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455828 1 En Bookbackmatter 451..466 Appendix A Standards for Biodiesel Table A.1 shows the biodiesel standards in US (ASTM D6751-08) and Europe (EN 14214). Further, the comparison of biodiesel standard in Asian countries are summarized in Table A.2. Table A.1 U.S. and Europe Specification for Biodiesel (modified from Atabani et al. 2013) Property U.S. (ASTM D6751-08) Europe (EN 14214) Test Limit Test methods Limit methods Kinematic viscosity at 40° C (mm2=sÞ D 445 1.9–6.0 EN ISO 3104 3.5–5.0 Density at 15 °C (kg=m3Þ D 1298 880 EN ISO 860–900 3675-12185 Calorific value (MJ/kg) –– EN14214 35 Flash point (°C) D 93 93 EN ISO 3679 101 min Pour point (°C) D 97 −15 to 16 –– Cloud point (°C) D 2500 −3to12 –– Cold filter plugging point (CFPP) (°C) ASTM Max + 5 EN 14214 – Cetane number D 613 47 min EN ISO 5165 51 min Oxidation stability at 110 °C (h) D 675 3 min EN 14112 6 min Acid value (mg KOH/g) D 664 0.5 max EN 14104 0.5 max Free glycerin (wt% max) D 6584 0.02 EN 14105 0.02 Total glycerin (wt% max) D 6584 0.24 EN 14105 0.25 Carbon residue (wt% max) D 4530 0.05 max EN 10370 0.3 max Copper strip corrosion (3 h at 50 °C) D130 No. 3 (max.) EN 2160 No. 1 Water and sediments (vol%, max) D 2709 0.005 max EN 12937 500 mg/kg max Total sulfur (ppm), max D 5453 EN 20846 10 Phosphorous (ppm), max D 4951 0.001 max EN 14107 0.001 max © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 451 S.-Y. No, Application of Liquid Biofuels to Internal Combustion Engines, Green Energy and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6737-3 452 Appendix A: Standards for Biodiesel Table A.2 Comparison of Biodiesel Standard in Asian Countries (modified from Atabani et al. 2013) Indonesia (SNI Malaysia Thailand Vietnam China Korea Japan biodiesel (MS (DOEB:2009) (TCVN (GB/T (KS M) (JIS K No.04-7182-2006) 2008:2008) 7717:2007) 20828– 2390:2008) 2007) Density ðkg=m3Þa 850–890b >860 860–900 860–900 820–900 860–900 860–900 Viscosity ðmm2=sÞb 2.3–6.0 3.5–5.0 3.5–5.0 1.9–6.0 1.9–6.0 1.9–5.0 3.5–5.0 Flash point (°C) >100 >120 >120 >130 >130 >120 >120 Cloud point (°C) –––Report ––– Pour point (°C) <18 –– ––––c CFPP (°C) – 15 ––Report – Cetane number >51 >51 >51 >47 >49 – >51 Oxidation – >6.0 >10 >6 >6 >6 – stability (h) a: 15 °C b: 40 °C c: agreement between producer and distributor Appendix B Octane number Two measures of fuel ability to resist autoignition in spark ignition engines, i.e. octane number and octane index will be discussed here. 1. Octane number The octane number or octane rating is a measure of fuel ability to resist autoignition in SI engine. The octane number is measured in the single-cylinder engine called cooperative fuel research (CFR) engine. By definition in octane number scale based on two hydrocarbons, normal heptane (n-C7H16) has a value of zero and isooctane (C8H18: 2,2,4-trimethylpentane) has an octane number of 100 (Turns 2012; Heywood 1988). Two octane rating methods for fuels have been developed, i.e., the research method and the motor method, and therefore two octane numbers, i.e., research octane number (RON) and motor octane number (MON) are obtained. RON is used in Korea, Australia, and New Zealand and all of the countries in Europe. In the USA, Canada, Brazil, etc., antiknock index (AKI) which is an average of RON and MON is used, which is given below: AKI ¼ ðÞRON þ MON =2 ðB:1Þ It should be noted that octane number may vary depending on engine design, operating conditions such as engine temperature, pressure and mixture strengths, ambient weather conditions, etc. and are usually different from those in the CFR tests. 2. Octane index Based on the background that the RON and MON values are an incomplete guide to practical autoignition quality, the octane index was suggested by Kalgahatgi et al. (2003) to provide a more realistic measure for expressing the autoignition quality of © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 453 S.-Y. No, Application of Liquid Biofuels to Internal Combustion Engines, Green Energy and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6737-3 454 Appendix B: Octane number a sensitive fuel. They expressed CA50 (the crank angle at which the cumulative heat released reaches 50% from linear regression) as CA 50 ¼ c þ aRON þ bMON ðB:2Þ CA 50 ¼ c þ ðÞa þ b OI where OI = [a/(a+b)] RON + [b/(a+b)]MON, OI is designated as octane index. Further, K was defined as K = b/(a +b). Therefore, the OI can be rewritten as OI ¼ ðÞ1 À K RON þ KMON ðB:3Þ where K is a constant depending on the pressure and temperature evolutions in the unburnt gas and is not a primary property of the fuel. The above equation can also be expressed as OI ¼ RONÀKS ðB:4Þ where S is the fuel sensitivity. Kalgahatgi et al. (2003) found that the higher the OI, the more the resistance to autoignition and the latter is the heat release in the HCCI engine. This octane index is used by Liu et al. (2009) for the study in fuels including ethanol and operation conditions effect on HCCI combustion. Appendix C Cetane number Cetane number (CN) or cetane rating is considered as a measure of the autoignition quality of a fuel in CI engines. A method of defining ignition quality of alternative fuels such as biodiesel in CI engine can be roughly divided by direct and indirect deter- mination methods. Direct determination method includes the cetane number from the experiment and the prediction. The conventional test method for the measurement of the cetane number adopts a cooperative fuel research (CFR) engine, a standardized, variable compression ratio, single-cylinder engine (Turns 2012; ASTM D613). An alternative test method is available for the determination of the derived cetane number (DCN) which uses an ignition quality tester (IQT). The prediction by the cetane number correlations is related to either the physico-chemical properties of biodiesel such as boiling point, viscosity, saponification value, iodine value, or its composition through multiple regression analysis (Imdadul et al. 2016). Cetane number from diesel index or octane number can be included in indirect determination method. Furthermore, there are other measures of the ignition quality through a calculated cetane index or calculated ignition index. 1. Cetane number of dual-fuel and biofuel blends Fuel ratio in RCCI engines is one of the parameters that can affect the in-cylinder reactivity and the reactivity of a fuel can be quantified as cetane number. The following equation is commonly used in the calculation of cetane number for dual-fuel injection (Li et al. 2017). CNlowklow þ CNhighkhigh CNDF ¼ ðC:1Þ klow þ khigh CNDF is the in-cylinder cetane number, CNlow and CNhigh are the cetane num- bers of low and high reactivity fuels, and klow and khigh are the mole fractions of low and high reactivity fuels. © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 455 S.-Y. No, Application of Liquid Biofuels to Internal Combustion Engines, Green Energy and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6737-3 456 Appendix C: Cetane number In addition, Zoldy et al. (2010) suggested the following correlation for calcu- lating the CN for butanol–diesel blends. CNblend ¼À0:4908Xb þ CNd ðC:2Þ where CNblend and CNd refer to the cetane number of the blended fuel and that of the diesel fuel, respectively, and Xb is the volumetric ratio of n-butanol in the blended fuel. This equation was used by Cheng et al. (2016) for Bu10, Bu30, and B100. However, it should be noted that Zoldy et al. (2010) obtained that one percentage butanol decreased the blends CN by 0.5 CN point for the butanol content within the range of 0*10%. 2. Derived cetane number Instead of CN, DCN of binary blends of each individual alcohol (1,-2, iso-, and t-butanol and ethanol) with each second component (n-heptane and a real distillate fuel) were measured in an IQT by Haas et al. (2011). The IQT is a direct injection, constant volume combustion chamber in which small amounts of liquid fuel is injected into pressurized preheated air under engine relevant conditions (P = 21.1 atm, 788 K < T < 848 K). A detailed description of the IQT operating parameter during DCN determination can be found in the ASTM D 6890 standard. According to Haas et al. (2011), DCN of ethanol, 1-butanol, 2-butanol, iso-butanol, and t-butanol is 2.2, 12.0, 8.5, 8.5, and 5.6, respectively. Ignition characteristics in the form of DCN of furanic species were investigated by Sudholt et al. (2015) in an IQT based on ASTM 6890-07a. DCN of furans, tetra-hydrofurans, and dihydrofurans was calculated by the following correlation: DCN ¼ 4:46 þ 186:6=ID for 3:1ms\ID\6:5ms ð : Þ À : C 3 DCN ¼ 83:99ðÞ ID À 1:512 0 658 þ 3:547 for ID\3:1msorID[ 6:5ms where ID is ignition delay time in IQT. On the other hand, Soloiu et al. (2019) obtained the DCN of n-butanol and other fuels with a constant volume combustion chamber, following the ASTM methods D7668-14a which used a defined set of operating parameters.
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