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Handbook of Agricultural Engineering Volume V (Energy and Biomass CIGR Handbook of Agricultural Engineering Volume V i ii CIGR Handbook of Agricultural Engineering Volume V Energy and Biomass Engineering Edited by CIGR–The International Commission of Agricultural Engineering Volume Editor: Osamu Kitani Nihon University, Japan Co-Editors: Thomas Jungbluth University Hohenheim, Germany Robert M. Peart University of Florida, Florida USA Abdellah Ramdani I.A.V. Hassan II, Morocco ® Front Matter ®Table of Contents Published by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers iii Copyright c 1999 by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers All Rights Reserved LCCN 98-93767 ISBN 0-929355-97-0 This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part by any means (with the exception of short quotes for the purpose of review) without the permission of the publisher. For Information, contact: Manufactured in the United States of America The American Society of Agriculture Engineers is not responsible for the statements and opinions advanced in its meetings or printed in its publications. They represent the views of the individuals to whom they are credited and are not binding on the society as a whole. iv Editors and Authors Volume Editor Osamu Kitani Department of BioEnvironmental and Agricultural Engineering, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, 1866 Kameino, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-8510, Japan Co-Editors Thomas Jungbluth Institut fuer Agrartechnik, Universitaet Hohenheim, Garbenstrasse 9, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany Robert M. Peart Agricultural and Biological Engineering Department, Rogers Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA Abdellah Ramdani I. A.V. Hassan II, Department of Agricultural Engineering, B. P. 6202, Rabat Instituts, Rabat, Morocco Authors Phillip C. Badger Manager SERBEP, Tennessee Valley Authority, 104 Creekwood Circle, Florence, AL 35630, USA R. Nolan Clark Conservation and Product Research Laboratory, ARS, United States Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 10 Bushland, Texas 79012, USA Albert Esper Institute for Agricultural Engineering in the Tropics and Subtropics, Hohenheim University, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany Yasushi Hashimoto Agricultural Engineering Department, Ehime University, Tarumi 3-5-7, Matuyama-shi, Ehime 790-8566, Japan J. L. Hernanz E.T.S. de Intenieros Agronomos, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain Bryan M. Jenkins Biological and Agricultural Engineering Department, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA Thomas Jungbluth Institut fuer Agrartechnik, Universitaet Hohenheim, Garbenstrasse 9, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany v vi Editors and Authors Isao Karaki Management Department, Japan Alcohol Trading Company Limited, Shinjuku NS Building, 4-1, Nishi-Shinjuku 2-Chome, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 163-0837, Japan Osamu Kitani Department of BioEnvironmental and Agricultural Engineering, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, 1866 Kameino, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-8510, Japan Raymond L. Legge Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada Takaaki Maekawa Institute of Agricultural and Forest Engineering, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba-shi 305-8572, Japan Fred R. Magdoff Northeast Region SARE Program, Hills Building, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA Marco Michelozzi Istituto Miglioramento Genetico delle Piante Forestali, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Via Atto Vannucci 13, 50134 Firenze, Italy Werner Muehlbauer Institute for Agricultural Engineering in the Tropics and Subtropics, Hohenheim University, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany Hiroshige Nishina Agricultural Engineering Department, Ehime University, Tarumi 3-5-7, Matuyama-shi, Ehime 790-8566, Japan Jaime Ortiz-Canavate E.T.S. de Intenieros Agronomos, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain Robert M. Peart Agricultural and Biological Engineering Department, Rogers Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA Kingshuk Roy Department of BioEnvironmental and Agricultural Engineering, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, 1866 Kameino, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-8510, Japan Giovanni Riva Institute of Agricultural Engineering, University of Ancona, c/o Institute of Agricultural Engineering, University of Milan, Via Celoria 2, IT-20133 Milano, Italy Editors and Authors vii Takashi Saiki R&D Department, Japan Alcohl Association Nishishinbashi 2-21-2, Dai-ichi, Nan-Oh Bld. Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-0003, Japan Valentin Schnitzer Hydro Power, Industriestrasse 100, D-69245 Bammental, Germany Gerhard Schumm Fachhochschule Jena, Fachbereich Technische Physik Tatzendpromenade 1b, 07745 Jena, Germany Donald Scott Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada F. Sissot Institute of Agricultural Engineering, University of Milan, Via Celoria 2, IT-20133 Milano, Italy Veriano Vidrich Dipartimento di Scienze del Suolo e Nutrizione della Pianta, Universita` degli Studi di Firenze, Piazzale delle Cascine 16, 50144 Firenze, Italy viii Editorial Board Fred W. Bakker-Arkema, Editor of Vol. IV Department of Agricultural Engineering Michigan State University Michigan, USA El Houssine Bartali, Editor of Vol. II (Part 1) Department of Agricultural Engineering Institute of Agronomy Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco Egil Berge Department of Agricultural Engineering University of Norway, Norway Jan Daelemans National Institute of Agricultural Engineering Merelbeke, Belgium Tetuo Hara Department Engenharia Agricola Universidade Federal de Vicosa 36570-000 Vicosa, MG, Brazil Donna M. Hull American Society of Agricultural Engineers Michigan 49085-9659, USA A. A. Jongebreur IMAG-DLO Wageningen, The Netherlands Osamu Kitani, Editor-in-Chief and Editor of Vol. V Department of Bioenvironmental and Agricultural Engineering Nihon University Kameino 1866 Fujisawa, 252-8510 Japan Hubert N. van Lier, Editor of Vol. I Chairgroup Land Use Planning Laboratory for Special Analysis, Planning and Design Department of Environmental Sciences Agricultural University Wageningen, The Netherlands ix x Editorial Board A. G. Rijk Asian Development Bank P.O. Box 789 0980 Manila, Philippines W. Schmid O.R.L. Institute, E.T.H.Z. Hongerberg Zurich, Switzerland The late Richard A. Spray Agricultural and Biological Engineering Department Clemson University Clemson, South Carolina 29634-0357, USA Bill A. Stout, Editor of Vol. III Department of Agricultural Engineering Texas A & M University Texas, USA Fred W. Wheaton, Editor of Vol. II (Part 2) Agricultural Engineering Department University of Maryland Maryland, USA Contents Foreword xvii Preface xix Acknowledgments xxi 1 Natural Energy and Biomass 1 1.1 Post-Petroleum Energy and Material 1 1.1.1 World Population and Environment 1 1.1.2 Energy and Environmental Issues 3 1.2 Natural Energy 3 1.2.1 Main Sources of Natural Energy 3 1.2.2 Characteristics of Natural Energy 4 Density 4 Storability 5 Dynamics 6 1.2.3 Utilization Systems 6 Load Matching 6 Design Factors 6 Combined System 7 1.3 Biomass Resources 7 1.3.1 Principles of Biomass Utilization 7 1.3.2 Biomass Energy 7 Liquid Fuel from Biomass 8 Gas Fuel from Biomass 8 Solid Fuel from Biomass 9 Energy Demand 9 Potential of Biomass Energy 9 1.3.3 Biomass Material 9 1.3.4 Environmental Considerations 10 1.3.5 Biomass Systems 10 2 Energy for Biological Systems 13 2.1 Energy Analysis and Saving 13 2.1.1 Energy Analysis 13 Definition and Scope of Energy Analysis 13 Methodologies and Approaches 14 Energy Ratio, Net Energy Gain, and Energy Productivity 15 Energy Inputs 15 Energy Balance 22 2.1.2 Energy Saving in Crop Production 24 Factors Affecting Tractor Efficiency 24 Energy Saving in Tillage Systems 27 xi xii Contents Fertilizer Management 30 Biocide Management 33 Irrigation 35 Harvesting 36 Transportation 37 2.1.3 Energy Saving in Animal Housing 39 Reducing Transmission Heat Loss 39 Reducing Heat Loss Through Ventilation 40 Heat Recovery Systems 40 Energy Demand of Forced Ventilation 42 2.2 Energy and the Environment 42 2.2.1 Energy and Carbon Dioxide 42 Methodology 43 Energy Inputs for Grain Production 45 2.2.2 Production Systems for Lower Emissions 46 Energy Input and Output 46 Effects of Climate Change 50 2.3 Solar Energy 53 2.3.1 Present Situation 53 2.3.2 Principles of Solar Energy Applications 54 Solar Radiation 54 Flat-Plate Collectors 55 2.3.3 Solar Drying 59 Industrialized Countries 59 Developing Countries 61 2.3.4 Utilization as Power 66 Photovoltaic Systems and Components 66 Operational Behavior 73 Application in Agriculture 76 2.3.5 Greenhouse 91 Greenhouse System 91 Energy and Mass Transfer in Greenhouses 91 Solar Energy Collection and Storage System 93 Related Equipment 96 2.4 Wind Energy 100 2.4.1 Overview 100 2.4.2 Wind Characteristics 101 Global Circulation 101 Energy 101 Wind Speed 102 Wind-Speed Measurements 103 Wind Shear 104 2.4.3 Site Analysis and Selection 105 Wind Characteristics 105 Contents xiii Surface Roughness 105 Manmade Barriers 107 2.4.4 Types of Wind Machines 107 Drag Devices 108 Lift Devices 108 Generic Types 109 2.4.5 Water Pumping with Wind Power 115 Mechanical Water Pumping 115 Electrical Water Pumping 119 Economics of Wind-Powered Water Pumping 121 2.5 Hydraulic Energy 123 2.5.1 Water-Power Development 123 Principles 124 Hydraulic Resources 124 Potential 126 2.5.2 Plant Layout and Civil Works 127 Water-Power-Plant Layout 127 Civil Works Components 128 2.5.3 Plant Equipment 131 Water Turbines 131 Water Wheels 132 Mechanical and Electrical Components 134 2.5.4 Decentralized Water-Power Development 134 Role of Water Power in Development 134 Guide to Plant Establishment
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