,000 The Armenian Emperor of Byzan- tium, Maurice, in A.D. 575 placed 1951 870 4,532,000 1961 2,500 6,832,000

“Bedrossian, op. fit, Val. 11, p. 283, col. 2. 1965 3,700 10,000,000 WBedrossian, op. cit, Vol. 111, p. S8, col. 1. 1968 4,600 14,000,000

Downloaded from jmq.sagepub.com at UNIV OF OKLAHOMA LIBRARIES on January 20, 2016 756 JOURNALISM QUARTERLY TABLE 6 Circulation of Periodicals in the Armenian S.S.R. Newspaper Magazine Annual Annual Year Newspapers Circulation Magazines Circulation68 1940 56 49,000,000 37 700,000 1961 90 86,000,000 71 2,500,000 1968 115 126.000,OOO 106 5,000,000

TABLE 7 Publishing House), also called Usman- Circulation Trends of Three Largest Dailies hrad Publishes textbooks. in the Armenian S.S.R. 3) Gidutyuneri Agadetniayi Hra- Sovyetagan daragchutyun (Academy of Sciences Year Haiasdan Yerevan AvangardJ@ Publishing House), also known as Gidaghrad, prints books written solely 1961 125,000 40,000 35,000 by Armenian scientists. 1965 170,000 56,000 49,000 4) Giughadundesagan Hradaragchu- 1968 210,000 78,000 67,000 tyun (Rural Economics Publishing House), also called Giughrad, publishes Aleksan Miasnigian in September 1921 books dealing with the rural economy. signed a government decree making it 5) Hamalusarani Hradaragchutyun mandatory that illiteracy be wiped out. (University Publishing House), also Initially every man and woman between known as Hamhrad, prints the works the ages 16-50 had to learn to read and and lectures of its own scientists and write Armenian. Later this was expand- professors.55 ed to include children, and the literacy Detailed figures for book publishing drive became so intense that by 1940 in both Armenias prior to World War I Armenia achieved 100% literacy. The are unavailable because of the massa- Communists claim that Georgia, largely cres and general chaos of the period. because of its huge Armenian urban East Armenia in 1913 printed 80,000 population, and Armenia lead the world copies of books; there are no statistics in higher education with 38 and 32 for publishing in West Armenia. (Table college graduates respectively per 1,000 pop~lation.~~Armenia has 5). 2,500,000 population and its capital Journals in Armenian S.S.R. Yerevan, 800,000. The aspirant in journalism in Books in Armenian S.S.R. Armenia must enter the Haduk (special) department of the university Armenia maintains five major print- in that profession and upon graduation ing establishments: begins work on the particular periodical 1) Hai Bedagan Hradaragchutyun of his academic specialization. Every (Armenian Government Publishing newspaper and magazine has its own House), also known as Haibedhrad, is Golrgia (staff), normally consisting of the nation's largest, and produces books (Please turn ro page 766) dealing with fine arts, politics, history Barsumian, Boghosian and Harutunian, op. and science. It was founded in 1920 cif, pp.287-8. and maintains 45 printing plants =Letter to author, May 29, 1969, from Ado Grikor Adoian, Union of Armenian Journalists, throughout the country, each equipped Yerevan, Armenia. with rotaries, lithographic equipment Ibid. 6' 6' Interview by author with Badrik Selian, editor, and offset machinery for color. Sovyetagan Haiasdan, Yerevan, Armenia, Oct. 20, 2) Usurnnagan-Mangavarzhagan Hra- 1966. 59 Adoian, op. cit. daragchutyun ( Scholarly-Pedagogical Adoian, op. cit.

Downloaded from jmq.sagepub.com at UNIV OF OKLAHOMA LIBRARIES on January 20, 2016 766 JOURNALISM QUARTERLY other determinants affect the voter’s de- Finally, are there any major differen- cision. Such factors as incumbency, ces in the content of “monopoly” dailies partisanship and the amount of atten- resulting from a lack of local competi- tion given candidates and issues by tion? Two researchers say radio, television and the news columns No. of newspapers all tend to diminish the . . . the results of the present study influences of newspaper editorial en- support the hypothesis that, in cities dorsements.7 of less than 400,000 population, there are no significant differences between It appears that a newspaper with a co1;ipetitive and non-competitive dailies reputation for forthright editorializing in ;.he proportions of non-advertising on local politics (eg. the Bridgeport space devoted to various categories of Post), will probably be more influential news, editorial and feature material.1” on its readers than those papers which avoid local controversy. “By failing to It is the author’s hope that similar editorialize on local problems . . . news- studies be undertaken by others to test papers forfeit the opportunity to exer- the findings of the Bridgeport survey. cise a vital journalistic function.”8 Another point to be considered is 7 James E. Gregg, “Newspaper Editorial En- dorsements and California Elections 1948-62,” the fact that in the evening newspaper JOURNALISM QUARTERLY,42:4 (Fall 1965). p. 535. market in Bridgeport, the Post has no 8 Ibid.. p. 538. competition. a socially responsible 9Raymond B. Nixon, “Changes in Reader Atti- “. . . tudes Toward Daily Newspapers,” JOURNALISM publisher, with a competent staff, can QUARTERLY,31:4 (Fall 1954), p. 428. win increasing public acceptance, even 10 Raymond B. Nixon and Robert L. Jones, “The Content of Non-Comoetitive vs. Comuetitive News- though his papers have a local ‘mo- papers,” JOURNALISMQUARTERLY, <3 :3 (Summer nopoly’ . . . .”O 1956). p. 314. (Emphasis added.).

ARMENIAN JOURNALISM (Continued from page 756) 5-11 persons in addition to its editor- van city committee and city Soviet of in-chief. All Golegfa are controlled by Workers Deputies; and Avangard the Armenian Communist Party central (Vanguard), organ of the central com- committee’s press section which ap- mittee of Armenia’s Young Communist points and discharges its members.57 Union. The Armenian Communist habit At year’s end new subscriptions for of lumping circulations makes it diffi- periodicals are accepted for the coming cult to view their general press in a year. These can be for time intervals meaningful Western context. (Table 7). of three, six and 12 months; 85% of Though the Gautahai still maintain magazines and newspapers are delivered a widespread international press net- by subscription, 15% are sold at book work, it remains small when compared stands. The Armenians emphasize ag- to that of the Haik today. The great gregate annual circulation figures for Armenoids of the past-Sumerians, their periodicals. These are compiled Hittites, Lydians-have long since by the following formula: annual circu- perished. Only the enigmatic Armenians lation = number of journals x number have survived to continuz the ancient of issues per year x circulation per ways of the mountainous Fertile Cres- issue. (Table 6). cent, albeit in modern garb. In the The three largest Armenian dailies columns of their unique newspapers are Sovyetagan Haiasdari (Soviet Communists mingle freely with Aposto- Armenia), official organ of the Armen- lic saints and imperial pagan heroes in a ian Communist Party central committee strange blend of the old new. And out and the Armenian S.S.R. Soviet of of the ashes of a brutal history the tiny Workers Deputies; Yerevan, organ of Armenians rose to make a contribution the Armenian Communist Party Yere- to the world of journalism.

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