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Home , Caspian whipsnake, Forest steppe, Gagea bulbifera, Goniolimon tataricum, Steppe

15. Hickey RJ (1977) The Lycopodium 18. Cody WJ (1988) of Riding obscurum complex in . National Park, Manitoba. American Fern Journal 67:45-48. Research Branch, Agriculture Canada, Publication 1818/E, Supply and services 16. Holub, J (1975) Diphasiastrum, a Canada, Ottawa, ON. new genus in Lycopodiaceae. Preslia 14: 97-100. 19. Tryon RM Jr (1954) The ferns and fern allies of Minnesota. University of 17. Harms VL (2003) Checklist of the Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN. vascular plants of Saskatchewan and the provincially and nationally rare native plants in Saskatchewan, including important synonyms, authorities, common names and various status indicators. University Extension Press, Saskatoon, SK

ECOSYSTEMS THE UKRAINIAN : STATUS, THREATS AND PROMISES OF SUSTAINABILITY VLADIMIR V. KRICSFALUSY School of Environment and Sustainability, University of Saskatchewan, 330 Kirk Hall, 117 Science Place, Saskatoon SK S7N5C8, Canada [email protected]

INTRODUCTION communities are characterized and are found in by rich biodiversity. The most terrestrial of the world is dominated by grasses and other and they cover over 40% of the land graminoids such as sedges. Grasses and surface.1 Following the Pleistocene ice many sedges are particularly suited for ages, grasslands expanded in range in the specific ecological conditions because the hotter and drier . Eventually, they have intercalary meristems that allow they became the dominant land feature for continued growth under a grazing worldwide. Nowadays, grasslands occupy regime and help ensure survival in dry more of the earth’s surface than the summers and cold continental winters. other major cover types, i.e. Most grassland plants also have a well- or agricultural lands. Along with this developed fibrous root system with a large huge sweep of area, grasslands are an surface area, a characteristic which is immensely important environment for important under the condition of low humans, plants and . moisture.

104 Blue Jay Grasslands have been heavily used and nowadays about 82% of its throughout millennia of human history. steppe area is destroyed. Globally, more people inhabit grasslands than any other .1 They provide Most of the American and many goods and services that are vital European were plowed by to humans: biodiversity, food, forage, settlers, due to the extremely fertile soil. livestock, biofuels, carbon storage, This has led to tremendous changes, provision of drinking water, tourism and most recently, the loss of much and recreation, as well as playing of this biome occurred primarily due other important supportive ecosystem to agriculture, fragmentation, invasive functions.2 Grasslands are important exotic species, and the lack of a natural repositories of biodiversity: they form dynamic regime. The movement of herds one-quarter of 142 terrestrial ecoregions of grazing animals and wildfire activity identified as priorities for conservation traditionally held back growth and by WWF Global 200 and support nearly invasive species, but with those factors half of all endemic birds and one fifth largely gone, remaining grasslands of species.3 Grasslands have are slowly reverting to and been the seedbeds for the ancestors . The main threats currently facing of virtually every major cereal crop and grasslands in Canada are changes in the pre-domestication home of our most land use and abandonment of traditional important livestock. activities, afforestation and intensification of grassland management.12,13 A long history of human use and abuse of grasslands has substantially shrunk This short outlook illustrates the their area around the world. Nowadays, importance, multiple functions and threats the Temperate grasslands, savannas to temperate grasslands in different parts and biome has the least of the world. The question one could ask protection globally with mere 2% in strict is: why people on the protected areas.4 The greatest loss of should be interested in the Ukrainian grasslands is in North America.5,6 Current steppes? First, the steppes and the estimates indicate that, on average, less prairies have many biological similarities than 20% of original grassland at the generic and even species level. in the Central remain, and only Second, there are many examples of 3.5% has been protected overall within native plant species from one area Canada.7,8 Locally, the loss of different that have become invasive weeds in grassland types can be even greater, the other. Third, plants from the steppe e.g. in Saskatchewan, less than 1% have become important forage and crop remains of the once vast fescue .9 species in the prairie. Fourth, settlers from In , grasslands are mostly of the Ukrainian steppe regions brought anthropogenic origin.10 The exceptions their agricultural expertise, seeds, and are the areas in alpine regions, along culture to the Canadian prairie provinces rivers and remnant fragments of steppe enriching the agricultural and cultural vegetation.11 Vast steppe grasslands that fabric. Therefore, the purpose of this originally extended from south-east to paper is to describe the current state have been destroyed to of the steppes of Ukraine, identify the a greater degree than any other type of main threats to them, and highlight the vegetation. The last big “taming of the potential for collaboration of Canadian steppe” occurred about 200 years ago in and Ukrainian scientists and practitioners in conserving temperate grasslands.

70 (2) June 2012 105 THE STEPPE ENVIRONMENT than the prairies in North America. Ecology of the Steppe Overall, distribution and structure of Grassland vegetation occurs mainly steppe vegetation in Ukraine depends in lowland areas in the middle latitudes on and soil factors, and the main in areas with , where limiting factor of the vegetation is a lack of the summers are warm and dry and the moisture.15 The mean annual temperature winters are cold. Shortage of rainfall and total change from south limits the growth of woody plants and to north (from 9-10oC to 7-9oC and from prevents the development of a closed 350 mm to 450 mm, respectively). forest cover. Natural grasslands of the temperate zone of are called the The landscapes steppes. Russian and Ukrainian were the are characterized by far horizons and languages from which the term “steppe” prevalent flat to undulating relief, mostly at was borrowed (etymology of the word is low altitudes. A typical soil matrix is loess, associated with the space, ground, and which covers varied geological bedrock. ), first appearing in international The steppe ecosystem gave rise to the botanical terminology in the 18th century. world’s most fertile , (Russian and Ukrainian for “black soils”) The Eurasian steppe stretches from named after their characteristic dark- an enclave in , where it called coloured humus horizon. The soils within puszta (meaning “bare, empty”), through steppe zone in Ukraine change from a chain of small remnants in light and dark chestnut soils occurring in and to a vast area of south combination with solonetzic soils, through Ukrainian (Fig. 1) and south Russian southern chornozems, to typical humic plains, north Caucasus, south , chernozems. soil types also and north to south , occur in the prairies of North America. and north-east .14 Often the Eurasian steppe is divided into three Biodiversity of the Steppe main parts – the Pontic steppe, the The steppes of Ukraine are situated in , and the Mongol steppe. the west part of the Eurasian temperate Similar vegetation types can also be found grassland biome and occupy about on other continents. In North America, 300,000 square kilometers. common name for grasslands is the prairies (from French, meaning “a treeless The characteristics of the pristine grassy plain”). They form a triangular steppes of Ukraine were described in the area from , Saskatchewan, and beginning of the 19th century by Pachoski Manitoba in Canada through the Great (1917)16, Kleopov (1933)17 and some Plains to southern in the USA and other authors. Later, steppes became down to .12 the subject of intense investigations by many Ukrainian and Russian scientists. The Ukrainian steppe (Mariupol station) Bilyk (1973)18 has summarized data lies within the temperate continental on the steppe vegetation of Ukraine climate zone and in comparison with and gave a critical review of previous the central part of the Eurasian steppe studies. There are zonal (geographical, (Semipalatinsk station, ) or central ecological) patterns corresponding to the part of the Canadian prairie (Saskatoon climate and soil patterns of the steppe station), is milder and more moist (Fig. 2). community’s distribution in Ukraine.15 Also, annual precipitation is more evenly Overall, vegetation changes towards the distributed through the steppes in Eurasia south from forest-steppe zone (which

106 Blue Jay Figure 1. Map of the Ukrainian steppe with locations of the visited reserves [see back inside cover for colour version].

70 (2) June 2012 107 Figure 2. Climate diagrams for temperate grasslands. The diagrams include: name of station, elevation (m above sea level), mean annual temperature (o C), mean annual precipitation (mm), and months; left axis – mean monthly temperature (o C), right axis – mean monthly precipitation (mm).39 exist as climatically determined belt chernozems are different from the much between forests and steppes) to steppe drier grasslands in central and particularly zone. steppes in the northern southern parts of steppe zone. They have part of steppe zone gradually change to a specific structure and peculiar species. true steppes in its central and southern In fact meadow steppes are often called parts. Stone steppes are scattered in the 'hayfield steppes' which illustrates high south-eastern part of steppe range in the quality fodder they provide and their Upland while halophytic general aspect. steppes are located along the Azov Sea and the . Distribution of both Formerly, the majority of the northern stone and halophytic steppes is caused Black Sea region was occupied by true by soil factors. There are very diverse steppes or herb-rich grass steppes steppes on the Crimean peninsula as (forb–rich fescue/feather–grass steppes). well. Their distribution is driven by an Nowadays, grass steppes (forb–poor elevation gradient, which is manifested fescue/feather–grass steppes) prevail. by changes in temperature, precipitation, Their vegetation cover consists mainly of and soil types. turf grasses from such genera as Stipa, Festuca, Poa, Koeleria and Agropyron Meadow steppes can be found as as well as sedges (Carex). Compared isolated islands completely surrounded to meadow steppes located to the north by forests in forest-steppe zone or they and true steppes, grass steppes have form dominated vegetation type in the fewer forbs and increased participation northern part of steppe zone. These of ephemeral plant species. This results grasslands on deep and very fertile from a drier climate and different soil types. 108 Blue Jay Stone steppes occur on poorly steppes (including rock outcrops). Many developed soils, slopes where erosion rare and endemic species as well as rates are particularly high, and often species on the edge of its range that occur on rock outcrops (granites, limestones, in the region (Fig 3,4) are included in the and chalk). Compared to other steppe international list of rare and endangered communities, stone steppes are less species – European Red List21 and IUCN productive. However, the share of Red List of Threatened Plants.22 endemic plants is much higher than in the zonal steppe ecosystem because There are 31 steppe vegetation stone steppes served as refuges for many community types, each of which includes species during unfavourable climatic its own plant communities, listed in the epochs. Perhaps vegetation of stone Green Data Book of Ukraine.23 The steppes and rock outcrops is not just a Green Data Book of Ukraine is a very special variant of zonal steppe but an progressive document because its main ancient floristic complex. Endemics and focus is not on plant species protection relics include many species, especially but rather on biodiversity conservation from such taxa as Astragalus, Oxytropis, within the entire plant community or Hedysarum, Stipa, and Dianthus. . This vision might be achievable only through the establishment of steppe Halophitic steppes, with a domination habitat protection. However, the required of sagebrush (Artemisia) species and baseline threatened habitat inventory has grasses (Stipa, Elytrigia, and Puccinellia) not yet been done in Ukraine. This lack occur on the saline soils mainly along the of data prevents effective protection of seacoasts and have limited distribution. all the most important steppe remnants However, this results from soil factors and optimization of a network of nature and is not caused by the climate. Usually protected areas. they occur in combination with halophytic vegetation (solonetz, solonchak).

The flora of the Black Sea steppe region differs from other European floras in their great originality and richness. Studies of the flora have been conducted by many outstanding researchers (Besser, Ledebour, Pallas, and Shmalgausen just to name a few) and they date as far back as 18th century.19 The Black Sea steppe represents the border of the natural range of many plant species growing in the vast steppe zone of Eurasia. There is a significant number of species which were first described from the Black Sea steppe, including many relic and endemic (about 10%) vascular plants. Among 826 vascular plants included in the national list of rare and endangered species – Red Data Book Figure 3. Iconic plant species Ukrainian of Ukraine,20 276 species (33.4% of the feather-grass (Stipa ucrainica). total) occur in the different variants of

70 (2) June 2012 109 Figure 4. Iconic species steppe marmot (Marmota bobak)

HUMAN COLONIZATION OF THE Sarmatia. These steppes were used STEPPE by numerous nomadic tribes, many of The steppes of Ukraine represent a which went on to conquer lands in the rich cultural legacy spanning almost settled regions of western and central eight millennia. According to Lillie,24 the Europe and in western and southern . emergence, development and decline of Over two thousand stone statues (called the Trypilian culture in Ukraine represents “babas”) from the Scythian (the 7th century a significant stage in the history of the BC) to the Polovets (Kipchak or Kuman) steppe zone during the prehistoric period and other cultures of 9-13th centuries (around 5500-2300 BC). The genesis (Khazars, Slavs, Tatars, Mongols, etc.) and expansion of this culture coincides are scattered across the steppe zone. with the Holocene climate optimum when There are also many , also called warm and humid climate, fertile soils, and barrows or burial mounds, which form a lush grasslands intermingled with patches characteristic and unique element of the of broadleaved forests were at an ideal steppe landscape with specific flora and stage of evolution for the expansion of many threatened plant species.25 agriculture. It is believed that increasing climate aridity after around 3500-3200 BC The Ukrainian steppe formed an caused instability in the Trypilia farming important component of the modern economy, finally leading to stockbreeding nation’s psyche. The steppes are closely and specialized pastoralism. These related to issues of cultural wealth and changes created a base for a diverse history, and are reflected in folklore and range of new cultural groups formed at songs. They are exclusively associated the transition to the Bronze Age. The with the free life of the Zaporozhskyi culture grouping reflected growing socio- . The steppes were an important economic, political, and ritual differences natural and geographic factor in the among tribes and shaped a new nomadic development of Ukraine’s nomadic stock- type of culture in the steppe zone of raising and agricultural ancestors. The Ukraine. wide open space of the steppes was the place where traditional trades and Later, in Classical antiquity, the Black crafts were established and where Sea steppe corresponds to and cultural traditions and habits evolved.

110 Blue Jay The final waves of colonization of the ago when large-scale colonization began steppes, exploiting its rich chernozems, to exploit its natural resources. The high iron ore and coal deposits, happened population density and availability of rich in the 16th to 18th centuries when they chernozems induced a full-scale tilling were brought under the control of a of the steppe. The last large areas of sedentary peoples of different ethnic steppe were plowed during the Soviet and religious backgrounds: Ukrainians, Union kolkhoz (collective farm) campaign Russians, Jews, and Germans, as well to expand food production in favour of as Mennonites, Poles, Tatars, Greeks, annual crops. Nowadays, the steppe is , and others.26 Due to the almost completely plowed: therefore virgin agricultural revolution on the steppes, vegetation occurs almost exclusively on Ukraine, in a short period of time, became terraces of river valleys, steppe ravines the “breadbasket” of Europe. (called “balka” in Ukrainian), steep slopes, and eroded lands. Large areas of steppe Because of political discrimination also survived as military training grounds. against ethnic and religious minorities However, even these steppe remnants by the Russian Empire institutions during might disappear because of privatization the 19th century, tens of thousands of and under the impact of artificial forest people left the Ukrainian steppes to plantation. open up the Canadian prairie frontier. These immigrants introduced wheat from Such a significant steppe loss put them Ukraine to the New World, and it was at the center of public interest and drew used to develop successful varieties of the attention of nature conservationists Canadian wheat, such as Marquis.27 All and scientists. Several natural reserves this heavily contributed to the settlement were established to protect representative of the prairies, and sparked an economic variants of steppe vegetation. However, boom in Canada. By the middle of 20th today, only a handful of areas remain century Saskatchewan became the where truly natural steppe vegetation new “breadbasket” – the largest wheat is found. Steppe communities occupy producer in the world. Indeed, steppes less than 3% of the country and steppe and prairies have been a blessing for both protected areas cover only about 1%. Ukraine and Canada. It is our generation’s task to rescue them from degradation and Despite the odds, there is a new save this treasure for the future. ecological opportunity for the steppes after the collapse of Soviet-era kolkhoz CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES (large collective farms) farming. The IN THE STEPPE collapse of socialism resulted in rapid The Steppe in Transformation and drastic changes in political, societal The steppe occupied more than 40% of and economic structures. This affected Ukraine in the past. Many years ago herds land use and the provision of ecosystem of European wild or tarpan (Equus services in a profound way. During the last ferus Boddaert) and steppe antelope two decades, Ukraine gradually abolished or saiga (Saiga tatarica L.) roamed large collective farms and divided up the these steppes, golden eagles (Aquila land among the small landowners. Most chrysaetos L.) hovered in the sky, and productive land was quickly leased by big great bustards (Otis tarda L.) performed agribusiness companies. However, large their awkward flights. Unfortunately, that areas of less productive farmland that time has passed. Total destruction of once were (some of them never steppe ecosystem started 150-200 years were plowed) or overused croplands are now fallow. 70 (2) June 2012 111 Figure 5. Halophytic steppe in Chornomorsky Biosphere Reserve, site Tendrivska Bay (Kherson oblast, Ukraine).

Figure 6. True steppe in Askania-Nova Biosphere Reserve (Kherson oblast, Ukraine).

Figure 7. Stone steppe in Luhansk Nature Reserve, site Provalsky Steppe (Luhansk oblast, Ukraine).

112 Blue Jay According to Charles28 there is a essentially prohibited by existing law. growing interest among farmers in Transfer of land through different leasing Ukraine, particularly in Luhansk province, schemes can discredit the nature to bring back the steppes through re- protection idea and some of the steppe seeding of this abandoned land with native areas even might lose their original plant species, the introduction of a grazing function. regime and the raising of high-quality beef cattle. This will also assist in restoring The Canadian-Ukrainian Collaboration a traditional Ukrainian cattle breed, To explore the link between biodiversity known as Red Steppe, which survived conservation and sustainability in the in Askania-Nova Biosphere Reserve. Canadian prairies and the Ukrainian In my opinion, establishing regional steppes, we have initiated research learning centers to encourage farmers collaborations and visits in both and environmental organizations to work countries. This initiative was made together to reverse land degradation possible through a grant from International might be quite promising. These public Development Research Centre (IDRC), and private lands can be managed Canada obtained in 2010-2011. The using livestock as a tool to promote their long-term goal of this program is to recovery at low cost. They can sustain examine how human impact on temperate abundant wildlife and healthy rural grasslands and climate change can be communities once again. mitigated through improved professional practice and collaboration in natural Some of the steppe biosphere resources management. reserves and national parks with high tourism potential are prepared to seek The main participants in the mutually beneficial forms of cooperation conservation and sustainability in the with the business community. This may Canadian prairies and the Ukrainian involve projects which, on the one hand, steppes project are scientists (Dr. V. make a profit, but on the other, help to Kricsfalusy) and graduate students (A. restore nature, rather than harm it. State Henderson) from School of Environment budget funds typically are only sufficient and Sustainability at the University of to pay salary to its staff and maintain Saskatchewan and respectively from very limited activities. In such a situation, M.G. Kholodny Institute of Botany, reserve management is only possible with National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine the involvement of private investment. (Dr. M.V. Shevera) and Luhansk Taras However, Ukrainian business has not yet Shevchenko National University (O.V. realized the benefits of such investments. Kucher). Therefore, it is still very rare, although a desire of park administrations to Project participants have met with cooperate with investors often determines their academic partners as well as how quickly and successfully a project with representatives of conservation will be implemented. It should be noted organizations in Canada (Grasslands that many directors are concerned National Park, Cypress Hill Interprovincial about such initiatives and believe that Park, and Redberry Lake Biosphere business should not participate in nature Reserve) and nature protection institutions conservation projects. In their view, in Ukraine (Chornomorsky Biosphere businessmen are primarily interested Reserve, Askania-Nova Biosphere in leasing land from reserves in order Reserve, Luhansk Nature Reserve, and to exploit it unsustainably, which is Svyati Hory National Park). Each meeting

70 (2) June 2012 113 brought together conservationists, research group were conducted in the specialists, and scientists to discuss and province of Saskatchewan, Canada identify the common threats and common and in Kherson, Luhansk, and Donetsk solutions for conserving temperate oblasts (regions) of Ukraine during July grasslands. 26-August 5, 2010. Here we characterize only the visited locations in the south- During the field visits project eastern Ukraine (Fig. 1). participants sampled the variety of dry grassland types in both geographical and Chornomorsky Biosphere Reserve. ecological terms. We found wonderful The biosphere reserve (“Chornomorsky” grassland communities, rich in plant is “the Black Sea” in Ukrainian) is situated species, including some endemics. on the northern coast of the Black Sea on We analyzed flora, vegetation and the territory of Kherson oblast (small part biodiversity of various grasslands in of its area extends to Mykolaiv oblast). the selected study areas. We also used The reserve was established in 1927 and available literature and Internet resources became the biosphere reserve in 1984. to provide scientific background for the Its area totals 89,129 ha, with 70,509 ha characterization of the visited areas. of core zone. The terrestrial part of the biosphere reserve includes only 14,148 The effectiveness of such learning ha. The relief is very flat, and the altitude exchanges, aimed at building the is 0-8 m above sea level (a.s.l.). Sand collaboration to conserve grasslands arenas are a mosaic of 3-5 m tall hillocks has recently been shown by Curtin and alternated with numerous depressions Western29 with the example of African along the sea coast. Sands are underlined and American pastoralists, ranchers, with limestone. scientists, and conservationists. The authors argue that such interchanges The biosphere reserve represents can speed up learning and adaptation shallow water sea bays, wetlands by reaching beyond local circumstances and temperate grasslands. Within and experience. the terrestrial habitats major interest represents forest-steppe on alluvial Apart from the gathering of valuable sands with oak (Quercus robur), birch scientific data, project participants aimed (Betula borysthenica), and plum (Prunus to include a cultural exchange, given the stepposa). Unique seaside halophyte fact that the steppes of Ukraine were the bunch-grass steppe occurs only in ancestral homeland for several ethnic and two sites – Potiyivska (1064 ha) and religious groups (Ukrainians, Germans, Yagorlytskyi Koot (840 ha). Here steppe Mennonites, Hutterites, and Doukhobors) vegetation stretches up to coastal saline who settled on the Canadian prairies in that are moist but rarely flooded. the 19-20th centuries.30 Also, we believe These habitats support fescue (Festuca that this project will help to fill a gap valesiaca), alkali-grass (Puccinellia in academic discourse regarding the fominii), and couch-grass (Elytrigia steppes of Ukraine and break linguistic pseudocaesia) communities. The flora of barriers that have limited access to this the biosphere reserve includes over 700 topic for most Western researchers. species of vascular plants (including 60 endemics), 24 of which are listed in the CONSERVATION OF THE STEPPE Red Data Book of Ukraine20, 17 in the The Steppe Reserves European Red List21 and 7 in the IUCN The joint field visits of the international Red List.22

114 Blue Jay The fauna of the biosphere reserve Askania-Nova Biosphere Reserve. includes 452 species, among them 86 The biosphere reserve is situated species of fish. Sixty-nine fauna species south-east of the town Kakhovka in are listed in the Red Data Book of southern part of Kherson oblast. The Ukraine,20 and 12 in the IUCN Red List.22 natural reserve was established here in The aviafauna of the area is particularly 1888 by Baron F. Falz-Fein of German rich and totals 306 bird species (of which ancestry who dedicated part of his estate 110 are nesting here), including over 20 to nature conservation, making this area rare and endangered species listed in the biggest preserved steppe in Europe. the Red Data Book of Ukraine.20 Among In 1993 it received the status of the them are white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus biosphere reserve, with dendrological and albicilla), demoiselle crane (Anthropoides zoological parks. Total area is 33,308 ha virgo), great white pelican (Pelecanus (core zone 11,054 hа), altitude 18-30 m onocrotalus), little bustard (Tetrax tetrax), a.s.l. Dominant types of soils within the etc. The biosphere reserve is also area are chernozems and dark brown important place for many migratory birds. soils, gley soils rarely occur in terrain The are represented by rare depressions. Renard’s meadow viper (Vipera ursinii renardii) and four-lined (Elaphe The major habitats are zonal steppe quatuorlineata). and bushy steppe communities dominated mainly by different species of feather- Site 1: Chornomorsky Biosphere grass (S. lessingiana, S. ucrainica, etc.), Reserve (core zone), 1 km west of intermingled with fescue (F. valesiaca) the town of Zalizny Port (Fig. 5). The and June-grass (K. cristata) in some altitude is 0 m a.s.l., 46008’07.82” N, place. The flora of the biosphere reserve 32014’02.67” E. The site lies in close includes 515 species of vascular plants, proximity to Tendrivska Bay of the Black 20 of which are listed in the Red Data Sea. The terrain is very flat, with small Book of Ukraine20 and 6 are included into potholes sometimes filled with water the IUCN Red List.22 There are also 53 that comes from the bay during heavy endemic plant species, 7 of which are sea storms. Species richness value local endemics and occur only on the is high, and we registered 32 vascular territory of the biosphere reserve. plant species at 100 m2 plot. Vegetation of the site is represented by halophytic The animal world of the biosphere steppe community dominated by fescue reserve is typical for steppe landscapes. (Festuca valesiaca) and feather-grass It is inhabited by 29 mammal species, (Stipa capillata). Total vegetation cover 9 species of amphibians and reptiles, 8 is 60%. The most common species of fish species, and 272 species of birds. the upper canopy are feather-grass (S. Overall, 73 species of vertebrates and lessingiana, S. ucrainica), brome-grass invertebrates are listed in the Red Data ( riparius), hedgenettle (Stachys Book of Ukraine.20 Among common recta), couch-grass (E. pseudocaesia), animals are little ground squirrel or etc. In the lower canopy occur fescue (F. souslik (Spermophilus pygmaeus), pallens), crested wheat-grass (Agropyron steppe marmot or bobak (Marmota pectinatum), June-grass (Koeleria bobak), great jerboa (Allactaga major), cristata), santonica (Artemisia cina), steppe polecat (Mustela eversmanii), red knapweed (Centauria breviceps), Regel’s fox (Vulpes vulpes), etc. Herds of wild onion (Allium regelianum), pasqueflower hoofed animals from different continents (Pulsatilla pratensis) and other forbs. are held here all year round under near-

70 (2) June 2012 115 natural conditions: American (Bison Luhansk Nature Reserve, Provalsky bison), steppe antylope or saiga (Saiga Steppe massif. tatarica), Przhevalski’s horse (Equus Provalsky Steppe is one of three ferus przewalskii), Turkmenian wild ass separated massifs of Luhansk Nature or kulan (Equus hemionus kulan), etc. Reserve to which it was included in 1975. In summer, common eland (Taurotragus Provalsky Steppe is situated south-east oryx), wildebeest or gnu (Connochaetes of the town Sverdlovsk near village gnou), blue antelope (Hippotragus Provallya in Luhansk oblast on the border leucophaeus) which are extinct in the with Rostov oblast of Russia. Total area wild, common zebra (Equus quagga) and of the nature reserve is 587,5 ha. It lies other animals join them. within Donetsk Upland, the most eastern part of the highest of the Site 2: Askania-Nova Biosphere region. The relief is very hilly, altitude Reserve (core zone), 1,5 km east of the 150-230 m a.s.l. The terrain is divided town of Askania-Nova (Fig. 6). Altitude by deep ravines and valleys. Sandstone, 28 m a.s.l., 46°27'21.74"N, 33°54'2.37"E. limestone and sandy shale are key Vegetation of the site is represented components in the geological composition by true steppe community dominated of the area. Prevailing soils are gravelly primarily by different species of feather- chernozems, loams and silt loams. grass (S. ucrainica, with subdominance of S. lessingiana and S. capillata). This The nature reserve represents the is a typical plain steppe (“plakorny” in unbroken stony steppe dominated by Ukrainian) which occupies flat areas sheep's grass (Festuca ovina) and with uniform ecological conditions and different species of feather-grass (S. well developed soil cover. This might capillata, S. ucrainica, S. dasyphylla, explain lower species richness (23 etc.), which is rare for Ukraine. Specific per 100 m2) of this site compare to the petrophytous-steppe communities, where halophytic steppe (Site 1) or stone steppe calciphilous species dominate, have been (Site 3). Total canopy cover is about established in the nature reserve on the 65%. Upper canopy is formed by turf poorly developed and eroded stony soils grasses (Stipa spp.) and some species on outcrops of limestone along Donetsk of forbs: thistle (Carduus uncinatus), Upland and in some places on ravine alfalfa (Medicago romanica), eryngo slopes. Oak (Q. robur) with (Eryngium campestre), bedstraw (Galium different species of maple (Acer tatarica, ruthenicum), toadflax (Linaria macroura), A. campestre), apple (Malus sylvestris) and statice ( tataricum). In and pear (Pyrus communis) are scattered the lower canopy were registered fescue in ravines and flood plains of Provallya (F. valesiaca), June grass (K. cristata), river. Flora of the nature reserve is very wormwood (Artemisia austriaca), rich and includes 792 vascular plants, milk-vetch (Astragalus henningii), and among them 135 endemic species. other forbs. A well-developed group of Twenty-nine vascular plants (among ephemeroid plants is present in this them 11 species of feather-grass) listed community during the spring . It is in the Red Data Book of Ukraine,20 and formed by such plant species as yellow 7 species are included into the IUCN star-of-Bethlehem ( bulbifera), Red List.22 (Tulipa schrenkii), iris (Iris pumila), etc. There is a moss and lichen layer as well. The animal world of the nature reserve is characterized by presence of steppe, forest and semi-desert species. The list

116 Blue Jay of fauna species includes 47 mammals, Long-Range Forecast 174 birds, 9 reptiles, and 6 amphibians. Whether the remnants of the steppe, Sixty-eight species are included into the even if under protection, are capable Red Data Book of Ukraine20 and 22 are of stable existence and recovery listed by the IUCN Red List.22 Among remains questionable. The ecological rare mammals occur Southern birch structure and function of the steppe mouse (Sicista subtilis), great jerboa ecosystem is damaged and its area (A. major), steppe polecat (Mustela is so small that the native vegetation eversmanii), (Vormela can no longer successfully spread into peregusna) and others. Rare reptiles are nearby abandoned fields. Also, intensive represented by Renard’s meadow viper human uses of the previously native (V. ursinii renardii), Caspian whipsnake steppes and now agricultural landscape ( caspius), and four-lined modification brought invasive alien snake (E. quatuorlineata). plants. Most of them are noxious weeds that may prevent natural recovery of Site 3: Luhansk Nature Reserve, steppe ecosystems on abandoned Provalsky Steppe massif (Site Pivnichny, agricultural lands or slow this process for core zone). Seven km east of the village decades. We observed a growing trend of Provallya (Fig. 7). Altitude 173 m a.s.l., transcontinental exchange with invasive 48° 8'45.89"N, 39°53'25.77"E. The forb- plants between Ukraine and Canada.31,32 fescue-needle grass community occupies There are several plant species native the middle and lower part of north facing to Canada, e.g. Canadian horseweed slope on chornozems. Species richness [Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist] value is very high, totalling 41 vascular and Canada goldenrod (Solidago plants in a 100 m2 plot. Total vegetation canadensis L.) currently threatening the cover is about 65%. It has three-layer steppe ecosystems of Ukraine and vice structure, with heights 40-60 cm. The versa – some species from the latter studied vegetation community was mostly region, for example, dog-strangling dominated by feather-grass (S. pennata) vine [Cynanchum rossicum (Kleopov) and forbs. Graminoids were represented Barbarich], become severe invaders in by fescue (F. valesiaca, F. pallens), Canada. Only recently have researchers feather-grass (S. capillata), June- started to analyze problem of shared grass (K. cristata), meadow-grass (Poa invaders, possible relationships between versicolor), and sedge (Carex humilis). invasive alien plant distribution, species The stand was very rich in perennial traits and habitats in native ranges and forbs, with species such as speedwell by new invaded regions.33 (Veronica incana), dianthus (Dianthus andrzejowskianus), wormwood (Artemisia The disappearance of permanent marschalliana), dropwort (Filipendula components of steppe biota which are vulgaris), medow-rue (Thalictrum minus), extremely important for its existence eryngo (Eryngium campestre), sandwort – ungulates and burrowing animals (Arenaria biebersteinii), cinquefoil – led to the destabilization of steppe (Potentilla arenaria), inula (Inula aspera), ecosystem.34.35 Despite that, some forms yarrow (Achillea millefolium), mullein of human activity which simulated natural (Verbascum vernum), clover (Trifolium impact were able to stabilize the steppe alpestre), trina (Trina kitaibelii), forget-me- ecosystem. That is why establishment not (Myosotis popovii) and many others. of nature reserves to protect steppe The ground layer is formed by different remnants only made things worse. species of mosses and lichens. Xerophyte turf grasses are forced out by

70 (2) June 2012 117 mesophyte rhizomatous herbs. Provision There is also a slow paradigm shift of a mowing regime alone cannot halt from traditional balanced nature protection this type of succession, even if it inhibits to dynamic nature conservation among invasion by woody plants.36 Liberated scientists and practitioners, which is a from the impact of stabilizing factors of significant barrier for introducing modern human activity, the steppe ecosystem is management in steppe conservation. quickly being transformed into -tree To conserve steppe reserves, policies complexes. In many places and of absolute non-intervention should be are spreading fast, as some of abandoned. Managerial practices on them are very aggressive, e.g. Russian steppe lands (grazing, burning, etc.) peashrub [Caragana frutex (L.) K. Koch] should be implemented to slow down and buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica L.). In succession and conserve biodiversity of addition to this, foresters “contributed” to the ecosystems. the problem of afforestation by converting remnants of steppes through planting Without any doubt the Ukrainian trees. steppe should be at least locally restored and better protected. It must Nowadays, because of afforestation be ensured that economic growth and and climate change, steppe ecosystem resource development take place in an degradation is greatly accelerated. environmentally sensitive manner and 15 According to recent studies, special that decisions taken reflect the interests programs aimed to conserve the of current and future generations. These biodiversity of the Ukrainian steppe decisions should enable integration of should be implemented and expanded. biodiversity concerns into agricultural Unfortunately, all nature reserves visited policy and further strengthened measures during this trip are currently underfunded for farmland and biodiversity. This would and hardly able to maintain their be also consistent with the Pan-European infrastructure, let alone support research Biological and Landscape Diversity projects. Fortunately, a traditional Strategy (1996)37 and the European monitoring program with strong long-term Landscape Convention (2000).38 The components is still carried out. European Commission does recognize Throughout all visited protected areas multiple functions and values of concerns were expressed over land grasslands and developed different tools encroachment, conflict with wildlife, weak to protect them. governance, and growing population poverty. The consensus reached by CONCLUSIONS scientists and conservationists was The main threats currently facing the that reducing the downward spiral Ukrainian steppes are similar to the of environmental degradation and problems experienced by the Canadian biodiversity loss can be achieved prairies – including changes in land use, through raising public awareness, abandonment of traditional activities, increasing local community participation, loss of large-scale dynamic processes, enhancing sharing of knowledge, and and climate change. Additional threats to ensuring international partnerships. steppes in Ukraine are land privatization, The replacement of confrontation with afforestation, insufficient management collaboration between antagonistic practices in protected areas, and growing groups such as private land owners and poverty of the rural population. Issues conservationists is a high priority. such as habitat loss and fragmentation, native species decline and exotic species

118 Blue Jay invasion, and management use of grazing I would like to thank Prof. S.L. and fire are of common concern in both Mosyakin, M.G. Kholodny Institute of countries. Botany, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and Dr. V.A. Kostiushyn, Given the complexity of threats to the I.I. Schmalhausen Institute of Zoology, Ukrainian steppe, more detailed studies National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, would be a high priority in order to for fruitful discussions and their insights understand the causes underlying their about the steppes of Ukraine. Project biodiversity patterns. The steppe plant participants are very grateful to the staff species and communities represent an and institutions that assisted with the outstanding and highly valuable part of field studies in Ukraine: Dr. Z.V. Seliunina world’s natural heritage that needs more and Dr. O.Yu. Umanets (Chornomorsky efficient conservation efforts, particularly Biosphere Reserve), Dr. V.V. Shapoval as many of the stands are threatened by (Askania-Nova Biosphere Reserve), land use and other changes. Considering and A.V. Bondarenko (Luhansk Nature the growing global demand for bioenergy, Reserve). carbon sequestration, food, and the importance of biodiversity conservation it I thank Dr. J. Schmutz (University of is clear that the steppes of Ukraine should Saskatchewan) and G. Miller (Toronto be one of focal regions of the world in and Region Conservation Authority) for this context. their comments on the early draft of this paper as well as Meng Li and Sharla Field visits and other activities have the Daviduik for technical assistance in potential to be substantially enhanced preparing this paper. in the areas of research translation and learning exchanges between Canadian 1. White R, Murray A and Rohweder M and Ukrainian partners. This might (2000) Plot analysis of global ecosystems: be achieved through joint research grassland management. World Resources projects of mutual interest, collaboration Institute, , DC. between scientists, conservationists and local communities in both countries 2. Gibson D (2009) Grasses and to improve the management of natural grassland ecology. Oxford University resources. These activities can help Press, University of Oxford, UK. build not only ecological resilience of steppe ecosystems, but also increase 3. Olson D and Dinerstein E (2002) The overall human well-being in rural areas. global 200: priority ecoregions for global If carefully managed and planned, conservation. Annals of the Missouri sustainable development and biodiversity Botanical Garden 89:199-224. can go hand in hand and reinforce each other. 4. Hoekstra JM, Boucher TM, Ricketts TH, Roberts C (2005) Confronting a This project was conducted with biome crisis: global disparities of habitat financial support from the International loss and protection. Ecological Letters Development Research Centre (IDRC), 8:23–29. Canada. Additional support was provided by the School of Environment 5. Samson F and Knopf F (1994) and Sustainability, University of Prairie conservation in North America. Saskatchewan. BioScience 44:418-421.

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