Journal of Environmental Research, Vol. 11, 12-21, 2020 ISSN: 1996-8914

Exploration of Issues in Local-level Climate Finance Transparency and Accountability in Southwest Bangladesh

Syed Hafizur Rahman1*, Md. Nurul Islam2, Ziaul Hoque Mukta2 1Department of Environmental Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka-1342, Bangladesh 2 Campaign for Sustainable Rural Livelihoods (CSRL), Dhaka, Bangladesh

(Received: 02 January 2020, Revised: 23 May 2020, Accepted: 01 June 2020, Online: 30 June 2020)

Abstract Financing on climate change mitigation, adaptation and resilience are pressing need in Bangladesh, where efficiency, transparency and accountability are very critical. The objective of this study was to investigate the issues in local-level climate finance transparency and accountability. The study was limited to Koyra of district and of district. This research reviewed the significant hazards and vulnerabilities along with identified the most vulnerable community of the study area. It also assesses the need of the community and analyses the capacity of the community following both desk review and participatory research approaches. A mixture of research techniques has been taken such as Key Informant Interview, in-depth interview with stakeholders, Focus Group Discussion and case studies. Semi- structured questionnaire interview with community people administrated to know the peoples` perceptions, need, and attitude towards climate finance and activities. This study found significant gaps between communities’ needs and taken initiatives where embankment (polder) and water management are the most reported need from the communitys` side. Taken initiatives focused on infrastructure development like roads, cyclone centres. Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) hold the sole authority over embankment and water management. At the same time, the local government identified as the first responder to an embankment and water-related crisis without any official mandate or little scope of the engagement. This study suggested that community engagement through participatory community monitoring approach could increase the transparency and accountability of the climate related programme implementation.

Keywords: Shymnagar, Koyra, BWDB, Polder, Adaptation, Local Government.

Introduction Climate finance requires accountability in the governance of climate change adaptation (Mees and Peter, 2019) which requires locally applicable activities and community-based solutions to increase the resilience of the local people to the impacts of climate change (Klijn and Koppenjan, 2014; Forrer et al., 2010; Grasso, 2010). Although both ‘bottom-up’ and ‘top-down’ actions help in reducing the probable loss of human lives and livelihoods vulnerable by changes in the climate where bottom-up actions will depend on shaping the debate around national interests and representing denotative actions on the ground to build confidence (E3G Research Team, 2011).

*Corresponding Author ([email protected])

Citation: Rahman, S.H. et al., 2020. Exploration of Issues in Local-level Climate Finance Transparency and Accountability in Southwest Bangladesh, Bangladesh Journal of Environmental Research, 11, 12-21. Exploration of issues in local level climate finance transparency and accountability

Bangladesh is one of the principal victims of climate change where financing on climate change mitigation, adaptation and resilience are noteworthy and essential (Vinke et al., 2017; Mahmood, 2012). The second and third-order adversative effect of climate change could take many forms, from devastating cyclone to tidal surge, sea-level rise to salinity in surface and groundwater, massive flood to severe drought, climate pattern disruption to livelihood change and finally migration. Low economic growth, inadequate infrastructure, and lack of good governance are making the climate stimuli even worse (Khan, 2017). The south-west coastal region of Bangladesh has been facing most damaging effects: such as repeated tidal surge, floods, salinity intrusion and scarcity of freshwater due to its unique and vulnerable geographical location (Mahmuduzzaman et al., 2014; BARC, 2005).

Since the adverse effect of climate change has gained much attention Bangladesh Government (GoB) had established a fund called Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Fund (BCCTF) and channelling 100 million USD since the establishment (ERD, 2018). Along with the BCCTF, Bangladesh has been trying to pull resources from several multi-lateral funds, such as Green Climate Fund (GCF), Adaptation Fund (AF), Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF), Climate Investment Fund (CIF), Climate Change Fund (CCF).

Bangladesh is receiving many other funds and loans to fight climate change from bilateral Development Partners (DPs) and International Financial Institutions (IFIs). Many development partners also have different types of interventions to tackle the climate change related to adverse effect in Bangladesh and expending millions of dollars each year (Mukta, 2012). Bangladesh is also implementing many climate change-related programmes and projects from its fund through respective agencies. As, financing on climate change mitigation, adaptation and resilience are pressing need (UNFCCC, 2014), efficiency, transparency and accountability are very critical for Bangladesh to design and implement sustainable adaptation strategies and climate change related funding (Tashmin, 2016).

In this consideration, developing transparency mechanism and ensure accountability in climate finance, it is important to know local level vulnerability, the impact of climate change, community’s needs, perception and local level participation in taken initiatives by government and development partners (Samaddar et al., 2019; Karim and Andreas, 2017; Asia Foundation, 2012; Measham et al., 2011). The objective aimed to investigate the gaps among needs, taken initiatives and implementation. The study was limited to of (Figure 1) and Shyamnagar Upazila of (Figure 2).

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Figure 1: Map of Koyra Upazila of Khulna district.

Figure 2: Map of Shyamnagar Upazila of Satkhira district.

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Methodology Study Area Koyra and Shyamnagar Upazila are the coastal upazila of Khulna and Satkhira districts in the vicinity of Sundarban. They lie in the Ganges Tidal Floodplain (AEZ 13) agroecological zone (CGC, 2009). In both , more than 50% of people rely on rainwater, PSF and pond water for drinking and other household use (BBS, 2012a,b). In Koyra, Amadi and Bagali unions have an acute problem in the source of drinking water. Uttar Bedkashi and Koyra have most of the tube wells in the upazila. Monda and Sawntal are the ethnic populations in the upazila. Most of the Mondas live in Koyra, Uttar and Dakshin Bedkashi unions whereas, Sawntals live only in Koyra union (Islam et al., 2018a). In Shyamnagar upazila, Ishwaripur, Kaikhali, Bhurulia, and Ramjan Nagar unions have an acute problem in the source of drinking water. Kashimari and Padma Pukur have most of the tube wells in the upazila. Monda is the only ethnic population in the upazila who live in Ishwaripur, Kaikhali, and Ramjan Nagar unions (Islam, et al., 2018b).

Method of Study This research followed both desk review and participatory research approaches. Secondary data were collected from related books, journals, articles, reports of government and non-government organisations, seminar papers and citizen charters of associated institutions in Bangladesh. On the other hand, to gather specific knowledge regarding programmes and project related to climate change, a mixture of research techniques have been taken such as Key Informant Interview (KII), in-depth interview (IDI) with stakeholders, Group Meetings (FGDs) and case studies. Semi- structured questionnaire interview with community people administrated to know the people’s perceptions, need, and attitude towards climate finance and activities. Different types of collected data were analysed using EXCEL software. GIS-based location maps prepared using ArcGIS software. Different climatic hazards and its impacts, livelihood resources (i.e. natural, physical, financial, human and social resources as well as practised coping strategies of the study areas) were identified using the PRA tools (i.e. KII and FGD). Respondent’s observations were found from personal interviews or group meeting with key persons in the community. The case studies were collected during fieldwork, which has been conducted in July and in August 2017.

Results Hazards and Vulnerability Due to Koyra’s geographical location, it is vulnerable to several climatic hazards. Among, the riverbank erosion is the foremost. Apart from that, salinity in surface and groundwater (foster drinking water crisis), floods due to bank failure and heavy rains, tidal surges, cyclone are other hazards which affect life and livelihood of the local community. Some unions of Shyamnagar upazila are vulnerable to several climatic hazards due to their geographical location. Among, salinity in surface and groundwater is the principal hazard. Apart from that, polder failure, riverbank erosion, floods due to bank failure and heavy rains, tidal surges, cyclone are other hazards which affect life and livelihood of the local community.

In both upazilas, leasing of khals (canals) poses vulnerability to local communities. Local ecosystem and communities are still suffering from the effects of which passed south- west Bangladesh in 2009. Due to salinity, drinking water crisis upturns; local trees are dying; soil

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made homestead are falling; many people lost their jobs and migrated towards town. The community, mainly women and children, are suffering from health diseases for salinity. Many farmers changed their livelihood to the labourer in the shrimp farm due to salinity in their agricultural land. Groundwater salinity abandoned many shallow tubewells which were previously used as a sole drinking water source in the upazila.

In Koyra, due to climate change, the most vulnerable and affected unions are Uttar Bedkashi and Dakkhin Bedkashi. Koyra Upazila is bounded by the polder no. 13/14-1 and 13/14-2, built by Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB). It is also found that Seven no. Dakkhin Bedkashi ward is the most vulnerable area due to damaged polder. During and after Sidr and Aila, the polders were affected most which made local agriculture more vulnerable in five unions out of seven. The polders were damaged about fourteen times since 2014.

In Shyamnagar, due to climate change, the most vulnerable and affected unions are Gabura and Kaikhali. In , excessive salinity intrusion along with polder failure makes the union most vulnerable. Drinking water crisis due to saline water intrusion makes Kaikhali union vulnerable where women and children suffer most. There are around 126 khals (canals) in the Shyamnagar Upazila, of them, most are illegally occupied. People of Gabura and Padma pukur unions are suffering for leasing the canals as leaseholders sometime destroy polders. Burigoalini and Koikhali have also agonised for canal leasing. In Gabura and Shyamnagar Sadar unions, maximum canals are illegally occupied. Due to management failure, crop production is reducing. Padma pukur has the same vulnerability as Gabura, but some freshwater pond and tubewells are present in the union. Waterlogging and illegal canal occupancy are significant problems in Ramjan Nagar union. Mismanagement in canal leasing also presents to the union. In Iswaripur, slight salinity problem present. Excessive saline water and vulnerable polder present in a village named “Jhapali” in .

Most Vulnerable Groups (MVGs) From the data of the questionnaire survey and key informant interviews, it has been found that impacts of climate change and disaster indiscriminately affects all but women, children, and older adults are more vulnerable than others. Youth and ultra-poor and ethnic groups are also impacted in different ways. Traditionally Women play the sole role in collecting drinking water for their family. Due to the unavailability of freshwater, they now spend more time and walk an extra mile to find and collect water. The impacts of climate change have created an additional burden of work on women. Women, children and older adults suffer from health and sanitation problems during the floods and other disasters. In emergencies, women and children left behind in their household belonging. In an emergency, sometimes it would be difficult for them to go to the nearest hospital due to distance and vehicle support. Due to lack of jobs, some of the youths of the Koyra and Shyamnagar moved to town for a job. Ultra-poor and ethnic group are also impacted due to the financial condition and lack of education. They mostly depend on natural resources like open water, forests for their livelihoods. Any change or shrinks in these natural resources could force them to abandon their traditional livelihoods and migrate. Most of them do not have their land to cultivate. Due to salinity and flood, they are getting more marginalised.

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Needs Assessment Koyra Upazila people’s first need is safe polders. Polders should be maintained in proper time. Most of the hazards in the area are related to the failure of the polders. Shyamnagar Upazila people’s first need is safe drinking water. It is necessary to provide customised safe water technology (e.g., rainwater harvesting, PSF, MAR) to the community. Comprehensive groundwater investigation could discover localised freshwater aquifer in the upazila. Gaibandha Sadar Upazila people’s first need is a safe river bank. Riverbank protection through river training activities like dredging, hardpoint, embankment CC Block revetment should be undertaken in Kamarjani, Gidari, and Mollar char unions. Flood is often related to riverbank failure. For youth community job creation is necessary. Road communication should be improved. Medical facilities need enhancement.

The demand for both Koyra and Shyamnagar Upazila's local community is ‘lease free canals’ for irrigation and freshwater fish culture. Recovering illegal grabbed canals and dig up sediment-filled ponds and canals are also local communities need in the region. In some unions, polders should be maintained in proper time as most of the hazards in the unions are related to the failure of the polders. It was suggested that an in-depth scientific study is required to divulge significant climate- related vulnerabilities and hazards of different ethnic groups. For youth community job creation is also demanded. Instead of an exotic variety of plantation (e.g., Akash Moni, Eucalyptus), local community needs salt-tolerant local variety (e.g., Kayra, Goran, Gaoa, Baigh) to be planted in the area. The local farmer needs salt-tolerant seeds for agriculture and training. From the interview of Chairman and UP officials, it was found that they need more fund for proper management of upazila activities. They need projects on infrastructure development and in the cumulative adaptive capacity of the local community.

Capacity Analysis From KII and structured questionnaire survey, it was found that Upazila Parishad, Union Parishad and NGOs of Koyra and Shyamnagar upazila work together to increase five (natural, human, social, physical, and financial) resources. The Women and Children department provides old ration money, stipend ration (Upobritti) to increase the financial resources of the community. They mostly work with the ultra-poor, widows, orphans and autistics. They also increase financial resources through a loan programme with 5% service charge (10,000-15,000 Tk for 1-2 years) to the women. To increase social capital, they organise awareness programme (“Uthan Boithok”) on early marriage, women harassment. They also arrange tailoring training for ultra-poor women with payment (60 taka/day). Agricultural office tried to increase physical resources by providing seeds and training. Public health engineering office provides tube wells, rainwater harvesting system and supporting human and natural resources of the community. Apart from a government organisation, different NGOs implemented numbers of projects to increase five resources of the community.

LGED Office of Shyamnagar Upazila is working to enhance human and physical resources of the region. A project titled CCRIP (Coastal Climate Resilience Infrastructure Project) of budget 1700 crore is running to make the roads higher than before, which will expire in June 2018. In collaboration with BUET, LGED is also working with the salinity problem. A new idea “Vetiver grass” is going to use on the sides of the roads. It is estimated that the root of the grass can spread up to 3-5 m which may strengthen the road structure. Another project entitled ECRRP (Emergency

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Cyclone Reconstruction & Rehabilitation Program) has been running since 2007. Under which twenty-one cyclone shelters are built. Fisheries department of the Upazila is also working on increasing the physical and financial resources of the community through ‘Kakra-Kuchia’ Project. Agricultural office tried to increase physical resources by providing seeds and training. Public health Engineering office provides tube wells (450 in 2017), PSF (600 in 2017), rainwater harvesting system (around 200-300 in 2017), MAR (around 10) and supporting human and natural resources of the community.

Gaps Analysis and Way Forward From vulnerability and hazard mapping, local need and adaptive capacity assessments, the following gaps are identified which need to be addressed for the way forward:

GO-NGO project transparency: Local government implements different types of climate change- related and development projects in the upazilas. Participation of the local community in planning, designing, and implementing the projects is inadequate. Sometimes, only upazila and union Parishad members know the outline of the projects. Active participation of the local community helps the proper implementation of the project. If they know the terms of reference for the project, they can monitor and ask for any deviation. During FGD in Koyra, local landless women told that they worked as labourers in the embankment project in their area. If they know the design height and length of the embankment, they will ensure that for their betterment. There should be some mechanism to participate and monitor government and nongovernment projects by the local communities. Moreover, a reporting and verification tool needs to be developed for proper implementation of development projects.

GO-NGO coordination: Although there is a monthly coordination meeting between Upazila Parishad and NGO personals, there is a gap found about in-coming NGO projects. Sometimes, government officers are invited to the inauguration and closing sessions of the NGO projects.

NGO coordination: Some NGOs are working in Koyra, Shyamnagar and Gaibandha. There is no coordination among them about ongoing and incoming projects. It has been seen that more than one NGOs are working in the same area with the same issue. This gap should be resolved for the betterment of the community. Donor(s) could distribute work among different NGOs in various localities.

Canal leasing policy: Considering the ecosystem and community of the upazila, canal leasing policy should be reviewed. There should be some canals for agricultural irrigation and freshwater fish culture.

Upazila Parishad Activities: Local government operations should be reviewed. At present local elected members and chairman are distributed allocated fund to the community and state officers monitoring the activities. It should be reversed. Local public servants (officers) should take responsibility for distribution and local elected members, and the chairman would oversee their operations as mentioned in Upazila Parishad Law, 2011.

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Union-wise need assessment: It has been found that need varies from union to union. So, needs should be assessed locality-based, and it should not be generalised in the upazila level.

Polder/embankment Management: Shyamnagar and Koyra Upazila are mostly bounded by the polders which make the area more vulnerable. When any damage happens in the polder/embankment, local community first goes the elected authority like members and chairman of union and upazila then to the Upazila Nirbhahi Officer (UNO). However, they do not have the power or funds to repair or maintain the polders/ embankment. BWDB is an implementing arm of the Ministry of Water Resources who are the authority to build, repair and manage the polders. According to the 4.2 (e) clause of Bangladesh National Water Policy (1999), ‘The Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) will implement all major surface water development projects and other FCDI projects with command area above 1000 hectares. The Local Government will implement FCDI projects having a command area of 1000 hectares or less after identification and appraisal through an interagency Project Appraisal Committee’. As polders are more than 1000 hectares, BWDB is the responsible agency for construction and management of the coastal polders. Although BWDB has an office at the upazila level, there is little coordination between local government and BWDB. Moreover, local BWDB office does not have a fund of their own for management of the polders. They just develop projects, and implement, supervise ongoing projects. A significant gap identified by these two government agencies.

It is suggested that if upazila BWDB office has some authority to maintain polders and if the office comes under the umbrella of Upazila Parishad, like LGED, Social Welfare, Education, Agriculture departments, then the local community will be benefitted. Moreover, if any legislative power and fund authorised to the local government for emergency maintenance of the polders would be helpful for the local community.

Another way, if the clause 4.2 (f) of Bangladesh National Water Policy (1999) is appropriately implemented where stated that ’the participation of all project-affected persons, individually and collectively, will be ensured in the planning, design, implementation, and operation and maintenance (O&M) of publicly funded surface water resources development plans and projects. Local Governments (Parishads) will be the principal agencies for coordinating these efforts. Community-level self-help groups (private) and Non-Government Organisations will also be relied on to assist in the participatory process.’ there will be no suffering of affected people.

Conclusions From the above discussion, it can be concluded that local government can play a crucial role in planning, managing, and monitoring climate change programme and expenditure at the local level if they have an official mandate. This study suggested that community engagement through participatory community monitoring approach could increase the transparency and effectiveness of the implementation of adaptation programme. Availability of the information regarding climate change programme and finance at the local level can encourage community people to participate in monitoring and assess taken initiatives.

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Acknowledgements Authors are highly acknowledged to the Campaign for Sustainable Rural Livelihood (Csrl) and Promoting Knowledge for Accountable System (PROKAS) programme of British Council, Bangladesh for their technical and financial support. The views expressed in this manuscript do not necessarily represent the opinion of the British Council.

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