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Gridco, Inc. V. Varentec, Inc. IPR2017-01135 GRIDCO

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Gridco, Inc. V. Varentec, Inc. IPR2017-01135 GRIDCO CHAPTER 5 SECONDARY NETWORK SYSTEMS D. N. REPS maintaining satisfactory voltage conditions. These I. DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY-NETWORK problems were serious obstacles to further development DISTRIBUTION of the d-c distribution system. From the earliest days of electric power usage, the As early as 1915, some forms of alternating current distribution of power in concentrated commercial areas systems patterned after the d-c network system began has been a major concern of electric utilities. Require- to appear in commercial areas. These systems used a ments and limitations generally not found in other grid of conductors operating at utilization voltages and areas have resulted in unique problems in the design energized from a number of step-down transformer and operation of commercial-area distribution systems. banks. Fuses were applied between the transformers and High concentration of commercial electric load, the re- the secondary grid in an attempt to provide some means quirements of this load for interruption-free service, and of isolating faulted cables or transformers. Experience the need for well-regulated utilization voltage have had with these early a-c networks proved to be unsatis- fundamental influence on the design of systems to serve factory because of the operating limitations of fuses. these loads. Flexibility to handle new loads where and This experience showed that detection of power-flow when they occur is another requirement which takes on direction was required to prevent a fault in a trans- added importance in the commercial area. The usual former or primary feeder from interrupting service to physical congestion in the downtown area and the dif- the system loads. Subsequent developments resulted in ficulties in locating heavy equipment and circuits over- an automatic switch and the necessary relays to pro-- head have resulted in the use of underground distribu- vide completely automatic operation of an alternating- tion systems in the downtown areas of most large cities. current network system. Such a scheme assured isola- 1. Early Network Systems From 1884 to about 1922, distribution in heavy load 300 density commercial areas became firmly established as a d-c network system. The very first electric power sys- 280 tems applied to serve the downtown office buildings in (1/ 260 cities such as New York and Chicago were underground d-c systems. Rapid growth and early improvement re- >-co 240 sulted in considerable investment in d-c facilities. While er 220 the pattern was established at an early date for d-c 0 systems in downtown areas of large cities, the develop- - 200 ment of practicable and efficient transformers soon per- ›. 180 mitted the application of the more efficient a-c system to rr urban and residential areas. 2 160 The d-c system in commercial areas was designed to 0 provide interruption-free service from a grid of con- U)hi 140 ductors. The d-c grid or network was energized from 120 multiple sources, usually several a-c to d-c converter stations operating in conjunction with large battery • 100 installations for emergency supply. While providing re- 1-1 liable service, the d-c network presented inherent dis- O 80 U- advantages which grew to serious proportions as expan- 0 60 sion was necessary to keep pace with load growth. rr Among these disadvantages were the following: the cost 2 40 of installing, operating, and maintaining large converter stations and battery installations; the problem of find- 20 ing locations for these installations in the downtown 0 area; the cost of copper conductors and the space re- 1922- 24 28 32 36 40 44 46 52 56 60 quired in underground ducts for the ever increasing YEAR number of circuits necessary to carry the low voltage Fig. 1—Growth in number of cities employing secondary- d-c power throughout the area; and the problem of network systems—including foreign installations. 149 Gridco, Inc. v. Varentec, Inc. IPR2017-01135 GRIDCO 1004 Part 2 of 5 - 157/576 150 Secondary Network Systems tion of a primary-system fault by a means which sensed SUBSTATION BUS • • CIRCUIT BREAKERS a reversal of power flow. In April, 1922, the first multi- NO 3 feed low-voltage a-c network using fully automatic net- PRIMARY FEEDERS work protectors was put in operation in New York City. 11111 SWITCH 2. Growth of Network Applications TRANSFORMER NET WORK The low voltage a-c secondary network has become PROTECTOR well accepted as the standard distribution system ar- SECONDARY rangement in large city commercial areas. Based on re- GRID cent census figures, there are only two cities in the United States with populations greater than 250,000 that do not use secondary network distribution. Appli- LOADS cation has steadily expanded into smaller cities and towns as increasing load density and electrical usage have necessitated improvements in commercial-area distribution. At present there are approximately 260 cities in the United States which use secondary network distribution in some form. While most of these systems Fig. 3—Simplified one-line diagram of a conventional a-c are underground, there are many localities operating secondary network. partially or completely overhead secondary network systems. Growth in the application of networks has been almost uninterrupted over the years. At the same II. ELEMENTS OF THE SYSTEM time, the increasing size and growing electrical load of In its conventional form, the network system, whether most cities have resulted in a continual increase in the underground or overhead, consists of an interconnected number of cities which could reasonably and profitably grid of low-voltage circuits operating at utilization apply network systems in their downtown areas. Esti- voltage and energized from a number of primary feeder mates indicate that networks are applied in only 40 per circuits and step-down transformers. A typical network cent of the total number of cities which could reason- system in which the low-voltage circuits are intercon- ably be considered to have use for this type of system. nected in the form of a grid or mesh is shown in Fig. 3. The system of multiple primary-feeder circuits, each supplying more than one step-down transformer feeding into the common secondary grid, is designed to provide uninterrupted service, except in the case of complete E 0-5000 KVA PEAK LOAD failure of the power supply to the primary feeders. The 5001-10000 KVA design of the system is based on the premise that failure of any one primary feeder circuit or step-down trans- g 10 001-20 000 KVA former causes no service interruption since the load con- 20 001-50 000 KVA tinues to be supplied over the remaining primary feeders and transformers. Automatic isolation of a faulty pri- 50 001-60 000 KVA mary circuit or network transformer is provided by the tripping of the feeder circuit breaker, and the circuit 200 breaker in each of the network protectors located in the 180 secondary leads of the network transformers supplied by the faulted feeder. The automatic network protector 160 was specially developed for this function of interrupting a back feed of power from the network grid to the trans- 140 former or feeder. Segregation of the basic network into 120 three parts facilitates discussion of basic system ele- ments. These major segments are: 100 1. The secondary grid 80 2. The network units—consisting of step-down trans- 60 former and automatic network protector 3. The primary feeder circuits 40 20 3. Underground Networks—The Secondary Grid AL.1 1111 The secondary circuits which are tied together at various points to form the common grid generally sup- 1931 1943 1952 1955 ply all or most of the single-phase and three-phase loads Fig. 2—Evolution of the number of individual network in the network area. The disadvantages of separate systems of various sizes—including foreign installations. power and lighting transformer banks, and duplication Gridco, Inc. v. Varentec, Inc. IPR2017-01135 GRIDCO 1004 Part 2 of 5 - 158/576 Secondary Network Systems 151 of secondary mains and services, are avoided by the use Table 1—Secondary Cable Miles in Service and of a common three-phase, four-wire system at utilization Failure Rate voltage. The secondary grid operates at a utilization voltage which has varied over the years from 115/199 to Miles of Per Cent of Failures Per 100 Cable Total 125/216 volts. As a nominal system voltage, 120/208 Miles Per Year volts has become most widely accepted. It should be Types of emphasized that 120/208 volts is considered to be a Cable 1955 1952 1955 1952 1955 nominal system voltage, that is, the nominal voltage delivered at the customer's service. This voltage pro- Paper-Lead 4 449 16.68 16.13 3.70 3.84 vides a standard lamp voltage from line to neutral and Rubber- a three-phase line-to-line voltage generally satisfactory Lead 10 726 41.85 38.89 1.64 1.87 for power applications. The transformers supplying this system have a standard voltage rating of 216Y/125 volts. Miscel lane- Secondary Mains The secondary mains forming the ous Lead 272 0.84 0.99 6.95 0.13 grid from which consumers' services are tapped gen- erally follow the geographical pattern of the load area Non-Lead and are located under the streets or alleys, so that the Including 12 132*** 40.63 43.99 3.57 9.79 service route to the consumers can be as short as possi- Neoprene ble. This arrangement facilitates access to the main for Rubber repairs, maintenance, and service connections. These 0.32 circuits are generally carried in duct systems, and the Neoprene 7 298 (18.77) (26 46) 0.42 service connections are made in manholes, vaults, or TOTAL 27 579 100.00 100 00 3.02* 3.36** shallow junction boxes.
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