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Gender, Migration and Identity: Spanish Migrant Women in London

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Gender, Migration and Identity: Spanish Migrant Women in London Gender, migration and identity: Spanish migrant women in London ANA BRAVO MORENO Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy (Ph.D.) of the University of London Culture, Communication & Societies Institute of Education University of London July 1999 ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of international migration in shaping the national and gender identities of Spanish women, who migrated to England between 1940-1992. The thesis examines the process of construction of these women's national and gender identities in their country of origin. However, international migration means a change of socio-cultural and linguistic context that may call into question these women's notions of femininity and national identity. Thus, the thesis analyses in considerable detail how different women migrants use aspects of their cultural heritage as frameworks in shaping their national and gender identities in England. This thesis is structured in three main parts. The first part deals with the theoretical decisions taken in this thesis and also questions the categorisations of migrants found in the literature. The first part positions the thesis within a theoretical framework and a specific research design used in this study. One appendix expands on the decisions which are taken. The second part analyses the constructions of gender and national identities in Spain before migration. It examines political ideology and definitions of femininity imposed on Spanish women via the Catholic Church, the school and the government. Women's narratives reveal the shaping of Spanish gendered identities, in different social classes and generations. The third part examines the role of the Spanish and the British governments in the movement of Spanish migrants to the UK and the ways their policies treated male and female migration differently. However a major emphasis is placed on how women in their own accounts of their experiences tried to transform these discourses - and the discourses on femininity - which confronted them. The conclusion includes reflections on the implications of this study for the existing literature concerning gender, international migration and processes of identity formation. 2 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am grateful to both my supervisors, Dr Elaine Unterhalter and Dr Robert Cowen, for their thorough guidance. I am thankful to Dr Unterhalter for her patience and close readings of numerous drafts and her valuable suggestions and encouragement. I am especially thankful to Dr Cowen for his constant support, his generosity and rigorous advice. His pedagogical ability allowed me to grasp difficult strategies in the 'art' of managing a doctoral thesis. I would also like to thank all the women who gave me access to their lives and made this thesis possible. I would like to acknowledge the Economic and Social Research Council for their financial support during my doctoral studies. My acknowledgements would be incomplete without expressing my gratitude to Ersan for his friendship and support throughout this time, especially during the last six months. 3 A mis padres y a mi abuela "Uno nunca vuelve, siempre va." 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract 2 Acknowledgements 3 Table of Contents 5 Contents of appendix 10 List of tables 1 1 List of figures 12 PART I 14 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 15 CHAPTER 2 APPROACHES TO INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION, GENDER AND IDENTITY, POSITIONING OF THE THESIS 31 Introduction 31 The relevance of the concept of culture 32 Migrants as a working class 35 Women migrants as a racialised working class 38 5 Three-fold oppression model 39 Women migrants as waged and as domestic workers 40 Working class migrant women and language 41 Migrant women as reproducers of national identities 42 Immigrants as `others"subjectivities', 'hybrids', and 'displaced' 43 Positioning of the thesis 45 Conclusion 50 Endnotes 53 PART II 69 CHAPTER 3 THE SHAPING OF GENDER AND NATIONAL IDENTITIES BEFORE MIGRATION 70 Introduction 70 Franco's gendered political ideology and economic interests 71 The Feminine Section, La Seccion Femenina 81 The Social Service: instrument of control 84 Education and the Catholic Church 90 Conclusion 99 CHAPTER 4 THE MAKING OF WOMEN IN SPAIN 102 Introduction 102 Working class family attitudes to the education of daughters 103 Obligations of daughters: housework and paid work 112 6 Middle class family attitudes to the education of daughters 119 The expression of anger at parental control 125 Unequal power relationships between parents 130 Upper middle class family attitudes to the education of daughters 132 Views on femininity in different social classes 136 Conclusion 142 PART III 145 CHAPTER 5 APPROACHES OF GOVERNMENTS, CHURCH AND FAMILIES ON SPANISH MIGRATION TO THE UK 146 Introduction 146 Overview of Spanish immigration to Britain 147 Official statistical trends on Spanish migration to the UK and its flaws 150 Gender trends in Spanish migration to the UK in official documentation 155 What the statistics show 155 British and Spanish economic and foreign policies: facilitators of Spanish migration 171 Contrasts in Spanish foreign policy on migration 171 Autarchy, international isolation and economic decline, 1940-1959 172 Openness to foreign capital, economic growth and rapid industrialisation, 1959-1975 173 British regulation of Spanish migration 182 Political relations between the UK and Spain 189 7 Women's subversion of official channels of migration 192 Conclusion 200 CHAPTER 6 NARRATIVES OF SPANISHNESS, ENGLISHNESS AND FOREIGNNESS, WORKING CLASS WOMEN 203 Introduction 203 Reasons for migration 204 Spanishnes s 208 Englishness 213 Housework and care: main attributes of femininity 218 Resistance to ideal notions of femininity 224 English people viewed as cold 227 Foreignness 235 Disadvantages in economic and cultural capital 236 Language, a marker of foreignness 240 Respondents' feelings of foreignness in Spain 248 Generational contrasts 251 CHAPTER 7 NARRATIVES OF SPANISHNESS, ENGLISHNESS AND FOREIGNNESS: MIDDLE AND UPPER MIDDLE CLASS WOMEN 255 Introduction 255 Reasons for migration 255 Effects of education and marriage on the shaping of middle class respondents' national and gender identities in England 257 National gendered identity and the household 260 8 Intertwined representations of Spanishness and Englishness 265 Spanish, the language of intimacy 271 English representations of Spanishness and feelings of foreignness 274 Upper middle class respondents 282 Conclusion 293 CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS 296 Migration as an uprooting experience 301 Common themes in gender and national identifications 304 The engendering process of women's national identities 305 Tendencies against commonalities in respondents' identifications 309 Historical continuity of identifications 310 Tendencies disrupting historical continuity in respondents' identifications 313 Migration as a learning journey 314 Limitations of this study 318 Future research 320 Endnotes 322 Bibliography 326 I Books and journals 326 II Official documents 354 9 CONTENTS OF APPENDIX RESEARCH DESIGN 358 Epistemological framework 359 Methods of data collection 360 Interviews with Spanish immigrant women living in London 363 Interviews with significant members of Spanish organisations who 'helped' Spanish immigrant women in London 364 Statistical data 365 Sample framework 366 Historical periods 366 Respondents' socio-economic background 367 Sample selection 369 Power relations in the interviews 375 How I presented myself to the women in the sample 376 How participants viewed me: trying to establish different forms of power in the interview 377 `I' viewed as a young student provoked disdain 377 `I' viewed as a 'senorita' provoked rejection 379 `I' as a social worker, psychologist and interpreter provoked sympathy 382 `I' as a researcher had to 'prove' my research was important 383 The 'personal I' in the interview 385 The interview as a process of reflection 386 10 The term 'emigrant' viewed as problematic by some respondents 389 Classification of the women in this study 392 Total number of women in the sample by historical periods, social class, level of formal education and marital status 392 Overview of working class women who emigrated to the UK between 1940-1992 according to marital status, education and occupation 394 Overview of middle class women who emigrated to the UK between 1940-1992 according to marital status, education and occupation 397 Interview schedule 402 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Formal education of middle class respondents 119 Table 2 Number of Spanish migrants in Great Britain 153 Table 3 Sample of women interviewed 374 Table 4 Total number of women in the sample by historical periods 392 Table 5 Total number of women in the sample by social class 392 Table 6 Total number of women in the sample by level of formal education 392 Table 7 Total number of women in the sample by marital status 393 Table 8 Working class women who emigrated to the UK between 1940-1959 394 Table 9 Working class women who emigrated to the UK between 1960-1975 395 11 Table 10 Working class women who emigrated to the UK between 1976-1992 396 Table 11 Middle class women who emigrated to the UK between 1940-1959 398 Table 12 Middle class women who emigrated to the UK between 1960-1975 399 Table 13 Middle class women who emigrated to the UK between 1976-1992 400 Table 14 Upper middle class women who emigrated to the UK between 1940-1992 401 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Employment applications to the UK by Southern European workers 156 Figure 2 Spanish
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