Blankenbaker, E. Keith, Ed.; Miller, Aaron J., Ed. Technological Literacy

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ED 291 956 CE 049 845

AUTHOR Blankenbaker, E. Keith, Ed.; Miller, Aaron J., Ed. TITLE Technological Literacy: The Roles of Practical Arts and Vocational Education. Proceedings from an International Symposium on Technological Literacy (Columbus, Ohio, May 13-15, 1987). INSTITUT-3N Ohio State Univ., Columbus. Coll. of Education. PUB DATE 87 NOTE 240p.; Co-sponsored by the American Vocational Association, the International Technology Education Association, the International Vocational Education and Training Association, and the National Center ior Research in Vocational Education. PUB TYPE Collected Works Conference Proceedings (021) -- Viewpoints (120) -- Reports = Research/Technical (143)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC10 Pits Postage. DESCRIPTORS Curriculum Development; Educational Needs; Foreign ' Countries; Needs Assessment; Postsecondary Educatioh; *Practical Arts; School Role; Secondary Education; Statewide Planning; *Teacher Education; *Technological Advancement; *Technological Literacy; *Vocational Education IDENTIFIERS China; New York ABSTRACT The following papers are included: "Technological Literacy: What? Why? For Whom?" (K:anzberg); "Techniliterate vs. Technilliterate (There's an L of a Difference)" (Stone); "International Perspectives on Technological Literacy" (Dyrenfurth); ''Technology and the Liberal Arts: Are We Producing Technopeasants?" (Brockway); "Study on the Justification of Technology Education as General Education" (Chang); "A Case for Technological Literacy" (Martin); "Technology: The Newest Liberal Arts" (Kowal); "The Underside of Technological Literacy" (Pilotta); "Impacts of Technology" (Balistreri); "Christian Relational Theology as a Framework for Assessing for Moral and Social Implications of Technology" (Arnett, Ramer); "Social Consequences of Technological Innovation" (Pucciano); "Socioteehnical Literacy: An Alternative tc the Technological Perspective" (Pratzner); "A Global Model of Technological Literacy" (Hameed); "Defining, Determining, and Contributing to Technological Literacy: Getting There from Here Using the Technology of a Research Paradigm" (White); "What Price Progress? The Social Impact of Technology on Society" (Meyers); "An International Study of Curricular Organizers for the Study of Technology" (Barnes); "An Instructional Model for Electronics Technology in the Republic of China" (Shih); "'Jackson's Mill' and 'Industry and Technology Education' Project Reports as a Guide for Organizing Content for Technology Education" (Wright); "The Future of Work in America: Workers, the Workplace, and Technological Literacy" (Charner); "New Technology, New Lifestyls, and the Implications of Preservice and Inservice Vocational Teacher Education" (Worms, Worms); "Technology and Education: The Appropriate Threads for a Computer Tapestry" (Thomas); "Computer Literacy: An Essential Element of Technological Literacy" (Welty); "Computer Anxiety Levels Related to Computer Use and Teacher Inservice Educational Needs" (Malpiedi); "Energy Literacy: The Changing of Cocksure Ignorance to Thoughtful Uncertainty" (Singletary); "Florida's Assessment of Vocational Teachers' Training Needs: The First Step in a Five-Year Statewide Inservice Plan" (Patterson); "The Impact of Computer Technologyon Graphic Communication" (Boyer, Bertoline); "Dichotomies, Relationships and the Development of Technological Literacy" (DeVore); "Technology's Impact on Education: Don't Leave It to Chance" (Harris); "Implications: Technological Literacy and Vocational Education Service Areas" (Ressler); "Machine Vision Literacy" (Andrews); "Technology Education in New York State" (Hacker); "Technological Literacy: Roles for Practical Arts and Vocational Education" (Maley); and "Technological Literacy: The Role of Vocational Education" (Moss). (MN) Technological Literacy: The Roles of Practical Arts and Vocational Education

Proceedingsfrom an International Symposium onTechnological Literacy Columbus, Ohio

U.S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION "PERMISSIONTO REPRODUCE ThIS of Educational Research and Improvement Off May 13-15, 1987 MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY El) CATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) This document has Caen reproduced as received from the person or organization originating it BEST COPe AVAILABLE O Minor changes have been made to improve 6,44-xi, reproduction Quality

Points of view Or Opinions slated in thiS dour merit do not necessarily representofficial TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES OERI positron or policy INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)." h.9

7111MINI! ..." Technological Literacy: The Roles of Practical Arts and Vocational Education

The Ohio State University College of Education Columbus, Ohio

4 Preface

Work, leisure, education and lifestyles have changed radically since the turn of the century. Central to these changes ha.e been the development of various new systems of technology and the consequences of their impacton our daily lives. Basic literacy skills have long been recognized as essential for all citizens to understand and live fulfilling lives in this cutture. However, with the current and growing interrelationship of society and technology it now becomes essential that our citizenry become technologically literate. We must understand the basic principles and relationships of technology to theway we learn, live and work.

The International Symposium on Technological Literacy: The Roles of the Practical Arts and Vocational Education provided a national forum for examining some of the most critical issues related to the teachirg of content necessary for technological literacy in our nation's schools. Further, it provided for the examination of these issues and their implications for appropriate curriculum development and program planning for students who chose either a vocational education curriculum or a college preparatory program at the high school level.

On May 13-16, 1987, The Ohio State University sponsored a symposium where papers on these significant issues were presented and discussed bya broad spectrum of both national and international experts in fields related to symposium topics. The proceedings contained in this document provided the essence of these major presentations and discussions.

E. Keith Blankenbaket Aaron J. Miller Acknowledgements

We, the symposium co-directors, wish to expressour sincere appreciation to the College of Education at The Ohio Stela University for the financialsupport of this enterprise; also, our special gratitude and recognition is given tothe four symposium sponsors for their special assistance and endorsement. These sponsors were The American Vocational Association, The International Technology Education Association, The International Vocational Educationand Training Association, and The National Center for Research in Vocational Education.

We would also like to acknowledge the following individuals for their assistance and hard work in preparing this document: Ms. Eilene M. Reece for word processing; Dr. Paul E. Post for the layout design and being the "problem solver"; and Ms. Donna K. Trautman for editing, layout, and production coordination.

E. Keith Blankenbaker Aaron J. Miller Table of Contents

Preface iii

Acknowledgements v Technological Literacy: What? Why? For Whom?

Melvin Kranzberg 1 Characteristics of Technologically Literate Citizens

Techniliterate vs Technilliterate (There's an L ofit Difference) Robert D. Stone 13 International Perspectives on Technological Literacy Michael J. Dyrenfurth 19 Technology and the Liberal Arts: Are We Producing Technopeasants? John P. Brockway 39 Technological Literacy - One of the New Basics

Study on the Justification of Technology Education as General Education Suk-Min Chang 49 A Case for Technological Literacy Loren Martin 53 Technology: The Newest Liberal Arts Jerome J. Kowal 59 Social Values/Consequences of Technological Innovation

The Underside of Technological Literacy Joseph J. Pilotta 67 Impacts of Technology Jerry P. Balistreri 77 Christian Relational Theology as a Framework for Assessing for Moral and Social Implications of Technology Harold Arnett & Hebor Ramer 79 Social Consequences of Technological lnrovation John G. Pucciano 87

Sociotechnical Literacy: An Alternative to the Technological Perspective Frank C. Pratzner 93 identifying and Organizing the Content of Technology

A Global Model of Technological Literacy Abdul Flamed 109

Defining, Determining, and Contributing to Technological Literacy: Getting There From Here Using the Technology of a Research Paradigm Michael R. White 113

What Price Progress?: The Social Impact of Technology on Society Albert Meyers 121

An International Study of Curricular Organizers for the Study of Technology James L. Barnes 127

An Instructional Model for Electronics Technology in the Republic of China Chun-Hsieh Shih 137

"Jackson's Mill" and "Industry and Technology Education" Project Reports as a Guide for Organizing Content for Technology Education R. Thomas Wright 151

The Future of Work in America: Workers, The Workplace, and Technological Literacy Ivan Charner 159 Technological Literacy Needs in Preservice and Inservice Teacher Education

New Technology, New Lifestyles, and thA Implications of Preservice and Inservice Vocational Teacher Education Carolyn Litchfield Worms & Allan J. Worms 171

Technology and Education: The Appropriate Threads for a Computer Tapestry John C. Thomas 175

Computer Literacy: An Essential Element of Technology Literacy Kenneth Welty 179

Computer Anxiet:' Levels Related to Computer Use and Teacher Inservice Educational Needs Barbara J. Malpiedi 183

Energy Literacy: The Changing of Cocksure Ignorance to Thoughtful Uncertainty Thomas A. Singletary 191

Florida's Assessment of Vocational Teachers' Training Needs: The First

8 Step in a Five-Year Statewide lnservice Plan Marvin D. Patterson 197 The Impact of Computer Technology on Graphic Communication Edwin T. Boyer & Gary R. Bert° line 203

Implications of Technological Literacy for Vocational ServiceAreas Dichotomies, Relationships and the Development of Technological Literacy Paul W. DeVore 209

Technology's Impact on Education:Don't Leave it to Chance Robert C. Harris 223

Implications: Technological Literacy and Vocational Education Service Areas Ralph Ressler 229 Machine Vision Literacy Al L. Andrews 231

Technology Education in New York State Michael Hacker 235

Technological Literacy: Roles for Practical Arts and Vocational Education Donald Maley 243 Technological Literacy: The Role of Vocational Education Jerome Moss, Jr. 249

9 Technological Literacyii...... Symposium 1

Technological Literacy: What? Why? For Whom?

Dr. Melvin Kranzberg Callaway Professor of the History of Technology Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, Georgia

The title of my talk--"Technological Literacy: nological actions despoil nature. Besides, much of What? Why? For Whom?"--consists of a series of our technology is devoted to elements of our physi- questions. That befits a historian, because history is cal environment that are not part of nature. Forex- a series of questions we ask of the past in order to ample, we devise various means to nontrol the flow learn how our present world came into being, and of traffic in congested cities; that is becauseman, also to see if the past can provide guidance for the with the aid of his technology, has created aman- future. The questions in my title are designed to find made environment, not just a natural environment. out it the past can shed some light on the roles of the practical arts and vocational education in producing Technology, then, must also be viewed as apro- the world of the future. cess as well as a group of artifacts.It deals with human work, with man's attempts to satisfy his wants by But every question leads to others. Thus when human action on physical objectives. Notice, Iuse we ask, "What is technological literacy?", two addi- the term "wants" instead of "needs," for human tional questions immediately come to mind: "What is wants go far beyond the basic needs of food, cloth- technology?" and "What is literacy?". Putting the an- ing, and shelter. Technology ministers to those, of swers together should tell us what is meant by course, but it also helps man fulfill many other wants. "technological literacy." However, mention of the work aspect adds still But that is not so easy as it seems. For there are another uimension to our definition of technology, many different definitions of technology, and there is for it implies the organization of tools and labor. also some question about what constitutes literacy. These in turn involve production and distribution In the popular mind, technology is synonymous systems, which are also essential elements of tech- with tools, machines, devices, and processes; and nological activity. one widely accepted description of technology is To many people technology is simply "applied that it deals with how things are done or made and science." Science is defined as man's attempt tour- what things are done or made. But that broad defini- derstand the physical world, while technology's role tion encompasses many items that can scarcely be is to apply that knowledge to control the physical considered technological. Thus Congress "makes" world. Science, then, is "know-why," and technolo- laws--but that kind of making has little to do with tech- gy is "know-how." nology. Hence a definition of technology might perhaps include the ends to which the making and do- While there can be no doubt that technology is ing of things is directed. indeed a form of knowledge--a special kind of knowledge of how to make and do certain kinds of things-- Some definitions of technology do stress a pur- the definition of technology as "applied science" ig- posive element, describing it as "man's rational and nores the historical evir ence. For the fact is that ordered attempt to control nature." Here the defini- throughout most of history, men made machines and tion is too tight, for while it would include much of products without understanding why they worked or technology, many technical activities and products comprehending their physical or chemical makeup. would not fit within it. The making of toys, for exam- Besides, during the past century science and tech- ple, does not constitute an attempt to control nature, nology have been coming closer together, and, in- but rather tu teach or amuse children.Similarly, deed, where does science end and technology be- weapons are developed to control our fellow man, gin in such fields as nuclear power, bio-engineering, but not to control nature - -and, indeed, certain tech- and the like? Nowadays the sciences that relyso

10 A.

2 Technological literacy: What? Why? For Whom?

much upon technological instrumentation and de- same time been a maker. Thus we find that technol- vices that modem physics, chemistry, and biology, to ogy is perhaps one of the earliest and most basic of say nothing of modem medicine, might well be called human cultural characteristics. As far back as 1836, "applied technology." Thomas Carlyle recognized this when he said in Sar- Obviously, technology Is not a simple thing. In- tor Resartus, "Man is a tool-using animal. Without stead, it involves distinctive modes of thought and tools he is nothing; with tools he is all." action to serve diverse human needs, not only in From savagery to barbarism to civilization, man's making physical objects, but also in designing struc- material progress throughout the ages has 1,aen tures and environments to achieve varied goals.it bound up with his technology. Indeed, we have be- utilizes varying rules, procedures, and forms of or- come so accustomed to it that we take our technolo- ganization in order to accomplish a multitude of pur- gy for granted, failing to realize how unique and sig- poses. nificant it is until a storm causes an electrical malfunc- All the difficulties that beset us in attempting to tion or some technical device goes on the blink.I'm define technology actually lead to a very simple con- reminded of an airplane, one of the technical marvels clusion, namely, that technology is a very human ac- of our time: "No siree," she said, "not for me. I'm go- tivity--and, as such, it reflects all the complexities of ing to sit right here on earth and watch temvision, just the human condition. the way the good Lord intended me to." Yet, to many humanists, technology is viewed as Despite the role of technology in the vast pano- something divorced from mankind. Indeed, today's rama of human history, we constantly come up bleeding-heart humanists posit some sort of conflict against those who regard technology as something between man and his technology, as if the two were divorced from the essence of humanity. My human- somehow opposed to each other and locked in mor- ist colleagues ask: Wnat is human about a monkey tal combat. wrench, a lathe, a computer? What repels them about technology is what they term the "inhumanity" I find that somewhat strange because the histori- of its objects, for example, the industrial robots which cal and, indeed, the prehistorical facts indicate quite they fear will make man expendable, or the "anti- the opposite: namely, that man and his technology humanity" of its by-products, such as the pollution are inextricably intertwined, that technology has which threatens our environment. served as one of man's chief tools as he sought to achieve his goals, both glorious and ignoble. It is true that we ordinarily think of technology as something mechanical, yet the fact is that all techni- This symbiotic relationship between man and his cal processes and products are the result of the hu- technology goes back to the very beginning of our man creative imagination and human skills, mind and species.Anthropologists, seeking to differentiate hands working together. between "almost-man" and the genus "man," find that man employed tools. Man as we know him could Technology is inseparable from men and com- not have evolved or survived without tools; he is too munities. The technologist is concerned with the ap- weak and puny a creature to fight nature with only his plications of science and other forms of knowledge hands and teeth. The lion is stronger, the hone to the needs and wants of man and society; he is up faster, the giraffe can reach higher; but tools served to his neck in human problems whether he likes it or as extensions of man's hand and amplifiers of his not. muscle power, enabling him to adjust his hereditary The significance of technology lies in its use by organic equipment to an almost infinite number of human beings--what it does. Take, for example, the operations in virtually any environment. telephone. If we regard the telephone only as a col- It is not surprising, therefore, that some anthro- lection of wires through which current passes from pologists define the human species on the basis of transmitter to a receiver, the telephone would seem tool-using and tool-making, or to be more exact, tool to have little interest, except for telephone techni- dependency. Modem physiology, psychology, evo- cians and repairmen and the successors to AT&T. lutionary biology, and anthropology - -all comb!ne to But the real significance of the telephone lies in its demonstrate to use that homo sapiens (man the use in transmitting messages.It is the communica- thinker) cannot be distinguished from homo Caber tions function of the telephone that gives it imoor- (man the maker). Indeed, we now realize that man tance--and the function of all technology is its use by could not have become a thinker had he not at the human beings--and sometimes, alas, its misuse and abuse. Technological Literacy Symposium3 JIMEN111111

You see, machines are not something apart from At the end, I was forced to attempt to distillmy mankind. Behind every machine I see a face, in- own--but still incompletedefinition. Tome, techno- deed, many faces: the workers, the scientist, the en- logical literacy has two major and interrelatedcompo- gineer, the businessman or business woman, and nents. First, is the understanding of the character of sometimes the General or Admiral. technology itself - -the type of problems which itad- But because technology is such a thoroughly dresses and the various modes of thought andac- human activity, it is constantly evolving. Human insti- tion applied to resolving these problems.This re- tutions, human activities, human capabilities, human quires understanding of some basic technicalprinci- wants and desires have changed over timeand this ples, and aho some hands-on experience in orderto is largely due to technological advances. The tech- recognize the practical problems encounteredin nology necessary to wrest a living from nature in the technological design and practice. Stone Ages is quite different from that required to The second major component of technological keep a highly complex, urbanized society alive and literacy involves comprehension of the nor-technical functioning. Learning to chip flakas of flint in order to factors entering into technical problems and theirso- make spears and arrowheads--the vocational educa- lutions, which includes the impacts. -both benefits tion of the Stone Age--will no longer suffice to obtain and risks--of varying designs and decisions. Thisre- a food supply, keep warm and comfortable, and en- quires some larger understanding of technology'sin- joy living in today's "Technological Age." teractions with society. I shall return to this subject of today's sophisticat- Now let us see how this bipartite technological ed technology--and the education needed for it-- literacy might apply to some specificcases. To many later. But first we must define "literacy," in order to people, the technological devices which formso see what is meant by "technological literacy." much a part of our daily lives are "black boxes" whose The dictionary does not give us much help.It internal operations are mysteries, and whose results defines "literacy" as "the state or condition of being are frequently viewed with a mixture of awe and fear. literate," and "literate" is defined as "having a knowl- Technological literacy would include knowledgeof edge of letters; able to read and write." the operations going on within it. More than that, it would also require appreciation of the input andout- Extending that definition to the field of technolo- put factors of the black boxes, which in turn would in- gy, literacy would mean something like, "able to do volve some understanding of the implicationsof technology." But, as we have just seen, the techno- technology for the individual, society, and the envi- logical enterprise involves many varying activities. ronment- -and an awareness of the ethical and moral The Pennsylvania State University Program on questions which have recently been raised regard- Science Through Science, Technology and Society ing our enlarged technological capabilities. has sponsored two national conferences on Techno- Of course, those actually engaged in making logical Literacy during the past few years, and at and using it most know what is inside the technologi- these conferences a plethora ofcefinitions cal "black box," but even those not directly involved emerged. That is not surprising, considering the should acquire some comprehension of the basic many and varied activities of technology itself. concepts and practices of the technology if they The difficulty of nailing down what is meant by wish to participate meaningfully inour technological "technological literacy" was compounded when the world. Such comprehension should not impose in- Sloan Foundation generated its "New Liberal Arts" superable difficulties, for one canunderstand techni- program at the beginning of the 1980s. Most of the cal devices, problems, and practices without being Sloan grants focused on the computer, with the re- an expert in making, repairing, or operating them. sult that technological literacy became identified with For example, lots of us are reasonablyaware of haw a computer literacy. While the computer is one of the plane flies, for we have at least a rudimentary under- fundamental artifacts of our present age, it is far from standing of the principles of aerodynamics, notne- being the sole technological component of our cessarily from studying physics but from having flown times. Computer literacy involves skill in learning kites or model planes as kids. But even ifwe under- how to use a sophisticated tool, but it certainly does stand how a plane flies, that does notmean that we not constitute full acquaintance with the many para- are qualified to fly one and certainly not to design meters of technical activities nor with the technologi- one. cal dimensions of society. What I am saying is that the underlying concepts

I 2 4 Technological Literacy: What? Why? For Whom?

and operations of technical objects, including the better its future. baffling innards of microchip devices, can be under- Understanding the interactions of technology stood by most American students.And even with society is advanced by knowing the principles though we can utilize many technical devices without and operations of the technology itself.And that knowing exactly what goes on inside the "black box," puts a special burden on those involved with voca- we can do still better'" kossess some technical tional and technical education at all levels. know-how. For exal can drive an automobile without knowing the p,...optes of thermodynamics or Let me put the problem this way. Because ours the exact workings of an internal-combustion en- is a technological society, there is need for techno- gine. Nevertheless, if we do have some knowledge logical knowledge and skills of many different kinds of how the engine actually runs, how the braking sys- to serve the diverse needs of modem society. And tem works, and the like, we can drive the car more ef- because technology is constantly changing, techni- ficiently and safely and see to its proper mainte- cal education must also keep changing. And we can nance. see these changes occurring at every level of technical training. But if we can use our cars, watches, microwave ovens, television sets, and all the other technical ap- Forty years ago everybody knew that an engi- paratus of our daily lives without having full compre- neer was a man who wore hip boots and a mackinaw hension of their technical operations, why is techno- and who built bridges, dams and roads, laid power logical literacy so desirable? Because technological lines, constructed electric generating plants and fac- literacy includes more than comprehension of the tories, and designed and made the machinery that technical elements themselves; it also requires un- went into them. derstanding of the ways in which technology inter- Engineers still do that, but they also do much acts with society. After all, technology affects how more. They design and build delicate and complex and where we work, live, think, play, and pray--and it instruments and machines that explore the depths of cs an important bearing on the future. We call ours the earth and probe the farthest reaches of our solar a Technological Age, and if we want to understand system. The venture into the nucleus of the atom the times in which we live, we must acquire techno- and extract power from it, they reach into the heart of logical literacy. an individual cell and change its genetic character so The point is that every technological activity has that it can produce materials and resources in infinite non-technical ramifications, and not everyone measure and replacement amounts. They create agrees that these are beneficial to mankind. While electric devices that transform communications and we can point to many wonderful things that technolo- transportation, affect our collection and use of knowl- gy has brought to society, many sensitive individuals edge, and which alter our daily lives and work in fear that this very human activity -- technology- -has countless ways. grown so large and has presented mankind with Because these new tasks require heightened such awful by-products that it threatens to engulf mathematical ability and deeper scic.,ufic under- man. They point to the inhuman use to which tech- sanding, engineering education has been thor- nology has been put. What about the devastation oughly transformed in the decades since World War v xight by wars throughout the centuries, and the II.Instead of the hands-on, skill-oriented training p.osent possibility of destroying much of our planet which had characterized the earlier eng .leering cur- through nuclear warfare? What about the deteriora- riculum, more courses in mathematics and the basic tion of our environment by air and water pollution, sciences were required. Engineering colleges oven the spoliation of the countryside, the rot of our cit- began requiring a healthy dosage of the humanities ies? Technology, they claim, has destroyed the eco- and social sciences, so as to enable their graduates logical balance between man and nature; not only to understand the context of the society in which that, but we are robbing future generations of their they carried on their technological activity. inheritance by ptundering the earth of irreplaceable natural resources. But just because engineers were engaged in these newfangled activities did not mean that our Now the interaction of technology with both the industrial society was no longer building dams. social and natural ecology is not always easy to trace. bridges, and roads; that we were no longer engaged Yet that is necessary if we wish to understand the so- in constructing power plants, factories, and ma- ciety in which we liveand, very importantly, seek to chines to produce goods. Furthermore, we still must

13 ...W. Technological Literacy Symposium 5 maintain our functioning technical operations. them, such as India, have highly-skilled engineers, Besides, even the new "high-technology" but the lack of vocational and technical education fields -- computers, robotics, genetic engineering, throughout their society prevents them from being and the like--require skilled technical personnel. able to utilize their engineers most effectively. What Gene-splicers can develop new strains of disease- they are missing is the wide range of skilled industrial resistant and fast-growing plants and animals, but personnel--the foremen, the skilled workers, the their researches would be ineffective unless there middle-level managerial personnelwho playso im- were also trained individuals to apply these to actual portant a role in the American industrial scene. food production.Computer scientists and engi- These are the sergeant-majors of the industrialpro neers can design highly-sophisticated machines, but cess, and they are essential for productivity. B a- unless there are skilled programmers, trained techni- cause these developing nations do not have this im- cians and reliable maintenance personnel, their portant middle group of technologists--just the kind work would go for naught.In Addition to the family that vocational, engineering technology, and indus- doctor our health services require laboratory techni- trial education programs prepare in this country- -their cians and operators of intricate diagnostic and life- productivity suffers. Unless they can overcome this maintenance devices in order to perform the miracles great educational gap, they are doomed to remain of modern medicine. behind. On the other hand, some Asiatic nations which have made great industrial progress recently-- It is no wonder that in the past few decades South Korea, Taiwan, and, of course, Japan-- there has sprung up a whole new body of technical concentrated on developing such technical skills in professionals upon whom we rely for the effective- their population. ness of the science and technology which are so essential to our lives. We give the title of "engineering An interesting characteristic of American society technology," "vocational education," and "industrial is that some technical know-how is the common education," to their curricula. They are necessary to property of all our citizens -- largely because we have maintain our society, not just its technical aspects, been trained in and exposed to technical devices but also its sociocultural elements. Referring to the throughout our lives. ties between the intellectual aspirations of a society This starts in the nursery.If you don't believe and its materials and mechanical foundations, John me, look at all the "creative" toys, the building blocks, Gardner, a former Secretary of Health, Education, the erector sets, the model kits, and the like which and Welfare, said: "Our ideas won't hold water if we are part of growing up in America and have few coun- allow our plumbing to leak." Or, as industrial educa- terparts elsewhere.In ...Jr secondary schools we tor P. Cousins has written, "Technology can't get us have "shop" courses in making things, and we gain to where we want to be unless we learn how to de- further technical familiarity through our informal and velop, train, manage, and support the 'human re- recreational activities, such as the computerized sources' who work with the technology." games in the shopping malls.Computerized toys In brief, the smooth functioning of our techno- and devices are commonplace nowadays, and,as logical society and our ability to meet the sociotech- the advertising unwittingly proclaims, "Toys 'R' Us," in nical problems of the future depend upon a high the sense that technical gadgets are an integral part standard of education for teanical personnel at all of our daily lives, both young and old. levels of our technological society. In contemporary What I am saying is that contemporary American America's "Technological Age," every member of so- society provides us with a familiarity with technology ciety--whether or not he or she is employed directly which provides a basis for obtaining the knowledge in technical activities- -must have some acquaintance of technical principles and practices that Is essential with the basic "know-how" of our industrial technolo- for technological literacy. gy. In brief, we should all be versed in the industrial and vocational arts, engineering and engineering Compare this with the situation in those parts of technology, and all their relatives--and this educa- the globe which have not yet fully entered into to- tional process should extend from our earliest years day's Technological Age. Several years ago I had oc- throughout our lives. casion to speak at the University of Bandung in Indo- nesia. My hosts graciously gave me a tour of the To underline the importance of this kind of tech- area, and they took particular pride in showing me a nical know-how, we need only to look at the plight of new factory, owned by the Phillips Company of the some of the developing countries today. Many of Netherlands, where electronic components were be- 4 6 Technobglcal Literacy: What? Why? For Whom?

ing assembled.At the entrance to the factory ety; in a sense they were a continuation of the old grounds was a gigantic tree trunk, some 30 feet long apprenticeship training. Some sixty years ago when I and a yard in diameter, lying or its side. This tree took "manual training," as we called it then, we were trunk was almost completely studded with nails. taught carpentering skills, and I made a breadboard My guide asked me ifI knew the purpose of the and a birdhouse. tree trunk with all the nails in it. Having been told at a Such carpentering skills are still useful, but we cocktail party the evening before of the persistence need many others. Today, newer and more sophisti- of animistic beliefs on the nearby island of Bali, I re- cated technologies are being taught in practical arts plied that the nails were probably hammered in to curricula. More than that, vocational and technologi- keep the evil spirits away from the factory. cal educators have responded to the need for a general understanding of our industrial system by innov- "That is a very perceptive observation, Dr. Kranz- berg," my host replied, "but you are wrong. Those ative programs which endeavor to impart that knowledge and also give their students some sense of nails represent the entrance examination for employ- pride and identity. Thus the original "skills" mission ment in this factory." of vocational and technical education has under- "What do you mean?" I asked. gone enlargement; it now also provides career ex- His response made my jaw drop. "Well," he said, ploration, occupational orientation, and pre- "most of the common workers in this factory come vocational experience. from the nearby villages, which are still quite primi- But what good are industrial and vocational edu- tive-- indeed, almost back in the Stone Age. They cation, engineering technology, and engineering in have never used a hammer and nail, so when they a country which seems to be rapidly going downhill in apply for a Job here, we show them how to hammer a terms of industrial production? nail into this tree trunk. Then we give them a hammer and three nails; if they can drive these nails straight In the 19th century America moved from an into the trunk whin five minutes, we know that they agrarian society to an industrial one, but within recent possess sufficient hand-eye cooruination and that decades we have moved from a manufacturing soci- they are teachable enough to learn how to put to- ety to one that is service dominated.In the 1950s, gether electronic components. That means they the number of people engaged in service occupa- have passed our entrance examination, so we hire tions for the first time exceeded those employed in them and put them into our training program at the producing goods. Furthermore, the introduction of automation and the growth of foreign imports has factory." meant a further decline in industrial employment. Compare that with our technologically-oriented American society, where kids are pounding and put- In the face of this structural change in employment and in light of growing foreign competition, ting things together in pre-kindergarten classes and where adults attend 'how-to" evening classes to some economists suggested a few years back that learn how to refinish furniture, repair engines and we write off our heavy industries, such as steel and automobiles, which had been the cornerstone of our household appliances, work with computers, ano the nation's industrial growth. They claimed that Ameri- like. ca's industrial future lay in "high technology," mean- The fact is that the technical arts are pervasive ing electronic and computerized devices of many throughout all levels of our society. But that does kinds. Since America had led in developing comput- not necPsdarily mein that we understand the princi- ers, transistors, microchips, and integrated circuits, it ples and operations of the technical devices and are was argued that we should abandon our older cognizant of their interactions with our society, that smokestack industries and concentrate on this new is, that we possess technological literacy. technology. This would usher in the "Information Yet we are attempting to remedy this grave omis- Age," wherein information would be the main prod- sion.I find it both heartening and significant that in- uct of our revitalized industrial system. dustrial, technological, and vocational education But wait a elute. We can't eat information, we have been keeping pace with the changing needs of can't drink it, we can't wear it, we can't drive it, and we our technological society and have been moving in can't live in it.Information is essential in producing the direction of technological literacy. Many years better and cheaper food, shelter, clothing, and a ago, industrial arts and vocational education taught whole host of other wants and needs, but to do that, the handicraft skills belonging to a pre-industrial soci- it has to be used in connection with other productive 15 Technological Literacy Symposium 7

technologies. I do not mean to belittle the impor- In a sense this represents a turnabout ofthe old tance of the Information Revolution, but to put it in its assembly line, where the tasks were fragmented,re- proper perspective: informs Lion is a means to help quiring title skill on the part of the worker, andwhere us in the production of more ar1 better goods and the planning function was carriedon by engineering services, in making life more comfortable but certain- specialists separated from the physical work. Butwe ly not an end in itself. overdid the principle that work should bebroken The new informational expertise, if embodied In down Into the smallest operations, and that the work- computerized devices, including robotics, could er should not have to utilize any intelligence what- help Increase production, reduce prices and improve soever; tha, system began deteriorating in the quality, thereby enabling us to compete on an inter- 1960s, producing goods that appeared shoddyas national scale. But then we discovered that the Jap- compared to imported products, and at highercosts. anese were outstripping us even in electronic pro- We are now engaged in reversing thatprocess, duce! and this reversal is concentrated in industriesthat Are we doomed then, like tne British at the close produce complex products in vast numbers, suchas of the 19th century, to dissipate our industrial leader- cars and appliances, the very industries that had ear- ship by failure to modernize aging facilities and em- lier been the core of American mass production.Ro- bark on innovative paths? botization is turning things around--and also changing the worker's role in production. In response to the threat from abroad, politicians have begun resurrecting old shibboleths suchas Although robots are perfect for specific tasks, "protectionism" and inventing new battle cries, such they are not adaptable to other productionopera- as "competitiveness." tions. Hence the most recent development isa reor- ientation of the as,lembly lines to accommodatea Nevertheless, despite the politicians, we are be- combination of the robot and the worker. If factories ginning to make American industry competitive are to be automated wrccessfully, we have learned again. This is being done by introducing more auto- that we must also employ the workers training and in- mation into indurtriel production and by better telligence, his mind as well as his hand, in orderto trained workers who are careful about quality. handle the more thoughtful and complicatedopera- Robotic production changes in the nature of tions of the new manufacturing process. work.The previous Industrial Revolution had For example, up until a short timeago, American changed the simple handcraft worker to a machine workers were not permitted to stop the assemblyline operator. The skill was built into the machine, and a in order to make sure that qualitywas being main- semi-skilled worker could operate ii. With the robot tained. Now we a'trying to improve quality by performing the manufacturing operation, however, "group assembly," which started in the automobile the production worker is no longer a machine opera- factories in Sweden. It makes a team of workersre- tor but a machine supervisor. He sits in front of a sponsible for the entire product, rather than individu- control panel luolIng at dials, while the robot's com- al workers doing just one little task each.If some- puterized program actually operates ft. The worker's thing is wrong, the workers can pusha button and rssponsibility Is to monitor this complex and expen- hold things In place while they fix it. sive equipment. If this works out well--and it has in Sweden and But I am talking as If robotic devices are already Japan--it will mean that smaller numbers of highly- the norm in American manufacturing. The fact is that, skilled workers, working with sophisticated, comput- while they are being rapidly introduced, the current er-controlled equipment, will replace thousands of generation of industrial robots are still in a relatively semi-skilled workers in today's assembly-line plants. infantile stage of development. This improves quality control, ultimately reduces For we have not reached the point where robots costs and at the same time means more satisfiedcus- can completely replace human beings in the work- tomers and better sales. In a sense, we are making place. Although robots can perform repetitive tasks the assembly line more efficient by getting the work- much faster than human beings, they sometimes er increasingly involved in production decisions. break down. After all, if all our machines worked per- This new turnabout in automation--teaming fectly, we would not need repair shops nor "fit-it" together man and the machine--means thatwe will re- people. So we need skilled workers who can back quire more skilled technologists if automation isto up the robots and maintain their productivity. achieve its full potential of increasing productivity 8 Technological Literacy: What? Why? For Whom?

and reducing costs, thereby enabling us to compete even if that were to happen, it is questionable if it more effectively with foreign companies. would take up the slack from those thrown out of However, the introduction of robotics has all work by factory robots and office automation. sorts of implications. For one thing it requires new in- However, I cannot accept the pessimistic view itiatives in industrial education and vocational train- that mass unemployment will be created by automa- ing. Equally important is the social problem: what are tion. Such prophecies are based on the fallacious we going to do with the workers displaced by robots? notion that one can make a major change in only one The percentage of workers employed in factory pro- sector of the economy, while the rest remains static. duction has been going down, down, down, ever Historically, things do not work that way. New tech- since World War II, while technical advances enabled nologies inevitably create new demands and new the smaller number of workers to produce more opportunities. goods.In 1929, manufacturing employed 45% of At the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the our workforce; by 1977, fewer tian 25%; today it is Luddites rose in rebellion against the introduction of down to 17%, and Peter Drucker predicts that by the new textile-making machinery, which they were year 2000, only 10% of the working force will suffice feared would cost them their jobs. Well, the new ma- to provide all our material needs. Where will all the chinery was introduced, and a hundred years later unemployed workers go and what will they do? more people were involved in manufacturing textiles Well, the Industrial Revolution took people from than had been employed in the older handicraft sys- the farm and put them in factories. Can they go back tem. The reason is that the great increase in produc- to the `-arms now that they are no longer needed in tivity by the new machines so lowered the cost of factory production? That is unlikely, and we need textiles that vast new markets were created, requiring only look at the statistics to see why. many more textile workers ii an had been employed in the old handicraft method. At the turn of the century, well over half of the people in our country lived and worked on farms; to- By producing more, better, and cheaper, robot- day, only 2% of the population does so. But despite ics can create additional purchasing power, increase the diminishing numbers, agricultural production has the demand for new products, and enhance employ- increased tremendously.In 1910, each American ment in other fields. farm worker supplied enough food products for only While I cannot predict exactly what new lines of 7.1 people.But today each American farmer can employment are going to result, it is clear that in a so- feed 84 people. ciety which is becoming more highly technological, If the displaced factory workers cannot return to the effect is to increase the need for greater techni- ancestral farms, they might go into the service sector cal education at all levels, so as to cope with the new of the economy. After all, that sector has been grow- devices and opportunities. For the historical record ing rapidly in the past decades, and to put it dramati- teaches us that advances in technology ultimately cally, McDonald's now employs more than the U.S. produce more employment and increase the material Steel Corporation. standard of living for all.But the new jobs require more than technical skills: they demand the ability to But how many billions of hamburgers can we eat- perceive, comprehend, and communicate effective- -or, to put it more prosaically, can the service sector ly. That is what we mean by technological literacy- - continue to expand and take up the slack in manu- the linking together of technical expertise with an facturing employment? ability to function with others and to understand how Can the making and servicing of computers and the new technology fits into the society. the burgeoning service sector take up the resultant In brief, advancing technology, by forcing funda- slack in employment deriving from automation in the mental changes in the world of work, inevitably re- factory and the office? Vassily Leontieff, a Nobel shapes the technical education which we must em- Laureate in Economics, does not think so; instead, ploy in order to keep us competitive in the world mar- he believes that we should spread out the work ket, maintain our standard of living, and continue to among larger numbers of people by a shorter work remain flexible and creative in our world of work. week. But with the decline of organized labor's A new and enlarged obligation thus rests upon technical educators at all levels, which is namely to strengths and the movement of production abroad, it prepare students to live in a society which is saturat- is unlikely that the work week will be shortened. And

1 7 Technological Literacy Symposium 9

ed with technology and technological issues. For ing it.If the machine is imperfector if the software is that, we must have teachers who will showour stu- faulty, the music which emerges will be discordant. dents how they can enlarge their capabilities of hand But when man and machine work together forhuman and brain, and do it in a way which gives them the purposes, they can make some very beautiful music- confidence to meet new and as yet unforeseen chal- and that is the meaning andpurpose of technologi- lenges at work and provides them with a sense of be- cal literacy. longing to a society in which they can meaningfully participate. All educators must use their teaching to enlarge the general powers of the mind and inculcate habits of thought that will enable students to facenew situations in a rational and creative manner. Technical learning is particularly germane to such endeavors, enabling students to find out the facts, discard irrele- vant considerations, figure out possible courses of action to reach a clearly defined objective, and the pros and cons attaching to the various courses of action. So our future depends upon teachers whocan bring together both the human and technical skills that are necessary to make our society workproper- ly. Nowadays I use my students' preoccupation with computers as a metaphor to make them aware of the interaction of human and social elements with purely technical elements. In order to make the computara useable device we need both "hardware" and "software." The hardware, the computing device itself, is of no use without the "software," whichpro- vides it with the data, the programming instructions, the methodologies and the questions as wellas the logic to answer the questions. But the software isno use without the hardware and is subject to its capabilities and limitations. We need both--the technical and human elements--in order to make bothour technology and our society work better. That is what we can learn from my field, the history of technology, but it also forms part of the technological literacy which will inspire and direct our students whenwe teach them vocational, industrial arts, engineering technology, and the whole panoply of practical arts. In this connection I remember a story told about Fritz Kreisle., the great violinst. A lady cameup to him after a concert and gushed, "Oh, Maestro,your violin makes such beautiful music." Kreisier picked up his violin (a Stradivarius, no less), held it to his ear, and said, "I don't hear any music coming out of it." You see, the beautiful music coming out of the violin did not come from the instrument, the hardware, alone; it depended upon the human element, the software. And all technology represents this combination of human ingenuity expressed in the machine, with human needs and purposes in utiliz- 18 sr Technological Lfteracy Symposium 11 IMMIIIII.

Characteristics of Technologically Literate Citizens

I !) Technological Literacy Symposium 13

Techniliterate vs Technilliterate (There's an L of a Difference)

Dr. Robert D. Stone Coordinator of Industrial Arts Davenport Community School District Davenport, Iowa

This paper will discuss the differences that exist are completely out of their element and must relyon between persons who are technically literate and someone who is aware to solve their problem. those who are not.It will discuss the barriers to communication between groups and, finally, will suggest Two interesting side issuesoccur as an outgrown of this situation. strategies for minimizing these communication prob- First, the complexity of the lems and a timetable for implementation. device that flummoxed the illiterate cameas a result of technological sophistication and, second,the illit- In any discussion of individual differences it is erate feels he or she is aesthetically and intellectually necessary, and dangerous, to generalize. Generali- superior to the one called to resolve the problem!It zations trivialize individuality and are subject toex- is at this point that the "L of a difference"come into ceptions which, in their turn, lead readers to dismiss play. At the risk of being alliterative, it is tiroto dis- the generalization. The reader is asked to consider cuss Labor, the Lord and Lackey syndrome and the the generalized statement as a possible truism, and Love of Labyrinthian Linkages. to judge it on its merits.It is agreed that exceptions exist for each characteristic identified.It is also not- Since the beginning of humanity we have tried ed, however, that the characteristic exists with suffi- to find an easier way to accomplish a task. All of tech- cient frequency to make it noteworthy. nology has as its premis the accomplishment of more, better, faster and easier.It is here that the One further caution is made. Throughout this ar- word easier gets confused with the word labor. Our ticle reference will be made to the technically illiterate society aspires to an easier job; one that requires individual.This term is not used in a pejorative less labor. Easier is allied with white collar endeav- sense. Recognize the fact that the level of technical ors, labor correlates with blue collar activity. Thusour literacy lies on a continuum and that the terms literate society, indeed all of the emerged and emergingna- and illiterate are used to distinguish between levels tions, aspire to academic pursuits which, It is widely of literacy within and between groups. held, have no labor attrached to them. Theseare the easier forms of existence which come as Technically literate people, and the technically il- a given for literate, belong to widely disparate groups; more the college and university educated. Have youever widely separated than those who can and who can- seen an advertisement which, urging the purchase not read. The non-reader can, with some effort, hide of this insurance policy or that Certificate of Deposit, the inability to read. Indeed, many persons react with suggests doing so to provide for your child's technical education? shock when it is discovered that a co-worker of long acquaintance is a non-reader. Our society is tending The presumption is that white collar workers do toward a non-reading base where the ability to read is not labor at their jobs. Thus the college graduate not a criterion for success on the job. This is sup- feels superior to the non-college technician. They ported by the advent of machine intelligence, voice- feel that they have spent four or moreyears in ad- prompted computers, cars, vending machines, etc., vanced academic pursuits and that they certainly and the use of pictographs rather than letters or have every right to be proud of their accomplish- words on the controls of machines and appliances. ment. They believe it is obvious that their intellectual The technologically illiterate, on the other hand, capacity exceeds that of the non-collegiate. They have nothing to hide behind. When the car won't cannot be expected to know everything about the start, the garbage disposal jams, or the refrigerator operation of every mundane appliance. Their time is gets a wet spot under it, the technologically illiterate spent with things of higher and greater import!

20 14 Techniliterate vs Technilliterate

Someone must be lord and someone else the lack- one who is preoccupied with other subjects, under a ey.Fortunately, they were skilled enough to be- time constraint, who probably has strongly held con- come the lord. victions about the topic and is suspicious of the mo- t. linkage is the uniting of two or more entities tives of the person who brought the subject up. To into one cohesive entity. This new entity may be as agree to spend time in conversation requires that the loosely connected as a chain or be as tight as 1 hearer make the commitment to question deep- crosslinked co-polymer. The technically literate love seated beliefs.Of greater importance, the hearer linkages. They are thrilled by the process of pulling must be willing to allow the other person to set the information from this discipline, and hardware from agenda; to infringe on his time with their topic. In es- that discipline, and putting them together to make sence, the accosted person must be willing to take something that no one has ever thought of before. the submissive role and most people are not willing The more convoluted and disparate the sources to do this. The decision to listen or not is based on a weighing of alternatives. This subliminal evaluation used in this process the better. To pull arcane knowledge from chemistry, tie it to some law of physics, ap- takes place in a matter of seconds c fractions of sec- ply abstract or high-order mathematic processes, in- onds and, more often than not, the decision is to avoid the situation, not to listen or become involved. corporate logic, philosophy and literature to produce a physical entity is the ultimate thrill for the techniliter- So, too, is the process of communicating be- ate.It is just process that brought about lasers and tween the technically literate and illiterate.It is easy Large Scale Integrated electronic circuitry. The tech- to communicate within groups; your audience feels nilliterate, on the other hand, has neither the back- as you do and can ascribe all of the communication ground nor the inclination to become so involved. harriers to the other group. The real problem comes Indeed, the latter is the genesis of the former; the when individuals or delegations from one group at- lack of inclination is the basis for the lack of ability. tempt to speak with their counterparts in the other It must never be assumed that the technilliterate group. Emphasis in this last sentence is on the word is stupid for it certainly is not two for the broad spec- with. Speaking to someone is at a more superficial trum of the group. instead, the technilliterate is inter- level than speaking with someone, and it is this latter ested in other things, centered primarily on the ma- that must be attempted and accomplished. We are ripulation of abstractions. The tech nilliterate finds talking here about the process of communication, ac- great value and solace in words and the feelings they tually the diffusion of innovation for the ideas pre- evoke. Their linkages might involve poetry rather sented may be innovative in the minds of the technil- than physics, Mahler instead to metallurgy and Exis- literate. Rogers and Shoemaker present an excel- tentialism in place of electronics. The key point is not lent discussion of this process in their book Commu- nication of Innovations, A Cross-Cultural Approach. the subject matter but the mindset; the technilliterate feels his or her interests are purer and therefore of Before discussing their book, however, some greater importance than those of the techniliterate. thought should be given to the participants in the process. The technilliterate recognizes the value of technical knowledge, and applauds those who possess tech- Who should present the information about technical skills, but relegates this knowledge and exper- nical literacy? The speaker should be each of us. tise to a low status position. Those who engage in The process should be on at least two levels, individ- such pursuits are commended for their abilities, but ual and group, and the hearers should be the opin- are mourned for their lack of dedication to things of ion leaders in these two different audiences. On the value, benefit end importance to the true purpose individual level each techniliterate must initiate a for human existence, that being the elevation of hu- planned communication process, presenting our po- man potential above that of the animals. sition but in the hearers language.In their book The ability to communicate between groups, Frogs Into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming, Bendier and Grinder talk about feeling tones. They rather the inability to communicate, is centered on make an excellent case for listening closely to identi- this mindset but has permutations not unlike those fy the type of phrases other people use to express that surround a conversation with a born-again mis- their feelings, then using these same phrases or sionary. A trip through any major airport will put you in contact with persons possessed by a missionary their variants to express your feelings to them. Sim- plistically, if a person says "I'm really in a brown mood zeal for their topic. Theirs is not an easy task, for they must present themselves and their subject to some- today*, indicating that they are sad and using color symbols to communicate feelings, then your re- 21 Technological Literacy Symposium 15

spouses should also use color as a means of ex- with some frequency; there Isyour list.It will proba- pressing your feelings and concerns. The point to bly contain no more than six to eightnames, but you be made here is that the speakers sole responsibility may be assured that the list does, in fact, contain the is to get the message into the heare-'s mind clearly. names of some of the leading technilliterates. There The hearer has the greatest amount of work to do in will no doubt be others whosenames will be added, receiving the information, converting it into a familiar but you have the starting point for refinement.This form, analyzing it and accepting or rejecting what was process works for any group where membershipis received. When the speaker presents data ina for- known to the public, and for a populationas large or mat familiar to the hearer it is received more willingly as small as you choose to sample. The sample size and with a greater potential for its being accepted. will be modified as the population baseincreases, The process is not markedly different whencom- but the process remains unchanged.If the target munication is inter-group rather than interpersonal. population is at a professional, socialor economic The feeling tone needs to be prevalent, but it must level significan4 above or belowyours it will be ne- be more generalized than is the case for inter- cessary to identify an intermediate population personal conversations. We must identify thepopu- through whom your point can be communicated.It is lation and sub-group to whom WC want to speak, de- not possible in this article to providean In-depth termine the terms and phrases the target audience summary of this writing, and it is not as cut and dried uses to express its feelings, then use these phrases as presented here, but it is not a complex process ei- in communicating with them. ther. Those who are seriously interestedin pursuing the communication process should read thisbooxlet Rogers and Shoemaker identify five groups or other related materials. within any population, categorized as to their willingness to accept innovation. These adopter catego- Having done ail of the above, identified the audi- ries are identified as Innovators, Early Adopters, Ear- ence and its subgroups and determined the feeling ly Majority Late Majority and Laggards. Additionally, tone, what do we have that needs to be said? Inthe the authors discuss the social dynamics between one-on-one conversations we need to communicate adopter categories and provide insight into the rate the higher order 6kills that are associated withthe at which innovations are accepted. The opinion learning our students are doing.Emphasize the leader in this process is the Early Adopter. The Early math and physics, the abstract reasoning, theaes- Majority look to this person as their model, shunning thetic concomitants of what is being taughtand the innovator because this person is too far out in learned. Certainly these entitiesare a part of all our front of the pack to be accepted or trusted. The Late courses. These need not, probably should not, be Majority looks to the Early Majority and the Laggards, long involved conversations.Instead, they should being very conservative or adamant in their beliefs, be one-liner types of comments, insertedfrequently do not accept the opinions of anyone. The Early into otherwise normal conversations.If the opportu- Adopters are about fourteen percent of a popula- nity is presented in a group session,emphasize the tion, but they sway the opinion of the nearly seventy personal growth that has been evidenced ina specif- percent in the Early Majority and Late Majority cate- ic student. Make the point of sending goodnews gories. Thus the Early Adopters are a potent force letters to parents, and the counselorsor pastors of and one whose assistance we should work hard to your students. Again, this should not bean isolated, achieve. even an occasional thing.It should be a part of your regular student evaluation process.It should hap- Our first task, then, is to identify the target popu- pen weekly, not for each student, but certainly for lations and determine who falls into each category. one or more students. Similarly, good news notes This is not as difficult as it might seem. Powers de- can go to the Counselor, Principal or Dean, tosup- veloped a procedure, later refined by Tait, Bokemei- port them in positive actions they have taken foryou, er and Bohlen, which provides an excellent model for your students, or for education in general. for accomplishing this task. Using what they call the Reputational Method, people can be identified, and Do not expect these efforts to bear fruit immedi- categorized, simply by asking other people to tell ately; nothing works that quickly. Be preparedto you who these persons are. Ask twenty people to spend three to five years in theprocess of making a list the names of three or four people whom they be- noticeable change in the perceptions ofyour target lieve to be the leading technilliterates inyour com- population. It took New Math nearly tenyears to be munity. Keep the lists and see whosenames occur fully accepted, the television set tookalmost twenty. Indeed, the term technological literacyhas been in 16 Technlliterate vs Technilliterate

use for nearly five years and is only now beginning to of technology. Educational Testing Service was con- be used outside a very select and innovative group. tacted, with similar results. Contact with the head of In dealing with the public as a whole we must em- the Iowa Test of Educational Development (ITED) ploy a process similar to that discussed above, but was negative Insofar as the existence of such a test, we must employ a communication device that is but positive with regard to interest in such a test. viewed as important by the technilliterate community. Mari), problems must be resolved to accom- It is this author's opinion that the most potent possi- plish the task of constructing, norming and validatir. ble device would be a standardized test for techno- a technological literacy test. Not the least of these logical literacy. will be to define technology and develop criteria and The academic community has a love affair with a methodology for assessing an individual's literacy. standardized tests. From the third and fourth grade, It is suggested that the following definition be con- onto the Graduate Record Exam, the academic world sidered as a working permis: is filled with standardized testing. We all grew up with Technology is the product, tangible and intangi- I.Q. and aptitude tests. Our lives and the lives of our ble, resulting from the incorporation of knowledge students and children are governed in large measure from two or more subject matter disciplines for the by the scores achieved on one or another standard- express purpose of developing devices or process- ized test.In Iowa, and many other states, whole es to create goods or services in a quicker, safer, school systems adjust their curricular emphases on easier manner. Technological literacy is the aware- the basis of district-wide math, social studies, Eng- ness within an individual of the basic tenets of these lish, reading and science test results.Note that disparate disciplines, and the ability to draw from changes are made on the basis of these subjects these disciplines to resolve the problems associated alone; with little or no thought about the rest of the with the development and perfection of a concept or district's curricula. Building principals and teaching device. staffs are acutely aware of their school's standing With this as a base, it is recommended that the with respect to other schoosl in the district, and their National Center establish a committee to work for a district's standing in state and national norms. The three-year period and whose functions will be to: existence of an abstract number, computer printed on a student's or a school district's performance eval- 1. Define technology and technological litera- uation form, gives credence to these subjects far in cy in terms that will be sufficiently broad to benefit all excess of their actual value. Indeed, the perceived facets of technical education, but without becoming value of the number, and of the subject matter, sup- so vague that it loses its effectiveness as a descriptor port one another in a regenerative manner. It is long of the domain and the basis for assessment of indi- past time when technical education drank at the vidual technical awareness. same fountain as the rest of the educational comm 2. Develop and pilot sample items to be in- nity. For these reasons, and many other unspoken cluded as a part of a standardized technological liter- reasons, it is proposed that a three-year effort be un- acy test. dertaken to establish a nationally normed Technolog- ical Literacy test or sub-test, to be incorporated into 3. Work through the Center for Research in one or more of the nationally recognized educational Vocational Education to establish dialogues with Ed- achievement tests.The inclusion of such a test ucational Testing Service and other assessment would bring technological literacy into its rightful agencies for the development, norming and marketplace as an item of national importance and concern. ing of a technological literacy examination. It was a revelation to the author to learn that In summary, it has been suggested that tech- there is no such test in existence.In December, nological literacy is a distinct entity, separate from the 1986, contact was made with the National Center for conventionally accepted definition of literacy. The Research in Vocational education, asking for a listing technically literate and the technically illiterate have of any tests in the area of technological literacy. The widely dissimilar views of our world and society, and Center indicated that they had no such tests and the technilliterate has a feeling of superiority related suggested contacting Educational Testing Service directly to their literacy in non-technical areas. As a and the National Occupational Competency Testing result of these feelings, communication between Institute (NOCTI). NOCTI exams exist for specific skill groups is stymied and will not improve until some areas but none exist that provide a broad awareness means of communication is found which is seen by the technilliterate as an acceptable form of and basis 23 Technological Literacy Symposium 17

for communication.On the personal level this Nation's perceptions and the actuality of technologi- change in communication strategies must be ad- cal literacy. vanced by the techniliterate, in terms common to and References accepted by the technIlliterate. The same conditions apply on the group or institutional level but it is sug- Bendier, R., & Grinder, J. (1979). frogs into princes: gested that the communications vehicle be a stan- nuro linguistic programming. Moab, UT: Real dardized technological literacy examination or sub- People Press. test which will be utilized to determine the technical Power, R. C. (1965). Idantifyinglhacommunkuow: sophistication of large groups of students, ranked eLslactura. Ames: Iowa Cooperative Extension according to national norms. The process of diffus- Service, 19. ing an innovation is a slow process, but one which proceeds along a prescribed and easily recognized Rogers, E. M., & Shoemaker, F. F. (1962). Commu- process. Given an awareness of the process, and a nication of innovations. a cross-culturalkip: willingness to commit the time, the process will yield maarth. Riverside, NJ: Macmillan. positive results. Tait, J. L., Bokemeier, J., & Bohlen, J. M. (1982). Our nation has for nearly 200 years been a Identifying the community power actors: A guide world leader in the development and dissemination for chug) agents. Ames: Iowa State University, of technology to the remainder of the world. Yet Cooperatwe Extension Service, 59. even the unpracticed eye can see that this preeminence is eroding and thet the United States is going the way of England, Rome, Persia and evory other predecessor in world leadership. Our status as a technological power is being usurped by emerging countries and countries where technical expertise is viewed as a virtue to be coveted and admired. We are approaching a 21st century Dark Ages wherein only the elite will understand the working of the devices that surround us. The masses will be subject to the wishes and whims of the few, for these few will hold unlimited power over the lives and daily existence of the many. Perhaps the effort to stem the tide of inevitability is futile, with the end pre-ordained. It is not, however, in this author's makeup to give up without ex- erting all possible effort to the stemming of the tide. There is dignity in the creation of tangible products. Technically literate persons do not simply "work with their hands". Our nation and the world needs fewer people as pape generators and more as innovators and producers of technically sophisticated concepts and devices. There must be a re-awakening of the American Cup Do spirit, with the attendant prida of accomplishment for those who can Do. it is the author's hope that his is not a single voice, crying in the wilderness, but rather the ioudest at this moment with others who are willing and able to join in the process of re-acquainting a nation with ite roots and its heritage. The establishment of technological literacy conferences is the first step in that process but it cannot be allowed to end when the conferences end. The conferences must begin a dialogue that continues, and expands, to fill the void between this

24 Technological Literacy Symposium 19 ...11111M=114,

International Perspectives on TechnologicalLiteracy

Dr. Michael J. Dyrenfurth Department of Practical Arts and Vocational Education University of Missouri-Columbia Columbia, Missouri

Overview sight into this concept is what provided impetus for Considerable attention has been afforded the the research being reported. As a point of refer- concept of technological literacy--in North America at ence, the author's current analysis of the concept of least. Despite this, we must recognize that there is a technological literacy, and which was developed tremerwous range in the definitions of such key con- prior to extensive overseas contact, is provided in cepts as technology and technological literacy. Why Appendix A. is this? Don't the members of our profession do their Procedure homework? Are the terms so new that we are just now defining them? Are others as confused as we Essentially the methodology employed was that sometimes seem to be? of personal interviews. My sense was that therewas just too much opportunity for misinterpretation with I wanted to address these and other concerns. paper surveys and other approaches with little or no For example I wanted to see our ideas in context-- direct contact between the researcher and there- i.e., against the backdrop of others' thinking. Be- spondent. cause I occasionally find our profession to be somewhat parochial, in that we seldom look outside our However, quality research demands thatone normal circle of friends, let alone overseas, I thought systematically sample the population if one wishes to it would be valuable to see what our international col- reach some defensible conclusions. Given the huge leagues are doing with these concepts. How are range of possible respondents, e.g., countries, they defining them? How are they using them If at types of schools, levels of education, role ofrespon- all? What could we learn from them? The approach is dents, and the like, sampling of sucha large and di- similar to Todd's (1986). verse population is clearly out of the realm of possibility for a small, informally supported project suchas However, in addition to the quest for some per- mine. spective, I also wanted to test an idea. The idea was that a country's concept of technological literacy (if Instead, the procedure employed was basedon self-selection. any existed at all) was positively linked to its stage of In essence, it depended on the ac- development. In essence, this idea is analogous to tion of those interested in the issues of technology Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It suggests that when a and education. My logic was that many of the most country's human resource needs are for economic or interested colleagues would be participating insev- other survival, then the country's educational poli- eral key international meetings that focussedon the cies will not emphasize technology for all. Only after topic. Consequently, I set out to participate in these the basic technical skill needs have been satisfied meetings and to conduct my interviews there. The would the country be likely to shift to technological meetings attended included those listed below. literacy as an important outcome of education. The interviewees are listed in Appendix B. In addition, my personal insights into the European (and Finally, prior to launching this investigation it some international) situations were enhanced con- must be noted that technological literacy is being siderably by a one month academic exchange viewed as an outcome of technology education, i.e., (sponsored by the Carl Duisberg Society and the education about technology. Furthermore, techno- University of Missouri-Columbia) in West Germany. logical literacy is considered to be an essential char- Ongoing literature searches in the computerized acteristic of those with a quality general education. data bases further enlarged the input base for this Consequently, the Importance of having deeper :el- study.

25 20 International Perspectives on Technological Literacy

The World Congress on Education and Technol- (1987) and Todd (1986). ogy, Vancouver, Canada, May, 1986 1. Techiological literacy, as a concopt, is clearly in The PATT 2 Conference (Pupils attitude to- a state of flux.It shows some signs of emerg- wards technology), Eindhoven, The Nether- ing from this early evolutionary stags but for lands, April, 1987. now it remains more a notion than a precise The European Common Market Conference on construct. People and Technology, London, United King- 2. An increasing number of countries are becom- dom, November, 1986. ingsensitivetotheterm /concept -- The international Vocational Education and technological literacy. Training Association program at the AVA Confer- 3.It seems that there is considerable agreement ence, Dallas, December, 1986. that technological literacy necessarily involves The International Technology Education Asso- In ability to do. ciation Conference, Tulsa, Oklahoma, March, 4. The term "technological literacy" is not general- 1987. ly used overseas and consequently it typically The actual instrumentation was most simple.It is not considered to be the primary outcome of consisted merely of a single sheet used to guide the technology education -- although there was interview questions and to provide a convenient little resistance to such a conceptonce the place to quickly record the information that w:* ob- idea was broached. tained. This guide provided a structure that engen- 5.Little evidence was noted to sugoest science dered a consistency of response that would not literacy was an important topic. have been possible with a mail survey. Soon after 6. More countries are concerned with technology beginning the process, it became obvious that the education for all students than are concerned approach was appst,priate. Given the difficulties in- with technological literacy. herent in communicating across cultures, let alone languages, the opportunity to clarify the meaning of 7. The US approach to technology education questions and responses was invaluable. Further- seems to be considerably more developed more, it often was necessary to explore the respon- than that of most other countries. Although, it dent's context that housed the perceptions of tech- is clear that rather sophisticated modals and nological literacy.Consequently, the interviews programs exist internationally and some even probed the respondents': have considerable history, e.g., the English SCSST Model shown in Figure 1. Country's status with rsspect to the implementation of technology education 8. Despite the relatively advanced position of the Description of the nature of any implementation U.S. conception of technology education and that occurred of technological literacy, there are many valuable lessons to be learned overseas. Addition- Definition of the term/concept "technology" ally, the process of trying to understand others' Thoughts about technology's key components approaches invariably cause one to confront some of our own assumptions and question Usage of the term/concept "technological litera- them as well as recognize alternative configura- cy" tions that might well have potential for increas- Observations and Findings/Conclusions ing our own effectiveness. The results of my experiences and procedures 9. The leading characteristic that distinguishes are presented in Tables 1 and 2 on the following pag- overseas implementations of technology edu- es. They were recently supplemented by some per- cation from ours Is their emphasis on design sonal correspondence from M. de Vries (The Ne',iier- and problem-solving processes as compared lands) who has been working along similar directions. to our focus on mastery of technical knowledge It should also be noted that the approach and analyt- and/or skill. ical method employed was clearly impressionistic. 10.If one were to be "hard-nosed" and use the Given the nature of this study, it was felt that any nu- criterion of numbers of students affected, I merical treatment of the data would yield a false pic- come to the conclusion that technology edu- ture. Similar approaches were employed by de Vries

2 6 Technological Literacy Symposium21,

HUMRN HUMAN PURPOSE THE RESTRAINTS ON TECHNOLOGY RCHIEUEWNT taws eTechnicsMends Adverse Mils I The Persons side science knowled spurns end effects Ememple: lel Betiding sandcastles M11111111M1111! Examples: T E PROC SS OF T CHNOLO Y Melting ertifici 1 Culture Imps Preps' Test end pima Enplorstise Making WWI Identify elution the ampere problem chess ith the AMER discoveries sortie Comfort the has design original Milli purpose artistic Artefacts evpressiem Knowledge Feeding Leisure Sitting it Concepts comm. Mannar e ntollta mo Seems e Penns, Incidental in Writer! letersiell neentlie woollen st 'closeiscsosis quality isle in resources THE RESOURCES OF TECHNOLOGY

Figure 1.SCSST Technology Model Pedecerechnology

cation, i.e., education to develop technologi- 14. Our approaches seem to emphasize the de- cal literacy, is much more hype than reality. In lineation of objectives, competencies andes- most places, technology education is not sential elements to a much greater extent structurally integrated into the educational than did overseas ones. Many of the latter systems of the country--despite what evan- programs had difficulty in stating even their gelical proponents would have us believe. most general goals. 11. T:iere is however some evidence of an in- 15. There remains evidence of gender-based cre le in the momentum of the technology course structures in certain overseas imple- education movement. More influential peo- mentations. ple seem to recognize that in our technologi- o q. cal world, our schools must help students de- Eastern block country approaches lean much velop and understanding of, and capability more to the vocational side than do the Brit- with, technology. ish, Flemish or Dutch. 12. Overall there seems to be a "quick fix" mental- 17. Often international science and othernon- ity in thinking that one, two or three years of industriaVvocational educators value technol- cour 3$ could meet the societal need. Very ogy education more than ours do. little evidence was found to demonstratea 18.It seems appropriate to conclude thatwe can- concern for a spiral curriculum that would sp.: not, and in fact we must avoid, the casting of tematically build a depth of understanding technology education as the 'deus ex machi- and capability throughout the school years. ne' of our time. We cannot expect a set ofso- 13. The Europeans have also worked out an im- lutions carved out of the political feasibilities portant rationale supporting the need for of our realities to be as powerful as ourcon- technology education.It states that a large ceptual models suggest. In short, we must part of being educated for the professions is not oversell the potential outcomes of tech- of a technical nature (de Vries, 1987) there- nology education fore such education is a valuable serv. le to 19. There are many who "bastardize" thecon- students. cepts of technology education and technological literacy (less frequently) by "forcing" 27 22International Perspectives on Technological Literacy 1 IIIMINIMF

what they are currently doing in regular, voca- Overall, Americans can feel proud of the level of their tional or other education and passing it off conceptualization of technology education and tech- (mislabeling) as technology education or Its nological literacy. Now what remains in the USA as products. well as in most other countries is to implement programs that deliver on the promisel 20. On the technology vs. industrial technology Issue, generally my observations suggest that the technology education view has more proponents - -it is clearly the preferred term overseas. However, there is also evidence pointing to the use of a general lable, i.e., technology, being applied to what is clearly the industrial subset of technology. 21. Our European colleagues were much more tuned into the nature of the student than what we seemed to be. For example, it is to the credit ofRaat and de Vries' project groups, and in fact several others of the PATT research group, that they noted the great difference between their intellectual and conceptualized model of technology and the model that young students have in their minds. The implications of this for instructional practice seem to loom large! 22. Type I and Type II errors. The opportunity for committing either of these seems very high when working on comparisons in the international arena. For example one gets totally different answers when one meets with mini- stries of labor instead of education. Because of this it is extremely difficult to support gen- eralizations based on what must be recognized as a cursory contact. 23. There is considerable congruence in support of the generic technology clusters of materials, energy/ power, and communication. Transportation, manufacturing and construction are not widely addressed. 24. There is good evidence to suggest the computer is an over used example of technology overseas as well as in the USA. 25. There is a serious terminological problem that must be overcome before sr rvey eoproaches become feasible. 26.In Europe, much more is made of the technology--technique distinction than is the case in the USA. Conclusion and Summary There is much to be learned overseas. The opportunity to be outside looking in yields fresh perspectives that invariably help improve local practice. 28

1 Technological Literacy Symposium 23

Tabte 1. Intern tonal Summary: Technology Education impiementations

1. Has your country Irrplemented a general education technology education course/program? For all students? For some students? What are Its male goals? What grade/age levels? ls N voc lid or general ed? ls It required or elective? Enlist About 10-20% Craft/Design/Technology Ages 14.16 Mainly for general education About 20-30% Craft(Shop) Ages 11.14 Mainly for general education Required informaky, Yes, but not In Y K - 12 generally for lower INKY localities. Under students local control kat

Scotland

Technological Develop problem -soMng Age 14-18, boys a girls General education Elective, for two years, Studies Is to be skies, apply systems 160 hrs during these 2 years required as of approach, comprehend Aug 1988 evolution of technology and wog** the effect of Some Science 8 lechnoiogyon the quality of Technology Ile and theenvironment, to highligM role of technology in manufacturing

Removes some of the design emphasis Iron CDT as compared to England

Australia

title movement toward technology education

Little movement Introductory Tech- Prevocational, work orlon- oiges 11.13, grades 7-9 More prevocational than Elect We toward technology nology. Pupils can tatlon. some lie skiNs, general education choose 2 of 4 sub- stimulate creativity feels, and this Is one of the options but both boys and curls can take It

Spain(CataMna)

There is a subject General development and Ages 12-16 General education Experimental caked Technology to help understand the but It is still In the modem world (de Vries) experimental stage (de Vries)

Adana

None Yes, Vietkerziehung. Craft a skill oriented Seems prevocational (work education) girls get textile version boys get technical version

Canada

No widespread implementation

Denmark

Not In 'FolkeskoW The subjects offered here; (primary education, needlework, craft & design, grades 1.9) home economics, art (dVries) 'donee' and creative art; are more craft oriented than an Introduction to technology (de Vries)

2 9 24 International Perspectives on Technological Literacy 11111.-411.,

Table 1(contInued). International Summery: Technology Education implementations

1. Has your country Irrplemented 7. general education technology education course/program? For all students? For some students? What are b main goals? What grade/ago levels? Is It voc ed or general ad? Is It required or eledive?

Palzgal

Somewhat, quite . Technology educa- In 5th & 6th grades 'crafts' recently but tech- tion is attached to Is Incorporated and this nology is not In the technical & prevoca- Includes a module on cortpulsory part of tional education technology general education.

After the patio* change In 1974 the technical schools were sup- pressed In order to engender equality. In 1983 the technical schools were re-launched.

Yee, Crafts and Some theory. make prclectGrade 1(secondary) General education required Work-Technology grades 4.8, 2 hoursfweek, General education required (in tioeunY, i.e. vtsft industry (ages 15-18) general education) Related to work In industry

Kama

Arts and crafts Electrldty, leather, cooking Prftnary schools

InOustrIal Education Since 1985 the govern- Age 14-18 More vocational than Elective Technical schools ment has moved to empha- general were removed and size the practical aspects shifted to Technical but there is not a specific Colleges Technology course required. The approach is vice the infusion of technological content Into Indus- trial Education's lessons.

Maim

Yes, technological To get people into Secondary Required. After first year of education, but it is jobs therefore It is not really sampling, students choose MOM on paper technology education In among unit courses than In school' the sense we are using the term here.

Technic was Intro- Meaningful occupational Grades 1-8, required In General education Grades 1-8, required in duced in 1978, for career choice. Deals with grades 9-10, elective In grades 9-10, elective in boys and gins everything of our material grades 11.12 grades 11.12 environment to develop coordination. Curriculum is different In rural and urban areas. Former emphasizes agriculture, the latter wood, metal, drawing and **Giro-technic Technological Literacy Symposium 25

Tabs 1(contInued). International Summary: Technology Education Irrpiornentations

1. Has your country Implemented a general education technology education course/program? For at students? For some students? What we ks main goals? What grade/age Weis? is k voc ed or general ed? Is It required or elective? Mtn

Yes, Technological The culture and environ- First class, ages 12-13, Definitely general, Eg. 2 hrsAveek are required, an addi- Education ment, this Includes tech- 2 hours/wwk Components of life/culture: tional 1. 2, or 4 hrs sus elective nology .0 develop ape- VerbaVliteratu re Because all other billy wkh the technologicalSecond class, ages 13-14 Ethic/religious 2 hrsAveek are required, an addi- components of Ile process: 2 hours/week Exact/scientific tional 2 hours are elective had subjects In Problem statement HurnanhiclentifIc school (except for Purpose description MuskaYartistic technology) they Brain storming Technic/Technological had to make room in-between design for this In the New structure actualizing Not*, Technics/Technology Theoretical subjects 4 hrs/ curriculum Evaluation also exists at the technical week in list year, 6 hrs/w nlermediate evaluation school: In second year occurs dim each step) Practical subjects 8 hrs/w In first year, 8 hrsAv In General development goals second year

At vocational school: Theoretical subjects 4 hrs/ week In first year, 6 hrshv In second yea Practical subjects 6 hrs/w In first year, 8 hrs/vr In second year

Yucoslavia

There Is a separate Orientation to future work Grade. 4-8 and 2 years of Required, boys & girls subject, called high school Technology Edu- cation also there Is a subject called Work at Home Grades 7 & 8 Required, boys & girls

Not really, the Craft is divided Into: closest is CAM Technical work for Skis oriented Grades 1-7 Mom and mom 'bright' Required Work New boys Grades 8-9 students are taking Elective technologies are Textile work for Technical Work because incorporated Into girls school is too theoretical volts. (de Vries) Eta=

At tne collage General development JHS Gewral education Required for 2 hrsAvk plus (JHS) technology electhe for 3 more brat** is required, for boys & girls At the lyae SHS Prevocational In nature, Elective (senior high) k Is many specialized optional (de Vries) subjects (de Vries) but mainly boys elect

Easitud13=1211c

Several Iriplemen- General education, I e. pre- Depends on which 'lane tations exist as vocational 'Lander have autonomy Arbeitsiehre Introduction to the eco- In Hauptschule nomic and work world, links Technic Technic and Home Eco- In Real Schule nomia, None In Gymnasium Some Implementation of PolyTednics and informatics 26International Perspectives on Technological Literacy

Table 1(opntinurici). International Summary: Technology Education IrrplementatIons

1. Na, your country Implemented a general education technology education course/program? For al students? For some students? What are b mein goats? What grade/age levels? Is II voc ed or general ed? Is It required or elective? llnliatillOt

Started but not In some places systematics*/ Int- plementokl across all states and communities ilattalargla

Yes, In process of Installing technology education as a requkement

32 Technological Literacy Symposium 27

Tab* 2. Internagonal Summary: Technology & Technological Literacy

2. What is the meaning of the 3. What are technology's major 4. Is the term *technological 5. What does the term tern/concept 'technology'? units/sections/components? literacy' used in your country? -technological tkeracy mean to you?

England

The delkeride application of human Information, materials. energy, dc.:Ign, Never baud it used Strong connotation of being able to crezdIvIty, endeavor and knowledge lo problem solving, creativity dot Problem-solving le In any 'literacy solution of problems linked to the physical needs of individuals of social (PUPIL

The Identification of the needs of man It is primarily concerned with problem- Yes, it le becoming axes widely used. Interaction between science, tech- and the endeavor to satisfy these needs solving. and most educators would give you a nology and society. The problem is by the application el knowledge and the definition that most would leave it at the level of use of materials, resources, and energy. Intellectual debate only. To be technologically literate one most have experience and practical competence, than most be a "doing' element to hi

Technological literacy Is a subset of technological competence. This link, the Mallen* between science and practical realization, ought to permeate the whole of schooling

The total knowledge and sidlls available to any human codify for industry, arts and sciences, Mc. I Is that branch of human knee/edge wF.1ch deals with the Industrial arts.It Is that part of applied science which has commercial value. rt a balance of knov4edge and invention.It tales us forward Ike a scientist as con- tinted to a technician.

Soulland

Not defined. This would "nail dam' the Electronics, mechanisms, pneumatics. Yes but imprecisely The use of vocabulary associated with twin elefcrePriately. manufacturing, systems approach, technology. Does not include the use communication, product analysis, technology. energy, structures

Australia

Drawing, equipment and materials, identification and processing of materials, we cf tools, energy, basic Ideas of electricity, magnetism, Severs. wedge and screw, food storage. pneumatic devices ailain(Calalona)

Physics, chemistry, math, drawing, language, history n.b. there Is some doubt about how well the respondents understood the survey (de Vries)

Technical studies Involve the components: Sulidingniving, machine technology, production design

Canada

Something that Is applied. practical, not Ensign, not too much emphasis on Ins term Is used occasionally by those Vocabulary pertaining to technology to theoretical value judgements In adult education and computers, management systems and terms, hardware and software. thamads Air

28 International Perspectives on Technological Literacy

Table 2 (continued). International Summary: Technology & Technological Literacy

2. What is the moaning of the 3. What are technology's major 4, is the term 'technological S. What doss the term term/concept 'technology? units/sections/components? Mersey used in your country? 'technological literacy mean to you?

Not well defined.Very individualized. N/A Not typically used Aptitude, energy, how things work, Not systematically developed. Humans Interacting with machines and Irlormation

Ealing

The concept ot and a technical prolect Culture and organization of labor, mat- Occasionely one reads about ft In an Knowledge of technology, not as a frult of the concept; technical erial science, process engineering, article. Eg. Friedrich Rapp (bean) manipulative skips. Skills we technical processes, technical applied technical equipment technology and technique and this Is differentiated sdenoe. There Is no COMIdefaliN1 management, orienting to a from knowledge. of man or practical things as a part of Profession. technology.

Technology is designing led making Hardly Widespread knoMedge about solutions to man's problems handling things manmade. To train

Maxim

Scientific knowledge translated Into a Mainly woodworking, typing, binding Typically not Knowledge, every aspect of product (Including blo -tech) (unit courses) technology, practical, conceptual

HYngilY

Only industrial processes. Eg. working Some use it as knowledge about Knowledgogagtechnique that with Iron and materials. We differential* technique. I.e. technique ileracy includes capability wgh technique between technology and technique. The latter is everything around us, k Involves designing and problem solving.

Etelgho

Communication, energy, living. No To be capable of facing a problem, to textiles, food, commerce, hygiene/ see a problem, to think about a nursing, technic/technological solution, to find a right solution, to have it done or to do it yourself. Recently the school' program has been narrowed to cornmunication, electro and Information, mechanical, energy and !Ming technology

Y uctoWrite

It has two meanings No Unable to communicate something like science more practical. Involved with machines

EDINA

Tradition Is to use it as engineers do, Le. Woods, machines, energy, craft, metal It has been used In some articles Most important element Is introduc- with narrow moaning, Eq. wood ft food work, electricity/electronics, technical about trends in school. The concept tloroawareness of new technology. technology. Changing the existence of drawing, production has been used but not with the same how to use knowledge, the materials, material, the basics of production. terms. know languages ol technology. technological literacy is connected with leisure, recreation, daily actheties, horn. activities, consurredsm. culturaVhistorical stages. Enna

EadiAlioutiloariarmanx

There are many varied perspectives. Typh-ally not, but Kukur Technic is Technic, the use ol technology as we Technic Is used, typically it refers to used to refer to reading. writing, and do numbers and letters. Industrial products. computers, al new calculating slur Eg. laws, not telephone, ft was difficult to even translate the concept Into German. perhaps the word -wahmemungsfahigkre is the closest we can come? 3 4 Technological Literacy Symposium 29

Tsbie 2 (continued), inlemstkinal Surnnwuy: Technology & Technological Literacy

2. What Is the mooning of the 3. What are technokcys major 4. lath. term 'technologic:a/ 6. Mud does the term term/concept nechnoiogy'? unItersections/compononUi? literacy used In your country? lechnologkal lkwacr mean to you?

A small nurrber of PacIP4 mit but 1t 16 a IWO, concept, ranges from tYlAlbliti but nuking use of the simplest technical devices to the most sophisticated ones. The *My to make good use of existing technical means. also ettludes towards putting such means to good use, working to come up with even better use. lJn1tad Stals tallittaansis.

3 5 30International Perspectives on Technological Literacy

References Dyrenfurth, M. J.(1987). Technological literacy: A .Forum, The forum for liberal education. model for society's most urgentimperative. In- Periodical newsletter published bythe Asso- vited paper delivered at the PATT 2 Conference, ciation of American Colleges. Washington, D.C.: EindhovenUniversity of Technology, Eindhov- AAC. en, the Netherlands. Gibbons, J. . (1983, July). Technology education as H. (1983). Automation and the work- part of general education. Survey report, place: Selected labor. education andtraining Science and Technology Education Document issues. A technical memorandum. Washington, series, No. 4. Paris, France: UNESCO, Divi- D.C.: U.S. Office ofTechnology Assessment. sion of Science, Technical and Vocational Edu- Goodlad, J. I.(1983). A place called school. New cation. York: McGraw Hill. . (1985, November 18-22). International Gordon, T., & Job, G. Technology for all. Unpub- Symposium on the Teaching ofTechnology lished paper distributedatthe PATT 2 within the Context of General Education. Pro- Conference, Eindhoven University of Technol- ceedings. UNESCO House, Paris, France: ogy, April 1987, Eindhoven, theNetherlands. UNESCO. Harris, L. et al. (1970). Survival literacy study. New Benderson, A. (1983, November). Computer litera- York: Louis Harris & Associates. cy. Focus (Educational TestingService) 19, 1- 32. Hassett, P. F. (1987). Technology and you. Unpub- lished lecture notes.Kansas City, MO: Blankenbaker, E. K. (1982). Technological literacy, Author. what contributions will industrial arts make? Pa- Kananoja, T. (1984). Practical subjects in Zambia per prepared for the National Industrial Arts Advi- -- A FINNIDA project in 1974(-84) sory Council. Columbus: The Ohio State Uni- some extracts on versity. lectures on an inservice teacher Valuing course in Zambia in1983. Paper prepared for the Bullock, A., & Stallybrass, 0. (Eds.)(1978). The 1984 Symposium of the Nordic Association for harper dictionary of modern thought. the Study of Education in Developing Coun- New York: Harper & Row. tries, Stockholm. University of Stockholm, Institute of International Education. Boyer, E. L. (1983). High school: A report on secondary education in America. New York: Harp- Kananoja, T.(1986). Vocational education in Fin- er & Row. jand: Its administration andmanagement. Un- published paper. Helsinki, Finland. Carton, M. (1984). Education and the world of work. Studies and surveys incomparative education. Kranzberg, M. (1983, April). Where were we going? Paris, France: UNESCO. Where have we gone? Statementdelivered at the Museum of Science and Industry's Fiftieth Cutcliffe, S. H. (1981, May). Technological literacy AnniversaryConference. Chicago, IL: Author. for the nontechnoloaist. Inproceedings of the Technology Education Symposium II. Menomo- Lux, D. G. (1978). Youth's need for technological lit- nie: University of Wisconsin-Stout. eracy. Speech delivered at theAmerican In- dustrial Arts Association Annual Conference. At- DeVore, P. W. (1980)Technology: An introduc- lanta, GA: Author. tign. Worcester, MA.: Davis. Lux, D. G. (1983, April 23). Science and tectinolo de Vries, M. J. (1987). What is technoloay? The gy: A new alliance. Speech deliveredat the concept 'technology' in secondary education. American Industrial Arts Association Annual Con- Eindhoven, the Netherlands:Eindhoven Uni- ference. Milwaukee, WI: Author. versity of Technology, Faculty of Technical Phys- ics. Murchland, B. (1983, Winter). Technology, liberal learning, and civic purpose. Liberal Education, Dyrenfurth, M. J. (1984). Literacy for a technological 2a(4), 299, 301. world. (Information Series No.266.) Colum- bus: The National Center for Research in Voca- Novakova, H. (1987). Curriculum of the vocational tional Education, The Ohio State University. preparation in the_secondarygeneral educe- lion schwa. Paper distributed at the PATT 2

3 6 Technological Literacy Symposium 31

Conference, Eindhoven University of Technol- Appendix A ogy, Eindhoven, the Netherlands. A Model and Rationale for Raat, J. H. (1987, March). Research in the PATT Technological Literacy Project--what do pupils think ofTechnology? Paper presented at the International Technology Technology EducationAssociation Conference, Tulsa, Ok- lahoma. In the introduction to my first monographon this subiect, I stated that "technology hasbeen with us Raat, J. H. (1986, November). Research in technol- ever since we began to manipulate and seekcontrol ogy education. Eindhoven University pi Tech- over the environment" (Dyrenfurth, 1984,p. 1).Al- nology. Eindhoven, the Netherlands: Eindhov- though in dicative, this statement fallsconsiderably en University of Technology. short of definition.In fact, I question the wisdom of Raat, J. H., & De Vries, M. (Eds.) (1986). What do attempting to establish the concept'smeaning defin- itively. aidsand boys think oftechnology? Although absolutists' value sucheffort,I Eindhoven, the Netherlands: Eindhoven Uni- would submit that it is infinitelymore useful to charac- versity of Technology. terize the concept by highlighting thefeatures and characteristics that are essen tial to establishthe Sanders, M. (Ed.)(1986). Technology education concept and differentiate it from others. Then, symposium proceedings: rath- Technological er than sitting around and hagglingover nuances of Jiteracy - -an educational mandate. Blacksburg: meaning and definition, we couldget on with our Virginia Polytechnic Institute andState Univer- work to help future generations harness sity. the concept and design programs to achieveour objectives. Schaum, J. H.(1981, June). Our most neglected Not only do I deem it more importantto work on asset .. . human resources. Moderncasting, application, but I also suggest it is 39 more feasible. Giv- en the scope of large scale concepts suchas tech- Smalley, L.Technology--a start. Unpublished pa- nology, there may very well exist limitationson our per.Menomonie:University of Wisconsin- ability to evolve an ultimate definition.In essence, Stout, 20-23. observation of social science wouldsuggest that Standing Conference on Schools' Science and large scale concepts are affected bya principle analogous to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle Technology (SCSST). (1973). School Technol- -- namely that there will always be a residual ogy forum,Working pacer 1.Trent, United unknown or an ele- Kingdom. ment of confusion. Like my scientificcolleagues, I submit that definitions basedon a probability model Stashak, G. (1981, May). Technological literacy: offer much advantage and that theyallow us to focus The publisher's role.In proceedingsof the on our primary responsibility--i.e., the educationof Technology Education Symposium II. Menomo- future generations. nie: University of Wisconsin- Stout. What then are the elements, essentialfeatures Todd, R. D. (1986). Technological literacy: An inter- and characteristics that operationally definetechnol- national perspective. Technoloayeducation ogy" Which seem to have the highestprobability of symposium _proceedings: Technological literacy being essential to the concept's definition?Well, at - an educationalmandate. Blacksburg: Virginia this stage my work is notvery far along, considering Polytechnic Institute and State University. the ground that must be covered, but itwould seem Warner, W. A. (1965). A curriculum to reflect tech- the following characterize technology well: poloay. Introduced at the AmericanIndustrial Technology practices in order to testor refine Arts Association Annual Conference in 1947. theories of efficient action whichcan only be de- Columbus, Ohio: Epsilon Pi Tau. rived from practice. Knowledge (ology) ofprac- Ziefuss, H. (1980). Technical education as a part of tice (techn) is technology (Lux, 1983,p. 1).It is general education in the FederalRepublic of praxiological knowledge--the knowledge ofprac- Germany. Institute for Science Education Re- tice! port No. 23. Kiel, Federal Republic of Germa- Technology [is]... knowing how to do someth- ny: IPN. ing from the rules, sometimes from scientific theories, sometimes from pragmatic experience 37 32 International Perspectives on Technological Literacy

(technic) (Smalley, p. 20). organized collection of hardware and soft ware used to achieve a desired end. Technology is a social process in which abstract economic, cultural, and social values, shape, de- Technology is also housed within the larger envi- velop and implement specific artifacts and tech- ronment of human endeavor. Some key categories niques that emerge from the distinct technical of such endeavor are depicted in Figure 1.This problem-solving activity called engineering modei provides a background that could be used which is embedded in that process (Cutcliffe, when restricting the scope of development work to 1981, p. 36). one of the arenas of technology. Although each has unique attributes, these tend to blur near the inter- Technology is made up of physical elements invented or created by human beings (DeVore, face of two or more endeavors. As evidence of this, consider the difficulties along the interface between 1980, p. 3). religion and philosophy, science and technology, or Technology is the creation and utilization of even social science and technology. However, we adaptive systems including tools, machines, ma- must not avoid consideration of the matter just be- karials, techniques and technical means, and the cause things are not clear or because they are partic- relation of the behavior of these elements and ularly challenging.It just mean that we must work systems to human beings, society, and the civili- longer, harder and smarter! zation process. The Concept of Technological Literacy Furthermore, it is important to note that the concept of technology is used in several ways, the fol- Two components are essential to the concept of technological literacy. The first is technology and the lowing are but two of the more frequently used ones: second is literacy. The former, i.e., technology, has As a discipline, the term technology denotes a been addressed in the preceding section. Literacy field of study in the same way that geology, biol- however was not. ogy or anthropology are used. Today, at least in the American culture, the term As a system, technology refers to a purposefully Figural The Context of Technology

Human Endeavor Characterise...s Application Arenas

Religion Divine wisdom Theology

Science Exolanation of Chemistry nature Physics

Technology Doing, applying Annihilation rules and experience Healing in solving practical Industry problems Agronomy

Philosophy Systematic thought Metaphysics Epistemology Logic Ethics

Social Science Behavior Sociology Psychology Pedagogy Andragogy Anthropology

Note: A preliminary and te.aative view of the context of technology is shared in this illustration.It presents a series of categories of human endeavor In the left column. The key characteristic(s) of each endeavor is(are) listed In the middle column. Finally sample application arenas for each category of endeavor are hated in the right column. In each column, the items listed are intended to be illustrative rather than exhaustive. 38 Technological Literacy Symposium 33 VIM

literacy has evolved considerably beyond merely 3.Levels of technological literacy. Thisdimen- knowing letters--just as its twin, numeracy, means sion recognizes that technological literacyis not a more than just knowing numbers. The 1970 Harris singular concept but rather that itcan be manifested poll showed ;ust how far the public's view of literacy at varying levels based on a person'sstage of devel- has evolved beyond that of reading and writing.It opment and his/her role in life. showed that literacy had come to mean: "the ability to respond to practical tasks of daily life" (p.10). But, Figure 2 Overview of Proposed Model of is there a more statement about what itmeans to be literate? The best I have found is Luehrman's claim Technological Literacy that: Fallacies and Perversions Associated withTech nological Literacy

1. Technology and science are thesame Literacy. .. means the ability to read and write, that is, to do something with a language, not merely to 2. Technology is applied science. recognize that language is composed of words, to Kranzberg, certainly one of America'sleading identify a letter of the alphabet, or to be aware of the scholars of technology, acknowledgesthat pervasive role of language in society. (Cited in Ben- while cases exist which mightsuggest this, he derson. 1983, p.5) Educational Outcomes Analogously, technological literacy necessarily requires the ability to do technology, that is, touse it Technology's and not merely to recognize technologicalprocess- Components --pAPP es. Technological literacy requires more than just the ability to identify technological componentsor to Levels of be aware of technology's effects.Although these Technological characteristics; rec ognizing, identifying, and awareness; are important and necessary characteristics of Literacy technological literacy, without the ability to do, they are unfortunately not sufficient. Technological literacy is the possession of a would dispute the necessity that this betrue. broad knowledge of technology together with the At the Chicago Museum of Science& Indus- necessary attitudes and physical abilities to apply the try's fiftieth anniversary he stated: "Formuch of knowledge in a safe, appropriate, efficient and effec- history, science and technologywere two sep- tive manner. Technological literacy requires that one arate activities carried out by differentcommu- be able to perform tasks using the tools, machines, nities who rarely came in contactwith one an- materia:s and processes of technology. other; they used different methods and sought Based on this and my research, I have synthe- different goals" (1983, p. 8). sized a model for technological literacy that I am 3.Computer literacy is the same asor better than proud to share for your consideration.Figure 2 technological literacy. presents a simplified introduction to the model and subsequent sections of this paper will provide addi- Far from it! Computer literacy is< technological tional details. Essentially the model proposes three literacy.Computers are butone part of the key dimensions which define technological literacy technological species.Technology is not a and which guide programming for it. These dimen- part of computing, rather computing isan as- sions are: pect of technology. Given this relationship, the concept of technological literacy necessarily 1.Technology's components. This dimension subsumes computer literacy. is defined by the results of a systems analysis of what technology is and how people "do" it. 4. The impetus for technological literacyorigi- nates among the ranks of the liberal arts. 2.Desired educational outcomes. This dimension is used to detail the nature of the outcomes In America, the earliest form of collectiveargu- deemed desirable by education within the context of ment for technological literacy known tome our societal needs. stemmed from the industrial arts profession.It began with the publishing of Warner's earlier 39 34International Perspectives on Technological Literacy

began with the publishing of Warners earlier Because of the apparent validity of these argu- work; A Curriculum to Reflect Technology ments, and/or the force of the accumulated techno- (1965). Then the field's references to the topic logical press, technological literacy is now increasing- increased rapidly.Most of them significantly ly considered an essential component of what is be- preceded the attention of our science and lib- ing called the new liberal arts. Progress is also noted eral arts colleagues.Frankly, in our country, in secondary education where both Goodlad's the bulk of scientists and their liberal arts ilk just (1983) perceptive study of schooling and Boyer's did not deem the study of technology impor- (1983) report to the Carnegie Commission for the tant until the force of public opinion resulting Advancement of Teaching call for technological liter- from the weight of several generations of ne- acy by name. glect loomed so large that they simply could no Technological Literacy: A Detailed Look longer ignore it. Technology operates in many arenas. Although The Significance of Technological Literacy industrial applications may come to mind first, medi- Technology is the essence of the economy of cal, military and agricultural technologies quickly fol- what we cal "developed" countries. Absence of low. And these a:e but some of the arenas!I began technology leads to our euphuism of "developing" the development of the model for technological liter- courtly. Not only does technology play a pivotal role acy by considering the dimension I labeled, Technol- in our economic world, it also determines the extent ogy's Components. First I pursued application are- to which we can defend ourselves and in a large part, nas as further descriptors of this dimension. Figure 3 the level of our quality of life.It is a significant focus depicts the model that resulted. for the recreational activity of millions and the corner- Figure 3 stone of a healthy future. Because of its acknowl- edged importance, technology carries with it consid- Technology's Application Arenas erable responsibility and even threat. Misuses of Closer examination however revealed that in technology are well known to even laypersons and each of the application arenas, the process of more than a few knowledgeable experts have fore- "doing" technology is quite similar. Consequently it casted doom precipitated by humankind's use/ became desirable to treat the application arenas in abuse of technology. Therefore, "it would seem that another manner. Because each engenders unique the hope for a future in which people are in control of perspectives, I decided to consider the application their environment lies in universal technological liter- arenas as a context or frame of reference through acy, or the ability to do and to use technology--not just to be aware of it" (Dyrenfurth, 1984, p. 1). Unfortunately however, human resource development in the technological realm has been termed "our most neglected asset" (Schaum 1981, p. 39). Technology feeds on imagination, audacity, science and most importantly, on technology itself.In order to accomplish the latter, a large proportion if not ail of our societies need to be relatively competent with technology. Technological literacy is the foundation for such competence. Additionally, technological literacy is the basis for flexibility in the future.It enables people to control and evaluate technology, to adapt to the changing world and to contribute to the advancement of its capabilities (Stashak, 1981, p. 23). Gibbons (1983) which the model for technological literacy is viewed. and Blankenbaker (n.d.) augment this list by sug- This approach is illustrated in Figure 4. These per- gesting that technological literacy increases entre- spectives can serve as screens through which the preneurial capacity, helps people make more in- model can be seen.This removes the settings/ formed occupational choice, contributes to better cit- application arenas from the model itself and thus izenship, enhances consumer and personal effec- makes it more generic--and I hope, more adaptable tiveness, and enables better defence. to the cultural contexts of your various countries. 40 Technological Literacy Symposium35

Figure 4 comes. What do the schools seek to accomplish?In Technology's Appli, ation Arenas as Framesof Ref- attempting to address this question,in the late fifties erence the American PsychologicalAssociation developed a rubric, shown in Figure 6, that postulates Further justification for this treatment of applica- three domains for such outcomes: The tion arenas comes from the observation that cognitive, the affec- each tive and the psychomotor. arena's technology typically uses information,energy and processes material. Granted the combina- Idle Genention tions and some specifics may be unique, but inmy judgement the commonality far outweighs Communicshon Informodon Encoding the uni- Tweeting queness. Consequently it seems possible,even i1 formetion Decoding desirable, to evolve a model for technologicalliteracy t h Model of Technological literacy I p4 at PostsglraCn:ninvilissilionn is Instrumentation Technology Control

IleterielsUtilization trials I Processing

Motorists Processing

Info:melon Accusing

Intonation Processing

Technology Assessment

Lfroblam solving Experimenting

Systems Anelysis Military Contexts o r Spteras Synthelis Industrial Simulation or Agricultural Fututing

not application arena specific. But be careful! Without the use ofa specific arena designator technological literacy must necessarily re fer to literacy across multiple application Cognitive outcomes essentiallyinclude those arenas- - that pertain to reasoning. They not just one or two that might serve tha proponent's range from the most simple, that of rote recall, whims best. Given this approach, which focuses to the most com- on plex, that of evaluation, in six the generic activities and characteristics of technolo- steps. gy, one might now depict the first dimension, that of Affective outcomes are thosethat focus on our the components of technology,as shown in Figure students' values, attitudes, preferencesand in- 5. This dimension presents the results ofmy per- clinations. They range from themost basic, that sonal analyses which suggest the centrality offour of receiving, to the highest, thatof characteriza- generic activities; communication, energy andpow- tion, in five steps. er utilization, materials and processing, and of Psychomotor outcomesare those that involve course, technological problem-solving; to all techno- students abilities for controlledmuscular move- logical endeavor. Additionally, the illustration shows ment and the intake and processingof sensa- a tentative proposal for the next deeper level of de- tion. tail for ea^!- If the four generic activities. Essentially the view is that although Figure 5 each domain may be treated separately foranalytical purpos- Technology's Components es, the student typically integrates all threedomains as he/she develops each significant Now let us turn our attention to the proposed new capability. However, the relationships of thedomains to one an- model's second dimension, namely educationalout- other are not yet well established. Withineach do- 41 36 International Perspectives on Technological Literacy

main, mastery of higher level competencies neces- The following steps are but one approach that sarily requires mastery -` all lower levels. may be used to apply this model to the development Figure 6 of an educational program that develops the technological literacy of its charges. Therefore the author Educational Outcomes cautions his readers not to restrict themselves to this Finally we need to turn to the third dimension of one example of the model's application. There may the model, namely the levels of technological litera- very well be other purposes for this model and other cy. Given the scope of technology, the various pur- methods by which it may be used to address them. poses of education, and of course individual per- 1.Begin by asking, with respect to any of the state- spectives, it seems appropriate to consider the exis- ments on the model's front face, and the first tence of varied levels of technological literacy. Con- component of technology (Problem Solving), sequently I am exploring the implications of levels of given this outcome: technological literacy such as those shown in Figure What cognitive capabilities must students have EdulatIonal Outcomes in order to be able to do this? What affective capabilities must students have 4 ogi=ffecflva 1-----71orrAo in order to be able to do this? Domain Domain Domain What psychomotor capabilities must students have in order to be able to do this? 2.Then, still focussing on this statement, repeat the process for the second (Materials & Processing) and each successive component of technology in turn. 3. After completing steps one and two, continue these interactions with each successive statement defining technological literacy. 4.When finished, you will have built a comprehensive description of capabilities that define tech- 7. In essence the level dimension addresses the in- nological literacy given your partic.Jlar context. dividual's age, experience, needs, role and the like. Summary Figure 7 This model has been presented for your use Levels of Technological Literacy and consideration.it is in an ongoing evolutionary state and it should not be considered as being final- Combining the three dimensions as detailed, to- ized. Additional detail is needed, particularly in aug- gether with the use of application arenas as frames of menting and/or further delineating each dimension ref erence, results in the comprehensive model for with greater precision. Additionally the fifteen edu- technological literacy as shown in Figure 8.Note cation outcome statements that characterize a tech- also that this model was supplemented with illustra- nologically literate person certainly need to be sup- tive examples of characteristics that depict educa- plemented. Of course much work also remains to be tional outcomes in each of the three domains; cogni- done to specify how the characteristics of second or- tive, affective and psychomotor. der technological literacy differ from first and third or- First Order ders and so on. Citizenship Second Order Your participation in this quest and in other ven- Tradesperson tures stimulated by this model is encouraged. The Third Order next generations need our work now! Technician Fourth Order Technologist Fifth Order Engineer Sixth Order Scientist 42 Technological Literacy Symposium 37

Appendix A concepts originally published in Dyrenfurth,1984. Characteristics of Technologically Literate People Cognitive Domain 1.Awareness of key processes and their governing principles? (What is it and how does it work?) 2. Understanding of essential relationships among key areas of technology. 3. Ability to conceptualize how an unfamiliar technological process or machine operates. 4. A sense of personal limits (when to call in anex- pert). 5. Familiarity with technology's efforts on individuals and society. 6. Ability to evaluate a technological process or product in terms of personal benefit as a consumer. 7. Insight as to the relationship betweencareers and the technological future.

8. Ability to project alternative futures basedon technological capacities and applications. 9. Knowledge of technological informationas- sessing methods and sources. 10. Etc... Affective Domain 1. Comfort with basic technological hardware (willingness to use tools, machines, and materials). 2. Imagination to apply existing technology tonew problems or situations.

3. Ability to evaluate a technological processor product in terms of personal benefit as aconsumer. 4. Ability to choose among technological alternatives in daily life. 5. Etc... Psychomotor Domain 1. Ability to use technological artifacts (tools,machines, materials, and processes) commensurate with one's stage of development.

2. Ability to use technological artifacts (tools,machines, materials, and processes) commensurate with one's role in life. 3. Etc.. The bulk of this content was presented at the PA'TT 2 conference, Eindhoven University of Tech- nology, April 1987.It represents a refinement of 43 Technological Literacy Symposium 39

Technology & the Liberal Arts: Are We Producing Technopeasants?

Dr. John P. Brockway, Directcr Center for Special Studies Director, Slcan Program in TechnologicalStudies Davidson College Davidson, North Carolina

Introduction about the nature of technology, together withsever- First, let me say how pleased I am to be able to al far more specific assumptions. Letme begin then contribute to this volume and to thank Dr. Blanken- with the general assumptions. The first ofthese as- baker and Dr. Miller for having organized the confer- sumptions deals with a metaphorical understanding ence and for having invited me to contribute.I am of our society.I want to suggest that at least meta- most pleased to be able to do so. This conference phorically, if not literally, our culture hasas one of its and its proceedings address mainstream issues for primary hallmarks technological knowledge. A flip- our generation and most probably the next. These pant way to say this is to say that we live inan electro- issues are international in scope, and important in a mechanical, digital, computational, chemical, bio- transformational sense. medically engineered society.if our society has a signpost, then the signpost is pointing toward tech- I have for the last four years been ;evolved in nological solutions, toward increased technological several major projects and programs which deal di- knowledge, toward increased interaction withtech- rectly with the issues of technology.I have written, nology, and not in any other direction.It is probably spoken about, produced symposia and subsequent true that only three other cultures seem to beon this volumes concerned with technology and its mulilf a- same road, and they are Japan, Germany, and ceted linkage to our society in general and the liberal France. One could also include Great Britain, arts in particular. Trainer' but I t a psychologist and psy- haven't for reasons of scale. Of course other cul- cholinguist who is inte 1 the problems of hu- tures want to advance technological knowledge, man memory, I know i use rge Miller told us that technological knowledge, and much has been we can really only remel. writ- Jven plus or minus two ten recently concerned with technological transfer. items, but that George Manuier later revised that esti- mation to about five plus or minus two, but I'm sure David Billington, Professor of Civil Engineering that the real figure for me, is probably one, plus or mi- at Princeton, frames the statement anotherway. nus three. What I mean by that remark is that I some- "Without modern technology there isno modern life, times have the feeling that I can remember some- and do teaching of values in modern life makes thing, but it turns out that what I know or remember is sense outside of the context of modern technolo- wrong, !'s makes me think something which is patently gy." The writers (Schumacher, E. F., 1973; Shi, D., misleading.I think this statement is true for much of 1985) propounding "small is beautiful"or "less is whai is said and written about technology today, es- more" are being sensitive to individual reactions pecially its role, if it has one, within the liberal arts.I which may be characterized as being "overwhelmed think that the informed citizen "knows" about tech- by the wave of technological advances."I want to nology and much of what he or she "knows" is maintain here that neither these characterizations, wrong, or misleading. Moreover, I think that some of nor the wave of technology, is without its price. the misleading and false knowledge that abounds Careful analysis of these costs seems crucialto un- produces and Interacts with attitudes, sentiments, derstanding what all the fuss about technology feelings, and orientations which prevent and discou- seems to be. The fuss seems to be that many peo- rage the acquisition and subsequent use of techno- ple, ordinary citizens and leaders andmanagers logical knowledge. alike, do not know much about technology,do not have much technological knowledge, and donot Culture, Society & Technology want to be associated with the forces associated with I want to make several general observations those that do.

44 icLTechnoloav and Liberal Arts:Are We Producing Technorleasants?

Let me try to be clear about what I think technol- to take a half an hour more. And we wonder as we sit ogy is, and how I classify it. Some classify it as merely on the ground, in line waiting and watching others to engineering, and the principles which lie behind, or take off, if our plane has had the routine mainte- underneath, engineering thought.Endemic to nance, and whether it will function safely, and not these kinds of definitions lies a thought process crash. We, as Americans, expect technological solu- which centers on design, and its constraints of econ- tions to work, and to work well, and we are not made omy, efficiency, elegance, and risk. However, I think happy, confident and chee. ul when they do not. this kind of definition is only partially correct.I think Americans are struggling with technological advanc- that kind of definition somehow ignores the idea that es emotionally. technology is a body of knowledge which is distinct, Americans still fear flying, bite their tongues in and apart from other bodies of knowledge such as frustrations while sitting in front of computer screens, science.It is first and foremost, not accurately de- cruse under their breath if the computer doesn't scribed as merely applied science.Historians of seem to be doing what they want, when they want it science have produced enough examples demon- to. They are exasperated when the telephone sys- strating that good technology, innovative technolo- tem seems overloaded, or when their idicrochip- gy, seems to precede, rather than follow, accurate laden car fails to start. This seems a curious phenom- scientific understanding. This "time" distinction is an err-, when comparing the American reaction to a for- important one. The notion tha, science leads, and eigners.Phone systems in France routinely bog technology follows inclines one to think of technolo- down. Water systems in Mexico hardly ever produce gy as the step - sister of science, the second-child, clean, clear, safe water. Refrigeration units in Leba- whereas in many cases cited by Brittain (1984), Kran- non are almost never able to produce cold, slow air, akis (1984), and Layton (1984), the technologist pro- and the electricity is so uneven, televisions, eleva- duces an artifact and then science explains why it tors, lights, clocks, inotors and `requently fail. So too works as it does. This is amply true of the machines does the notion of confidence. of medicine that I will mention shortly. This step- sister labelling carries with it certain pejorative atti- While much of the rest of the world rejects our tudes, prevalent and rampant in our educational sys- morals, our methods, our attitudes and sentiments, tem today, from grade school to graduate school. what it does want from us is our technology; our low, intermediate, appropriate, and most of all, our high A student of mine, Andrew Henderson, has not- technology. The Russians want it so badly they will ed that we begin early in ignoring teaching the mind steal it.They recognize its human value because to think mechanically, innovatively, spatially, and de- they will allow their citizens, even their highly visible rivatively. He indicts our educational system from the dissident citizens, to come to the United States for very start. He points out that the culture expresses medical treatment, which translates directly to their our lack of esteem for these mentally vital skills. What respect for and awe of and inability to manufacture, he seems to be saying is that this is probably a devel- produce, discover and use medical technology. opmentally linked process of mental acquisition They steal our computer technJlogy for the power which we as educators and citizens are now routinely inherent in it speed, its computational quickness, ignoring. particularly in fire and control system, and of course And so we can say that American society is in the security of communications systems as well. steeped in a hot bath of technology, governed and They would like to produce it as the West does, and directed by a new body of knowledge, but it seems Gorbachev could be seen as the new Peter the not to be by design of the educators, and indeed, it Great, with an orientation to tnings western, which might be to many's chagrin. Now many Americans, translates most readily to technological knowledge. including some of us, feel discomfort, uneasiness, As I originally wrote this, I thought this made the alienation or fear, rather than a relaxed, soporific, point well. In a conversation with Robert C. Williams somnolence. The mention of technology seems to (personal communication, 1986), a Russian historian create emotional states which are fraught with angst who has written about the espionage trial of Klaus and frustration, instead of the more apt feelings of Fuchs, I learned again that in Russia, everything is a pride and confidence.For example, when planes state secret. The location of railroad stations is im- take off today, usually somewhat late, we feel on portant and one cannot photograph anything that is edge, knowing that things could run on time if they a state secret, which means that one cannot photo- were done right, and we feel annoyed that our thou- graph most of what exists in the Soviet Union. The sand mile trip that will take about two hours, is going 45 Technological Literacy Symposium41

depth of this differing mentality can be seen in the Now, only one year after these missileshave been vi- fact that Russian agents have routinely stolen Exxcn olently debated and subsequently implanted,Secre- road maps, the ones that were given away in gas sta- tary of State George Schultz and the RussianFor- tions, and sent them back to Moscow. But the point I eign Minister Shevardnadzeseem to have agreed to want to make there is that you and I both know they remove these missiles.It is no wonder that angst, are trying desperately to steal any and all technologi- frustration, confusion and loss of confidence cal secrets, and you and are I cannot imagine the clear. Technology seems to be the heartand soul of breadth of what this means they are trying to steal. foreign policy, among other aspects of modernlife. The Japanese and Germans perceive them- The first assumption here deals withthe nature selves to be locked in a dead heat with us, engaged of our society, the nature ofour nation and the na- in a competitive battle which will have high impact on ture and direction in which it is pointed, andit is international economics for the developed and less- pointed toward technological solutions, towardtech- er developed nations. Japaneses microelectronics nological thought, or toward a technologicalmode of are at the heart of the trade legislation before our thinking. This direction leads to psychologicalstates Congress now. The entire electronics industry is in of uneasiness in many, to frustration,fear, anxiety, turmoil over just this issue. Lessor developed na- and despondency. This attitude whichseems prev- tions want from the United States any and every kind alent, and seems destined to becomemore preval- of technology that we or any other nation so inclined ent given the direction of our society, has notalways can provide. Water and sewage treatment electricity been. production, petrochemicals, pollution and pesticide controls, you merely have to name it andsomeone or Early technologies, such as garden tools,or some nation wants it. They want the entire spectrum stone bridges, or tractors may have implied thattech- from agricultural genetic engineering, to high tech nology provided solutions, but theuse of technolog- glues. ical knowledge did riot seem to createa sense of uneasiness, a sense of alienation, ora sense of frustra- It does not matter whether it is low or high tech, tion as many modern technological solutionsdo. each and every kind is sought. Each has a perceived Earlier technologies did not seem to create thefren- value, and each extracts a cost. For example, tech- zied moral, psychological, political, andeconomic di- nology can be valued because it can reduce nutri- lemmas that many of our present technologiesdo. tional anxiety.It can and has increased dramatically Early technological knowledge and itsuse seemed the yield per acre, so that more food can be pro- not to produce a sense of dread. This isan important duced by fewer acres and fewer people. Yet there point that I want to return to several times,because it are indirect costs too, in that technology may now be is this point that suggests tous that we must act dif- responsible for our eating less healthy foods. These ferently than we have in the past. This attitudeof costs can take a variety of forms, some of which are dread and rejection is concommitant with thead- not at all benign. For example, nuclear waste dispo- vance of technological knowledge. Whenyou are sal, a topic that has placed North Carolina in the news disheartened by something, you typically donot ap- recently is a problem created by technological solu- proach it, learn about it, play with it, think aboutit. tions which is wrapped in human values discussions. Moreover, you typically do not attemptto become lit- Technology has created harmful by-products, and erate about it. the storage of these by-products is emotionallyern Technopeasantry broiling, politically sensitive, economically costly,socially devisive. The second major assumption I wantto make is I do not mean to suggest that there are not other that just as the peasants during the middleages kinds of technological solutions thatare not just as were unable to control their society, were bound to the land and bound to the masters of wealth, internationally and culturally controversial.The so too will be the problems of the technologically Dutch government rejected petitions by vastnum- illiterate in bers of citizens who did not want American Cruise our society.I want to assert that without technologi- missiles deployed in their countryside.Obviously cal understanding, or some form of technological the focus of the argument, one of the largest public knowledge one will be a peasant, a serf,a slave. Be- debates in terms of percentages of individuals who ing a technopeasant, that is, being technologicallyil- became involved, was an unnatural object, the cruise literate, being technologically deaf and dumb,or be- missile, the product of American technologists. ing technologically incompetent isa very real and distinct possibility for many in our society. Thissecond 4u 4 .Thnolooy ,n. Li. :r. A Areal^ Pr II n. Th . -a- n s assumption deals with the question, "Who will be out first-hand experience of a variety of different technopeasant? Are you one now? Are you about forms of technology, nor can you be a competent to become one / Will your students be technopeas- health-care provider without an enormous shot of ants too? Will your husband or wife, friend or lover, technology.It is true in publishing, where the revolu- mother or grandfather, secretary or boss, lawyer or tion in desktop publishing is presently standing this doctor be a technopeasant?" Being a technopeas- profession on its proverbial ear.It is true in communi- ant implies being bound to the masters of technolo- cations, with voice and digitalized data, and fax, and gy, bound to the users of technological knowledge, now private telephone-linked video.It is true in auto- subservient to its employers. mobile manufacturing, and it probably true now in farming, where cattle performance, feed analysis, Moreover, being a technopeasant in any field butterfat content and breeding are now monitored can be dangerous. As an illustration I want to point and evaluated technologically and that this is essen- out Molly Moore's article in ttia Washington Post's tial for the survival of the family farm. National Weekly edition dated October 27, 1986. In this article she points out that it takes 18 complex This second major assertion contains within it steps to fire a Stinger missile (a hand-held, shoulder- the premise that students and citizens without some fired thirty-five pound, anti-aircraft rocket designed to technological familiarity, soine technologically lingu- shoot down low-flying aircraft), and this does not istic skill, some technologically bound knowledge will count the need for the soldier to hold his breath to become technopeasants. There are some obvious avoid inhaling the noxious fumes it emits when it is reasons why this will happen, and there are also fired."At $50,000 each, and weighing thirty-five measures that can be taken to insure that it does pounds, the weapon is efficient, economic, but it is not. not elegant. Remember, it has been designed to Consequences of Technopeasantry cripple low-flying aircraft, essentially a one -on -one situation, with one infantryman against one or two air One predictable consequence of being a tech- force personnel flying an aircraft worth 15-20 million nopeasant is a lack of power.If knowledge is power dollars. "But when you have a weapon that an Ameri- in our society, then those with technological knowl- can high school graduate who's going to be in the edge will hold the power. However, in our society, Army cannot operate and maintain. . .that is a prob- sharing knowledge has always been associated with lem," says Lawrence J. Korb, the Pentagon's man- sharing power. An informed citizenry is a distributed power chief from 1981 to 1985. power base. Thls second major assertion then deals with the This distributed power base has always included fate of the faculty and students, particularly those persons educated in the Liberal Arts manner. If stu- who have not opted for a technologically driven, nor dents of the liberal arts are vessels to be filled with technologically sophisticated education.It deals with the wine of knowledge, then the wines in these the citizens whose formal educationai activity is over. bottles are not and have not been technologically It deals with individuals who attitudes and disposi- sophisticated wines. Either the wines have not been tions chart an educational course which steers clear well-blended, or the conditions for vintage quality of technological knowing. We have to ask this ques- have been distorted. The wine-makers may also be tion in a serious tone.Will these persons suffer a in error. These individuals are persons who have loss of control? Will the person who has little or no chosen NOT to go to MIT or to Cal Tech or to Carne- access to technological knowledge during this or her gie Mellon. This choice, this exercise of past learn- grade school, middle school, high school, under- ing patterns, of past knowledge which is familiar, graduate or graduate education, by design and shows us the wine of humanities, the wine of lan- choice, suffer the consequences of peasanthood guages, the wine of history, classics, philosphy, psy- during the middle ages?. chology, sociology, anthropology, or economics. Thinkers ought not trivialize this choice, this orienta- The obvious answer to this question is "yes, em- tion toward people and not toward things, an orienta- phatically, yes," and one can see that this has already tion toward interactive knowledge structures and not happened and is happening in other sectors of the toward artifacts.Preferences, attitudes and senti- society.It has certainly happened and is true in busi- ments, the stuff of great literature, and the guts of ness. You cannot run a business today without tech- much psychological writings, are deep rooted and nology.It is true in medicine. You cannot go to the contribute more than their share of the weight to this doctors office, to a HMO, to a clinic or a hospital with- problem.

47 Technolfcical Literacy Symposium 43

Liberal Arts Colleges have produced more than factor as a consequence of the direction thatour so- their share of the leaders in our society, both in the ciety is marching in is that of alienation and resigna- public and private sector. Surveys of major corporation.If individuals become resigned to being tech- tions reveal that persons with liberal arts education nopeasants, feeling unable to know of their society comprise the vast bulk of CEO's and upper level and feeling that they cannot fathom what isoccur- managers, even in technologically driven companies ring, they will withdraw, become isolationistic, ignore like DEC or IBM or AT&T, compared to those who the whole and cease to participate. hold technical degrees. The same patterns hold for public office positions at the regional, state and fed- But then. the question turns to "How?", howcan eral levels.if we exhibit some form of thought pat- this be accomplished? In what manner and whatway tern, some form of education or selection process can we adjust, if we care iv avoid these radical and undesirable projections. has been responsible for this phenomenon, then we should continue to predict that liberally educated The New Liberal Arts Program, first conceptual- people will continue to want to be leaders. However, ized in 1981 by a program officer there named Ste- the character of society is changing rapidly, has be- phen White. He proposed that the Sloan Founda- gun to change more rapidly than ever before. The tion embark on a major program, which for them future leadership by the liberally educated person is means 17 to 20 million dollars, over a five to seven seriously in doubt. year time frame. He wrote an occasional paper, pub- Doubts also arise when asking "Is a person truly lished under the same name, in which various indi- liberally educated if theta is no familiarity, no compe- viduals were asked to respond to this idea. What Iam tence or literacy in technology." Are we remiss, der- about to elaborate is what the program constitutes today, and how much technological and quantitative elict, negligent or worse, culpable for not having provided this kind of literacy. Again, the answer tc this reasoning it has spawned. Needless to say, it consti- question seem relatively clear. "Yes, we are derelict tutes a programmatic response to what might have and culpable if we don't provide such an opportunity. been called technological illiteracy, ora lack of sub- One question is "Why?" provide this kind cf educa- stantive knowledge having amathematical/ tional orientation and a subsequent question is quantitative base. "How?" to produce it. David Billington of Princeton University has First, I want to address the question of "Why?" spent a great deal of time trying to teach three unify- Why produce, induce, provide or advocate such an ing principles of engineering to liberalarts students. education? To rlswer part of this question, one has He thinks the unifying principles are elegance,econ- to think about human interactions. One cannot enter omy and efficiency. By elegance, he means that the into any debate, public or private, and persuade the aesthetics of European bridge designers, andsome other of the force or your argument if one does not American bridge and tower designers, seem to be know the facts, or one cannot know what others as- unified with the sentiments and feelings of the socie- sume is known. Many of the debates, public as well ty at large and with those who are experiencing the tower or Bridge. as private, turn in large part upon issues technologi- In his book, The Tower and the tA. Those who don't speak the language of technol- Bridge he draws comparisons between public civil ogy will not participate in the debate at an influential works along these three lines. In separate volumes, level. To think otherwise is merely wishful thinking. he discusses the works of Robert Maillart and his One other kind of an answer to the question "Why?" analysis of the 1930 Salginatobel Bridge, in the deals with the exercise of civic responsibility, and un- Graubunden area of Switzerland, and The Works of derlying that is the issue of power. Power in our de- Christian Menn. He calls attention to the aesthetics mocracy Is uncheerfully given, to the leaders at any of the place and time. More than that, he calls atten- level of government. The power to control where tion to the parallels between the repair of public nuclear wasste is going to be stored, or low level gar- works and the well being of the society. When the bage is going to be dumped, or how a landfill is going society is running well, then the public worksare to be created is never happily given over to another, maintained and cared Mr, but when society, free and and for substantive reasons. We usually settle these open society, is derelict, then the public works seem issues of power through debate and referendum, to show it. When the roads and public sewers and the power of the ballot box. public water systems fall out of repair, as has been the case in New York City, then Billington suggest to The second psychological and socially driven us that these values are the values reflected by the

48 r.

44 Technoloov and Liberal Arts:Are We Producino Technooeasants?

society, and can be seen as open and not closed. ers.Health care is very expensive. The U S. will Nowhere has this difference been made more mani- spend more than $350,000,000,000.00 this year on fest recently that the accident at Chernobyl. The val- health care. Either as a percentage of GNP r "s a ues that permeate the society also permeate the de- percentage of the federal dollars spent, healthire sign and construction and execution of large scale expenditures are rising faster than any other sector, public works, and that means the upkeep and pres- including military expenditures. Health care expendi- ervation of those values and those public works. tures now account for more than 10.9% of Federal (explain) Dollar expenditures. One economist at MIT, Jeffrey Harris, facetiously, but only partly so, says that the There is another side to this issue, of what only way he see to curbing expenses for military should be known, and who should know it?. Maud spending is by letting the cost of health care "eat up Chaplin, Dean of the Faculty at Wellesley, suggests the extra dollars." that we should also look at the works of Martin Hei- degger whom she insists argues Some of these rising costs are due to an aging society, due to the number of workers who have "cogently and persuasively that the es- reached retirement age. The number of newly re- sence of technology is not technological.It tired is now growing at an alarming rate. Medicare is rather, a mentality, a way of looking at the and Medicaid, funders for many individuals, together world that is all-embracing and intrusive, with third-party payers, have instituted Direct Reim- seeking to control and domainate; by its in- bursement Groups (DRG's) to contain costs and this sistence on order and rationality, this world has been some help.But the Claude Peppers of outlook perceives nature as existing for the the society are reaching into the pocketbooks and use of people. The ethic of mastery be- piggybanks of the young, and are going to drain the comes the ubiquitous underlying value sys- resources of any modern society at a precipitous tem which dictates all thought and action." rate. They are going to drain the savings and dispos- The question that Chaplin sets forth, and a sug- able incomes of children who have not yet begun to gestion implied by Heideggar is that the major prob- work, before they can vote, and before they can lems engendered by technology are not technologi- argue the basic unfairness. Health care is not now cal but human problems--psychological, social, politi- nor ever has been conceptualized as a right, yet the cal, ethical.If this is so, then why do we need to un- society, through the grapevine of growir.g techno- derstand the underlying technology? The mold of logical and litigious costs, is barreling toward such a this question is not simple.It is a frequently asit.i definition.Catastrophic health care recently pro- question.It is a question that can take the form of posed by the executive branch is merely one instan- "How much technology do I really have to know?" or tiation of this unfortunate idea. as Patricia Johnson, Dean at Vassar putsit, "How Technological solutions for illness are patently much technology is enough?" and how will we know expensive, and the pressure is on in every medically when w know enough? This is not a simple ques- related sphere to have these enormous costs paid tion and I want to give illustrations of why it is not. by the young and old healthy worker. Two dramatic The field I have been working in for the past four examples can be found in the transplantation of kid- years is Bioengineering and Health Technologies.I neys, and now in the newer, most recently decided have done this for a variety of reasons, some of transplantation of hearts. Kidney transplants are paid which are quite personal.I want to speak about the for by public law, PL92-108 enacted in 1972, after economics of health care in the United States and I only ten minutes debate in the Senate, no debate in want to speak about the aesthetics and the meta- the House. The program now cost more than 35 phorical changes In the knowledge we have about times the estimate given during that debate. The es- our health care in order to give an indication ofthe in- timates of the legislators were precipitously in error ter-relatedness of technology, politics, economics and helped dramatically unbalance any budget. The and values. kidney transplantation program is now the dominant "model" for the enabling legislation and debate on Bioengineering & Health Technological Costs the transplantation of hearts. The programs are in First, in order to shock the sensibilities, I want to fact technological miracles for those who receive the talk to your pocketbooks, our pocketbooks. We as transplant. and medical miracles for those who per- taxpayers and buyers of Insurance are the payersof form the transplants, and at the very same time spell the costs of medical care, and generally not the us- economic disaster and ruin for those of us who are 49 Technological Literacy Symposium 45

left to pay the bills. These are exactly examples of es. They give high resolution of soft tissue with in- technological competence without the debate, the credibly clear definition inside some of the most diffi- articulate debate, couched in terms of the humani- cult places to look without damaging the patient. ties, framed in terms of the egalitarian society, the They give clear images of the posterior and media debate that would not ever allow speech about ra- fossa, an area of the head which is thick with bone. tioning hearth care, or the wisdom of keeping a per- X-rays, which depend on material density differences son alive on a kidney machine so that they can die of to produce images are absorbed by bone more than cancer. Technologies enable new ethical questions, bone more than they are by soft tissues. When X- questions which are not able to be asked unless the rays pass through material and are absorbed at differ- technology exists, and when the technology exists, ing rates according to density, and bone being dens- there seems no easy way to grasp the issues. There er than brain, it is a difficult thing to get a picture of a seems to be no easy way to say, this is valueless, brain, encased in skull. Magnetic Resonance Imag- and it should not be funded with public dollars, or ing on the other hand, depends on an entirely differ- this is great, this is the stuff of life and vigor, and we ent principle, lamely magnetic fields and radio fre- should fund it at all costs. . quency pulse sequences. MRI is non-ionizing radia- Where and how is the student or the core med tion, cannot harm genetic material the way X-rays citizen, or the informed leader going to hear these is- can. This is no small achievement. CAT scans of the sues articulated if it is not by the academy, within the brain usually use some radio- Isotope, or tracer as a confines of a sphere of intellectual growth, of spirited contrast agent. and alhtough touted as benign, cer- intellectual debate? Technr peasantry is never being tainly increase the risk to the patient. able to influence, in any perceivable manner, the The questions I have mentioned entail some central questions and answers to the above morass, simple observations as well.Technopeasantry and the loss of control seems obvious. means a loss of status, a loss of leadership, a loss of Now one may ask questions of the values of decisiveness, a loss of self-control, a loss of steward- technological knowledge, and I want to confine my ship, and a loss of self-esteem. remarks only to the technologies of medicine. One References can make remarks about the technologies of the oth- Brittain, J. E. (1984). The alexanderson radio alter- er large portion of the federal budget, namely de- nator and the distinction between engineering fense and offense in military technologies.I want to confine my remarks to medical technologies be- and science. In J. N. Burnett (Ed.), Technology andscienr&Lim cause for me, it iseasier to justify. The technologies arts colleges. Davidson, NC: Davidson College- are oriented toward the promotion of life, not its de- Press. struction by design.I recognize that statement to be arguable, however, not at this time. Kranakis, E. F. (1984).Blast pipes, injectors, and theories of heat. In J. N. Burnett (Ed.), Technol- Here are some give-aways. These images, the ogy and science: Important distinctions for liber- ones I am about to show you are some of the most al arts colleges. Davidson, NC: Davidson Col- important images ever produced in the history of lege Press. mankind. Produced by Magnetic Resonance Imag- ing, they are kind in nature, for as far as we know, Layton, Jr., E. T. (1984). Engineering and sciences they do not harm the patient, unlike so many other and distinct activities.In J. N. Burnett (Ed.), medical procedures, including most other ways of Technology and science: Important distinctions producing images from inside the body, such as X- for liberal arts colleges. Davidson, NC: Davidson rays, or sonograms. These images, like billington's College Press. images of bridges and towers, are of public/private Schumacher, E. F. (1973). 5mall is beautiful: Eco- works. By that, I mean many of the first images were flOMICS as if people_ mattered. New York: Harper produced by machines funded by public dollars. & Row. They now are being bought by any reasonable hospital, and are privately produced, even though some Shi, D. E. (1985). The simple life:Plain living and of the very best research and development takes high thinking in American culture. New York: place in major research universities, such as the Oxford University Press. Francis Bitter National Magnet Laboratory. White, S. (1981). The new liberal arta. An Occasion- Why are they some of the most important imag- al Paper. New York: Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.

5 0 Technological Literacy Symposium 47

Technological Literacy-One of the New Basics Technological Literacy Symposium 49

Study on the Justification of Technology Education as General Education

Dr. Suk-Min Chang, Director Division of Vocational-Technical Education Korean Educational Development Institute Seoul, Korea

Introduction sential component to everybody's daily life.Since !t can be said that modern society depends the Industrial Revolution, technologywas developed upon technology. The term "industrial-technological more rapidly than any other time in history andcon- society" expresses the meaning of this statement. In sequently has made great contributit'ns to industrial this sense, this paper shall examine the characteris- and economic development. Owing to these devel- tics of modem society related to technology and in- opment, we can now enjoy convenient modern liv- quire into the justification of technology education. ing. Of course, the development of technologypro- duced reverse effects, too. As an inventoror user of Also, a justification of technology education technology, we have to experience both sides. based on tie nature of human development will be Through our occupations, we either produce tech- presented. Since the beginning of history, human nological products or use them. In other words,re- beings have made and used tools. That is, we as- gardless of our socio-economic class,we are closely sume that manipulative ability is our nature. associated with technology. In thissense, technolo- In this paper, I will discuss the justification of gy can be defined as basic common culture in mod- technology education on above two points of view. ern society. Therefore, if general education is to ed- Modem society and the Justification of ucate general and common culture, technology education has to be a part of general education since it Technology Education is defined as general and common culture. Technology is the most basic common culture in modem society. Nobody will have any objections to Reducing the characteristics of modern society in one word yields industrialization, which this sta.ement. However, in an historical context, it means industrialized society. If industry is a economic activity could not be accepted as a fact until theemergence in which we change the forms of materials of modem industrial society. Team logy in the early to increase their values for human wants and needs (Towers, and middle ages was mainly a means to earna living Lux, & Ray, 1966, p. 40), industrialized society is for lower class people including slaves. For instance, a society that is based on industries. Aswe experi- in eery Greek culture, the Banausic Craftsmenwere enced through Industrial Revolution, industrialization held hi the class just above a slave (Hoster, p. 212). was possible by technological development and That is, technology and hand work were acknowledge a as lower class culture and upper class people technological development was accelerated by in- were so tar from it. dustrialization. What happened was that in orderto have better competition, we needed to havenew Even in the Medieval period, technology be- tecnnology and thus invested lots of time andmon- longed to the lower working class as their means to ey to develop technology. Accordingly, we can pro- earn a living.Hence, apprenticeship in the crafts duce almost everything in industry; that is, produc- were a primary means of education available to the tion and economic activity are totally dependenton youths of working class (Martin & Luetkemyer,p. 20). industries.If modern society depends on industry In other words, technology was not general and and industry depends on the development of tech- common culture that was taught to everybody. In a nology, then what is it to understand modem socie- traditional agrarian society, technology again was ty? needed only by the lower class people as ameans of living. to make a long story short, to understand modem society means to understand technological civili- However, technology in modern society is anes- zation.If this undersanding is not achieved,we miss 52 50Justification of Technology Education as General Education

a very important part of our modern society. Every Human Developmental Needs and the student learns about natural science, but that does Justification of Technology Education not mean that all students become natural scientists. It is because they need to understand natural Since the beginning of history, human beings have made and used tools. Human history is indeed science to live effectively. For the same reason, stu- the history of the development of tools. Many phi- dents also learn social science. In other words, it is losophers said that human ability and desire to make very important for us to understand both sciences as sorry thing is one of human nature. For example, a ground of life. Henri Bergson, the French philosopher pointed out Technology has rather short history of being that there are two aspects of human nature in the taught in school. That is because technology was philosophical and historical context: homo sapiens not taken seriously until Industrial Revolution. Of and homo faber (Goudlge, pp. 290-291). He de- course, our life had some relation to technology scribed homo sapiens in connection with rationality even before Industrial Revolution, but it was very and homo faber in connection with tool making abili- simple and traditional practice. So, it did not have to ty. Psychology Jean Piaget also classified human in- be taught in school. telligence into two categories through his study;ra- However, since technological civilization be- tional intelligence and practical intelligence (pp. 119- came the ground of our society, we have to under- 155). He suggested that rational intelligence isan stand technological system in order to understand ability to understand abstractions and practical intelli- our society itself. Now, technology is not just for low- gence is an ability to operate physical objects. Jerom er class people but for everybody. S. Bruner proposed "a course of studyon man" through interdisciplinary approach including sociolo- We have used the word "participatory democra- gy, anthropology, psychology, etc. in order to make cy." Now, we have a new word "participatory technol- students understand human nature. In thiscourse, ogy" (DeVore, pp. 333-338). This word shows one he divided human characteristics in five categories of the characteristics that citizens living in high tech- and put tool making ability as one of them (pp. 73- nological society must be equipped with. In a demo- 101). Gilbert Ryle who was a psychologist and phi- cratic society, it is most desirable if everybody can losopher also divided human knowledge into two participate in social, economical affairs and exercise categories: "knowing-that" and "knowing-how." his or her rights and duties. But in order to do that, it requires him or her to have sufficient knowledge Homo faber which Bergson pointed out in rela- about social and political process. In this sense, par- tion to tool making ability can be conceivedas tech- ticipatory democracy requires its citizens to have nological human nature. The practical intelligence more abilities and responsibilities for learning. described by Piaget can be regarded as psychological nature of technology in the sense that it is an op- In high technology society, democracy means erational ability to handle physical objects. The dis- more than political participation.Citizens need to tinction by Ryle can be considered as an explanation have a good stock of knowledge about technology. on epistemological nature of technology. Nowdays, our daily life is related to technology in every sense. Without knowing what it is, we face dif- Judging from the Ph we discussion, if there is a ficulties even in personal life. Hence, to make every- human nature whate%,....it might be, technology body acquainted with technology became a major should have some relation to it. task of participatory democracy, and technology had According to the taxonomy of educational objec- to 5e a required course in every level of schooling. tives by Bloom (1956), human ability in divided into By the previous discussion, it is possible to con- cognitive, affective and psychomotor domain. Hu- clude that technology means general knowledge ne- man nature that Bergson, Piaget and Ryle tasked cessary for participating in social affairs as citizens of about has something to do with this psychomotor democratic industrial society. Participatory technolo- domain directly or indirectly. gy requires every citizen to possess technological lit- If we human beings are born with some abilities eracy with responsibility. Moreover, it should not be related to technology, it Is natural for us to desire to just a skill useful to daily life, but understanding develop them. That is wahy we need technology ed- about technological system rooted in the society. ucation and coordination of its subordinate factors. Therefore, technology education should be accept- Fleishman pointed out that there are two aspects of ed as general education to understand technological psychomotor ability. One is about the area of physi- system as our living environment. cal proficiency such as strength, flexibility, speed,

5 3 INIMMISI1111111111k Technological Literacy Symposium 51

balance, coordination and endurance. The other is tal needs, content of needscan be different by the about manipulative skill which is related to manual changes of time and environment. Hence,technolo- dexterity (pp. 245-286). This tells us not only thene- gy education should recognize developmental cessity of technology education, but also the con- needs of human beings continuously anddevelop tent of it in the sense that it talks about developmen- the contents accordingly. tal needs of human beings. Concluding Remarks According to Piaget, intelligence is an adaptive process learned through active transaction with a So far, the justification and necessity of technol- person and his environment, and children can learn ogy education have been discussed on the basis of through the use of manipulative materials and direct the characteristics of modern society and humanna- ture. experience (Elkind 1974). Piaget also implies that It is emphasized that technologyeducation children can learn more actively through actions rath- should be a compulsory course for all studentsat all er than teachers explanation or reading a book. In levels of school education in orderto understand order to have active learning experience, children modern society, which dependson technological manipulate and coordinate various materials. Thus, if civilization as one of our environmentalfactors. we think of these actions as technology itself. tech- Moreover, technology education has beenrecog- nology education is deeply related to the basic de- nized as an absolute part of genera!education for velopmental needs of human beings. developmental needs related to manipulativefunc- tion. According to the results of the psychological studies including Piaget's theory, children evolvea Technology education can be always justified in stable body of useful information concerning their terms of general culture and developmental human environment through the development of a number need as discussed in this paper. However,the spe- of motor patterns such as locomotion, manipulation, cific contents of technology educationshould be balance, throwing and catching. According to Pia- Vai!&.i in accordance with time andenvironment in get, the initial information about these motor patterns which people are living. is motor knowledge. And this motor knowledgesys- References tem can be developed by interacting with the objects Boom, B. S. et al. (Ed.) (1956). laxonoMyQiIt&a: in their environment. The development of motor skill including sensory motor skill, perceptional motor skill objectives: The classification of educational goals. handbook I: and psychomotor skill is then basically connected Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay. with technology education. Especially at the primary school level, technology education should be con- Bruner, J. S. (1966). Man: A course of_study,To- sistent with such developmental needs. ward a Theory of Instructign. Cambridge,MA: Harvard University Press, 73-101. The manipulation and coordination of objects and materials require more than physical function.It Dececco, J. P.. & Crawford, W. R. (1974). Theteach.: is possible when we can practice our judgement in jng and learning of psychomotor skill. ThePsy- accordance with our physical function. In this sense, choloay of Learning and Instruction (2nd ed.). the concept of technology focuses on psychomotor New York: Prentice-Hall, 245-286. skill. Technology education, of course, should bere- DeVore, P. W. (1980). Technology: An introduction,. lated to manipulative function and serves its develo- Worcester, MA: Davis, 333-338. mental needs, but the meaning of technology isnow extending to include not only manipulative function, Elkind, D. (1974). Children and adolescents: Inter- but also technological literacy. pretative essays on Jean Piaget (2nd ed.). New YorK: Oxford University Press. The emphasis on technological literacy in technology education means That there are needs for Hoster, R. G. (1974). Historical reflections. In R. G. technological knowledge. Technological ideas and Thrower & R. D. Weber (Eds.), Industrial arts for understanding are new developmental needs raised the elementary school, ACIATE 23rd Yearbook, with the development of technological civilization. 212. According to the studies done about technology ed- Goudlgb, T. A. (1967). Bergson, Henri.In P. Ed- ucation, most students and citizens have nseds for wards (Ed.), The encyclopedia of philosophy,1, is technological knowledge. That is tosay, even if 290-291. New York: Macmillan. technology is human nature related to developmen-

5 4 52 Justification of Technology Education as General Education

Martin, G. E., & Luetkemeyer, J. F. (1979).The movements that led to contemporary industrial arts education. In G. E. Martin ', A.), industrial arts education: Retrospect._ prospect. ACIATE 28th Yearbook, 20. Piaget, J. (1969). The psycholoay of intelligence. London: Trans Malcolm Piercy, 119-155. Ryla, G. (1949). IgiugntagLof_rnindLondon: Hutchinson. Towers, E. R., Lux, D. G., & Ray, W. E. (1966). A rationale and structure for industrial_ arts subject matter, IACP Research Report, 40. Technological Literacy Symposium53

A r ;se fol' TechnologicalLiteracy

Dr. Loren Martin Department of Industrial Education Brigham Young University Provo, UT

In the past few years there have beenmany title and technological elite anda citizenry ill- studies of education in the United States. One of informed, indeed uninformed,on issues with a the most prominent and most quoted is "A Nationat science component. Risk." The opening paragraph states, "Our nationis The nation had received previous warning at risk. Our once unchallenged preeminence incom- of this merce, industry, science and technological innova- impending problem in many studies andreports of tion is being overtaken by competitors throughout education in the past two decades. Asan example, a the world." 'Dos it is noted that the nation isat risk book entitled, Man, Education, and Workby G, ant not because of a dearth of literature and the arts but Venn in 1964 cautions, because of a slowdown of development in science Unless far more and far bettereducation on and technology. the semi-professional, technical, and skilled levels is soon made available As an example of this, recent reports indicatean to greater ever increasing portion of worldwide commercial air- numbers of citizens, the nationaleconomy liner orders going to manufacturers in England, and social structure will sufferirreparable damage. France and Italy. This has been an almostunchal- lenged American domain for the past fortyyears. We Former U.S. Commissioner of Education,Ernest are all too aware of the challenge to domestic pro- L. Boyer, assisted with arepon similar to the "Risk" duction of automobiles, steel, shoes, clothing and report. Also conducted in 1983, itwas sponsored by electronic assemblies from foreign competitors. the Carnegie Foundation, andwas entitled, High The "Risk" report further states that educational School, A Report on Secondary Educationin Amer- cia. Referring to that report, Mr. Boyer deficiencies come at a time when the demandfor later stated: highly skilled workers new new fields is accelerating In the Carnegie report we also call fora study rapidly. For example: of technology for all students.I do not be- ' Computers and computer-controlled equipment lieve that we can within the four walls ofeve- are penetrating ever aspect of our lives--homes, ry school and within the four years of high factories, and offices. school prepare students for every specialized occupation. ' One estimate indicates that by the turn of the century millions of jobs will involve laser technol- But we can and must helpevery student ogy and robotics. learn about the technology revolution, which will dramatically shape the lives of all of ' Technology is rapidly transforming a host of other them. occupations. They include health care, medical science, energy production, food processing, Arguments over definitions of technologyare construction, and the building, repair, and main- numerous. Most of the definers belong to a fewper- tenance of sophisticated scientific, educational, cent of our society who are themselves technolo- military, and industrial equipment. gists. To the average person, technologyis a mysti- cal black box. With wheels on it, itcan be driven to ...within the context of tiz modem scientific revo- work or to the supermarket. With hinges?ncl some lution, we are raising a generation of Americans that insulation, it becomes the door toa refrige-ator or mi- is scientifically and technologically illiterate. crowave oven. With a bit of rounding of thecorners, (There is a) growing chasm between a small scien- a nose cone up front, and a rocket motor in the back, 56 54 A Case for Technological Literacy

it threatens nuclear winter. calculations within one day than did all of mankind Many nations of the world are classed as under- previous to 1970. developed countries. This classitication is not be- Broadly speaking, the study of the implications cause of a deprivation of literature, the arts, laws, so- of technology upon society could becomean inte- cial customs or great leaders. These nations have grating factor for all of education.It has been previ- their own art forms :egends, folk heros, customs, ously noted that students in the secondary school mores, and taboos; many of which rival the best of system must become technologically literate. James the "first world" countries in philosophy, depth of R. Johnson, laboratory director of the 3M Company meaning, and socialdevelopment. The label has emphasized the holistic integration of technolo- "underdeveloped" stems, rather, from a deprivation gy education, of technology and an increased standard of living comparable to the more advanced nations. Much has been said of technological !itera- cy, usually meaning that nontechnologists In the TV series "Connections" (which I heartily must learn some technics. But this is not recommend for your viewing) featuring the history enough. Modern technology and its impli- and development of technology and the chain reac- cations require a holistic, integrated under- tion of technological events and their effect on soci- standing that permeates all segments of our ety, the commentator, James Burke, suggest:. that society. This is for education a goal whose the development of the moldboard plow was the sin- time has come. gle most significant element in allowing society to progress from a subsistance agrarian economy to In its modern garb, technology may be too one where there was a surplus of food where some new on the human scene to be fully under- people could begin to devote their time and talents stood. Nonetheless it is the responsibility of to other endeavors. "Civilization" thus came into be- education to acquaint all members of our so- ing.It is significant that many of the least developed ciety with some measure of its technics, in- countries have not progressed to the moldboard cluding hands-on practice. And of equal im- plow--they still subsist with the digging stick or the portance, education must deal with the so- stick pulled by a draft animal or a fellow human being. cial and political consequences of technology, both as history and future. Technology We have barely comprehended the influence of education in this holistic sense has an un- technology on natural and societal systems of the precedented challenge! past. The understanding of its future impact is even more remote. But as the gifts of technology become Walter Waetjen, President of Cleveland State more pervasive and its concomitant problems more University, has likewise sounded the call fora broad study of technology at all levels of education. critical, there is a compelling need for as broad an understanding as possible. The technologists must Technology education in the United States give more thought to the uses of technology and has, for all practical purposes, been focused their impact on nature and society.The non- strongly on the technical side.In the ele- technologists must no longer regard technology as mentary and secondary school, we entrust something that works magic for or against them. technology education to the mislabeled "shop teacher." It is interesting to contemplate the influence of At the university level, technology upon our modern lives. The question technology is placed in the hands of the en- may be asked, "Can you think of any aspect of your gineers, ceramists, or print makers. More re- daily living which is not influenced by technology?" cently, technology has been equated with computer centers. The difficulty in determining an answer to this query illustrates the influence of technology.This in- No matter the level of education, we do not fluence is expected to increase.Consider the de- seem very concerned with technology be- velopment of technology during the lifetime of older ing part of the humanities, the arts, or the persons now livingfrom the fastest form of transpor- policy sciences...We cannot continue to tation being muscle power (the speed of a horse) to limit the study of technology to its technical speeds in excess of 100,000 miles per hour in space aspects alone. ship travel. A supercomputer at Los Alamos National Laboratory is said to be able, at the rate of 780 million calculations per second, to perform more arithmetic Universities and secondary schools can use

57 Technological LiteracysisoripIla Symposium 55

technology as one of the integrators or find it equally scandalous that some jobsare themes that would run through the entire generously approved while others are cyni- curriculum. Were this to be done, students cally condemned. might develop a better understanding of the In a similar vein, John W. Gardner, former U.S. impact of technology on social change. Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, said, Traditional liberal arts colleges have also begun to . .the society which scorns excellence in realize the importance of including the study of technology in their curriculum. According to A. Emerson plumbing because plumbing is a humble ac- Weins, a professor at Nethel College, Kansas, tivity and tolerates shoddiness in philosophy because philosophy is an exalted activi- While secondary education is currently be- ty, will have neither good plumbing nor ing challenged to return to the "basics," lib- good philosophy, neither their pipes nor eral arts colleges are being challenged to their theoriRs will hold water. broaden and update the liberal arts curriculum by including a study of technology in While the recognition of the importance of tech- the general education program. The impe- nology and technology education by at least a few others in educational circles is comforting, that tus for a new look at the liberal arts comes in compart from within, but it is also being prompt- fort is short-lived when we realize the challenge ed by business-backed foundations who which faces us as technology educators. recognize the need for more informed deci- It has been estimated that the total technological sion makers.W. Dale Compton, Vice- base doubles every five years and some authorities President for Research at Ford Motor Com- say that the doubling is presently in as little as three pany, states, The impact of technology is so years. The students currently in kindergarten will be great, and the questions posed are so im- graduating from high school and entering the work portant that responsibility for weighing the force or pursuing other educational endeavors in repurcussions of technology cannot be rel- about the year 2000. At the present pace then, by egated solely to the technical specialists'. 1990 or shortly thereafter, the technological base will be doubled, by 1995 it may double again, and again People lose their price and their self-esteem if they are not involved in quality productive activity. by the year 2000--or eight times the current techno- Part of the cause of the current drug epidemic may logical base! Can we even attempt to imagine the be that people lack a sense of direction and personal technological challenges which will face the students value and esteem.It is difficult to perceive their now in kindergarten! However, the inability to imagine such marvels does not lessen the requirement worth and to establish a personal niche in a technological society. Again, Ernest L. Boyer has said, that they be prepared in the best way possible. They must become technologically literate in the school The fifth priority of excellence, (in educa- systems to cope with the opportunities of the future. tion) which I happen to believe in passion- Our challenge as faculty is to stimulate a love of learn- ately, is acknowledging the dignity of work. ing and broaden the vision of potential and provide The truth is that work is at the very heart of activities so that our students will not only be our existence. It's through work that we de- able to cope with advances in technology but indeed fine who we are. And its through work that be on the leading edge in the development of those we give special meaning to our lives. technologies. Education is not simply something that we In Utah, we sing the songs of Zion authored by engage in as an end in itself. We develop inspired pioneer forebearers. We shed a tear aswe our talents, our skills, and our ideas in order read of their struggles in settling the western wilder- to be productive, to make something useful ness. But among the things we most appreciate and of our lives. That's what I mean by work. marvel at are their applications of technology to mon- ...The time! as come to acknowledge that a umental developments achieved with limited re- study of work is a part of the core curriculum sources--the magnificence of the temples, the mar of every student. vel of the construction of the Tabernacle, the ingenuity of materials procurement and handling, and the What I find scandalous today are the mind- foresight of design which would incorporate later less distinctions drawn between so-called technological developments. We are all aware of the academic and non-academic programs.I magnificence of Rome and of Athens and of thepyr- 56S8 56 A Case for Technological Literacy

amids and temples of Egypt. We know of the cities not discard them all. But neither can we be deluded and temples built thousands of years ago in Central that past successes will guarantee interest and in- and South America. We are aware of them basically trigue in our current classes nor insulate our pro- because of the remains of their technology. We grams from serious scutiny in the strains of the bud- know of the Michaelangelos, the DaVincis, and the get crunch. In many cases, we need only to change Galileos of a few hundred years ago. These civiliza- the emphasis and incorporate a little less pure skill tions or individuals had technological understanding development and stress more of the ideas of the ef- which was far ahead of their time. Dare we deprive fects of a certain product or process upon nature and our students of a similar foresight to prepare them for society. We need also to infuse new processes and the time in which they must be the pioneers? machines into our curriculum wherever appropriate. A few months ago I attended a CAD/CAM work- We excuse ourselves by saying that no funds are shop sponsored by the State Department of Educa- available--and funding is certainly scarce. But most tion at a rural high school in Utah. At that workshop of the machines which can be utilized to give instruc- was a teacher who had graduated just a couple of tional experiences in new concepts are much less years before I did and has been teaching at the same expensive than the traditional woodwork and metal- high school in Salt Lake City for the past twenty years work equiprisnt which we buy or replace each year. or so.I have not seen him at many of the profession- Students must learn that while they have the op- al meetings which I have attended, so I made a point portunity of being tutored by masters of learning- - of chatting with him. After seeing some of the miser- men and women who have shown by their own ex- ies that we go through in trying to understand and ample an acquisition of knowledge and an adaptabili- implement the new technologies, he commented to ty to change, they also have a significant individual me, "This stuff is too confusing for me to learn so I'm responsibility to promote their own growth ad attain- just going to ignore it.I've only got twelve more ment through personal drive and initiative.Stu- years until retirement anyway." How selfish and dents, through the example and precept of dedicat- shortsighted! He is the teacher! The leader! He has ed learning on the part of faculty, will come to realize already deprived at least a half dozen year's worth of that learning is a lifelong process and that indeed as students from participating in the kinds of activities the ceremony states, graduation is but a commence- that will increase their technological base, make them ment of education and learning. We must all under- more appreciative of the position of technology in stand the reality of the statement, "the bigger the is- our present society and prepare them for jobs in the land of knowledge, the longer the shoreline of won- workplace of today and tomorow. Can we, or they, der." afford another twelve years of similar instruction? Schools must shoulder the responsibility of pre- Programs such as this will not be killed by the trend paring students who can go forth to serve, who ap- toward more academic graduation requirements or preciate the opporutnity to stand upon the shoul- the "return to the basics" movement. They will die of ders of those who have gorse before to prepare the themselves, from a lack of care and nurture and vitali- way, who are loyal to the grandest ideals of all gener- ty from the professional who has been entrusted to ations, who are teachers and practitioners of technol- lead his students to new heights of understanding in ogy who can help to push forward the frontiers of contemporary practice. All too many students in tra- learning and can also assist our countrymen and ditional industrial arts classes suffer a similar depriva- people in underdeveloped countries to increase tion. They are very little better off the 1 students in their standard of living and help them envision them- "third world" schools. selves as noble children of a loving God, not kinsfolk Over the years there have been many surveys to hrute animals of prey and toil. conducted and committees established to deter- References mine the major goals of education. Some of the goals developed in these studies relate to "learning Boyer, E. L. (1983). Nigh school. a report on secon- how to learn," and "learning how to adapt to dary education in America. New York: Carnegie change." If those are some of the major goals of ed- Foundation, Harper & Row. ucation, we in the profession must certainly reflect Boyer, E. L. (1985). A perspective on education. those goals. We must learn new concepts, incorpo- Technology Education. A Perspective on Imple- rate new technologies. and change those portions mentation. Reston, VA: American Industrial Arts of our programs which are not up to date. We have Association. done some grand things over the years and need 59 Technological Literacy Symposium 57

Johnson, J. R. (1985). The nature of our technological society. Technology Eduostjon,A2e, live on Implementation. Reston, VA: American Industrial Arts Association. National Commission on Excellent in Education. (1983). A nation at risk. Science newsfront. (1986, March). Popular Science, 16. Shallenberger, S. R. (1986, January 8). 2000 ad: Our world in the year 2000. Utah County Jour- (, Provo, UT. Venn, G. (1964). Man. education. and work. Ameri- can Council on Education. Waetjen, W. B. (1985).People and culture in our technological society. Education. A Perspective on Im lagn. Reston, VA: American Industrial Arts As- sociation. Weins, /.. E. (1985). Technology and the liberal arts. The Technology Teacher, 13. Reston, VA: In- ternational Technology Education Association.

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Technological Literacy Symposium 59

Technology: The Newest Liberal Art

Dr. Jerome J. Kowa! Industrial Education and Technology Western State College of Colorado Gunnison, Colorado

Efforts to define and clari'y the goals and meth- ble and very desirable. The quest for a commoncore ods of formal education are clearly evident through- is an important and perplexing issue. Boyer (1987) out history. The early work of Pestalozzi emphasized asks: the common goals of the teacher and student as discovering the laws which govern humanity and na- Can the American college, with its fragmentation and competing special interests, de- ture.Herbert emphasized the psychological approach to understanding the needs of the learner. fine shared academic goals? Is it possible to offer students, with their separate roots, a Froebel believed that children should cultivate their program of General Education that helps sense of self-identity in play and similar activities so them see connections and broadens their as to develop a child's perception of the world. perspective? (p. 83) These educational goals, centered on the early development of the child, are sound and few could It is not uncommon to find faculty and departments competing for access to General Education course argue their validity.While consensus among the offerings. In an age of diminishing student pools and ideals is likely, the method for achieving these ideals remains as diverse as are the individuals who profess increased competition for students, the general edu- them. cation program is a means of access to potential majors. In a similar sense, as we search for a definite goal statement for a liberal undergraduate education, a This misuse of the core curriculum is a result of the political structure of the college. When the bud- variety of valid statements can be found. A mission statement for a liberal arts college, cited in Boyer get and faculty size are based on the number of majors, its simply a matter of survival. The problem is a (1987) is one such example. It reads: systems problem. In complex situations it is neces- The college stands for an education that will sary that conditions which impede progress toward give each student the skills of communica- valued goals be eliminated. A faculty cannot be ex- tion, the ideas and principles underlying the pected to be free to explore untraditional options for major areas of modern knowledge, the un- the common core, while at the same time be plagued derstanding that learning is a continuous with possible dismissal. This cannot possibly result lifetime process, and the courage and en- in a truly natural and unbiased program develop- thusiasm of a better world. (p. 60) ment. Once again, these objectives are not difficult to In a similar sense, if the institution in any way ex- identify with, however, a great disparity is likely when pects to tap all options for common learning, at no methods of attainment are suggested. time, should a simple dividing of the academic pie be As curricular modification is in progress for many considered. Dewey (1938) warned: undergraduate institutions, equally agreeable goals It is the business of an intelligent theory of are visible as objectives-in-common, but the details education to ascertain the causes for the of how their implementation will occur are not so conflicts that exist and then, instead of tak- clear. ing one side or the other, to indicate a plan Specifically, many undergraduate institutions are of operations proceeding from a level deep- in the process of rethinking and redesigning their er and more inclusive than is represented by core curriculum. General ideas are, as a rule, agreea- the practices and ideas of the contending parties.

61 -,1-:,---

60 Technology: The Newest Liberal Art

This formulation of the business of the phi- What do students want? For what they and losophy of education does not mean that their parents willing to pay? In a word, the the latter should attempt to bring about com- answer is status, especially the status that is promise between opposed schools of attached to a pretigious institution.Stu- thought, to find a via media, nor yet make an dents are eager, and more willing to pay, to eclectic combination of points picked out attend a college with the reputation or pro- hither and yon from all schools.It means the grams they believe will lead to high payin'l necessity of the introduction of a new order jobs and top professional schools. The mai- of conceptions leading to new modes of ket for entry papers to propserous middle practice. (p. 5) class life is txroming: the market for an edu- Following Dewey's line of reasoning, the task is cation, especially the traditional liberal arts not to design a core curriculum based upon who education that's been so central to our colle- yells the loudest or the longest, or to use compro- giate tradition, is dying. (p. 21) mise as a rationale for curricular design. The basis of This description of today's college student may an appropriate rationale is centered on the student; be an over simplification of reality, but inherent in this how students learn, what is necessary for a cohesive trend is great potential for exciting course options. educational experience, and how can students be What should be obvious to curriculum designers is best prepared for a future, which is at this time, un- that our world is changing. The problems in environ- known. Boyer (1987) writes: ment, social strife, economics, human health, and General education is not complete until the technology in general are undergoing rapid changes subject matter of one discipline is made to as well. The interconnectedness of disciplines is touch another. Bridges between disciplines more apparent than ever before, and the effects of must be built, and the core program must be today's decisions are long lasting and in many cases, seen ultimately as relating the curriculum irreversible. This reality sets the stage for many new consequently to life. (p 91) educational designs which incorporate real-life problems in a real-life context. The decision making pro- Boyer further states: cess of today is plagued with consequences. To- This nation and the world need well in- day's college graduates must be prepared for formed, inquisitive, open minded young change and the effects of change. people who are both productive and reflec- The Ohio State University's Special Committee tive, seeking answers to life's most impor- for Undergraduate Curriculum Review is currently tant questions. Above all, we need educat- studying issues very similar to ours.Their clarity of ed men and women who not only pursue purpose is stated in the following text. They report: their own personal interests but are also prepared to fulfill their social and civic obliga- Although our goals remain the same, the nations. And it is during the undergraduate ture of the modern world may demand a experience, perhaps more than at any other sweeping revision of means to achieve our time, that these essential qualities of mind desired ends. The educated person, many and character are refined. (p. 7) authorities suggest, must be prepared for lifelong learning. The rapidity and magni- These stated ideals suggest a common core that tude of technological and social change will is considerably different than what is known as tradi- continue to transform our world.Esta- tional liberal arts.It is not that traditional subjects blished jobs and occupations will disappear have no place in contemporary education, but possi- and new ones will appear. Institutions will be bly the methodology is inappropriate. From a stu- radically altered, presenting new and per- dent perspecave, the market is changing. Students plexing problems.Educated people, to are more likely to pursue what they want in educa- deal with these changes, will need to devel- tional experiences, or what they feel has value or op a much higher level of intellectual flexibili- meaning. There is a general unwillingness to take ty and social intelligence.If this higher level classes simply because they are required. Obvious is to be achieved, our students must be in- value must be apparent. Some suggest that today's formed by the past, knowledgeable about student is too materialistic and tends to choose the present, and intellectually prepared to classes which specifically relPte to economic gain af- meet an uncertain future. (p. 1) ter graduation. Krubowski (1985) writes:

6°4., Technological Literacy Symposium 61

This "higher level of intellectual flexibility and so- formation sources, through researchmethodolo- cial intelligence," to have meaning, must be ad- gies, and to improve communication skills. dressed in a real-world context; the content of futures in science and technology. The future in The real-world context requires thatthe college science, as Kranzberg (1968) suggests, affords limit- graduate be prepared for an ever-changingfuture, be able to see relationships between less possibilities and futures in technologypose cau- disciplines, tious advancement in light of social, ethical, and nvi- and be open to change as wellas being vital in the ronmental restraints.Together, these two L.isci- change process. plines provide a rich inventory of contemporary is- A new binding element isnecessary in the for- sues to support study in lifelong learning. mat of the common core. Technology and thetech- This beginning for lifelong learning mustpro- nological choices of today and toms:row will have the mote integrative thinking which requires leaving dis- greatest future impact on the world's people. Most ciplinary vacuums. "No real-world problems can be every issue in our society has technological implica- fitted into the jurisdiction of any single academic de- tions. One must be able to see implications andrami- fications of impending technological decisions. partment" (Cleveland, 1985). Cleveland alsosug- gests that the vast potential in information sources A well educated citizenry will have thedecision makes it possible to access enormous quantities of making power for tomorrow. "Technology ispreemi- data. He writes: nently a social process, and is not to be thoughtof as Tools such as these empower those who something affectino humanity from without" learn to use them, to make complex judg- (Pfnister, 1985). Herein lies the tie-in withKranz- ments in the mindful knowledge of alterna- berg's earlier idea that futures intechnology pose tive futures. Systems thinking has created cautions advancement in light of social, ethical,and new ways to help encompass in a single environmental restraints. Technology doesnot rule mind some approximation of 'the situationas the populace, the educated populace rules thetech- a whole' as it relates to the problem being nology and determines the appropriatenessof tech- studied. (p. 20) nological innovation. The information at hand should only be consid- If college curriculum committeesare at odds over ered a tool and not an end in itself. Educators must the apparent lack of student interest in philosophy, use these available resources in the process of de- history, ethics, foreign language,communication veloping a more dynamic curriculum. The vastreser- skills, and the natural and social sciences,the real- voirs of data, however, should not attempt to limit the world context of technological endeavorsprovides curricular design to purely scientific or technological an arena in which iftese issues may be actively de- ends. The new curricular models must acknowledge bated, alternatives posed, and solutionspresented. the human element as part of the integration of If general education is in need ofrelevancy, one scientific and technological imperatives. According must only look to the events of today to find subject to Cleveland (1985): matter. Honing the mind and nourishing the soul To enact a vital core curriculum whosecompo- are both functional in the new knowledge nents include technology, four imperatives must be environment. What we need now is a theory woven into the fabric of the core. of general education that is clearly relevant First, learning must be treated asan ongoing ac- to life and work in a context of the informa- tivity. The new and vital discoveries in sciencepro- tion age--a rapidly changing scene in which vide more options for technology and humanity.Our uncertainty is the main planning factor.(p. vision of the future L.annot be limited simply bywhat 20) we know today. An understanding of technical As new curricular innovations begin to evolve, means provides the information for building new rela- the method and process of education are likely to tionships in other technological situations. The in- change significantly. As the knowledge mass insight or vision of one innovatorcan easily be built creases at an ever staggering rate, it will be increas- upon by another. This brainstorming effect is an on- ingly difficult for faculty to keep up with thenew infor- going process which can provide for solutionswhen the students involved are open to mation. The real-wond context poses a threat totra- new knowledge. ditional education. The new education will likelysee Beyond the undergraduate experience, the work teachers as resource persons guiding students to in- place demands as much andmore updating to corn- 63 62 Technology: The Newest Liberal Art

pete in a changing society. Beyond a career implica- to make connections, and in doing so gain tion, family life, local and regional referendums, not only a more integrated view of knowl- home investments, and investments in routine com- edge but also a more authentic view of life. modities requires discriminatory knowledge. (p. 92) In addition to a commitment to ongoing learning Integration of disciplines is present in natural a passage from connections to perspectives is ne- sense when real-life situations are used in the class- cessary. So often concepts and systems are taught room. A teacher does not have to fabricate circum- in an analogous format.Mental connections can stances to promote integration of subject matter. readily be made following the understanding of like One needs only to observe society. The difficulty is applications. to unfold given circumstances so as to see how all of Cross-disciplinary connections are more difficult the components work together. This is a task for stu- to incorporate in the classroom because teachers of dents with faculty help. These are the parallels to single disciplines find it threatening to venture into life's circumstances. As part/whole relationsfl:ps un- unfamiliar areas. This is understandable, but since fold, the concept of integration can then be applied, the objectives are to show connections, a rationale with confidence, to perspective or futures. Students for bringing disciplines together must be developed. can begin to build models of probable outcomes using a variety of choices in science and technology. Studies in technological and cultural evolution can provide many case studies of how inventors Finally, the design of curriculum which attempts think, or how cultural changes were made possible to explore technoogy, past, present, and future, by technological innovation. One need only consid- must do so by placing the responsibility for informa- er the changes in our society since the advent of the tion gathering in the hands of the student. The tradi- silicon chip to get a feeling for the connections. tional structure of teacher disseminating knowledge Looking back in history one can easily trace the de- to students will not work here. The rapidly growing velopments as they occurred. The interrelatedness volume of knowledge in the field of technology as of the puzzle pieces is evidence of the validity of an well as all of the integrated input of other disciplines, interdisciplinary approach. makes it impossible for any individual to be a complete store house of all facts. As mentioned earlier, Students seldom think in an interdisciplinary the teacher's role must now be one of resource per- fashion. Few teachers use this method of address- son. Technology has given us the information age, ing their course content. A connections orientation now it must be used to the best advantage. serves as a basis for a new teaching method. Through this case study exploration, students cal Students must be taught the variety of options better see how interrelationships exist. available for information gathering. Procedural methods must be reaffirmed so that students know who to After this eAposure to interwoven relationships progress in a self-directed format. Scientific verifica- in selacted situations, the students can now begin to tion must also be used. liese processes can then explore the concept of perspectives. This adapta- be applied to any problems, in school and beyond. tion requires a quantum leap in mental processing. Given a complex problem today, few students know Knowing how the pieces in the puzzle fit in past situ- how to arrive at a solution. ations, students must now be able to think in terms of futures, projections, and forecasting. The great- The four imperatives identified here are essen- est challenge is accounting for all the variables. tial for a vital common core. New courses designed When all the elements are assembled, predictions of to rearrange subject matter in different ways without trends, environmental effects, and social conse- considering an ongoing commitment to learning, in- quences can be made. tegrated designs, passages from connections to perspectives, and the value of information handling, Thirdly, an integrative rather than interdiscipli- fall short of mirroring real-life situations. These impli- nary curriculum design must be developed. Interdis- cations set in a real-world context with technology as ciplinary studies imply a mixing of diverse subject a common binding element can bring about a new matter areas.Integration suggests as interwoven form of liberal learning. network which allows each to work to complement the other. Boyer (1987) writes: Within the bounds of society exists a wealth of challenges which threatens the human condition As students see how the content of one and environmental stability. There are also a wealth course relates to that of others, they begin of opportunities to improve on these concerns if

64 Technological Literacy Symposium 63

comprehensive and creative thinking are employed. choose to survive on this planet. Our technological Technology often gets blamed for societal problems choices are social choices selected by well-informed and likewise is looked to for answers. The human and sensitive people. These well-informed people element is the greatest threat to the human condi- must be technologically literate people in the broad- tion, and at the same time, the greatest asset. The est sense. missing ingredient is effective education. The new References core curriculum which embraces technology in a global context can alter this deficiency. Boyer, E. L. (1987). College: The undergraduate The imperatives identified sugg3st a specific ap- experience in America. New York: Harper & Row. proach to the study of technology and technological literacy. Efforts in technology education at the sec- Boyer, E. L., & Levine, A. (1985). A quest forcom- ondary level employ a historical approach in some mon learning. Washington, D.C.: The Carnegie cases. These efforts are very appropriate when ap- Foundation. plied to children. They demonstrate how inventors Cleveland, H. (1985, July/August). Educating for think and assemble ideas t: develop new technolo- the information society. Change, 13-21. gies. The new program applias science and mathematics in an attempt to develop a better understand- Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New ing of the underlying principles in modem technolo- York: Macmillan. gy. Kranzberg, M. (1968).The disunity of science- Programs of this nature are valuable for young technology. American Scientist, 5.6(1), 21-34. minds attempting to see relationships in our world. Krukowski. J. (1985, May/June). What do students The undergraduate common core must rise to a want? Status. Change, 21-28. higher level of involvement and understanding. Cas- ual effects on a regional, national, and global scale Pfnister, A. (1985). Technology and the liberal arts. must be addressed. Economics, environment, hu- The New Liberal Leaming--Technoloay and the man health, ethics, and social well being must all find Liberal Arts. Washington, D.C.: Council of Inde- a place in this curricula approach. A technologically pendent Colleges. literate person must not only know how things work Report solicits renewed vigor in curriculum. (1987, but must understand the effects of technologies on February 12). On Campus. Columbus: The humanity and the environment. Comparative analy- Ohio State University. sis of options must be used to seek out the most appropriate technological means. This is technological literacy at the undergraduate level. This must be a part of the new liberal arts. Conclusions Disenchantment with technology and adverse global conditions brought about by inappropriate technological means have produced a negative reaction to the concept as a whole. What many people fail to recognize is that people create the tools and machines, people create the technologies. A curricular approach that Is essential is one that allows students the opportunity to address the challenging issues of today. Including technology and technological literacy in the common core provides an opportunity for each college graduate to understand that people who are knowledgeable about their world can make a difference. A passive response is inappropriate. Letting someone else make the decisions is un- acceptable. The imperatives listed are the tools, the byproducts of the skilled utilization of these tools are the creative and humanly sensitive options we must 6 5 Technological Literacy Symposium 65

Social Values/Consequences ofTechnological Innovation

86 Technological Literacy Symposium67 INMEMNIINi" VENNI

The Underside ofTechnological Literacy

Dr. Joseph J. Pilotta Department of Communication The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio

This paper will discuss the differences that exist ate are completely out of their element andmust rely between persons who are technically literate and on someone who is aware to solve their problem. those who are not.It will discuss the barriers tocom- munication between groups and, finally, will suggest Two interesting side issuesoccur as an outgrown strategies for minimizing these communication prob- of this situation. First, the complexityof the device lems and a timetable for implementation. that flummoxed the illiteratecame as a result of technological sophistication and, second,the illiterate In any discussion of individual differences it is ne- feels he or she is aesthetically andintellectually su- cessary, and dangerous, to generalize. Generaliza- perior to the one called to resolve theproblem! It is tions trivialize individuality and are subject to excep- at this point that the 'I ofa difference* come into tions which, in their turn, lead readers to dismiss the play. At the risk of being alliterative,it is time to dis- generalization. The reader is asked to consider the cuss Labor, the Lord and Lackey syndrome andthe generalized statement as a possible trtism, andto Love of Labyrinthian Linkages. judge it on its merits. it is agreed that exceptionsex- ist for each characteristic identified.It is also noted, Since the beginning of humanitywe have tried to however, that the characteristic exists with sufficient find an easier way to accomplisha task. All of tech- frequency to make it noteworthy. nology has as its premis theaccomplishment of more, better, faster and easier.It is here that the One further caution Is made. Throughout this arti- word easiergets confused withthe word labor. Our cle reference will be made to the technically illiterate society aspires to an easier job;one that requires individual.This term is not used in a pejorative less labor. Easier is allied with whitecollar endeav- sense. Recognize the fact that the level of technical ors, labor correlates with blue collar activity. Thusour literacy lies on a continuum and that the terms literate society, indeed all of the emerged andemerging na- and illiterate are used to distinguish betweenlevels tions, aspire to academic pursuits Nhich,it is widely of literacy within and between groups. held, have no labor attrachedto them. These are the Technically literate people, and the technically illit- easier forms of existence whichcome as a given for erate, belong to widely disparate groups; more wide- the college and university educated.Have you ever ly separated than those who can and whocannot seen an advertisement which, urging the purchase read. The non-reader can, with some effort, hidethe of this insurance policy or that Certificateof Deposit, inability to read. Indeed, manypersons react with suggests doing so to provide foryour child's techni- shock when it is discovered that a co-worker of long cal education? acquaintance is a non-reader. Our society is tending The presumption is that whitecollar workers do toward a non-reading base where the ability to readis not labor at their jobs. Thus the collegegraduate not a criterion for success on the job. This issup- feels superior to the non-collegetechnician. They ported by the advent of machine intelligence, voice- feel that they have spent fouror more years in ad- prompted computers, cars, vending machines,etc., vanced academic pursuits andthat they certainly and the use of pictographs rather than lettersor have every right to be proud of theiraccomplish- words on the controls of machines and appliances. mot They believe it is obvious that theirintellectual The technologically illiterate, on the other hand, capacity exceeds that of the non-collegiate.They have nothing to hide behind. When thecar would cannot be expected to knoweverything ehoutthe not start, the garbage disposal jams, or the refrigera- operation of every mundane appliance. Theirtime is tor gets a wet spot under it, the technologically illiter- spent with things of higher andgreater import! The 68 The Underside of Technological Literacy . term "underside" used in the title has two different mode of theoretical understanding, this style of cog- yet interrelated meanings. First, it is intended to sug- nition becomes technological. Mathematical rules gest that technology is far more than machinery.If not only define nature but prescribe ways of produc- the utilization of technology could be equated with ing the material causes that yield predictable results. the implementation of machines, then the histories In short, to know how to define something mathe- of mechanization and technology would be identical. matically is to know how to made it (Volkmann- This, however, is not the case. Technology has a Schluck, 1965, p. 66). In this sense, the application "world view" that constitutes its underside and differ- of mathematical constructs becomes a clever tech- entiates it from machinery. Most discussions of technique, as the components of the world are arranged nology, nevertheless, overlook how this world view in accordance with certain calculations and the result- can shape persons' perceptions of themselves, their ing morphology serves as the basis for a technologi- environment and society. cally conceived world. Second, the term "underside" refers to the un- This conception places humans "above" nature. desirable consequences that can stem from the un- In reflective thought, a method is established that ex- monitored growth of technology. Technology may cludes the qualitative experience of nature and have a seamy side that produces problems that are treats existence as a number of material components not logistical or the outcome of technical errors. The that can ba arranged mathematically (Hassell, 1963, technological world view is instrumental in generat- p. 179). Mathematics is appropriate for shaping exis- ing the illusion that technology is out of control, while tence because the world is already conceived tech- fostering indifference about the human condition. nologically. The "real world" is thus a product of a re- Technology advances a style of rationality that flective designed theoretical model that shapes mat- subverts spontaneity indigenous to human action. ter through calculation. Because technological ratio''ity, also known as in- Hence, scientists are not only in a position to cal- strumental reason, is disconnected from human de- culate and arrange material cor.ditions to produce sires, all measurements are believed to be standard- predictable results, but: conversely, of producing ized and precise. the conditions for attaining these findings. This cr,n- The questions are:How can technology be version is one of the major elements of human au- made responsible to human initiative?In other tonomy and understanding the self as a law giver. words, how can technology be "humanized"? But But his autonomy cannot be realized unless humans before technology can he socially responsible, its can master nature. After all, as long as persons are apparent "affective neutrality" must be challenged, controlled by the forces of nature, they cannot be free or autonomous. Nature thus must be forced to thus shattering its chimera of autonomy. function according to human desires (Volkmann- Autonomy and Production: The Social Schluck, 1965, p. 68). In principle, the mathematical Value of Technology method, combined with the notion that nature is ma- Human autonomy rests not only on a mathemati- terial, established the conditions necessary for hu- cal method but on intervention into nature. Specifi- man actonomy. Humans project desired results and cally, this method must be applied to nature. This ap- calculate and arrange the material forces required to plication cannot be simply a mental calculation, for attain these ends. Nature is made to work in accor- scientists must "test" .heir mathematical notions by dance with human designs, as human action domi- intervening in nature. In other words, matter must be nates the physical world. arranged in accordance with mathematical calcula- It must be point out that the projected results tions. )nce this is completed, persons are in a posi- do not stem from human nature, for modern thought tion to calculate and predict the results that follow acknowledges no such phenomenon. Hence, what from such arrangements."Reality" is not what is is projected results from an arrangement of matter present in human experience, but a possibility that that has no intrinsic; existence. Therefore, everyth- stems from a mathematically calculated and physically ing, including humans, is treated as "stuff" or "raw manipulated matter (Volkmann-Schluck, 1965, p. material" that can be reworked to meet projected de- 68). signs. Scientists intend not only to produce nature Thus emerges a structure that treats nature in line with preconceived calculations, but above all technologically at the most basic level. When taking to "produce man" (Fink, 1974, p. 41). This leads to the mathematical method as the most fundamental the view that persons are a "product" of material con-

68 Technological Literacy Symposium 69

eons. Thus, by projecting material results andpro- law, and political institutions representa consensus ducing material conditions, individuals also project among autonomous individuals. As a result, the poli- and "produce" themselves. cy guarantees the rule of law and equality between The Political Enlightenment persons (Krie le, 1980, p. 49). While the scientific enlightenment led to the It is no accident that the major thinkers of political idea that nature is material and "indifferent stuff" to enlightenment, from John Locke to John Stuart Mill, be mastered and controlled, human beingswere hold a similar view of political institutions: Lawsrepre- also permitted to be autonomous and rework nature. sent a consensus between free individuals. Con- This means that humans are in a position to take trary to the classical Greek conception of thestate as 4harge of their destiny. Hence, the traditions that having a human nature and constitutingmore than a had prescribed norms, moralities, political principles, number of isolated individuals, modern theoriststake and ethical standards must be rejected, for all socio- for granted that society is the sum of individualinter- pi .itical institutions, which embody laws, must also ests. Thus laws reflect the ways individualsagree to originate from the individual as law giver. interact with one another. Since a completeconsen- sus is rarely attained, quantitative power prevails: This calls for political institutions whose sole le- The nunrdcal majority constitutesa temporary "rule" gitimation depends upon a sum of individualsagree- with the p.uviso that the minority has the rightto per- ing to abide by the rules they have established. At suade the majority to change. The only right base, this is a consensus theory and it takes for that political institutions do not permit is the abolition ofhu- granted the equality of all as law givers. This kind of man autonomy (Kriele, 1980, p. 190). conception of equality is quite revealing, since it demonstrates a shift from the classical Greek tradi- Accordingly, a specifically modem conception of tion. The Greek conception of equalitywas founded ethics comes into view: utilitarianism.In this case, on the understanding that humans share a c..non each individual defines what is meant by the "good .1ature. Despite their particular differences, t ians life." Basically, the good life consists of thepursuit of share an identical essence that makes theni .;.:4ual happiness and pleasure. As long as these pursuits (Volkmann-Schluck, 1974, p. 152). Yet characteristi- do not create social clashes and antagonisms, indi- cally, neither the Greeks nor the Romans under viduals are free to design theirown happiness.In Greek theoretical influence nor, finally, the medievals case of conflicts, the social good is calculated quan- under the sway of Plato, Aristotle, and Christianity titatively as the greatest good for the greatestnum- called for practical and socio-political equality ber.This numerical conception of happinessac- (Volkmann-Schluck, 1974, p. 154). cords well with a technologically conceived world. Yet the question arises: What constitutes happiness The demand for socio-political and practical in a technologically produced reality? equality emerges when the world is regaidedas a mate: al entity to be controlled and shaped according Technological Alms: Paver and Posses:,on to human design. In terms of this type of equality, To control nature and chance itscourse of de- persons cannot have laws imposed upon them ei- velopment demands extensive technologicalpower. ther by nature or other persons. Hence, equality As Hans Jonas argues, modem society believes that does not flow from an essential human nature, but every technological innovation and application leads from human autonomy. All persons are equal be- to new "discoveries" that call for newer technologies cause they are autonomous law givers and makers of and their :...7plication in an endless cycle. Yetevery their destiny through their mastery and control ofna- new technological intervention into nature promises ture. Taus, social institutions must be designed to increased control LJ both nature and humans. This is guarantee human autonomy. This autonomy is ex- the "enchanted circle" of the moderaman (Fink, pressed in numerous ways: the right of speech,as- 1974, p. 43).'- y achieved result can become a sembly, pursuit of practical aims, and to make one's means, thatis, a material condition for the fulfillment own destiny. of newer aims.Today, this i.;ailed "progress" Martin Kriele suggests that the institutions de- (Jonas, 1981, p. 81). signed by this political enlightenment take for grant- Ti'.increasing pov.er to control nature and tore- ed human autonomy as a source of all law.This produce it in accordance with human designsex- means, according to him, that no human can assume pands the material fulfillment of ;lumen wants. Such power over another to gain increased social status. fulfillment has assumed a particularly modem form. A Being autonomous, everyone is an equalsource of brief comparison between two conceptions of fulfill- 70 The Underside of Technological Literacy

ment illustrates this point. in feudalism, a person was Happiness is equated with material commodities, not born into a particular social position. To be an aristo- because their possession °erves as e testimonial to crat, one had to be ascribed this status by birth. Tho human greed, but becaus in a technological cul- same was true of the serf. Of course, the serrs birth- ture, they are thought to promote well-beir:g.By right excluded any hope of being an aristocrat. But amassing wealth, one guards against the threat of with the emergence of the demand for equality, personal or social destruction. Even those who have founded upon the idea of the human as an autono- achieved a particular status due to their expertise in mous law giver, all positions become available to eve- some technical domain can lose their possessions. ryone. All persons can make themselves into anyth- They must concentrate on maintaining their ing they desire. Yet it must be noted that this self- "competitive edge" or "technological competence," production operates within a technological culture which is always thrr itened by the progress made by whose main aim is to submit nature to human con- others toward mastering more advanced technolo- trols and to liberate persons by giving them in- gies. The desire to possess more as a road to happi- creased technical power. ness is ultimately a desire to attain security, not only When persons make their own destiny, they for the present but also for the future. After all, all must also guarantee their own well-being. No social current possessions can be lost as a consequence institution, position, or privilege is able to ensure an of advances brought about by novel technologies. individuars survival. Because each position is open In order to avoid this loss, the future must be remade to everyone, persons must strive constantly to main- constantly by better, r more efficient machinery so tain their social position. In fact, such a striving can that any losses are minimized. While this is the never cease in a technological culture (Volkmann- source for the charge that the modern age is materia- Schluck, 1965, p. 81).Initially, increased control listic, a subtle shift away from human autonomy is over nature seems to be a panacea because more also signaled. commodities, protection against the elements, and In order to function in a technological culture, an control of disease offer hope for improving the mate- individual must be made to operate according to the rial conditions of existence. Yet it is this miracle of in- requirements of constantly expanding and changing creased power and possessions that brings about in- technologies. The ability to acquire possessions re- security and compels individuals to acquire more quires that the individual submit to the dictates and power in the form of material objects. aims of technology. Persons must not "make" them- As is suggested, technology has no other aim selves in terms of what they value and desire, but ac- but to master nature through the ever-increasing ma- cording to tie strictures imposed by technology. terialization of culture. On the basis of technological The mastered natur3, shaped into technological im- innovations, new and more complc. technologies plements and raw material and designed initially to are produced that make the previous ones obsolete. "liberate" persons from natural forces, has come to As a result, persons who were functioning ade- shape humans. Instead of being autonomous, indi- quately within the framework supplied by earlier tech- viduals begin to regard themselves, at least in the nological requirements, that is, they were "tooled" practical arena, as a "product" of their socio- appropriately, become either obsolete or must strive economic and technical environment. to "retool" themselves in order to keep up with the At the base of this shift away from autonomy lies demands of technology and ensure their survival. the notion that persons can shape anything to obtain Since a technological conception of the world has no a desired result and can remake themselves be- other aim but "progress" through expansion, no indi- cause they have no nature. Yet this also means that vidual can ever be satisfied with his or her own level humans can be made into anything. The claim is of- of technological sophistication. Persons must strive ten made that, given certain conditions, a person can constantly to keep up with the ever-increasing and be given practically any form. This is obvious consid- changing technological requirements.In principle, ering the common feature in most modern social, security can never be achieved, for at best persons psychological, and economic theories: An individual can only minimize the danger of becoming obsolete is a result or product of his or her socio-economic and losing their means of survival. and environmental conditions. In this sense, the so- In order to achieve a modicum of security, indi- cio-economic and technological conditions assume a viduals musi acquire not only the skills demanded by "life of their own," thus compelling the individual to technology, but, additionally, material possess!ons. function within or adjust to fit the requirements of the technical system. This would suggest that the tech- 70 81111111111111 Technological Literacy Symposium 71

nological system has become autonomous, thereby made that everything, including human conscious- diminishing the individual. ness and social institutions, is a product of material Political Technology conditions, then the establishment ofnew conditions would be necessary to bring about future insti- Individual autonomy, political enlightenment, tutions. Second, since these institutionsare the re- and the scientific enlightenment, which form the cor- sult of material conditions, those who know these nerstone of technological culture, are undergoing a conditions and how to change them fora "better" fu- transformation that his resulted in what Jurgen Ha- ture must be free from institutional restraints. Most bermes calls a legitimation crisis" (Habemas, 1973, often, it is understood that scientific and technologi- p. 43). While Hi bermes assesses this crisis in terms cal complexities are not accessible to the general of the capitalist vonoony, a more expansive ap- public. Hence, there must be r rolitical technccracy proach examines what the critical school refers to as with the knowledge necessary to establish the mate- the domination of human creativity by "instrumental rial conditions that would result in c radicallynew, uto- reason (McCarthy, 1978, p. 16). Such rationality is pian society. Such a technocracy must be able tore- basically the technological logic depicted above. design the material processes in everyarea of social The crisis appears in two forms of the policy. The lib- life. And third, this political technocracy must consist eral form of state, characteristic of Western industrial of elites who are in charge of planning the future. societies,experiences thiscrisisasthe Since the current material conditions are not yet ade- "privatization" of political institutions. While initially quate for realizing a utopia, these1 cites must not be these institutions were designed to serve the public, hindered by political institutions that stress human gradually they were reduced to promoting the per- freedom. Only when the proper material conditions sonal or material wall-being citizens. For if the basic ate established wili "true liberation" of humanity be aim of the individual in a technologiczt culture is the possible because science must be able to masterna- acquisition of possessions, then the emphasis of po- ture, including the human side of life (Kriele, 1980, litical life must be to get public figures to ensure the p. 204). material well-being of persons. Subseneently, politicians are called upon increasingly to fuffill the material These political elites, armed with scien"fic knowl- needs of the citizenry or to do whatever it takes to edge, have a historical mission to use all the available prepare individuals to meet the demands imposed means, including humans, to achieve the desired by new technologies. Any time they fail to fulfill free society. But with this there appears an undemo- these needs, politician; are no longer deemed legiti- cratic form of "leadership," because allegedly onlya mate and they are reelaced. Thus, political institu- few persons have the scientific knowledge required tions are regarded as means to be appropriated and to shape the social world. These leaders are the only used by contesting .oups to guarantee their materi- autonomous beings and outlive the destiny of entire al fulfillment.Political concerns are reduced to populations. The liberation and autonomy of the "pocketbook" issues. The other form of state, nomi- masses is postponed until the political technocrats nally called "communism," takes "instrumental rea- have established the appropriate conditions for son," or "technological logic," to its final conclusion. creating the new man (Albert & Hahne!, 1981, p. 77). Stated simply, everything is either a technical means In principle, the political trend toward technocra- or a result of a technologically shaped world. In this cy and "material fulfillment" is a sign that politics is be- sense, humans are treated both a means for con- ing surrendered to the scientific-technologicalen- structing the material cond, s necessary for tech- lightenment and its promise to liberate society. This nological progress and a product of these circum- can be seen as an effort to fulfill the promise of two stances. Such products are not only predicated on enlightenments:complete human aumnomy and knowledge about material conditions but, converse- mastery over every facet of the environment. Since ly, conditions can be established that yield a particu- these promises have not yet been fulfilled; the mod- lar result. Fundamentally, this represents an effort to ern age is caught between two histories (Schabert, build a utopian society conceived technologically. p. 225). Although at different levels, both histories To build such a state and to "create" the "new man" are implicit in each other's develoment. The first his- appropriate for this polity, calls for a "political tech- tory understands humans to be "self-creating" and nocracy." autonomous beings, wto notonly create them- What is the function of a political technocracy in selves--having no specific nature--but reduce nature the current historical period? First since the laim is to matter and recreate the environment. The second history represents the attempt to realize the first. 71 72 The Underside of Technological Literacy

Such efforts inhere to technological progress and one version becomes but a component in a global procurement of technical power. Since the mastery mystery play, while the interdependence of interpre- of nature has not yet been achieved, the first history tations is increased. has been postponed and projected toward the fu- This is not the philosophers' trap of the contra- ture as a utopian society. Its realization consists of a diction between the universal and the particular, but struggle by a scientifically enlightened political tech- rather the process whereby the particular is depre- nology to use any means possible to bring about a cated because it is not universal. Thus, telecommu- technologically constructed polity. nication may be viewed as creating alienation in the Technology and Development form of communicative incompetence, as persons are treated as objects rather than subjects. Aliena- The price of social structural and technological tion is a process whereby activity is channeled into development is telecommunication. Telecommuni- cation exercises a powerful impact on all societal, nominally independent spheres, with each of these subsystems by affecting the ways they fulfill their tra- domains subordinated to a scheme dictated by the ditional functions, particularly the way change is un- telecommunication order. The chief effect of this on developing countries is a contraction of their exper- derstood. This power to after human temporarily has iential horizons that seriously limits the range of avail- been described by Emilio Filippi as a central feature of technology *transfer in developing countries. As able social, cultural, economic, and political possibilities, thus twarting future development. A particular he writes: society, a this sense, is subordinated to the norms The telecommunication and computer revo- operating to organize the global order. lutions on the one hand bring people close together and on the other isolate them. The issue of "underdeveloped countries" has They bring them closer because simultane- become volatile within the framework of a global communication system (Luhmann, 1982, pp. 289-323). ously the world over we are aware ,Jf what is Accordingly, communicative incompetence is a pro- happening elsewhere. But at the same time the manipulation of these mechanics--the cess within the structure of a global communication system, whereby the particular is transformed into "mission control," if you will--that manages all the universal. Simply put, the modern global com- of this isolates human beings.It converts them into objects of communication, not munication industry has as its defining characteristics the socialization or universalization of the world. sr rbjects of communication. This is a dramat- Each society is effectively particular, yet only within ic dehumanization. (Filippi, 1983, p.39) the technologically socialized totality. Furthermore, each attempts to realize the universal in its activity by As soon as information is disclosed, a type of tel- generalizing what it does to the social totality. ecommunication public is created, as a common Thus, communication technology does not rep- knowledge base is necessary for messages to be resent a limited form of consciousness within a given comprehended (Galtung, 1983). Thus, the global si- social formation but is the very structure of global multaneity accompanying telecommunication accel- functional differentiation. The demand for totality erates expectations that may or may not be compati- built into its structure becomes the demand for a uni- ble with the performance of local social functions vital versal truth. Yet the resulting alienation cannot be to developing countries.In other words, the social overcome without a redefinition of the task of theory, premise of what others are suppose to know chang- specifically communication theory and a thoughtful es the dimensions of experience and action consideration of the aim of technological litearcy. (Luhmann, 1982, p. 271).Because all persons are Intercultural Communication and supposed to be a part of the telecommunication or- Technology Transfer der, they are assumed to share a common Knowl- edge base. From the standpoint of intercultural communication, an important problem relates to the way in which The global communication industry presents a technology is understood and subsequently trans- Janus fs.,te. Although telecommunication establish- es a global society, at the same time separate mitted to recipient cultures. The central difficulty is that technology's current mode of rational-scientific spheres of activity are created and reinforced. The legitimation encourages a style o:' intercultural deliv- results are twofold: any individualized interpretation ery and implementation that is insensitive to cultural of the meaning of communication is absent, as any exigencies and, thus, subverts existing social mean- 72 Technological Literacy Symposium 73

ings and practices. In its present form, the intercultu- tion, through knowledge transfer,includes not sim- ral transfer of technology presupposes a model of ply the diffusion of technical materialand trained sci- communication that is linear and asymmetrical. This entists, it also involves the diffusion ofculturally spe- source of bias operates at both the level of technical cific meanings and historically acquiredstructural in- knowledge and cultural meanings. The implications terpretations of reality that under pin technology.To of this become clear when it is illustrated how tech- export technology is to export meaning: Toexport nology is interpreted and introduced across cultures. meaning is to export culture and history.Obviously, Because of Its scientific status, technology is as long as the standards of developmentare set uni- thought to be abstract and thus essentially indepen- laterally by the "developed" nations,conflict will per- dent of the contingencies associated with humanso- sist between the countries that "havearrived" and cial interaction. Because technology is rooted in those that are perpetually "on the way." scientific detachment, the values implicit in itare as- Since every human being lives ina cultural sys- sumed to have universal validity. Hence, technology tem of relevances, knowledge abouta society's val- is endowed with an "objective' appearance, which ues is integral for planning a technology transfer encourages the belief that it represents pure or ra- strategy. Before human science can act responsibly tional knowledge. In short, technology appears to in the world community, the culturalpresuppositions have a destiny of its own. Additionally, its a priori, ra- that influence the process of technologicaltransfer tionalist presuppositions encourage donor nations must be identified.Interculturally competentcom- to believe that so-called developing ones can be munication of technology requires that thesystem of drawn unproblematic* into the global history out- relevance assumed by technology must beclarified; lined by a technical culture. This conviction elevates the system of relevance operative withinthe recipi- the technological competence possessed by donor ent population must be assessed; and thesesys- nations to an abstract standard, against which cultural tems must be aligned. These conditionsmust be self-worth is assessed. The view of technological satisfied if technology transfer is torespect the cultu- competence held by donor nations leads them to ral integrity of developing nations. Clearly,the ohjec- practice a tutelary commercialism with respect to the tive of communicatively competenttechnology trans- diffusion of their technologies around the world. fer is to avoid the one-sided impositionof foreign val- This commodifying of technological (literacy) ues upon the recipient culture. Yet only when tech- competence distorts the historical experience and nologies are understood as vehicles ofmeaning can self-regard of recipient groups by shaping theircog- the vicious cycle of cultural dominationand lopsided nitive categories according to the demands of tech- development be broken, which is endemicto many nological reason. Because the politicaleconomy of of the current technical assistanceprograms. the information age is fueld by knowledge and ideas, The concept of "relevance" designatesa com- the production and use of technology presupposes posite of values, their interconnectedness,and the that recipient societies have been socialized appro- functions they have in a society. Relevanceis "what priately to understand technological values and im- matters" to a specific socio-culturalgroup, including peratives. the history of that group's past commitmentsanu fu- Market domination of intellectualraw materials ture possibilities. Relevance functionsto determine completes the cycle necessary for informationcom- which facts, events, or problemsare treated as valua- modity exchange. Although donor countries tendto ble and to provide a scheme of interpretationthat monopolize technical knowledge, a smallgroup of specifies the parameters of meaningfulbehavior and trained persons in recipient countries is essential for discourse. Donor nations can be responsive andre- providing the linkages necessary for technological sponsible to another culture only if they adequately transfer. Yet the ever present indebtedness, if not understand their own system of relevancesand, ac- unfailing allegiance, of the overseas educated elite cordinrjly, recognize how it affects anotherculture. to their mentorseducationally, technically, and fis- The possibility for successful internationalcommune- callyensures a stable free-flow framework for the in- cation transactions rests upon establishingcon- formation economy. The result of this is cultural gruence between interculturally pertinent relevanc- domination by a select few who possess the informa- es. This means that a common scheme of interpretation required to operate a technological society. tion and orientation must be found,one shared by the deliverer of a technology and its Technological mastery tacitly assumes cultural receiver. In fact, intercultural relevance is the keycriterion for chauvinism, however benevolent. Cultural interven- 73

.,9 74 The Underside of Technological Literacy

enhancing technology transfer in the international action that pivots upon the joint management of cul- community. tural differences. It must be remembered that technology does The immediacy of the natural environment is so not have to be an irrestible force that undermines a much taken for granted that we never pay attention culture's identify; however, its present abstract and to it, even though it sustains all of our biological ne- reified power can seriously und3rmine a recipient so- cessities and physical functions.This unnoted ciety. Therelore, a rational responsible attitude to- "immediacy" applies equally in the case of the cultu- ward thr; "problem" of technology transfer requires ral environment: we do not fact it; we are encom- that the system of relevancies presupposed by tech- passed by it and engaged by it. The various factors nology by examined in light of the existing cultural composing the natural environment become visible standards of the recipient. In other words, technolo- only when they for some reason become an object gy must be implmented within the social and cultural of concern, especially when something fails to per- "space" offered by a recipient society. Accomplish- form properly or they somehow obstruct our normal ing this difficult task requires a polycentric viewpoint functions.Similarly, the cultural environment be- that is sensitive to the meaning of technology within comes an object of concern when the interconnec- the relevance framework of a recipient culture. tions of its symbolic design do not apply in the accustomed way. In such situations, the cultural system, or What is to be Done: Sodal-Cultural rather the agents embraced by it encounter 'novelty,' Receptivity Index (SCRI) 'uncertainty,' or inonsensicality:It should be kept in Technology has a compelling character because mind that technology transfer entails the intentional of the scientific assumption upon which it is predicat- and purposive introduction of novel configurations ed, particularly the mode of communication that is as- into a local cultural system. sumed to exist between persons and machines. To- day this is known as instrumental communication, The various symbolic designs make up a cultural which eliminates "communicative competence." eco-system which, while taken for granted in our daily activities, is never confronted directly; all activities, Communicative competence is the ability of persons events, and behaviors appear in its context. Even to communicate the pragmatic intentions and social the 'natural environment' is incorporated into this conditions that make behavior intelligible. Communi- cative competence, however, is not necessarily framework. And this framework beoomes manifest technological. In the case of technology transfer of and effectual in the various cultural artifacts and institutions, ranging trom the religious and mythological, the problem of internal brain-drain, more sophisticat- to the professional and scientific, and to social roles ed nations do not export communicative compe- and the daily stylization of human encounters. tence but discursive domination. From the standpoint of effecting the mediation SCRI has two principal roles: (1) it provides a tax- of technology, the central issue is not the fact of onomic framework of meaning that incorporated the technology's diffusion to nations around the world core dimensions of cross-cultural encounters pertinent to technology and innovation diffusion activi- but the way in which the technology is interpreted ties. Therefore, it furthers the identification of the im- and imp:emented. Consequently, it is a problem of portant components of the frame of reference esta- gauging and adjusting for the probable interactions blishing the cultural environment. (2) It serves heur- between the innovative and social-cultural environ- istically to draw the attention of planners, designers, ment. This is principally a question of the communi- and implementers, to the possible domains of socio- cation practices associated with the technology and cultural environmental impact. Thus, it contributes to its way of influencing social arrangements. The prac- the capacity of to "size up" and to "read" the situa- tical premise asserts that technical considerations tion, therefore alerting us to the like:y comb', _Ition of and determinations need to be supplemented by a socio-cultural interactions that might be encoun- social-cultural problem-solving orientation that is ade- tered. quately sensitive to culturaVenvironmental differences, in such a way that it can provide guidance with re- The general nature of the communication rela- spect to existing cultural meanings and practices. tionship between technology/information transfer The deliverer's sense of relevance must be coordi- activities and recipient characteristics can be formu- nated and reconciled with the recipient's frame of ref- lated in the following way. While, on the one side, erence. Only in this way will the two very different so- place characteristics are a consequence of the recipi- cial realities achieve a measure of collaborative inter- ent's level of development and, on the other side,

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the delivery strategies and implementation practices 4. Ritual organization of social life;e.g. puntuality, and objectives are established by the policy andpro- ceremony, hierarchy, and psychological adjust- gram gods of the deliverer, this independence of ment. the two parties becomes transformed into irreversible interdependence at the point of delivery; regard- 5. Cultural integration of social organization;e.g. less of the previous history of the recipient nation relationship between cultural outlook, heritage, and the institutional history and orientation of the de- values, and beliefs and existing role divisions, liverer, the two become locked" irrevocably into a re- status, social place of different generations and ciprocal communication structure, upon which de- genders, political forms. pends the possibility, the effectiveness, the punctu- 6. Cultural aesthetics; e.g. concepts of beauty, ality, and the sustainment/durability of the technolo- decoration, and appropriateness, aesthetics of gy exchange undertaking. the physical environment, also personal adorn- Emphasis 's placed upon locating possibilities ment, perception of symbolic designs, artistic forms. for mutual intersections along the two systems of cultural designs. lo; its very nature, technology medi- Social Communication Factors. ates and is mediated by the socio-cultural system 1. Nonlinguistic expression: into which itis being introduced--vis., it effects bodily expressive- ness, physical regimen and rhythms, dietary and changes and is changed; consequently, the objec- culinary assumptions, tact. tive is to raise the inevitable intercombination witha communication environment to anexplicit domain of 2. Psychological culture; emotive expression,lin- analysis in order to make possible the maximal antici- guistic modulation of emotion,manners, appro- pation of corsequences. In this setting, the innova- priateness, sociability, timing, trust. tion and its interaction with the soclo- cultural environ- 3. Conceptual/credal constellations; differences ment is the chief focus of research consideration. between groups, unchallengeable beliefs,un- Adopter characteristics and determinants as well as, mentionable topics, world-view presuppositions. it should be noted, the characteristics and determinants affecting the deliverer and the delivers sense 4. Linguistic culture; cultural face andlanguage, of relevance are treated as partof the interaction pat- verbal expressions of equality, superiority,un- tern produced by the innovation; this 'prob- certainty, disagreement, and the like. lematizing' of the innovation established the ground 5. Interpretative matrix; the other's likelyassump- for explicit cultural mediation of the technology. tions and interpretations of one's statements The following roster contains the dimensions and actions; how one's culture, history andso- along which the cultural mediation of the technology cial position is read from the other's viewpoint. is to be pursued and, it should be emphasized,pur- In short, both the global and themore apparent sued across the symbolic designs of both deliver communication specific factors affect the delivery and recipient cultural sensibilities. and enactment of the knowledge transfer.Often it is SCRI Dimensions a question of the mutual adjustment of expectations about the other that takes the form of negotiating Global Factors. cultural differences. Forithe deliver, continual moni- 1. Social organization of space and place;e.g. cen- toring and careful evaluation are crucial for the gradu- tral place, prominent natural features, the articu- al development of trust and collaboration. it is impor- lation of social roles and status relative to locally tant that the recipient have a way tosee that it is the significant landscape. recipient's own best interest that motivates theinno- vation, and consequently that the technology 2. Constraints upon aspirations; e.g. educational "makes sense" within the recipient's (formal) and traditional levels and type, adaptabil- own cultural understanding. To my mind this is the "stuff" of devel- ity of local mind-set to the technology, local oping technological literacy. goals and expectations. References 3. Value compositions; e.g. prevailing beliefs and myths, cherished virtues and practices, con- Albert, M., & Hahnel, R. (1981). Bocialism todayand structs like common sense, propriety, justice, Tomorrow. Boston: South End Press. and the like. Filippi, E. (1983, December). Very seriouscon- cerns.... Wgrl.sely, 39. 75 76 The Underside of Technological Literacy

Fink, E. (1974) Traktat ueber die gewalt des mans- ,p. Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann. Galtung, J. (1983, Vama). images of the world in year 2000: A synthesis of the marginals of the ten nationsfitudy. Paper presented at the Sev- enth World Congress of Sociology. Habermas, J. (1973). Legitimationsproblerne irq spaetkapitalismus. Frankfurt am Main: Suhr- kamo Verlag. Hussert, E. (1963). Cartesianische meditationen lad pariser vortraeoe. Den Haag: Martinus Nii- hoff. Jonas, H. (1981). Philosophisches zur modemen technologie. In R. Loew (Ed.), Fortschritt ohne mass. Muenchen: Pipe & Co. Kriele, M. (1980). Befreiung and politische aufklae- rung. Freiburg: Herder Verlag. Luhmann, N. (1982). The future cannot begin. ag, Differentiation of Society (trans. S. Holmes & C. Larmore).New York:Columbia University Press. Luhmann, N. (1982). World-time and system history. The Differentiation of Society. New York: Co- lumbia University Ness. McCarthy, T. (1978). The critical theory of Jurgen Habermas. Cambridge: MIT Press. Murphy, A., Michunas, J. Pilotta, J. (Eds.) (1966). The underside of high-tech. Greenwood Press. ichabert. fiewalmaumanileel, 225. Volkmann-Schluck, K. H. (1965). Einfuehning in des philosophische denken. Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann. Volkmann-Schluck, K. H. (1974). politische philosl- phig. Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann.

76 Technological Literacy Symposium 77

Impacts of Technology

Jerry P. Balistreri State Specialist for Technology Education Utah State Office of Education Salt Lak9 City, UT

A discipline within the education community has Despite the national call for the study of impacts been transforming before our eyes. Tremendous of technology, the technology educationcommunity strides have taken place within the last few years to has been slow in providing direction. Reasonsfor create the discipline known as Technology Educa- this lack of study are many, however,some of the tion--The New Basic. Technology Education has more prominent reasons are as follows: proported to be an actic.i based program that is concerned with the technical means, their evolution, util- 1. The lack of understanding of what the study of impacts may involve. ization and significance with industry... Technology Education:A Perspective on Implementation 2. Lack of perceived benefit. (1985). 3. No role model to work from. A second thrust of the technology education 4. The lack of resource materials for the absolute movement has been to study impacts of technology. novice, to have this topic becomea viable area ...with industry, its organization, personnel, sys- to study in the technology educationprograms tems, techniques, resources, products, and their so- across the nation. cial/cultural impact (Technology Education: A Per- Granted many prior efforts have spective on lmplementation,1985). come to fruition that address this issue; i.e. The Man Made World, Needless to say, there is much in the literature Science- Technology- Society. You, Me anu Technol- that suggests the education community should be ogy, and etc. However, these efforts have been pri- addressing the topic of technology and its impact. In marily targeted towards the liberal arts curriculum. addition to the definition provided earlier, the follow- Thus the need for the Practical Arts and Voca- ing are examples of the call for the study of technolo- tional Community to address these issues. gy and its impact: The study here is to go beyond themere exis- Technology: MI students should study technolo- tence of 'facts' artifacts, inventions or applications. It gy, the history of man's use of tools, how science is necessary to probe more deeply into the logic,the and technology have been joined, and the ethical human condition, the societal dimension and social issues technology has raised or conse- (High quences, the ethics, legal or common good. Such School--A Report on Secondary Education in Ameri- questions might be along the lines of: ca,1983, p. 304). 1. What are the alternatives? Contriouting to technological literacy is an understanding of:(1) the historical role of technology in 2. What is the social impact? human development, (2) the relationship between 3. What is the environmental impact? technological decisions and human values, (3) the benefits and risks of choosing technologies, (4) the 4. Who should be involved in the decision? changes occurring in current technology, and (5) an 5. What are the principles of science and/or understanding of technology assessment as a meth- mathe matics involved? od for influencing the choice of future technologies 6. What role has the technology or the innovation (Educating Citizens for the 21st %-entury,1983, p. played? 74). 7. What is the long-range impact? 77 78 Impacts of Technology

8. Whct are the ethical, moral and iegai issues as References sociated with the technology? Boyer, E. (1983). Higkschgols:arepgngnsecon: 9.Who should pay? jag education in America. Report of the 10. What if? Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The questions should provide the means for a more holistic approach to the study of a technology. Boyer, E. et al. (1985). Technology education:A Such questions should be presented and used to perspective on implementation. Guide. Res- probe beyond the surface and not to develop a neg- ton, VA: International Technology Education ative frame of reference for the study. The goal of Association. such points of inquiry with students Is to open their Maley, D. (1987). Implementing technology educa- thought processes and to develop their inquisitive- tion in the secondary schools otAmerica. Pa- ness related to technology with respect to a wise va- per presented at the Second National riety of issuestechnical, social, environmental, fi- Science, Technology, Society Conference- nancial, ethical, etc." (Maley, 1987). Technological Literacy, Washington, D. C. This type of curricular framework coupled with National Science Board Commission on Precollege the technical skill development that the vocational Education in Mathematics, Science and Tech- community has enjoyed for years make for a marriage nology. (1983). Educating Americans for the of unprecedented benefit to the growth of our na- 21st century (source material). Washington, tion. So It is that a manual entitled Impacts of Tech- D.C.: The National Science Foundation. nology has been developed.It is..le author's hope and intention that this manual will allow the reader to Notes become familiar with what the study of Impacts of The Impacts of Technology manual is currently Technology is, and supply enough resource material being considered for publication; however, further so that one could develop curriculum on the topic of information can be secured by contacting the author, Impacts of Technology. Mr. Jerry Balistreri. The manual Impacts of Technologyhas been written using the LAP (Learning Activity Packet) format, so that it could not only serve as a place to go for information, but also has activities built in. A total of 32 activities have been included.The topics covered in this manual are, as follows: Titles of Learning Activity Packets LAP# Title Page# 1 How and Why 1 Technology Has Impacted Our Lives 2 Types of Impacts 5 3 Environmental Impacts 12 4 Technical Impacts 16 5 Financial Impacts 19 6 Social Impacts 22 7 Technology 25 Assesanent 8 Terminology 30 Appendix A Suggested Texts 33 Appendix B Suggested Filmstrips 36 Appendix C Suggested Videos 39 Appendix D Suggested Films 41 Appendix E Agencies 44

78 Technological Literacy Symposium 79

Christian Relational Theologyas a Framework For Assessingthe Moral and Social Implications of Technology

Harold Arnett Graduate Student and Heber Ramer Graduate Student The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio

Human needsphysical, mental, emotional and at least startling and at most intimidating. Any value- spiritualhave remained stable over the centuries of laden force which demonstrates such powerful and technological evolution, but how we attempt to meet ubiquitous results demands careful contemplation. these needs has changed phenomenonally.Al- To fail to evaluate technology is to playa game of though those changes may be most obvious in the Blind Man's Bluff with unprecedented implications. physical realm, they exist in each realm (Amett & Evaluation Frameworks Ramer). Some form of technology is necessary for human Various frameworks are available for suchassess- survival. Every available archaelogical evidence indi- ment. An economic model with its standard of effi- cates that humans have always uses technology. A ciency; a socio-political model with its standard of recent article in Scientific American documents that control and justice; a cultural model which seeks the even the flint tools ust.d by early humans are effe- preservation of ethnic identity; a mechanical model cient and effective instruments. As far back as we which attempts to construct the ultimate machine-- know, humans have used technology to alter the one which calls for no human intervention; a bio- natural environment. Indeed, there is no evidence medical model which seeks adequate health topur- that we can survive without some degree of technol- sue desired activities; and an ethical model that ogy. Even the most primitive of cultures use sys- seeks to know what technology is rightor wrong, good or bad. tems of technology in order to provide food, clothing and shelter as well as communication and other activ- Although these various frameworks are available, ities. An important distinction, though, is that there is the economic model seems to be most often used. a difference in the degree of technology necessary This model purports to assess technology by adding for survival and the degree necessary for conven- the benefits and subtracting the costs. Sucha mod- ience or luxury. Any degree of technology affects el is used by manufacturers to determine whetheror how we relate to our surroundings and to one anoth- not to replace human workers with computer con- er as human. trolled machines.it is also used frequently by gov- As we approach the 21st century and the implica- ernment agencies and several other groups. Costs, tions of a post-industrial economy become even however, are often hidden. At other times,a dollar value is hard to apply, as in the case of relationships. more pronounced, our culture will have an increased need for the assessment of technology. The goal of If a community decides to drain a fresh water such evaluation is not an ultimate judgement on swamp at the outskirts of a town to build a factory for technology. Such seems unfeasible, perhaps im- employment, what is the true value of the lost recrea- possible. What is feasible, and we believe, impera- tion and wildlife area? Suppose that two years later it tive, is a very deliberate, systematic appraisal of tech- is discovered that the swamp was a natural water filter nology. for the community's water supply. Now what is the Such an appraisal is justified by several reasons: cost? Thus the choice, although including economic technology involves and affects everyone; technolo- considerations, is also one of relationship of a com- gy demonstrates tremendous potential; technology munity to a natural fresh water habitat anda work- involves values in a manner which is simultaneously place for its citizens. Monsma and others (1986) covert and dramatic; the pace of technological devel- point Dut the limitations of economic assessment, opment appears to be increasing to a degree that is particularly noting that such assessment is oftencon- sidered in such a narrow sense that it seldomeven 7d 80 . Assessing the Moral and Social Implications of Technology

provides an accurate assessment of material factors. Christian Relational Theology While each model has its own contributions to Let us first of all define what we mean by make, the above example illustrates that each is limit- "Christian relational theology."If you are expecting ed. What we end up with are various conclusions an elaborate, complicated, philosorlical statement, about technology, developed from a narrow per- you will be disappointed.Instead, our concept is spective thas fails to consider the wholistic nature of quite simple and includes three basic concepts from technology .id the pervasiveness of its influence. the teachings of Christ. One, all humans are in rela- The assessment of technology must address the ga- tion. That is, all are "neighbors". Whether the rela- mut of effects. tionship with my neighbor is positive or negative, it The validity of an evaluational framework ultimate- still exists.It also exists regardless of the degree to ly hinges upon its ab'lity to satisfactorily answer the which I am aware of it.Second, "Love your neighbor questions asked (considered to be important) by the as yourself." Finally, "Treat others as you would have evaluator. In regard to technology, those questions tnem treat you." While the simplicity cif these concepts may suggest that you are in a primary age Sun- will vary with the world view of the particular evaluator. Hence the Honda accountant in Tokyo may consider day school class, the application of those concepts very different criteria than does the second shift ma- has a compelling power and rigor that exceeds the chine operator at the Honda plant in Marysville, Ohio. capabilities of the greatest philosopher. Nonetheless, each agree that some kind of evalua- The notion of a Christian relational world view as a tion is in order. Beyond the implied narrow perspec- basis for evaluating technology stands upon two ide- tive of these two, though, we argue for a larger as that seem almost truistic. One is that a moral based evaluation of technology. framework seems to be a logical choice for evaluating Social and Ethical moral impacts. Most people are religious and in our country as well as many others, Christianity contin- There can be no question that the social and ues to be the most dominant religion. Recent ethical implications must be examined. New situa- events have pointed out to us that religious people tions precipitated by advancing technology, such as commit immoral acts (as do non-religious people) but artificial insemination, surrogate mothering and ge- have also pointed out to us that the American public netic engineering, call for value decisions and are al- still makes moral judgement. Even the dedicated tering our cultura, including the way we relate to one church-avoiders have been known to drop their sup- another as human. port of presidential candidates because of "alleged We have only recently begun to realize the com- social indiscretions." To ignore the framework used plexity of technological systems and their influence by the population in making value decisions is at on world cultures. To assess .his influence, we must best, unsound as a governing principe. More seri- begin to understand two important considerations. ously, it ignores a natural choice for assessment. The first is that the physical objects that a culture pro- Religion and other forms of philosophy have his- duces are a reflection of that culture's values. Sec- torically been the bases for making moral evalua- ondly, we need to recognize that the products of tions. Any religion then that claims to present a moral technology, the tangibles, also have an effect upon standarda set of principles that idenhifies what is de- the culture which produced them. For example, the sirable aryor undesirable in terms of human behav- automobile is not only a technological product of our iorseems a potential basis for evaluating moral impli- culture, but has had a deep influence upon our cul- cations. Even though we may reject a partiular relig. ture.Also, we should note that the processes of ion as a matter of personal faith or choice, when we production and service also affect a sociey. consider it as a potential model, we are obligated to This paper will demonstrate that technology can judge it based upon the principles which it teaches. be evaluated based on the extent to which relation- Therefore a religion which stresses desirable stan ships between technology, humans, and environ- dards of human behavior has merit for evaluating moment are maintained. More spear:ally, the paper will ral implications. bring evidence to light that supports the notion that a While the moral application may be often admit- Christian relational theology is an appropriate model ted, dealing with social impacts is seldom seen as fit- to assess the moral and social impacts of technology. ting within the parameters of religion. We think this is due to a misconception of religion in general and Christianity in particular. This misconception may be 80 Technological Literacy Symposium 81

within or without the Christian community. protect the relationships most important to them. Any scheme which purports to address) social is- This idea of technology assessmentassumes suds, by definition, must include human relations. that individuals have volition in the matters oftech- Webster's New World Dictionary(1964) defines nology; that Christianity and technologyare both re- "social" as "having to do with human beings living to- lational physically and metaphysically; that thereare gether as a group in a situation requiring that they various valid models of technology assessment and have dealings with one another." If that does not in- Christian-relational is one; and that informed, wholis- volve human relations, what does? tic decisions are more likely to foster relationships. But instead of this, twentieth century Christians Any soclo- cultural model that purports to evaluate tend to think in moral termsan act is either right or technology must deal with relationships. wrong. Occasionally, Christians will think in valuative A point often argued is that technology and Chris- terms --an act or an object is then good or bad. We tianity do not mix.It is not surprising that non- think that a better approach would be to ask, "How Christians, or non-religious people wouldargue this. does this behavior, act or object affect my relation- But for Christians to accept such an idea indicates ship with others?" Although Christians have argued that they have failed to grasp the Messiah's intent about the correct interpretation of Christology since that His teachings were intended to governevery as- the time of Christ, the one issue that is commonly pect of His disciple's lives.It is this failure to rigorous- agreed upon is the centrality of relationships. This ly apply Christian principles that is responsible for the paper assumes that whether people consider their past failings of Christendom to be, in practice as well interpretation to be conservative or liberal, that cor- as doctrine, the kingdorrfilch Christ came to estab- rect relationship with fellow humans, with the envi- lish. This failure demonstrates a lack of appreciation ronment, and with one's belief systemthat is, living for the fact that correct relationships are at thecenter in good conscienceare at the center of Christianity. of our function as God's people on earth. Therefore, This then, provides a sound basis for judging theac- the study of the relationships of human beingsto ceptability of social implicationsDoes the technolo- their tool systems and how they inter act with theen- gy promote desirable human relations? vironment should be of utmost concern to twentieth This paper will explore the idea of technological century Christians. But the Christian framework also assessment based upon some very basic and simple has validity for non-Christian., interested in human principles of Christian relation. The notion of being consequences of technology. in relationship requires the making of choices, and This concern with human issues has been being in Christian relationship infers that the individu- voiced by many, including Ely Chinoy. al chooses wholeness over fragmentation. Consid- eration of relation based solely on economic factors An affluent society, however, can afford tocon- is narrow to = debilitating degree. Making relational cern itself in new ways with the human con- choices requhes knowledge beyond the bottom line sequences of technology, to make choices of a ledger sheet. A reductionist paradigm simply between cost, let us say, or efficiency, and cannot address the human issues of technology. To the impact cf the job experience upon the worker... say that unemployment remained stable during the engineers and managers, howev- third quarter ignores the human suffering of unem- er, have rarely concerned themselves with the human or social consequences of tech- ployed or under-employed families and the nature of work engaged in by the employed. Christianity main- nology... Shall concern with production tains that these aspects are important and that desir- and cost continue to take priority over more able relational choices are built around accurate anal- immediate human values? (1964, pp. 76- 77, 80) ysis of both divine and natural information. This notion of volition is at the center of the adver- Chinoy's statements and question focus sharply tising industry which attempts to convince people to or both the opportunity and responsibility that we have as citizens in a land of plenty. No longer make particular decisions about particular products. are we That industry rarely asks consumers to consider the concerned only with technology for survival, we both variety of implications bound up in purchasing and enjoy and are afflicted by technology that offers both using those products, however. An individual or convenience and luxury. Such dissonance points community aware and informed of the consequenc- out the need for deliberative evaluation of our tech- es of a decision will usually choose the way that will nology, including its social impact. We maintain that Chinoy's observations demonstrate that considera-

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tion of others would change the practice of technolo- In addition to the designers, the producers of a gy.In some cases, engineers have designed work manufactured or constructed object also exist in a re- roles for others that they themselves would abhor. lationship to consumers and designers. By following Managers have directed workers in patterns of work standards conscientiously and rDting design flaws, that they themselves could not tolerate. Such indi- workers are able to maintain a "faithful" relationship cates a lack of neighborliness, a failure to treat others with both the designer and consumer, one which as they would be treated, an absence of positive re- conveys a sense of honesty, reliability and dependa- lationship. bility. On the other hand, the tire builder who fails to follow specs, or deliberately multitates the design, vi- An Illustration olates the honor of that relationship. To perceive the influence of technology on hu- Correspondingly, corporate managers who man relations requires that we go beyond an object- gouge prices, monopolize trade, discriminate unfairly centered view. Simply noting that Uncle Fred and in hiring and firing practices, defraud consumers and Aunt Agnes can drive their car up to Vermont and visit the grandchildren does not provide a large otherwise fail to practice faithfulness, act in a way to destroy human relationships. enough framework. We may also note that although the automobile allows them to maintain contact with Finally, consumers who refuse to pay for mer- the extended family, it may increase the likelihood chandise, neglect or abuse products, defraud the that the extended family will be distanced. Although producer or servicer and do not act faithfully in other we may certainly begin to discuss the impact of the ways, also act in a way to destroy human relation- automobile on their relationship with the grandchil- ships. dren in Vermont, that allows neither an adequate as- Everyone involved in the system, as employer, sessment of the automobile or of Aunt Agnes and employee, consumer, etc., is involved in relationship Uncle Fred. to others in the system. Agnes and Fred, in addition to being involved in a The point, up te this point, is not to blame tech- consumer role, are also involved in relationships nology per se for all broken relationships described stemming from the design, production and servicing above. Rather, the point is that technology involves of the automobile. people in relationships. The responsibility of tech- Each designer involved in the manufacture of the nology, or more accurately the responsibility of those car is inextricably linked in a relationship to the con- who employ technology, accrues from the degree to sumer. (Try removing the front oil pan plug on a 78 which a technology encourages or hinders the culti- Fairmont when the car is on a lift or changing spark vation of human relationships. This principle is oper- plugs in an '84 Corvette.) Whether by fault or over- ant not only in the object but also in the processes sight, the engineers who designed the Ford Pinto inextricably linked to the object. had a relationship with those individuals killed or seri- Mass private ownership of the automobile de- ously injured in flaming rear-and collisions. There is mands a system of production that involves certain no reason to believe that there was a conspiracy on inevitable implications for human relationships. That the part of he engineers against the lives of Pinto system, mass production, is the only means of pro- owners. N.,..re likely, the issue is one of oversight. viding semi-affordable automobiles, supplying us But is not such oversight less likely when the engi- with high quality, uniform products at a low price. neer considers Uncle Fred and Aunt Agnes to be in- That system, by definition, also involves processes volved in an important relationship with her or him? which separate workers socially and reduce the bulk Conversely, there is also a relationship between the of work to highly repetitive tasks. Confined to small engineers of the safety harness and/or infant restain- work stations, restricted in social contact and creat've ers which have saved the lives of thousands of peo- activity, many workers identify with the one who said, ple. Also, manufacturers who devote much time and "The things I like best about my job are .,uitting time, money to make vehicles more comfortable indicate a pay day, days off and vacations" (Chinoy, 1964, p. positive degree of relationship with the consumer. 75). (Incident ly, the idea of designer responsibility historically precedes Christian culture. At least as early as By purchasing the product, I participate in the Assyrian culture, if a building collapsed and killed its process by which it is produced and am therefore, in occupants, both architect and contractor were put to relationstgp to the workers. As such, I benefit from death.) the designers/managers who wish to provide me

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with an affordable car, but reinforce a concept of pro- in our system of investment/production. duction that forces others in my relational network to work at jobs that are frustrating, monotonous and un- Also inevitable in an ethos ofa most goods for rewarding.I also participate in the systems which the least price is a distancing ofalationships. De- support the owners. lip and use of the automobile. signers plan products and never taste and smell the production floor.Producers supervise machines Private ownership of automobiles necessitates a and never feel the resistance of material against tool. system of fuel procurement and distribution which They experience the boredom of repetition butnot has, at times, promoted exploitation of other coun- the joy of creation.Advertisers seduce buyers tries. Some writers have dealt with this exploitation whom they never meet. Servicers repair objects in of the individual and of cultures, often from quite dif- which they have no vested interest. Inevitably, there ferent perspec' ves. is a distancing between human/human and human/ Jacque El Jul and Samuel C. Florman are definitely material. not cellmates in their view on the !la''9 of technolo- As a result, creativity becomes more abstract and gy. Yet both agree that the conc. creativity is more privileged. We transcibe the minds of ten de- central to the hurviln persona. T ,v is not a new signers into a network of binary decisionson silicon one.E. F. Sc...imacher (1973) quotes Thomas chips, giving one person creative potential topower Aquinas as stating that the human is "a being with "x" and excluding nine others from the creativepro- brains and hands and enjoys nothing more than to cess. Even the creativity of production line problem be creatively, usefully productively engaged with solving becomes more cybernetic, less organic. both his hands and hie Ji.:inc." In dour reflection on One result of this spirallic tension Le the distancing of that description, Schu.nacher laments that modem human relationships.Having placed automation technology is "most successful in reducing or even closer to the hub of technology, people are slung in eliminating skillful productive work of human hands in centrifuge further from the creative core, further from touch with real materials or one kinc another" (p. each other. 149). We have chosen this system primarily because of Whether or not one agrees with Schumacher, tn.. its potential of supply cheapconsumer goods.IfI issue provides very pertinent questions. To what purchase furniture designed, produced and market- degree does technology as currently practiced in- ed by my neighbor, I must pay more fr. lower quality. crease the potential of humans to be creative? Such allows a deeper relation between hu- Which individuals benefit most? Least? What indi- man3hateriat, human:machine and human:human, viduals have less and less opportunity for creativity but it requires a cost I am unwilling topay. Instead, I as a result of model technology? To what extent opt for a system which provides me with high quality does modal technology enhance the relationships of low cost furniture but also requires my human family designer object producer? Marketer/consumer? to be distanced from itself, its work, its environment. Our model technology of manufacturing makes Instead of working at home with the family, my neigh- great rnysical demands with minimal financial, emo- bors work in large factories or offices.Instead of tional and spiritual reward of a maximum of the peo- working intimately with triter:els. my neighbors ob- ple involved; offering them abysmally limited oppor- serve them as they are shaped by machines. Instead tunities for creative engagement, .,ocial intercourse of producing objects which involve themselves total- and connectedness with designers and consurr ')rs. ly, my neighbors input precise quantities of de- tached energy. But I can have more by for less by Our modal technology of communicating pro- participating in this system. Evaluated from theeco- vides maximum coverage of the views of a tiny pro- nomic perspective folded into my hip pocket, such portion of the population with controi of communica- technology is seen positively.Evaluated from the tion by a very few. There is a ; arallel between the perspective of human relationships engendered to- control of information and the control of money. ward mutual 'rust, care a,'d reward, a differentAra- '..`ur modal tecnnology of finance lends itself to tion emerges. maximum control by tt. ...sliest numbers. Accord- Instead of continuing on the macro level, in order :IN to the Coiumbr; aspatch a few weeks ago, .5% to illustrate how a Christian world view can be usedas of our population made 27% of the earned income a basis for evaluating technology, we move to a mi- for 198C and controlled 40% of the nation's capital. cro-analysis--one person's observation of the tele- Point five percent. Such situations seem inevitable phone. Using relationships as the basis, this aspect 84 Assessing the Moral and Social Implications of Technology

of communication technology will be projected from wrong to invade my privacy to obtain criminal evi- the bases of inherent and applicative capabilities. dence and okay to invade it to give me a limited time oroortunity to purchase options on a vacation con- Inherently, telephone communications necessi- dominium in central Ohio.) tates a system of connectionssatellite, transmitters, signal receivers, relays, cables, wires, dials, etc. In- Inherent :n the telephone are certain materials volved in that, various workers are drawn into rela- and processes. Humans must extract certain sub- tionships with Mach other and with consumers. This stances from earth and use certain processes :n or- means that some of my neighbors will work in various der to transform those into telephonos, switching capacities with various materials in order to provide centers, lines and billingterminals me with communications service. (Human:environment). People must work in certain capacities as operators, installers, repairers. Consu- The phone entails some sort of alerting device- - mers must pay bills (Human:human). Reiationships necessarily one of an obtrusive nature--in order to between people in all categories are involved in eve- gain the attention of the call receiver. This obtrusive- ry phase/aspect of telephone communications, even ness also introduces certain aspects that affect hu- though their perceptions of the technology and of man relationships.This means that some of my each other may vary con lerably. To evaluate the neighbors (even ones I am reluctant to acknowledge social impacts of that technology, we must consider as such) will attempt to communicate with me in vari- its influence on human relations. ous capacities at various times regarding various topics. Those times and topics may or may not be con- The point of this paper is to help make plain that ducive to relational concerns I have at particular moral and social values are inherent in and insepera- times. ble from technology. to consider how technologies inherently and modally affect human relations and to A special distinction about these situations, make technological valuations based upon their abili- though, is that the way we employ the technology is ty to cultivate richer more rewarding relationships for more to blame than is the technology itself. An an- designers, producers, consumers and servicers. swering machine could be tur..ad on during those Such a framework places greater emphasis on hu- times when we do not wish to be interrupted, but mans as served by, rather than serving technology. serious discussions and romantic moments are not always anticipated! (Not to mention the rare emer- Such a call seems simplistic andsome will scoff- - gencies which interrupt them.) moralistic. Keep in mind, though, that such incidents as gas tank explosions, nuclear disaster and the pro- A more noxious example of the modal technique posed use of neutron wearons, not to mention mari- presents itself at the automotive parts counter.I can tal indiscretions often seem to be greeted by moral hardly remember a time when I have stood in line to outrage--even by those who argue that morals and get a p. ce quote on a part or the part itself without values are too nebulous to be useful. Not only do being pre-empted by a phone customer.It dion't we believe that technology by thGolden Rule matter that I had waited for twenty minutes, someone makes such incidents less likely to occur, we also be- slse could call from the convenience of home or of- lieve it will offer a more responsible technological re- fice and receive immediate priority. In twenty years of sponse to them if they do occur. abuse, I have only one time witnessed a worker who answered the phone and said, "I'm sorry but I have Our position is unabashedly Christian. Rather other customers in front of you. Please hold or call than attempting an assessment of technology, we back in twenty minutes."I could have jumped over have attempted to posit a framework which allows for the counter and kissed the man's greasy ear! (Such a meaningful evaluation of moral and social implica- gratitude would be hardly acceptable in a setting tions. Any evaluative standard presents, implicitly or where real men don't even know what quiche is.) explicitly, a decree of what should exist. Such standards are necessarily implied in the very concept of The point here is that we can refuse to use a tech- evaluation. One cannot enforce a particular religion nological innovation in such a way that interferes with as the only standard but can certainly argue that a relationships but promotes them. The telephone particular religion is or is not a valid standard. can maintain long distance communication end interrupt personal communication.It may allow me to Since we agree that the social and moral implica- maintain previous relationships and avoid making tions of technology ought to be evaluated and that new ones. It can bring emergency assistance or un- social issues by definition are concerned with human welcome intrusion.(I have yet to figure out why it's relations, a religion that prescribes a standard for hu-

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man relations becomes a viable option for evaluating social impacts of technology. Therefore, a religion that maintains that all humans are neighbors, and that each human should love neighbor as soif, certainly is a compelling and stringent measure for technological evaluation. Whether seen as simplistic and moralistic or not, this framework has dramatic statements to make about the way we use technology, the way we pursue technology, and the way we involve people in technological systems. It is our position that technology which fosicrs relationships of trust, ca, a and respect is ultimately dosirable technology, a serving technology. Technology which exploits and weak- ens human relationships, even if it incidentally provides economic adavantage to the few or to the masses, is ultimately undesirable technology. The ability of a Christian relational theology to improve technological practice depends primarily upon the willingness of humans to consistently and vigor- ously apply its demands of consideration for others-- to live by the Golden Rule. References Chinoy, E. (1964) Manning the machines--the assembly line worker. The human shape of work. New York: Macmillan. Ellul, J. (1980). The technological system. New York: Seabury Press-Continuum. Florman, S. C. (1981). Blaming technoloay: The irrational search for scapegoats. New York: St. Mar- tins Press. Monsma, S. V. (1986). Responsible technology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Schumacher, E. F. (1973). ,Small is beautiful: Eco- pomics as N people mattered. New York: Harper & Row. Toth, N. (1987, April). The first technology.Scien- lific_Amsticafi, 2i(4), 112-121. Technological Literacy Symposium 87

Social Consequences of Technological Innovations

Mr. John G. Pucciano Acting Assistant Secretary Office of Vocational and Adult Education U.S. Department of Education Washington, D. C.

Technological change is nothing new to Ameri- tions. Much of the debate about programs isre- ca.In fact, it could be argued that the very name duced, unfortunately, to funding levels. But I have "America" is symbolic of rapid changes in technolo- shared with Congressional committees and with edu- gy: how else can we explain the fact that advances in cators and industry leaders my firm conviction that communications, navigation, and weapons made it the competitive challenges we face are not to be met possible for an explorer from the technologically ad- simply by spending more at the federal level.It is en- vanced state of Genoa to accomplish in 1492 what tirely possible, in fact, that excessive federal spend- had eluded some very capable seafarers like the Vik- ing--with all the necessary regulation and bureaucrat- ings for centuries? So accustomed are we to rapid ic oversight--may cause us as a nation to become change, that we sometimes fail to wonder at what is less adaptive to change and less competitive. There really wonderful: many of us, for example, were are areas in which the federal govemment has a gen- deeply touched by President Reagan's eloquent uine role to plat. By encouraging competitionnot tribute to the Shuttle astcooauts who died in last only in the market place of goods and services, but year's Challenger disaster. The poem recited by the also in the market place of Ideas --the federal govern- President was written by a young aviator who was ment can foster the qualities which are hallmark of a killed flying a World War I plane: comnoc;tive society. [For I have] slipped the surly bonds of earth/and office has been given statutory responsibility touched the face of God. by Congress to coordinate federal rural education That plane was constructed of balsa wood and programs. We are all familiar with some of the prob- canvas. Ronald Reagan was a young small boy then. lems frequently cited in 'lie accounts of the crisis Yet there he was raying tribute --in a timeless wayto in rural America. When near of the plight of farm- brave Americans who challenged the heavens in the ers losing farms, of families uprooted, we all naturally latest product of a technologically sophisticated aer- feel compassion. Our federal response should be ospace industry.All this has occurred within one measured one. We should seek to correct existing man's lifetime. But far from suffering "future shock," oblems without causing new ones. Many candid Americans seem to expect that all problems will yield observers of the crisis of rural America acknowledge to technological solutions. We seem not so much to mat many of the problems which now cry out for solu- be shocked by the future as to be shocked when the tion are the direct result of soVonswhi^n the feder- future fails to proceed--on schedule, as planned, al tovemment applied to the problems of yesterday. and flawlessly. echnology can be seen as a means By encouraging farmers to expand production, to to expand our range, to extend our powers, to real- lease more land in the inflationary economy of the ize gocis that are consistent with our values. What, 70's, the government set them up for a loss when in- of course, it cannot do is to substitute for those val- flation was brought under control--as it hsi to be. ues. Courage- like that of the World War I flyer and The future vitality of rural America may well de- the Shuttle astronautsis not replaceable. pend on diversification not only cf products but of The challenge of change is being felt through- people. A standard argument made for the consoli- out our society and certainly throughout this adminis- dated high school, for example, is that it can present tration. Competitiveness Is the watchword. Our fed- more course offerings. Economies of scale is cer- eral education and training programs are constantly tainly a concept easily grasped. Yet the larger, more being re-evaluated in the light of changing condi- impersonal high school may have its disadvantages, too. Research suggests that bigger may not ileces-

86 88Social Consequences of Technological Innovations

sarily be better when it comes to school discipline particularly acute form of a general pattern of move- and youth suicide. The sense of belonging which ment.What government can do is to ease the comes to being a part of the small community called shocks of rapid change through eduction and re- school may itself be worth preserving. The use of training and through encouraging the productive pri- satellite communications, mobile labs, and the use of vate sector to expand job opportunities. electronic networks may enable the small school ef- Technological changes certainly present vigor- fectively to overcome the disadvantages of isolation ous challenges to traditional values.It is a time of and distance. This is why I would suggest, some testing and of paradox. We have a generation of federal spending cuts are less desirable than others. young people who are instantly aware of clashes in To cut back on funding for a space station while the South Africian township of SOWETO. But too claiming we need to spend money in rural areas may many of them are incapable of locating South Africa, be to lose sight of the fact that the advances in com- or even Sout ,:arolina, on a map. We find many munication and miniaturization spawned by the high school ago youngsters who are fully capable of space program are the very sort of federal L'1 which manipulating computers, VCRS, CD players, but who may best help rural America. One of the most prom- might have trouble diagramming an atom. The "new isingand least costlyareas for federal coordination basics" called for in a number of recent national re- is in the establishment and operation of resource da- ports on education reflect an urgent national need tabanks and information clearinghouses. We must for seriousness about the business of education.It recognize that such efforts are not entirely risk free. is as if some serious scholars had reviewed many of How to avoid exploitation while assuring access is a the exotic curricular innovations of the last twenty constant problem.For example, the information years and asked: "Where's the beef?" The result of which showed that antelope, Oregon was an attrac- some of these educational failures may be seen in tive community for settlement and investment was as chronic unemployment and underemployment in readily available to a strange cuk group as it was to in- some central cities as well as in rural areas. For many dustry scouts. The natural beauty and uncrowded of our young people, the promise of affluence and neighborliness of much of rural American make it vul- access to secure, productive jobs spurred by gov- nerable as well as attractive. in another sense, mobil- ernment uplift programs has been cruelly tnullified. ity is an inescapable part of the American story. They see opporutnities limited for lack of basic skies. That is a key point to remember. America has al- Yet, the classified sections and technical trade jour- ways been a dynamic and mobile society. A Pulitzer nals ..all out: help wanted! We face real dangers of p:ize-winning book by Harvard's Bernard Bailyn re- social unrest as skilled immigrants seek and get the cently pointed out that Great Britain was suffering a good jobs that our educational system has left too drain of brains and talent in the 18th century. The many of our young unqualified to fill. George Gilder, very name America was synonym for movement, for that trenchant social critic, puts it bluntly: freedom, for opportunity to the struggling young "As long as we teach more students sex ed- farmers and workers of England, Scotland, and ucation and cooking than physics and calcu- Wales. No amount of pressure exerted by the Crown lus, we must depend on immigration for key could stem that human tide. In similar way, three fa- technical personnel. The alternative is a real mous Americans made much of their rural roots as decline in U.S. competitiveness." they campaigned for the highest office in our land. Millions of Americans suppfkrted their call for a return Without endorsing the provocative Mr. Gilder, I 'an to the values of the small town--at least as those agree that a new seriousness about the business of spokesmen interpreted those values, But when the education is what we must have. Vocational educa- majority of Americans chose a different course, none tion s changing to meet the challenge. of those three leaden.' returned to the rural communi- Many worthy reforms are being advocated which ties that had nurtured them. This is.but one example deserve study. We have certainly moved away from of a process that has been repeated millions of times traditional society of early school-leaving, apprentice- by The famous and the not-so-famous, throughout ship or marriage, fixed roles and limited choices. But our history.The interstates run both ways and we just as we reject a system which educates for only should not erect roadbkoke to freedom. one role, we must reject alike a system which pre- In a free society, government cannot restrict the pares for no role. Whether we talk about the young lesiiirnate career and residence choices of its citi- dropout who becomes one of the hard-core unem- zens. We may be seeing in parts of viral America a ployed or about the directionless students in their

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late twenties who return to their parents homes in a which brought about the rise of industrialand com- phenomenon called "nesting," young peopleare mercial cities may yield tonew realities: the ability of being disserved by our education system if it does increasing numbers of people to combinehome and not provide them early on with an awareness of the work responsibilities. necessity, the dignity, and the ethic of work. We have recently seennumerous reports in the lo achieve a new seriousness in our approach to media and in government on the plight of theAmeri- education, I have proposed a redefinition of voca- can family. But technolocfical advances may leadto tional education focusing on a three dimensional family re-empowerment through theuse of home model. The components of this model are process, computers. Access to knowledge isaccess to pow- methodology, and occupationally specific educa- er. Home computers linked to databasesmay give tion. families the opportunity, for example,to reduce The process of career developmentcan help health care costs. A 1979 annual report ofthe U.S. young people develop goals and make appropriate Surgeon General points out that "increasingour life career and educational choices throughout the K-12 expectancy is largely a matter of howwe use informa- continuum. We can and should infuse such information.* New programs may afford familiesthe chance tion and the values they imply- -into each classroom to enrich and enhance their children'classroom ex- setting. periences or ..ven, in some cases, substitutefor it. Government, too, will find its actions subjectto in- The applied or experimental methodology ofvo- creasing scrutiny as citizen-activists gainaccess to cational education can help to support and enhance voting records, administrative decisions, many of our traditionally academic course offerings. andmost interesinglypolitical contribution lists. While there And vocational educators need to instill academic are hopeful aspects to all of this change, we must be vigor in their curricula. The applied or experiential alert to the possibilities thatour hoped-for ideal of methods of vocational education helped to makeus the New England Town Meeting could the world leader in agriculture and manufacturing. degenerate into an anarchic ungovernablemass of jealous tribal- Now, they must do more. isms. But there has always been risk associatedwith Occupationallyspecifk: education at the secon- freedom. There was risk in allowingnew states and dary level may become increasingly difficult to justify frontier people to participate equally with theoriginal in a time of rapid technological change and budge- states and their more educated citizens.I am confi- tary constraints. We are witnessing already thepro- dent that our constitutional system--whichhas cess in which occupationally-specific education is worked for two hundred years--is capableof adjust- deferred until the post-secondary level.This pro- ing to new technological challenges. cess will require a far greater articulation of effort Vocational education whichprepares for the among high schools and community colleges, voca- jobs of the future will identify and expandopportuni- tional-technical institutes, and private schools. Fur- ties in the health occupations. Our office will ther, there must be a concertec spon- ffort between edu- sor demonstration programs for training biotechni- cation and business. clans. We need to be aware, though, thatwe are en- I believe the implementation of this three dimen- tering a field fraught with controversy. Theuse of sional model for reform of vocational education will hormones to stimulate plant and animal growthwhile not only help combat school dropouts, it will greatly weighing health hazards -has been vigorouslyde- enhance our international competitiveness. bated. As we move into new areassuchas patent- ing genetically engineered new life forms--we If information is the key to battling such old prob- may expect the volume of disputes to increase. And, lems as teen pregnancy and suchnew ones as as AIDS, it is also the key to prerring ')r meaningful the recently-decided Baby M case in NewJersey shows, when new technology is applied work. The rapid drop in the cost of h.:s znmputers to issues of may have a revolutionary impact on feo lily, work. and human reproduction, some of the most divisive and education. One vriter has called this ohenontenon fundamental issues are raised. "the natural evoluton of the democratizution of infor- I would not presume to suggest that wehavethe mation use begun mut? than 500 yearsuilo by Gu- enswers to these dilemmas. But I do suggest that tenberg." Workers in a seNice economymay prefer the technological choices we makecan be informed to be "on-line" at 8:00 a.m. rather,- than on the free- by our othical principles. A decision, for example,to way. The historic economic and population shifts pursue in vitro fertilization assolution for the prob- Sd 90 Social Consequences of Technological innovations

lens of infertility might incline us not to fully research The Strategic Defense initiative encompasses the prospects for laser surgery to repair blocked fallo- one project which has been code-named Promethe- pian tubes. us.It is named after the mythological character who We are all familiar by now with the various spy displeased the Greek Gods by giving man the knowl- scandals which have shocked the American people. edge of fire. The project is well-named. As great Our national security is dependent in new ways on English biologist J. B. S. Haldane has written: "The securing our communications. Ironically, the most chemical or physical inventor is always a Promethe- sophisticated of systems--our nuclear submarines us. There is no great invention, from fire to flying, and the encrypted messages which give them their that has not been ahiled as an insult to some God." orders--were betrayed by the Walkers for the oldest Against this promethean impulse has always of motivesgreed. A system which places all reliance ranged the spirit of the Luddit&. These English on technological sophistication and fa:s to consider craftsmen, early in the 19th century, rioted and human character !s quite simply, doomed. Ne may wrecked the machines they feared would put them not survive without the latest available technology for out of work.In the same cramped, crabbed logic, our defense systt a, but we certainly v,II not survive opinion-leaders and self-styled moralists complain of without inculcating a sense of loyalty and patriotism putting defensive weapons in space, fearing tech- in our service men and women. And we cannot find nology, and showing more compassion for E.T. than such volunteers for our military and diplomatic posts, for defenseless children here on earth. if our educational system does not provide them. In Educators must equip students to follow the this respect, I would particularly commend vocational technical arguments for or against the Strategic De- educators, vocational student organizations, and vo- fense Initiative. We cannot make informed choices cational graduates. The stress they have historically as citizens and voters without knowledge. As Thom- placed on such traditional values as patriotism, citi- as Jefferson said: `If a nation expects to be ignorant zenship, and respect for our American tradition of re- and free...it expects what never was and never will ligious !betty are an example to be followed by all ed- be" ucators. No society can safely pursue technical competence without simultaneously trying to instill the SDI is more than a technical system: it is a con- highest moral and ethical standards. cept and a commitment. In a similar fashion, space scientists like Wemer von Braun supported the con- Technological literacy will not only be important cept of landing a man orr the moon by the end of the to us as a commercial nation, it will be central to the vi- 1960's. There was, of course, considerable debate tality of our democratic institutions. The current de- then within the scientific community about the feasi- bate over the President's Strategic Defense Initiative bility and the advisability of such a venture. But John is a prime example. SDI has been derided by its op- F. Kennedy made the commitment. ponents as a "Star Wars" system. The distance to the near6.star is six light years; the distance to in- Any one who recalls those historic years of the tercept incoming missiles is mere thousands of space race will remember the fears that were raised: iniles. That discrepancy might be a comment on the What is mens' hearts could not withstand prolonged technological literacy of SDI's opponents, although I weightlessness? What about the Van Allen radiation don't think scientific precision of expression is what belt? What if the lunar lander sank in hundreds of they're aiming at. We will need to engage the scien- feet of powdery moon dust? What if unknown mi- tific, technical, and defense communities in a serious crobes brought back a deadly contagion to a de- discussion of alternatives which must then be fenseless earth? Each of these scientific problems weighed by the American public and their elected of- was either dismissed or compensated for. The im- ficials.It may be that we decide not to develop and portant thing was the firm commitment or the Presi- deploy the SDI. But I would hate to think that this de- dent and people of the United States. cision was based on the public's preference fnr the We do not have the luxury of deciding on SDI in anti-missile defuse system we currently have. fi :GI- the calm atmosphere of a visionary Camelot. We cent poll showed that over 60% of the American must decide the issue in the full glare of meeli4 atten- people are simply rxst aware that the United States tion.I have no argument with tough ...' .sional has no defense against nuclear missiles. No de- journalists who ask tough, professional questions. fense against missiles launched by Gorbachev or by But here's a probing questions for SDI's critics: The Kaddafi or by Khomeini. None. world's leading experts on the capacity of Soviet ballistic missiles must be the Soviet leaders themselves; 89 Technological Literacy Symposium 91

if our SDI would be so ineffective against their offon- people of the United States: theymust practice it. sive weapons, why are they so desperate to haveus scuttle the program? We are basically a nation ofPrometheans -- optimistic about the future and theability of technol- Recently, a presidential candidate said the U.S. ogy to solve our problems and provideus with a bet- and the Soviet Union were about to enter an arms ter life.It is our responsibilityas educatorsthrough raceand the Japanese would win. it was a clever technical educatton and technologicalliteracy, com- way to make people aware that excessive concentra- bined with the highest sense of moraland ethical tion on weapons systems could lead to commercial standards - -to insure that the flame ofoptimism con- defeat. One answer to that candidate's chargecan tinues to bum brightly. be found at the National Bureau of Standards. There, the "factory of the future" has been designed and produced. It "addresses issues of standardized interfaces for the flexibly-automated, robotics-based,computer-integrrted factory of the future. This public facility is open to all The discussion of the commercialand industrial application of LASER technology isopen to allincluding the Japanese and, throughour publications, the Soviets. So, the commercial competition between two free societies like Japan and the United States could well lead to discoveries in LA- SER technology which have direct military applicability. It may be argued, therefore, that the technology for a space-based missile defense system willbe developed as a "spircoir of commercial competition. The only policy choice which may beopen to us is whether we wish to join the Soviets in deploying such a system. George Gilder provides a read.; answer for those who fear Japanese advances in electronics:"The key ingredients in electronics are not machineryor materials, but ideas and inventions. To imaginethe Japanese will dominate the age of information because they have the purest silicon and industrial gas- es is like predicting the Canadians will dominate world literature because they have the tallesttrees." I share Gilder's commitment to intellectual freedom. In the Age of Information, it gives Americaa greater advantage over any other commercialor military rival than firepower or buying power. When Sa. muel Slater came to America to build our firstcotton mill in 1793, he bought the plans in his head.The Crown had decreed no technology could be taken out of Britain. We were a beacon drawing talent and ideas then. We were a beacon for Albert Einstein inthe dark days of the Third Reich. We aro sucha beacon for creative and scientific achievement today.Those who build walls to keep In their best mindsmust do more than preach GLASNOST-- openness --to the

S o Technological Literacy Symposium 93

Sociotechnical Literacy: An Alternative to the Technological Perspective

Dr. Frank C. Pratzner The National Center for Research in VocationalEducation The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio

Introduction important subject in its own right. The technological revolution, and the ways it is On the other hand, there are those whoargue changing the American workplace, have been ad- that the impact of new, high technologyon the work- dressed frequently in the popular media and in pro- place is minimal and that most jobsnow and in the fu- fessional literature. Nevertheless, there is consider- ture will require rem skill rather than more (Levin & able uncertainty and disagreement about the nature Rumberger, 1983; Rumberger & Levin, 1984). They of technological development, its impact on skill re- conclude that: quirements, and its impact on the education and training needs of workers. ...the expansion of the lowest skilled jobs in the American economy will vastly outstrip On the other hand, many, including the Joint Ec- the growth of high technologyones; and onomic Committee of the U.S. Congress (1980) and the proliferation of high technology indus- the National Commission on Excellence in Education tries and their products is tar more likely to (1933), have concluded that technological change is reduce the skill requirements of jobs in the resulting in an increased demand for higher levels of U.S. economy than to upgrade them. skills and better educated workers. Thus, for exam- (Levin & Rumberger, 1983, p. 2) ple, the National Commission (1983) asserts that: Levin and Rumberger (1986) point out, however, The demand for highly skilled workers in that tilt) service sector has generateda major share new fields is accelerating rapidly.. . Tech- of new jobs over the last two decades and isexpect- nology is radically transforming a host of oth- ed to generate the major share ofnew jobs in the er occupations .. Analysts examining next decade. Levin and Rumbergergo on to note these indicators of student performance that: and the demands for new skills have made some chilling observations. Educational re- As a whole, workers in the service sector have higher levels of education than work- searcher Paul Hurd concluded.. .'we are raising a new generation of Americans that is ers in the industry sector. Therefore, the scientifically and technologically illiterate.'.. continued growth of the service sector will John Slaughter, a former Director of i.re Na- have a tendency to raise the educationalre- tional Science Foundation, warned of 'a quirements of work in the U.S. economy in- growing chasm between a small scientific dependE ntly of any upgrading of require- and technological elite and a citizenry, ill- ments that might take place within occupa- informed, indeed uninformed, on issues tions. (p. 11) with a science component.' (p. 10) This introduction has attempted to point out two in spite of these concerns, Rile direct attention things; first, that the educational consequences of until recently has been given to the study of technol- technological change are far from being clear and ogy and technological change in the high school cur- certain, and second, that other factors and forces in riculum. What little attention has been give-' has society and at wort, appear to be at leastas profound usually been in the form of beefed-up courses in in their potential consequences for both workand science and mathematics, or instruction in computer schooling as technological change. literacy. These responses, I point out, while useful, The thesis presented here is that the broader do not address directly the study of technology asan perspective and goal of what will be referredto as

81 94 Sociotechnical Literacy: An Alternative to the Technological Perspective

socictechnical literacy is more consistent with major multidimensional changes is generally "to provide workplace innovations and emerging social/ greater democratization of the workplace, greater demographic and economic/technological develop- control for the worker over his or her environment. ments than a purely technological focus (Camoy, and greater joint problem-solving between labor and Shearer & Rumberger, 1983; Ferguson, 1980; Nais- management" (Goodman, p. 81. bitt, 1982; Work in America Institute, 1982). In contrast to the more popular notion of technological liter- The changes occurring in work and referred to here as "quality of work life developments" acy, sociotechnical literacy seeks a balanced treat- appear in workplaces in many guises"high-involvement, parti- ment of the human social and demographic aspects of work, as well as the economic and technological cipative management," "workplace democracy," "humanization of work," "democratic sociotechnical aspects, and focuses on their interactions. It empha- design of work' Some of these terms may carry sized development of a broad perspective and Un- spe- derstanding of the nature of technology and work In cial meanings and connotations for the specialists and professionals who use them, and there is little a democratic, technologically advanced society.tt also emphasizes development of broadly applicable, apparent agreement among these specialists on a common set of definitions. Nevertheless, their un- highly transferable skills err' knowledge needed to derlying principles and techniques do not appear to function effectively in such a society and workplace be very different; they all focus on improving human including development of: (1) group problem solv- well-being and organizational effectiveness. ing skills (e.s, '^terpersonai and group process skills, problem solvinu and decision making, planning, and Nadler and Lawler (1983) trace the historical de- communication), (2) skills in business economics, velopment of the OWL movement and its evolving business operation, and statistical quality control, definitions, and provide a concise working definition: and (3) an understanding of the philosophical under- Quality of work life is a way of thinking about pinnings and consequences of the shifts from a me- people, work, and organizations. Its distinc- chanistic, technological, scientific management per- tive elements are (1) a concern about the im- spective of work to a high-involvement, participative pact of work on people as well as on organi- management perspective (Pratzner, 1984a; Pratzner zational effectiveness, and (2) the idea of & Russell, 1984b, participation in organizational problem solv- To lay the groundwork for this discussion of soci- ing and decision making. (p. 26) otechnical literacy, we will first examine what is re- Mills (1978), former director of the American ferred to as quality of work life (OWL) developments Center for the Quality of Work Life, has defined OWL in the workplace. Next, we will discuss briefly some as: of the social, demographic, and economic developments tat support quality of work :lid developments. A way to provide people at work (managers, Finally, we will suggest how sociotechnical studies supervisors, rank and file workers) with grow out of quality of work life developments and structured opportunities to become actively support effective preparation for work. involved in a new interpersonal process of problem solving toward a better way of work- Quality of Worldife: An Overview ing anti a more effective work organization, Quality of work life activities are ways of structur- the payoff from which includes the best in- ing jobs and organizing work that typically have the terests of employees and employers in dual focus of (1) improving the economic viability of equal measure. (p. 23) an organizatkm, and (2) making work a more satisfy- The most important aspect of the OWL approach ing and reward:ag experience for workers and man- is the establishment of new cooperative diagnostic agers. As Goodman (1979) points out, "The focus is and problem solving bodies with, as Mills stresses, not on improving either the productivity dimensions "the authority to make things happen" (Mills, 1978, or the psychological outcomes of work, but rather on p. 35). Such bodies are called by a variety of names jointly improving both of these outcomes" (p. 8). quality circles, OWL committees, problem solving Goodman further notes that OWL activities usually at- task forces. What is important about them is their tempt to "restructure r-tiitiple aspects of an organiza- purpose and underlying rationale. tion simultaneously, such as the authority, decision making, reward, and communication systems, rather As Mills points out, these bodies or structures than any one dimension." The purpose of these provide "the opportunity for people to seek together to identify barriers to the effectiveness of their work

92 Technological Literacy Symposium 95

organization, or part of It, and through problert Ferguson (1980) sees the shift to greater demo- solving, tumble these bafflers down" (Mills, p. 35). cratization as a distinctly newway of understanding They are based on the conviction, by all involved, and explaining reality and of thinking about old prob- that 'There's a wealth of largely untapped creative ex- lems: "Roles, relationships, institutions,and old ide- pertise and insight in the organization which the old, as are being reexamined, reformulated, redesigned. rigid, stable structure and organization charts have We have begun to image the possible society"(p. kept hidden" (Mills, p. 35). These problem solving 29). This new view promotes the autonomous indi- and decision making bodies are organized ways of vidual in a decentralized society. channeling that latent expertise and putting it to work in the interest of the workers and the organization. In their recent book, A New Social Contract.Car- noy, Shearer, and Rumberger (1983) contend that The New York Stock Exchange (1982) estimates the assumption that the economic system inthe that, by the early 1980s, about 13 million workers United States is self-governing is "palpablyfalse" were currently included in a variety of OWL and pro- and that "an alternative must integrateeconomics ductivity improvement programs (p. 23). The Ex- and politics on a new basis-a democratic,participa- change has collected survey data showing that the tive governance of polity and economy" (p. 2).They most rapidly growing programs have been quality cir- call this alternative "economic democracy" andthink cles, restructuring plant and office space, job rede- it will work because "it is rooted in the basicAmerican sign, task forces, group incentive plans, and produc- ideals of participation, fairness andefficiency" (p. 4). tion teams (p. 26). Camoy et al. further state that the cornerstones Among the reasons that corporations initiate of economic democracy "are direct and individual OWL programs are to cut costs, to improve poor em- public accountability for investment policy and in- ployee attitudes and morale, to Improve productivity creased worker and consumer control of production- and product quality, and to reduce worker turnover. -what and how things are produced" (p. 3).They Other reasons include positive reports from other argue that greater, not less democratic participation corporations and a change in management philoso- is required "at the community level, at the plant level, phy. Some management and union advocates of at the level of national economic policy" (p. 3). Inad- OWL emphasize improvement of quality of work life dition: as a goal in itself to be sought as long as productivity is not adversely affected. But many specialistsagree Greater democracy means that those with with Walton (1979) that "projects with productivity jobs will have much more tosay about the and OWL as goals are more likely to succeed on both way those jobs are organized; those who counts than projects that stress one goal to the ex- live in communities will havemore to say clusion of the other" (p. 88). about what happens to those communities. ..consumers will have more to say about the More than half of all corporations burveyed by products they buy and the kinds of long-run the Exchange considered their programs successful investments the economy should make; or highly successful. A large majority thought that senior citizens will have more to say about participative management techniques represented a their activities and health cc ve; students will promising new approach rather than a passing fad. participate more in their education; and all Ideological and Practical Supped for citizens can decide together whether the Quality of Work Life nevelopments human race should be destroyed by nuclear war or survive in a saner world. (Camoy, et Ideological Support al., p. 2) Many social and political scientists believe the As Naisbitt (1982) sees it, one of theten nation is now in the midst of a major social revolution- "megatrends" shaping our lives is the shift fromrep- -a nonviolent one aimed at reaffirmation of the demo- resentative democracy to participati-1 democracy. cratic experiment the founding fathers began a little According to him, the guiding principle of participato- over two hundred years ago. They see the nation ry democracy is that people most be part of the pro- striving toward a higher quality of life through fuller cess of arriving at decisions that affect their lives. His implementation of the ideology and practice of de- wide ranging examples and analyses providecon- mocracy--democratization not only of our political in- vincing arguments that: stitutions, big also of our social institutions, our families, offices, and factories. The ethic of participation is spreading bottom up across America and radically altering 93 96 Sociotechnical Literacy: An Alternative to the Technological Perspective

the way we think people in institutions the United States and could speak little or no cng- should be governed. Citizens, workers, and lish. Rebecca Smith, senior personnel representa- consumers are demanding and getting a tive in the manufacturing productivity division of greater voice in government, business and Hewlett Packard, notes that the racism and classism the marketplace. (p. 159) that prevailed during this period enabled managers to ignore the issue of equity in the workplace. Man- Most Americans today expect workplaces to be agers did not know and did not learn the wori.ers' lan- compatible with a free and open political system. guages, and, under these conditions, their most effi- "The spirit of our age..is characterized by fluid or- cient method of maintaining a production facility was ganizations reluctant to create hierarchical struc- to reduce jobs to the minute, mechanistic perfor- tures, averse to dogma" (Ferguson, 1980, p. 18). A mance of simple, independent tasks. As Trist (1981) report of the Work in America institute (1982) points points out, "in a technocratic bureaucracy, the parts out that: are broken dow: so that the ultimate elements are as There has been a marked and persistent simple and inexpensive as possible, as with the un- shift in the attitudes o' younger workers, skilled worker in .....drrow job who is cheap to replace which is now spreading to the work force as and who takes little time to train" (p. 38). a whole. The work ethic-a basic belief in the The current paradigm of work, which often re- value of workhas not diminished, but many sults in workers being treated as unthinking and un- workers feel that there is an incongruity be- caring parts of the production process, may have tween more fiexiole modes of life and ex- been a rational paradigm early in the century, but it pression in the outside community and the was then and is now incompatible with our democrat- authoritative, technocratically controlled ic ideals regarding the worth and weifara of individu- workplace. They do not oppose the legiti- als. One worker, quoted in a Times arti- mate exercise of authority, but they do re- Los Angeles cle on 23 October, 1980, put it this way: sent 'authoritarianism,' a distinction that is crucial to worker-manager relations and na- I'm a somebody in my community. I'm on the tional productivity. board of the PTA. My children treat me with respect. I've even got my own banker who Since Americans live in a free and open political knows my name. But when I get to tne job, system, they expect conditions in the workplace to I'm treated like one of my children. be compatible with the society. Their proper expectations include Pie right to free speech, privacy, dis- It is a mistake to think of OWL developments as a sent, fair and equitable treatment, and due process passing fad or merely as a collection of gimmicks de- in work-related activities. signed to make workers happier. Rather, the OWL paradigm reflects an alternative philosophy and ap- A majority of all Americans today believe that they proach to the management and organization of work, have a right to take part in decisions affecting their one that is compatible with and supported by a jobs (PP. 3-4). broatier societal shift to greater democratization of all Mills (1978) reminds us that most of the old author- of our institutions. itarian values that underlie the current paradigm of Practical Considerations work originated at the turn of the century. He notes that Frederick Taylor, often referred to as the father As long as American factories and offices were of current "scientific management," urged: operating relatively efficiently--as they were throughout most of the 1960s and into the early 1970s, Dividing human and machine labor down when the quality of work life movement %vas in an ear- into the smallest and easiest functions: to ly stage of development there were few compelling create dumb, foolproof jobs for dumb hu- incs.:tives to align work practzes more closely with man beings, whom we characterized as es- democratk: ideals.'Ifisn't broken, don't fix it" vas sentially lazy, greedy, and demanding of dis- the wle of the ow. cipline. (p. 25) In this "business as usual" environment, the ear- Among the reasons why scientific management ly quality of work life activities aimed primarily at im- may have been so popular, supported, and perpetuated throughout American industry was the reality proving worker morale and satisfaction and gave rota- tively little direct attention to productivity-related con- that, at the turn of the century, the majority of ur,- cerns. As a result, successes were few and far be- skilled and semiskilled workers were immigrants to Technological Literacy Symposium 97 AMR

tween. Many early advocates and developers over- as the reverse of high-volume, standardized produc- promised on the benefits of OWL activ Ales, and their tion and as the way for Americato gain competitive ideological motives and objectives did not persuade advantage in the globaleconomy. hard-nosed business executives worried primarily about short-term improvements in the "bottom line." Flexible-system production is characterized That began to change around 1970, however, by technological innovation, precisionman- when. as Reich (1983) points out, the scientific manufacturing, and customization of products. it agement era came under serious question in Ameri- demands a new style of management,em- ca. phasizing teamwork instead of hierarchyand problem-solving instead of routinization.. Beginning in the 1970s, the productivity growth .Flexible-system production is rooted in dis- rate in the United States began to approach zero. covering and solving new problems; high- Since then, it has remained low and has even been volume, standardized production basically negative (U.S. Department of Labor, 1981). By the involves routinizing the solutions to old late 1970s and early 1980$, the set of problems re- problems.. .Fiexible-system production related to this lack of productivity growthsloweco- quires an organization designed for change nomic development, high unemployment, high infla- and adaptability.. .a new productive organi- tion, lower quality and higher prices for goods and zation, requiring a different, less rigidly de- services, and the loss of competitive positions in do- lineated relationship between management mestic and international marketsreached crisispro- and labor.. .no set of 'standard operating portions (Congressional Budget Office, 1981; Hud- procedures' locks in routinesor compart- dleston, 1982). mentalizes job responsibilities...The work The the eging stnicture of American Industry requires high-level skills precisely because the problems and opportunities cannot be Among the root causes of these prfsblems is the anticipated...the radical distinctions hereto- fact that America has become part of ai, ncreasingly fore drawn between those who plan work complex and competitive global economy."By and those who execute it is inappropriate.. 1980, more than 70 percent of all the goods pro- .There is no hierarchy to problem-solving: duced in the United States were actively competing solutions may come from anyone,any- with foreign-made goods" (Reich, 1983, p. 44). But where...nearly everyone in the production as Reich points out, "American producers have not process is responsible for recognizing prob- fared well in this new contest" (p. 44). Reich's fig- lems and finding solutions...When produc- ures indicate that tion is inherently non-routine, problem- since 1963, America's sire of the world mar- solving requires close working relationships

ket has declined in a number of important ar- among people at all stages in the process.. eas: automobiles, by almost one-third; in- .in f;exible-system production much of the dustrial machinery, by 33 percent; agricultu- training of nocessity occurs on the job, both ral machinery, by 40 percent; telecommuni- because the precise skills to be learnedcan- cations machinery, by 50 percent; metal- not be anticipated and communicated in ad- work machinery, by 55 percent. (p. 45) vance and because the irdividuars skills are Reich argues that, whatever the final product, typicshy integrated into a group whose col- "those parts of its production requiring high-volume lective capacity becomes somethingmore than the simple sum of its member's skills.. machinery and unsophisticated workers can beac- complished more cheaply in developing nations" (p. .Their sense of membership in the enterprise is stronger and more immediate than 45). Skilled labor, according to Reich, is tne only di- any abstract identification with their profes- mension of production where we can retain an ad- sion or occupational group. vantage over developing nations. "Technological in- They move novations can be bought or imitated by anyone. from one speciality to another, but theyre- main within a single organization. (pp. 47- High-volume, standardized-production facilities can 50) be established anywhere. But production processes that depend on skilled labor must stay where the Trist (1981) notes many distinctions and skilled tabor le" (p. 47). concerns similar to those pointed out by Reich. He feels that traditional technocratic bureaucracies "Flexible-system production" is seen by Reich are mismatched with what he calls "new turbulent envi-

95 98Sociolechnical Literacy: An Alternative to the Technological Perspective

ronments," in which higher levels of interdepen- work force support the continued development of dence among organizations and higher levels of OWL activities. For eximople, the. -4 Increase in complexity together generate much higher levels of the total size of the labor force will u _line through- uncertainty (p. 39). Trist argues that, in this new en- out the 1980s. On the average, it is estimated that vironment, large competing organizations, all acting there will be three-quarters of a million fewer persons independently in diverse directions, produce unan- added to the labor force each year during the 1980s ticipated and dissonant consequences" (p. 39). Fur- (Institute for the Future, 1979). The days of abun- thermore: dant cheap labor are coming to an end. With fewer The higher levels of interdependence, com- new workers coming into the labor force, employers plexity, and uncertainty now to be found in will have greater incentives not only to invest in labor- the world environment pass the limits within saving technology, but also be flexible in meeting which technocratic bureaucracies were de- the needs of employees in order to attract and hold a signed to cope. Given its solely indepen- stable workforce. dent purposes, its primarily competitive rela- As the "baby-boom" cohort matures, the "new" tions, its mechanistic authoritarian control youth--those born since 1970compose a smaller structure and its tendency to debase human portion of the overall population (Lewis & Russell, resources, this organizational form cannot 1980). The consequences of fewer youth is a dwin- absorb environmental turbulence, far less dling supply of entry-level workers and fewer people reduce it.(p. 40) for jobs in the secondary labor market. At the same Like Reich, Trist concludes that, "a transformation time, the percentage of minority youth will grow, so that, "by the eany 1990s, minorities will account for of our traditional technocratic bureaucracies into continuous adaptive learning systems is imperative for more than 30 percent of the population in the entry- survival and involves nothing less than the working level age groups (16 to 24 years old)" (Lewis & Rus- out of a new organizational philosophy" (p. 44). sell, 1S80). These shortages of qualified applicants may force employeis to change traditional work struc- The OWL movement responds to productivity- tures approciably in order to attract and retain the la- related problems and supports the transformation bor needed. They may also become motivated to called for by such writers as Tris: and Reich to a more see that the traditionally poor achievers in school- - participative philosophy and approach to the organi- the disadvantaged, non-English speaking, and so zation and management of work. As noted by the onreceive help to become competent in basic skills New York Stock Exchange study (1982): and become otherwise better prepared to work. The role that people play matters greatly.. American women have returned to paid employ- .Compared with the capital side of boosting ment in proportions not seen since statistics have productivity, the investment of time and beon kept. Estimates are that by 1995, 44 percent money in better utilizing peole is relatively cf all workers will be women (Lewis & Russell, 1980). small; the r.,otential benefits are enormous. Furthermore, women increasingly demand to receive (P. 3) equal pay for equal work and to be considered seri- According to Reich (1983): ously for work in all types of jobs for which they are appropriately qualified. Financial-capital formation is becoming a less important determinant of a nation's well- Many more women are single parents support- being than human-capital formation...Only ing a household, others are members of two wage people can recognize and solve novel prob- earner iamilies. Both of these situations create a de- lems. Machines can merely repeat solutions mand for change in the workplace. Vhrking mothers already programmed within them. (p. 66) need fbxibility for doctors appointments and day care, for example. Both male and female workers in He concludes, as does Birch (1981), that two wage eamer iamilies may desire longer vacations Industries of the future will depend not on physical in lieu of other benefits or higher pay. Women who 'hardware; which can be duplicated anywhere, but previously left the work force and who returned to on human 'software,' which can retain a technological work looking for fulfillment also have different expec- edge" (Reich, 1983, p. 66). tations. Women wzrit challenging jobs that are The changing work force meaningful. They wish to use their skills and to have an impact on the economy and society. Both demographic and attitudinal changes in the

96 Technological Literacy Symposium 99

Young workers--those born between 1945 and motivational force of an abstract work ethic" (p. 28). 1965- -are highly educated and accustomed to the Many workers want more than just a good pay- benefits of life during the affluent 19505, 1960s, and check; they also want "to become masters of their im- 19708. They graduated from high schooi and at- mediate environments and to feel that their work and tended college in record numLars. The median they themset. 3$ and to feel that their work and they years of schooling completed for those over age themselves are important- -the twin ingredients of twenty-five has grown from 8.6 years in 1940 to 12.5 self-esteem" (O'Toole, 1973). However, people who years in 1979, and the proportion of those with four do not become masters of their work environmAnt or more years of college has almost quadrupled in make adjustments to avoid feeling continuous dis- the same time period. satisfaction and distress. Those adjustments may Partially because of their quality education, range from working a little less hard or taking an un- these young workers have high expectations con- necessary sick day, to sabotage or theft of company cerning what they expect from work (Business property (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). Dissatisfied Week, 1981; Levitan & Johnson, 1982; O'Toole, workers who make these adjustments may even say 1973). Their whole pattern of earning money and they are content with their job, because they have their thoughts about security do not center around come to define "satisfaction" as minimal work for a the Great Depression of the 1930s, as is the case of paycheck that supports them. many workers now reaching retirement age. Many of In general, the decline in labor force growth, the these young workers want their work to be interest- search for self-fulfillment, increased levels of educa- ing and significant (Cooper et al., 1979; Staines & tional attainment, increased numbers of two wage Quinn, 1979). earners in a household with fewer children, the move At the same time, periodic surveys have shown a toward more permanent part-time work, and the in- statistically significant decrease in workers' percep- creas'd competition for fewer middle management tions of job satisfaction. For example, in 1967, 27 positions by the increasing numbers of people from percent of workers interviewed felt they had skills the "baby boom" cohort all signal the need for great- that were not being fully utilized; by 1977, this per- er employee flexibilhy in dealing with job dissatisfac- centage had risen to 36 percent (Institute for the Fu- tion. At the same time, they provide powerful incen- ture, 1979). Current surveys of young people show tives for employers to be flexible in meeting the per- that non-monetary rewards (i.e. interesting work, sonal needs of workers and managers. Marshall seeing the results of your work, having a chance to (1982) suggests that, although the demand for work- develop skills, participating in decisions) are becom- er participation has not reached the intensity in the ing more important (Cooper et al., 1979; Staines & United States that it has in Europe and Japan, the Quinn, 1979). desire for greater worker participation in other indus- The research on whether the average worker is trialized nations will undoubtedly intensify pressure now more or less satisfied with work than in the past here for some forms of work participation. contains much controversy: Quoting a 1979 article in the Los Angeles Times Some commentators argue with vigor that by Tom Hayden, a Califomia Democratic; candidate for we are currently in the midst of a major 'work United States Senate and a co-defendent with Jerry ethic crisis' that portends revolutionary Rubin in the "Chicago Trial," Ferguson (1980) points changes in how work will be designed and out an aspect of the aging of the work force that is managed in the future. Others respond that especially relevant and supportive of quality of work the purported 'crisis' is much more in the life developments. She reminds us that the youth of minds of those who herald its arrival than in the 1960s--tha so-called 1960s activists--are now the hearts of those who perform the produc- into their middle years and many are well established tive work of society. (Hackman & Oldham, in the labor market. Hayden's and Ferguson's point is this: 1980, p. 5) Lril :tan and Johnson (1982), for example point The reappearance in years ahead of the out that "the work ethic has always existed more in '60s activists. will be misread by many. the world of scholars than of laborers, more as a con- Some will not recognize us, and some will cept than as a powerful motivating force keeping believe we have 'settled down' too much. people at work" (p. 28). They conclude, therefore, We will not be a protesting fringe, because that "the survival of work does not depend on the the fringe oi yesterday is the mainstream of 9 7 100 Soclotechnical Literacy: An Alternative to the Technological Perspective

tomorrow. We will not be protesting but pro- trained in how to solve problems in groups. To throw posing solutions: an energy program em- people together in a room and tell them "to solve phasizingrenewableresources. . problems" or "make decisions" and expect them to .democratic restructuring of large corpora- produce meaningful results is wholly unreasonable tions. . .technology to decentralize decision (Nadler & Lawler, 1983). making and information sharing.... (p. 209) While group problem-solving skills have long Soclotechnical Studies been recognized as important for management staff, they are of growing importance to all levels of em- Let us turn now to a further consideration of so- ployees in high-involvement companies as a means ciotechnical literacy. As noted earlier, soclotechnical literacy grows out of quality of work life devAlop- for change and improvement in quality, costs, and employee morale. The old belief 4hat "two heads are ments and supports effective preparation for work in better than one" has been confirmed with evidence a democratic, high-involvement workplace. In con- that cooperative approaches to work are more effec- trast to the specialized occupational skills and tech- tive than competitive approaches (Johnson et al., nological literacy emphasized today in vocational ed- 1981). This means that all employees will need to ucation, sociotechnical studies emphasize a bal. work together more to diagnose problems and imple- anted concern for the social human aspects of work, ment effective solutions. as well as the technological aspects, and an appreciation of their interactions. Group problem-solving includes such skills as : (1) interpersonal and group process skills, (2) com- Several years ago we began examining OWL de- munication skills, and (3) thinking and reasoning velopments in the American workplace'. (' Our full skills. These are all complex, non-job-specific skills report-Praztner & Russell, 1984b-, including more needed for effective participation in groups that fo- detailed examples of skills and knowledge in the cus on problem identification and solution. And they three skills areas noted above. is available at cost are not specific to particular firms or work settings. through the publications office of the National Cen- Rather, they are broadly applicable skills transferable ter for Research in Vocational Education.)Our re- to and useful in a wide range of work settings. view of the extensive OWL literature, discussions with OWL experts, and icrviews and observations Additionally, in a OWL climaa, a kind of learning at leading firms that have implemented substantial ability is needed in which the learner has a capacity to OWL activities suggest that to function effectively in create order and meaning out of his or her world. high-involvement, participative work settings, work- This is different from an emphasis on merely being ers and managers not only need good basic skills able to acquire correct information.It seems to in- and technical skills, but they increasingly need im- clude the ability to deal with ambiguity and uncertain- proved skills and knowledge in the three areas of ty, to deal with and "manage" differences (e.g. in broadly applicable, highly transferable skills and people, values, technologies), and to visualize and knowledge including:(1) group problem solving make informed judgments about multiple outcomes skills, (2) skills in business economics, and (3) an un- and realities (i.e. not a linear, "binary," right-wrong ap- derstanding of the philosophical underpinnings and proach to judgments and decisions). conse- .ences of the shift to a high-involvement, Organizational and management skills. particAtive approach to the organization and management of work. Where workers and managers are to help improve the economic viability of their organizations, Components of Socloter,imical Studies they need skills and knowledge of business eco- Group problem-solving skills nomics and organizational management, In hich most employees do not have. Most people outside o" Having workers and managers participate in schools of business and management administration pmblern-solving groups r .,Tires vastly different ana- have not been trained in how complex organizations lytical skills than when workers are told what to do by are manages' and operated. They therefore do not management and are not expected to think-the cur- fully appreciate how their personal efforts may con- rent norm for many jobs. Many people in work set- ti (Dote to or diminish the effectiveness, efficiency, tings, and many students, do not have the akills to quality of the products or services of their partic- work successfully in groups doing complex problem- solving (National Assessment of Educational ular vioric organization. Progress, 1982).Most people have not heel' Traditional skills taught to managers or learned

9 Technological Literacy Symposium 101

by experience now must be shared with all levels of "end of the line" inspector back to each work unit employees. Management texts for years have dis- and each worker. This means that both inspection cussed business economics, operations, human re- skills and knowledge of statistical quality controlare source management, and statistical quality control. required. Inspection skills may vary according to the These subjects must be taught to all levels of work- product. Statistical quality control techniques, how- ers for high-involvement companies to function ef- ever, are applicable across many settings. fectively. Statistical quality control involves an understand- A knowledge of the costs required to run a busi- ing of standares and control limits for quality,sam- ness, a typical profit margin, the effect of waste and pling, measurement and data collection, and the de- downtime, the expense of benefits, and, the rela- velopment of control charts. These tasks require tionship between expenditures and income are cru- basic mathematical skills (e.g. calculating percentag- cial for thoughtful involvement in increasing compa- es, plotting graphs and charts) and introductory sta- ny profit and reducing costs. Employees who do not tistics (e.g. computing means and standard devia- understand the connections between the price of tions). the product their firm markets and the wages and Quality of work Vie skills. benefits that they receive or the amount of scrap at the end of the day cannot be expected to be very If workers and students are to understand the helpful in a program to provide a better product at importance of the skills and knowledge mentioned less cost. here, they need to understand the shift in the philos- Just as workers and managers in high- ophy of work from a scientific management, technological work design to a democratic, sociotechnical involvement companies need to know about the financial workings of firms, they also need to know philosophy. This should include an awareness of how the business ope:ates functionally. This need the historical shift in America from the earlier Taylor's- tic philosophy of work to the philosophy and values stems from the basic issue of understanding how all of the individuals and departments are necessary that are emerging in the OWL movement and in sociotechnical approaches to work. and interlocking components.Employees who It should also in- know how their efforts fit into the larger scheme are clude awareness of the roles that organized labor more likely to take pride in and assign meaning to has played and its contributions to the evolution of their work. Understanding the coordination of re- OWL activities.It may also include an understanding sources, systems, and the relationships between of the shift to "open systems" and "ecological" per- the functions in their company encourages all staff to spectives of work, in which the welfare of systems is act as a whole, helps to reduce duplication of effort, seen in terms of the quality of the interconnections and encourages the corrective feedback and infor- of the parts, as opposed to an earlier, more atomistic mation flow between functions--all of which save and mechanistic world view (Wirth, 1983b).Stu- money, enhance quality, and make work more satis- dents should also appreciate the critical distinction fying. between the philosophy, values, and models of OWL developments, and the methods and tech- When all employees are involved in manage- niques by which these values and beliefs are implement-type tasks, they need to know what managers mented in the workplace (e.g. quality circles, autono- need to know: management theory; relationships mous work groups, gainsharing plans, labor- between performance and other factors; morels of management collaborations, and so forth). communication; and human resource development. Teaching Sociotechnical Studies They may also need information about such issues as power, control, authority, delegation, Job analysis, This brief )verview of the major skills compo- change processes, feedback, and appraisal. nents of sociotechnical studies should have emphasized several points. First, sociotechnical studies fo- Knowledge and skills in these areas are neces- cus on development of generally applicable, highly sary to plan, organize, implement, and control work and to achieve its purpose. When all employees are transferable skills and knowledge needed to function effectively in life and work. Second, sociotech- involved at all four of these stages, then all are practicing managers and are theoretically a part of the nical studies emphasize development of a broadper- management team. spective and understanding of the nature of work in a democratic society. One of the major types of changes in work design is the shift of responsibility for quality from an With this discussion of the content of sociotech- 102Sociotechnical Literacy: An Alternative to the Technological Perspective

nical studies as a background, let us know turn briefly velop sociotechnical skills is through the deliberate to a consideration of several key characteristics and and planned infusio,i of these skills into existing concerns of programs or approaches for teaching so- practical arts and vocational education courses. So- ciotechnical studies. ciotechnical skills can be infused or integrated into Infusbn. ongoing classroom and laboratory experiences without eliminating what is presently being taught and Development of the component skills and substituting new things. Instead, a particula activity, knowledge of sociotechnical literacy is not typically project, or task used to accomplish some specific included or emphasized in high school academic or purpose or objective can be used, at the same time, vocational education programs.In vocational pro- to accomplish additional goals or purposes. Thus, grams, their development rarely receives the amount the development of sociotechnical skills can comple- of emphasis, relative to specific job skills, that their In- ment the teaching of specialized occupational knowl- creasing importance in business and industry would edge and skills. seem to warrant. To incorporate sociotechnical skills effectively Development of these skills does not fall conve- within existing programs and settings, educators niently into any one pr' gram or service area of the must be willing to rethink and reconceptualize what is school.It is a total school responsibility, not just the presently being taught--how and why its being concern of the elementary school or of a single disci- done--and to refocus on instructional objectives, pline area within the school. The risk here is that the teaching strategies, and student learning activities in combination of the broader definition and derivation order to make a deliberate and careful identification of these skills with the compartmentalization and dis- of explicit opportunities to introduce or to practice ciplinary base of educationespecially secondary- and develop t'-se broadly applicable, nontechnical level educationcould easily mean that the develop- skills. Students should be provided with as wide a ment of these skills is not seen as anyone's explicit range of opportunities as possible to apply these responsibility. Thus, them is a pressing need at the skills. The more opportunities given to students to elementary and secondary schools levels to:(1) practice them and the more realistic the opportuni- identify better the specific skills that various school ties are, the more likely that teaching will be effective. programs and levels are attempting to develop, (2) While vocational and practical arts education uncover commonalities among programs and levels, i.e. look for the things they have in common, not have a shared responsibility with other school programs to contribute to the development of these their differences, and (3) develop improved policies and approaches to better ensure development of skills, they are unique among educational programs in their potential for so doing. This is because they critical skills. provide unparalleled opportunities for hands-on ap- This is not to say that deve'opment of these proaches and for extensive application and practice. skills is the sole responsibility of 1icational educa- Unfortunately, this. potential can be easily over- tion, or that vocational education totally ignores such looked in the day-to-day routine of teaching and skills. Curriculum guides and instructional materials learning. are available for some of these skill areas (e.g. prob- Application- lem-solving and communication skills). Development of other component skills of sociotechnical literacy Another critically important concept in any ap- are frequently the focus of such experiences and proach for teaching sociotechnical skills is that of the programs as Junior Achievement (e.g. business eco- application of skills and knowledge. nomics and organizational management) and of vo- If it is correct that major trends and reforms in ed- cational student clubs such as the Vocational Indus- ucation re-emerge every ten to twelve years in cy- trial Clubs of American (VICA), the Distributive Edu- cles, then it is almost certain that within the next dec- cation Clubs of America (DECA), and the Future We the outcry for reform v;ill center on the need for Farmers of America (FFA) (e.g. group process and in- "useful" skills and knowledge. The public, and espe- terpersonal skills).Nevertheless, these programs cially employers, will be upset and lament the Tact, and materials are scattered and are usually peripheral that although kids leaving school are bright and they to or ancillary aspects of the formal school curricula; seem to know a lot of things, they cannot do anyth- seldom are they integrated into and emphasized in ing. The cry will be - -why cannot the schools give Los regular vocational programs. students who can apply their knowledge and skills to One immediate and practical way to begin to de- real world, everyday needs and uses. 100 Technological Literacy Symposium 103

Clearly, today's obsession with studei..., acquir- serve as personal objectives for the continuous ing abstract skills to become what Arthur Wirth has learning of the individual. described as a generation of "test-takers and right- Cooperation. answer-givers" is too narrow a purpose for public education. We need a broad purpose and innovative A great many of the work innovations and quality programs to help all students learn how the increas- of work life developments we have discussed hinge ingly abstract knowledge and skills they are acquiring on greater cooperation a:A involvement of workers in academic classrooms can be integrated and put to bofu in management and production (Pratzner& practical use in the real world. The need is for the Russell, 1984a). Further, we know that fora wide meaningful integration of skills and their practical ap- range of school subjects and tasks, and for all age plications and uses. groups, ". . .cooperation is superior to interpersonal Vocational education can and must play a key competition and Individualistic efforts in promoting role in meeting this need.Vocational education achievement and productivity" (Johnson et al., must be both a "process" and a "program." It must 1981, p. 56). Given the growth of high- involvement, aim at reinforcing development of basic and higher- cooperative work settings, the heavy reliance of much of education on interpersonal competition and order skills and at developing the application anduse of skills in practical settings for practical purposes. individualistic work, and our current dissatisfaction with school achievement, we need to seriouslycon- The high-order skills and knowledge increasing- sider increasing the use of cooperative learningpro- ly required by work in technologically advanced and cedures to promote relevance and higher student participative workplaces fall within the five new basics achievement. outlined by the National Commission on Excellence (1983). As emphasized by the National Commission, Group activities are especially important because their development requires "application" and prac- they require development and application of such tice. For example, such skills as working effectively skills as planning, group problem solving, decision in groups, problem solving, and decision making are making, and interpersonal skills. To be most effec- not developed effectively in the abstract through lective, group activities should first be designed explicit- ture, discussion, drill, or rote learning (the factory ly to improve development of these skills, as wellas model of education). They are best learned through technical jobs skills. Second, this objective should realistic hands-on experiences and practical applica- be communicated to students. tion, which is the kind of teaching and learning that Cooperative approaches and group learning has characterized vocational education since its in- techniques can be used also to supplement individ- troduction into the public schools. Thus, vocational ualized instructor assistance. They can provide time- education is in a unique position to enhance quality ly help to students to overcome barriersor impedi- and excellence in education through its instructional ments to learning which, if ignored and allowed toac- approach. cumulate, could lead to frustration, boredom, and ventually to failure and dropping out. Thus, it seems highly desirable that schools provide learners with opportunities to practice the appli- Integration. cation and use of skills and knowledge under as wide Ultimately, and ideally, the sociotechnicalper- a variety of conditions and circumstances as possib..., spective presented here would seem to require so that the potential for transfer and wider use of an those skills in various and novel situations is in- integrative, mufti-discplinary curriculum and a holistic approach to the delivery of instruction. Such an creased. ap- It also seems desirable as well to inform proach that pulls together various subjects, disci- learners that skills developed to levels of mastery po- plines, and perspectives does not now exist in the tentially are broadly applicable skills.Learners schools. should then be provided with a range of examples or instances in which the skills they are developing The sociotechnical perspective provides a broad could be applied.in so doing, they should be in- unifying theme and compels teachers and learners in formed of the skills they have acquired and their level different disciplines to collaboratively search for and of proficiency in those skills; they should also be in- focus on the knowledge, issues, and understand- formed of skills not acquired or not developed to ings their disciplines all share in common, rather than higher levels of proficiency that represent remaining to emphasize only the differences and uniqueness developmental needs. These remaining needs can of their separate subject areas.It seems especially important that we begin to identify connections 101 104 Sociotechnical Literacy: An Alternative to the Technological Perspective

among science, social studies (especially economics Thus, by focusing on the development of high- and civics), and vocational and practical arts subjects er-order skills through the purposeful integration, ap- because so little currently exists in these areas. plication and use of those skills, vocational education Ma, it seems important to identify the relationships might, at the same time, meet its expectations to en- of the knowledge and skills developed in these sev- hance and reinforce basic skills.It would not merely eral disciplinary areas to the engineering, human re- repeat learning that should be taking place in the ac- source development, and business management ademic program, but could provide a realistic altema- functions of the workplace. Team teaching and an flys approach to learning. applied, hands-on instructional approach would Summary seem to be helpful to further facilitate achievement of the desired connections and integration of extant In contrast to the more popular notion of techno- subject matters. Moreover, traditional, compartmen- logical literacy, sociotechnical literacy seeks a bal- talized vocational service areas (i.e. trade and indus- anced treatment of the human social and demo- try, agriculture. home economics, business and of- graphic aspects of work, as well as the economic and fice, and marketing programs) each focused on spe- technological aspects, and focuses on a better un- cialized job skill development, do not appear to be derstanding of their interactions.It emphasizes de- well-suited to the development of higher-order, soci- velopment of a broad perspective and understand- otechnical skills. A comprehensive, integrated core ing of the nature of technology and work in a demo- program of vocational education would seem to be cratic, technologically advanced society.it also em- needed to focus on development of basic skills and phasizes development of broadly applicable, highly the sophisticated skills, judgments, and initiatives transferable skills and knowledgesuch as group noted earlier as required by more competitive, highly problem solving skills, business economics and op- technical and flexible workplaces. erations, and an understanding o: the participative management perspective--needed to function effec- The sociotechnical perspective, along with re- tively in such a society and workplace. search conducted by Campbell, et al (1982) showing that most students pursue vocational programs for a Sociotechnical studies respond to social, demo- variety of legitimate reasons and only a small number graphic and economic trends and to what Reich, Trist seek preparation for a specific job, suggest the need and others have noted as a transformation of our tra- for a branching vocational program sequence. Such ditional technocratic bureaucracies. Such bureau- a branching program would have multiple provam cracies, with their mechanistic authoritarian control goals and options following from a core program of structures and the tendency to debase human re- sociotechnical studies. Program opinions- - sources, are being changed into new participative or- branches, lattices, alternativesmight include an en- ganizational structure better suited to life in a com- trepreneurship option or sequence, a spectific job petitive global economy. Such participative organi- preparation option, and a career exploration or avo- zations depend for their competitiveness not on cational option. All, except for the job specific prep- physical hardware which can be duplicated any- aration option, represent broad-based, integrative where, but on human software which can retain a vocational programs rather than single-track, occupa- technological edge. tional service area programs. Finally, we speculated on a number of approach- Higher-order skills such as problem solving, criti- es for implementing sociotechnical studies within cal thinking, and decision making do not appear to schools. Infusion of sociotechnical skills into existing be simply extensions of a list of basic skills. Rather, and ongoing classroom and laboratory experiences higher-order skills seem themselves to be different was discussed as an immediate and practical way tr integrations and combinations of more abstract basic begin developing such skills. The application and skills into larger, meaningful (purposeful) behaviors use of skills and knowledge under as wide a variety and applications. of conditions and circumstances as possible was discussed as leading to mastery and to the transfer of skills to various and novel situations. Vocational and Music Sidle Higheruorder Skills practical arts programs have a special responsibility Dis-integrated Integrated here because they unparalleled opportunities among school subjects for hands-on approaches Abstract Applied and for extensive practical applications and practice. Purposeless Purposeful We tried to emphasize the need to greatly increase

1(12 Technological Literacy Symposium 105

the use of cooperative learning procedures to pro- Joint Economic Committee of the U.S. Congress. mote relevance and higher student achievement. (1980). Human resources and demographics: And we concluded with a brief discussion of the po- Characteristics of people and policy. Washing- tential value of an integrative, mufti-disciplinary ap- ton, D.C.: Author. proach to curriculums; one which attempts to focus on the connections and shared content among Levin, H. M., & Rumberger, R. W. (1983). The edgy_ school subjects rather than their differences and uni- rational imolications of high technologv. Palo Alto: quenesses. Institute for Research on Educational Fi- nance and Governance, Stanford University. References Levitan, S. A., & Johnson, C. M. (1982). Second Birch, D. L. (1981). Who creates jobs? The Public thoughts on work. Kalamazoo, MI: Upjohn Insti- Interest, fia, 3-14. tute for Employment Research. Campbell, P. B., Gardner, J. A., & Seitz; P. (1982). Lewis, M. V., & Russell, J. F. (1980). Trends. events, Eastecondary experiences of students with ya-. and issues likely to influence vocational educa- tylny participation in secondary vocational edu- tion in the 19808. Columbus: The National Cen- cation. Columbus: The National Center for Re- ter for Research in Vocational Education, The search in Vocational Education, The Ohio State Ohio State University. University. Marshall, R. (1982). Youth employability: The social Carnoy, N., Shearer, D., & Rurnberger, R. (1983). A and economic context. In R.Taylor, H. Rosen, & new social contract. New York: Harper & Row. F. Pratzner (Eds.), liglauloinglayouln. Colum- Congressional Budget Office. (1981). The produc- bus: The National Center for Research in Voca- thtitutgbkiro:_AllernalbtalatadgII. Washing- tional Education, The Ohio State University. ton, D. C.: Government Printing Office. Mills, T. (1978). Qualitygfmorklik:.__Whari ina Cooper, M. R., Morgan, B. S., Foley, P. M., & Haplan, name? Detroit, MI: General Motors. L. B. (1979).Changing employee values: Nadler, D. A., & Lawler, E. E. (1983). Quality of work Deepening discontent. Harvard Business Re- life: Perspectives and directions. Organizational Yif6d, 57, 117-123. Dynamics. New York: American Management Ferguson, M. (1980). The aguarian conspiracy: Per- Association. sonal and social transformations in the 1980g. Naisbitt, J. (1982). Megatrends: Ten new directions Boston: Houghton Mifflin. transforming our lives. New York: Warner. Goodman, P. S. (1979). Assessing uirstanizatignal National Assessment of Education Progress. (1982). change: The Rushton quality of work exPati: Will our high school graduates be ready? NEAP mot. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Newsletter, la, 8. Hackman, J., & Oldham, G. R. (1980). ,Ste. rede- National Commission on Excellence in Education. sign. Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for edu- Huddleston, K. F. (1982).if productivity is the prob- natignaregnn. Washington, D.C.: Government lem. Columbus: The National Center for Re- Printing Office. search in Vocational Education, The Ohio State New York Stock Exchange. (1982). People and pro- University. ductiyity: A challenaeto_coroorate America. Institute for the Future. (1979). Policy choices in vo- NOW York:Author, Office of Economic Re- cational education. Columbus: The National search. Center for Research in Vocational Education, O'Toole, J. (1973). Work in America. Cambridge, The Ohio State University. MA: The MIT Press. Johnson, D. W., Mariyama, G., Johnson, R., Nelson, Pratzner, F. C. (1984a, March). Quality of school Me: I., & Skon, L. (1971).Effects of cooperative, Foundations for improvement. Educational Re- competitive, and individualistic goal structures searcher, la, 20-25. on achievement: A meta-analysis. Psychologi- cal Bulletin, a 47-62.

103 106Sociotechnical Literacy: An Alternative to the Technological Perspective

Pratzner, F. C., & Russell, J. F. (1984b). The changing workpjarpgralignsAisly&siglygoa: grants for vocational educes. Columbus: The National Center for Research in Vocational Edu- cation, The Ohio State University. Reich, R. B. (1983). The next American frontier. The Atlantic Monthly, 2 51, 43-58. Rumberger, R. W., & Levin, H. M. (1984). Forecast- jrig the impact of new technologies on the future job market. Palo Alto: Institute for Research on Educational Finance and Governance, Stan- ford University. Rumberger, R. W. (1986). The changing industrial structure of the U.S. economy: Its impact on employment. earnings. and the educational re- 2LIILSIDP01fisLI012s.Palo Alto:Institute for Re- search on Educational Finance and Govern- ance, Stanford University. Staines, G., & Quinn, R. (1979). American workers evaluate the quality of their jobs. Monthly Labor Review, 1.02,, 3-12. Trist, E. (1981). The evolution of socio-technical MgmEdisocattialltamottuksloclana0118 research program. Ontario: Ontario Quality of Working Life Centre, Ontario Ministry of Labor. U.S. Department of Labor. (1981).natilmaLy_f_ jnent and training report of the president. Wash- ington, D. C.: Government Printing Office. Walton, R. E. (1979). Work innovations in the United States. Harvard Business Review, Z. 88-98. Work in America Institute.(1982).Productivity throuah_work innovations. Elmsford, NY: Per- gamon Press. Wirth, A. G. (1983). Productive work in industry and schools: _Becoming persons again. Washington, D.C: University Press of America.

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Identifying and Organizingthe Content of Technology Technological Literacy Symposium 109 AIMME=M1111MII

A Global Model Of Technological Literacy

Abdul Hameed Graduate Student The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio

Models are frequently used to express relation- thumb and not by precise knowledge.... ships of various factors that supposedly play integrat- technology is cultural-dependent in other ed role to perform some function.They provide ways. Cultural factors such as attitudes to- great help particularly in complex situations where wards financing ( long term versus short human perception fails to see interrelatedness of term goals), Attitudes toward carelessness several elements apparently percieved as separate and sma9 mistakes (quality), and the pres- entities. ence or absence of the NIH (not invested Technological literacy tends to be a complex here) syndrome (It is hard to get someone concept especially when hundreds of definitions else's idea into your laboratory) have a tre- have been offered leading to a great amount of con- mendous influence on technological fusion and distortion. Technological literacy consists progress. ( p. 579) of two words; technology and literacy, each of them With the change of context the function of tech- has specific meaning in the contemporary literature. nological literacy also changes due to the different Particularly, the term literacy has classical meanings nature of technological progress. The nature of tech- of having ibility to read and write. But for our purpos- nological progress, socio-economic context, and the es, the concept needs to be broadened to incorpo- function of technological literacy are, therefore, inter- rate the ability of demonstrating specific attitudes related. Their relationship might be easy to under- and skills other than merely reading and writing. stand with the help of a global model of technological For our purpose the technological literacy is de- literacy. fined as "The knowledge of the current technical A three dimensional matrix represents three means being used in human adaptive systems; skills unique elements of technological literacy. On one to use and create such means; and the ability to dimension, technological systems can have any set comprehend the potential systematized effects of of human adaptive systems are sub-systems such as these means and to find the ways of controlling their manufacturing, construction, transportation, and adverse impacts on civilization." Two key words communication, etc. Under no circumstances used irl the definition need to be explained. Techni- should this list be considered as an exhaustive of cal means include any tool, machine, technique, and technological systems. It is left rather open and flexi- resource that can be used to solve a problem. The ble in order to take any set of prevailing systems that human adaptive system is a man-made ensemble of happen to be important in local context. technical means arranged on set rules to perform a Yoho (1967) defines system as "The total combi- pre-defined function. nation of element necessary to perform an opera- Another major problem is encountered due to tional function or as a tr tal 'set' of interacting ele- the fact that technological literacy is heavily context- ments".The use of system approach to represent bound and its meanings vary from one situation to an technology is not a novel idea. Ellul (1980) gives the other. Technology is a social reality grounded in local logic of using the term "system" to describe technol- socio-economic conditions and hard to translate ogy: without understanding the context. Goinory (1983) I chose the term 'system' to describe tech- makes this point very clear: nology in present day society, it is certainly In dealing with technology, things are suffi- not because the word is fashionable now, ciently complex that is done by rule of but because I feel that it fits technology. It is

1116 110 A Global Model of Technological Literacy

an indispensable tool forunderstanding technology education. what is meant by 'technology', while disre- Towers, Lux, and Ray (1966) in the document A garding the spectacular, the curious, the ep- Rationale and Structure for Industrial Arts Subject iphenomena that make observation impossi- Matter present an intensive review of literature which ble.. ..The system thus involves a choice includes discussion on several schemes cf classify- of symptoms, factors, and an analysis of ing the content of technology.They, by using a their relationships. But it is not a mere intel- three-point criteria (all inclusive, mutually exclusive, lectual construction. There is a quite defi- and operationally adequate), come up with two br.ace nitely such a thing as a system. .. (p. 78) systems, i. e. manufacturing and construction. They Ellul's definition of system extends beyond what concluded that all other systems in the realm of in- a common person can observe or at least feel. His dustrial productive processes are the subsystems of system isinclusive of every thing in the environ- the two major systems. Their intent to be highly logi- ment. it is open and non-repetitive.It modifies the cal and precise pushed them to define technology other elements by being constantly innovative. in a narrow and restricted sense. However, the im- Technological system, he believes, is "Just as there pact of their thought on curriculum development is was a disease expressed in a correlation between far reaching. the systems that could be grouped and tabled" (p. The Jackson's Mill Industrial Arts Curriculum The- 78). ory is based on four technological systems, i.e.. DeVore (1983) has more practical view than Ellul manufacturing, construction, communication, and and explains systems as "composed of elements transportation. These systems constitute the con that are related and which interact in some way.. .. tent of several present industrial arts/ technology ed- This means that there is some co text within which ucation programs and suffice to define our content. an element, particle, person, tool, event, action, or The second dimension of the matrix stands for some other part of a system, acts, and is acted upon. functional aspect of technological literacy titled as Percieving the dynamics of a system requires the "knowledge function".It answers the questions identification of some centre: theme, function, or be- such as: What are the objectives of technological lit- navior" (p.176). eracy?, What factors attribute to prepare a technolog- There is a tendency to see the present techno- ically literate person?. Several attempts have been logical systems as a mere extension of old mechani- made to come up with a comprehensive list of such zation. This misconception leads to a narrow under- attributes. A serious and perhaps the first effort was standing which fails to realize the far-reaching effects made by Halfin (1973) in order to identify and then of technology. Ellul (1980) in an effort to eliminate all operationally define the the processes of technolo- these misconceptions, "Technology conceived of gist assuming that the knowledge of such processes its automation, its chemical transformation o! the will help students learn about the technological soci- world, its economy of the energy, its cybemation, its ety. After in depth review of the writings of top ten data processing, its biological intervention, and its in- technologists HaNin prepared the list of seventeen definite output of nuclear energy has little to do with processes: (1) defining the problem or opportunity the old industrial mechanization" (p. 4). operationally,(2) observing, (3) analyzing, (4) visual- izing, (5) computing, (6) communicating, (7) measur- New Encyclopedia Britannica has developed a ing, (8) predicting (9) questioning and hypothesiz- standard method for surveying the technological ex- ing, (10) interpreting data, (11) constructing models perience and innovations as it is depicted in the his- and prototypes, (12) experimenting, (13) testing, tory of mankind. The method begins with a summary (14) designing, (15) modeling, (16) creating, and of the general social conditions of the period, and (17) managing. Halfin's findings laid the foundations then goes on to discuss the dominant materials and for subsequent curricula. However, many of the pro- sources of power of that period.It particularly men- cesses such as observing, analyzing, visuaizing, tions the application of dominant materials and sourc- computing, etc., have no specific meanings to repre- in- es of power to "food production, manufacturing sent technological actions.Instead they are fre- dustry, building construction, transportation and quently used in science and mathematics and tend communication, military technology, and medical to mean different concepts. technology" (p. 25). The identification of different human adaptivesystems provides a valuable in- Maley (1985) identifies four significant roles a sightfor curriculumdevelopers in the field of technologically literate person should play: I 0 ? Technological Literacy Symposium111,

1. The user role: involving the safe and effec- 4.understand the implications ofcareer tive use of materials, tools, machines, choices in the field of technology; households items, and the means of recreation. 5. understand reading materials in technological areas written on the 10th grade level; 2. The consumer role: as related to the purchasing and decision making related to 6. apply technological knowledge toa variety of human concerns and situations; homes, appliances, cars, entertainmentme- dia, furniture, tools, clothing, and food. 7.knowledge of existing and emerging 3. The producer role: involving the tools, technologies; materials, and machinery of agriculture,man- 8. able to evaluate technologiesas to their ufacture, commerce, and service. appropriateness in our world; and 4. The voter or decision-maker role: involv- 9. able to understand and adapt to change ing how to choose between alternatives in brought about by technology. (p. 53) community development, energy forms, An careful review of literature on the transportation modes, trash and waste dis- purpose of posal, housing, communication systems, technological literacy indicates that the ideaspre- re- sented in these discussions can be grouped source development, production process- under four general functions of technological literacy. es, and so on. (p. 4) These functions, i.e. Interfacing technology, using Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory technology, making technology, and controlling (1984) published the list of technological literacy technology can be called "knowledge function"as skills that everyone should learn.It includes three the basis of their performance is knowledge gained major categories of such skills: through formal and/or informal education. 1. Attitudes or generic skills that can be taught Contrary to the standard meanings, the connota- in any class: accuracy and precision, anticipating tions used to express these functions bare special needs, creativity and imagination, critical thinking/ meanings and an expanation of such meanings is in problem-solving, ethical standards/confidentiality, order.It should, however, be remembered that the life-long leaming/retrainirg, synthesis of information model, by its nature, is a simplified version of thereal- systems, thinking, and troubleshooting. ity.Specific meanings have to be attached byex- 2. Applied skills required direct instructions as plaining the model so that the modelcan remain sim- well as practice under various conditions: computa- ple and easy to understand while rich conceptual for- tion and calibration, layout/design, listening, meas- mation. In the following paragraphs the four func- urement, speaking, and writing. tions are explained as follow: 1.Interfacing technology includes a readiness 3. Specialized skills that may require theexper- tise of someone who knows what to do and how to to interface new technological objects and subse- teach it: evaluation and software, file maintenance, quent change in the individual attitude to cope with keyboarding, networking, search and retrieval. The them. It also requires updating the knowledge about ideas may better be expressed by using the term technological world through observation, experi- computer literacy which is just a part of technological ence, and reading appropriate material. literacy. 2. Using technology necessitates the wise se- Smalley (1986) perhaps was the first person who lection of technological objects and their proper and efficient use.It also includes using technology in a really prepared a test of technological literacy. Byus- ing Delphi method, Smalley reports nine criteria for problem-solving situation especially in unpredictable technological literacy test: circumstances. Using technology encompasses individual, local, national, and global level depending 1. connect past technological events to the upon the social responsibility of an individual. present and be able to project alternative future; 3. Making technology stands for not only making and inventing appropriate objects, tools, and sys- 2. be able to solve technological problems; tems but also means innovating/discovering new 3. be a wise consumer/decision maker con- technologies to solve practical problems at different cerning technological products/services; levels.

106 112 A Global Mode! of Technological Literacy

4. Controlling technology is controlling of all un- the scope of this study to devise a valid or empirical desirables internal and external interventions in the method for doing such activity. However, sociology social order created through technology.It also em- or economics may have some better ways to do phasizes the ability tc !colt Inaide to discover hidden this. and delayed &de 00 le of larger systems. The indi- References vidua: should a' le to develop means to ef- DeVure, P. W. (1983). Education-technology. and fectively control. le effects of technology. publicoolicy. Unpublished speech delivered at The third dimension of the global model of tech- the American Industrial Arts Association Annual nological literacy signifies the importance of socio- Conference,Milwaukee, Wisconsin. economic conditions of a particular geographical area in which technological iiteracy is being pursued. The Foster, et al. (1994). Characteristics of technological vital role that a social structure plays in the technolog- literacy: Perspectives fromthe industrial and ical development has frequently been discussed by educational sectors. An unpublished report. numerous writers.Encyclopedia Britannica de- Friedman, E. A. (1980). Technological literacy and scribes trie social involvement in technological ad- the liberal arts. (ERIC Document No.ED 196 vances under separate subheading and notes, "To 350) simplify the relationship as much as possible, there are three point:. at which there must be some social Friedman, E. A. (1980, December). Technology as involvement in technological innovation:social an academic discipline. Engineering Education, need, social resources, and a sympathetic social 211-216. ethos. In default of any of these factors it is unlikely Gomory, R. E. (1983). Technology development. that a technological innovation will be widely adopted Science, 221 576-579. or be successful" (p. 24). Since the technological lit- Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. (1984). eracy takes its meanings from the technological de- Technological literacy skillseverybody should velopment, the socio-economic conditions consti- )(now. Portland, Oregon. tute an inevitable ingredient. Pogrow, S. (1982). On technological relevance and The significance of socio-economic context is survival of U.S. public schools. Phi Delta Kap- also very evident from the writings of other eminent scholars. Gilberty (1986) believes, "How technology MP 1%9), 610-611. is applied depends on what society thinks it is, what Smalley, L., et al. (1984). Technologkalliffracylfffil. its limitations are perceived to be, what is its role in Menomonie: University ofWisconsin-Stout. society, and how that role is assessed" (p. 22). (ERIC Document No. ED 255 637) Schooling can play an indispensable role in spread- Snyder, J. F., & Hales, J. A. (1981). klack_son's Mil! in- ing technological literacy.But Pogrow (1982) is dustrial arts curriculum theory. Washington, D. skeptical about this, "History suggests that a technol- C.: American Industrial Arts Association ogy will play a central role in the public schools if--and when - -it first gains cultural acceptance, i. e. admit Towers, E. R., Lux, D. G., & Ray, W. E. (1966) Aid: tance to a large number of homes and becomes a pri- lionale and structure for industrial arts subject rniAry work tool" (p. 610). matter. Columbus: The Ohio State University. (ERIC Document No. ED 013.55) The classification of underdeveloped, developing, and developed socio-economic context is mere- Yoho, L. W. (1967). The "orchestrated systems": ly tentative and can be replaced by better descrip- Approach to industrial education. TerreHaute: tors. However, if a decision is made to use the pro- Indiana State University. posed classification, the above referred criteria (social need, social resources, and a sympathetic social ethos) may be used to distinguish one class from the other in terms of the level at which they meet the criteria. The decision of labeling a country or a particular geographical location with such descriptors as developed or underdeveloped possess several questions about the validity of sm.! demarcations. It is beyond

1 0 Technological Literacy Symposium 113

Defining, Determining, and Contributing toTechnological Literacy: Getting There From Here Using theTechnology of a Research Paradigm

Dr. Michael R. White Industrial Technology Department The University of Northern Iowa Cedar Falls, Iowa

Technological literacy.It has a nice ring to it. esting problem. Some would suggest that defining Like motherhood, the flag, and apple pie, most peo- the term is not really possible or necessary and may ple would probably say they were for it.When even limit the political support for technological litera- pressed to define it, the man or woman on the street cy if it is defined too narrowly (Beaver, 1986). Others or the scholar in the classroom or research laboratory go to great lengths to differentiate between scientific is operating with similar handicaps. The "it" of tech- and technological literacy (Roy, 1986; Miller, 1986) nology literacy is defined situationally. The man or and others appear to equate (Peterson, 1986)or at woman on the street will define it in terms of their least assert the foundational and prerequisite nature needs and perhaps the needs of their children. of science to technological literacy (Missimer, 1984). They may offer that technological literacy is being One of the major questions related to the defini- able to use a computer, drive a car, program a VCR, tional parameters of technological literacy should be or know when something should be taken to a pro- "What can we do about reducing this confusion and fessional repair technician. The layperson typically noise about what technological literacy is?" defines technological literacy as being able to use If we can't define what it is that is needed, then we will equipment and things that individuals will come into have serious problems in directing research, curricu- contact with during their daily activities and to know how things work and what one needs to do to main- lum development, legislative support, or the public's attention to our version of motherhood, the flag, and tain or obtain control over things or processes. apple pie. The scholar, on the other hand, will tend to de- I am sugge.sting (net the systematic process of fine technological literacy in terms of his or her disci- research will provide us with the answers to our pline. The historian will point to the significant con- cur- rent dilemma in dealing with the technological literacy nections between people, ideas, and inventions. patchwork of concepts, goals, criticisms, and curricu- The political scientist will note that to be technologi- la approaches. In my management consulting cally literate involves knowing about such things as practice wher3 I work with managers and employees to the constitution and the individual's rights and re- identify strategies to improve productivity, the prob- sponsibilities to influence and even create govern- lem of what it is that an organization wants is much ments. Scientists in physics, chemistry, biology, as- more crucial than what it does. This directional imper- tronomy, and any other science-based discipline will ative has come to be called the mission of the organi- point to the need to know the makeup and interac- zation. Without a clear definition of this mission and tion of our physical world. Mathematicians will point purpose, most organizations, and the leadership of to the basic language of numbers and the need to those organizations, are no better than Alice in Won- be equipped to deal with numbers and data relation- derland in her pursuit of the White Rabbit. ships in a complex technological world. Industrial arts teachers, vocational and career education teachers, As you may recall, Alice was constantly losing art teachers, music teachers, and other teachers of sight of the elusive White Rabbit and at one point is the non-academic areas will point to the critical contri- faced with the decision to take one of two roads. bution that their subject makes to the literacy of the The Cheshire Cat, most likely Wonderland's version individual and the compttencies of the individual to of an organizational consultant, is perched in a tree contribute to, and function in, an increasingly com- when Alice asks, plex and technological world. ".. .would you tell me, please, which way I Defining technological literacy is then an inter- ought to go from here?"

1 1 0 114Defining, Determining, and Contributing to Technological Literacy

"That depends a good deal on where you want to get to," said the Cat. 1. A model is a replica of some sort. "I don't much care where " said Alice. 2. A model is an agreed-upon symbol of (Carrot, 1955, p. 29) some sort. The sage in the tree concludes then, that it mat- 3. A model provides an habitual form for ters not which road she takes because either will take thinking or for conceptualizing about some- her where she does not know she is going. thing. In the public schools and the universities, we of- 4. A model is a shortcut or an economy in ten pursue different roads with as little forethought thinking or for conceptualizing about some- as Alice in Wonderland. However, during these thing. times of scarce resources and the need for dramatic improvement in a variety of educational areas, this 5. A model may be either complete or in- lack of direction is a luxury that we and our students complete. can ill afford. An educational program needs to be 6. A model may be either simple or com- designed for all students, especially the majority who plex--or somewhere between, depending in will not be well served by more of the same "stuff" a large measure upon the user and his with which they have not been successful (Albrecht, need. 1984).All students, not just the edvanced technician or the scientist, will live and attempt to function 7. A model provides for standardization in a variety of life roles in an increasingly complex and and control of conceptualizations, process- often hidden technological world (Lux, 1977). Voca- es and definitions; it is a nomothetic structional education, industrial arts, and the whole pur- ture or system. pose of the school must again be focused on the 8. A model !s a means; nct an end. (p. 16) students and their needs for all of their life roles The model to define, determine, and contribute (White, 1978). to technological literacy is a road map designed to Educators, researchers, curriculum developers, meet all of McGrath's characteristics.It is to represent and teacher educators must be able to define the the reality of the environment of the technologically goals and develop approaches that will enable stu- literate individual; it is a symbol of reality upon which dents to systemtically pursue them (White, 1979). I we can perhaps agree; it will offer us a way of thinking am suggesting that one way to figure out which road about technological literacy; it will be complete (yet to take would be to design a research model that adaptable and amendable as technology itself is); it would help us to uncover the variables associated will be a relatively simple model in context while a little with technological literacy and then to systematically more complex in contentual relationships; it will pro- construct research studies that would identify, codi- vide for standardization of the factors and variables fy, and enable tht reality of technological literacy so associated with technological literacy; and finally, the this all important objective can effectively be ad- model will be a means to an end.It will be a tool to dressed by educational programs. help researchers know more about the variables as- Since a model must serve as an approximation of sociated with technological literacy and to then be reality, any model will have its weak and strong able to know which variables need to be studied and points. However, it should be able to explain reality later manipulated to bring about technological litera- better than we can in the absence of the model cy and ultimataly individuals who are more in control (Lippitt, 1973). Ideally, models should enable us to of their own lives and the technology that enables learn more about the focus of the model than we can and impacts on those lives. without the model.It should also enable us to com- Since technology is "the means by which hu- municate the major components of the idea to oth- mans utilize natural and human resources to attain a ers, who may not have the same focus we do. This is goal" (Roy, 1986, p. 133) and literacy is the under- especially true when one requires public support standing an..J ability to use the code of communica- and understanding of the model to obtain the re- tion that is standard in the culture (Haberer, 1986), sources necessary to implement solutions identified technological literacy must be the ability to under- by the model. McGrath (1972) gives eight criteria for stand and use the code of those means by which hu- a model. mans utilize natural and manmade resources to attain

111 Technological Literacy Symposium 115

a goal.The debate generally comes from what strengths--those who did were Spartans and those should be understood and how technology should who thought were Athenians. While this analogy be used. was and is unfair to both, the differentiation hascon- Technology is a very broad term. So is literacy. tinued and been formalized through thedevelop- Both terms are very situatiunal. The technology of ment of educational systems in Europe andeventu- char fishing employed by the Inuit people in Cam- ally in the United States. bridge Bay in the Northwest Territories (NWT) is quite Even in this century, ell attempts to legitimize different, and probably culturally and technically con- and attrac' all students to the "doing"components of tent specific to that culture by the people who have education have been segmented at best and, during learned what works and under what conditions it the current Washington administration,even a net works. The trout angler in the hills of Pennsylvania loss and mean spirited at worst (Swanson, 1987). needs to be literate in a culturally different type and Even massive federal funding of vocational educa- purpose of fishing If she expects to be effective and tion and career education has not democratizedthe efficient (what we have come to identify as the two doing component of education. Vocationaleduca- components of productivity). Catfish farming, using tion, industrial arts, and home economicsare seen as high tech fisheries technology systemizes, routiniz- "OK for someone else's child, but not mine." Inre- es, and perfects the technology of fish-for-food sponse, these curricula areas have tried to "get back much beyond the literacy stage to the technician, to the basics" or become more like their Athenian technologist, and applied science level of perfor- counterparts by worshipping at the altar of science mance. Technological literacy would be defined and math and declaring that technological literacyis quite differently for the Inuit fisherman, the Pennsyl- one of the "real" purposes of their efforts. vania angler, and the technician feeding 500,000 week old catfish in Georgia. Like many et.lucational trends, however,we may be throwing out the baby with the bathwateras we The major problem of the educational system push our programs into and beyond technologicallit- that is producing tomorrow's leaders, as well as to- eracy. This is especially hazardous if we don't know morrow's citizens, is to figure out what people need what technological literacy Is and weare willing to ac- to be able to know and do to be productive in their cept someone's "test" (Gies, 1982) of knowing facts various life roles and how the school can best pro- as the measure of technological literacy. We mustre- vide the experiences to enable that individual to be member that "in its broadest sense, technologycan productive. Literacy is the foundation of that produc- be defined as the practical arts and skills of human tivity. Math and science are often suggested as the society" (Slaght, 1987, p. 38). foundation of literacy attainment (Missimer, 1984; Peterson, 1986). Language of and about technolo- Technology is not just lasers, robots, and semi- gy combined with the skills associated with the use conductors.It is also housepainting, cooking, tool of language- -the vocabulary, the forms and patterns, usage, and safety. In the debate about and for tech- and the information storage, retrieval, and exchange- nological literacy courses, "letus not confuse cours- -are also cited as prerequisites to technological litera- es in technology, where a technology itself is taught cy (Smith, 1986). Knowledge about politics and the and mastered, with courses about technology, operation of governments is defined as a necessary where a technology is examined and evaluated, but literacy to be a functioning citizen of a technological seldom learned" (Slaght, 1987, p. 38). Bothare re- society (Nelson, 1987). Competencies in ethical de- quired for a truly liberal education. It is educationthat cision making and values (Adams & Baker, 1986) and frees people from the lack of control over their envi- in vocational and the industrial arts (Dyrenfurth, ronment and contributes to meaningful understand- 1983) are also cited as crucial to fully functional and ing that comes from being able to do (Lux, 1981; literate individuals in a technological society. Some White, 1984). would suggest (Gies, 1982; Lewis, 1983; Miles, There is still the elitism of the "liberal arts."In- 1984) that technological literacy is the true liberal arts dustrialized societies are now paying the price for for the 21st century. this elitism in that we have leaders and decisionmak- Since the beginning of recorded history, there ers in all organizations who have little or no experi- have been differences in the capabilities and, subse- ence in the business of the organization. This ises- quently, the Interests of peoples and cultures. The pecially damaging in the manufacturing component Greeks even defined city states for these different of industries. The lack of "shop floor" reality experience has been cited by numerous sources

1 1 2 116Defining, Determining, and Contributing to Technological Literacy

(Schonberger, 1986; Drucker, 1986) as one of the el, decisions are made that impact on the next stage major reasons that the United States has fallen be- and are predicated on the decisions that have been hind the Japanese and the Germans. If any of these made in the previous stage. In a sense, these stag- problems are going to be "solved" by "technological es of MRTL are like different sized foundry riddles literacy" educational programs, then it is imperative permitting increasingly finer focus as we progress that we go about designing, implementing, and eval- through the various screen sizes. (See Figure 1) uating these efforts in a systematic way. The re- Recognizing the foundational aspect of cogni- search model presented here will enable that pro- tive competence and the situational nature of this in cess to begin. the process of technological literacy (Ray, 1986), the A Model for Rematching first stage of MRTL is the Cognitive Competency Technological Literacy (MRTL) Level (CCL). This stage of the model requires the model user to identify the level and area of compe- We technologists are pre.ntical people. Most of tency that is of interest. Since these are on a contin- us selected life roles (careers, leisure, or otherwise) uum, it is possible for the model user to be interest- that enable us to engage the practical on a regular ed in a given range of cognitive competency and basis. Models, model building, and the use of models is not new to most of us. We have used plan ability within specific subject matter areas. This CCL stage of the model recognizes that all people are dif- sheets, blueprints, scale models, systems models, ferent and that in different situations some who are PERT, CPM, and a variety of other models to enable "smart" are "dumb" and some who are "dumb" are us to visualize, manipulate, and control our techno- "smart." This mirrors the reality that we have all ex- logicfo world. This Model for Researching Techno- perienced in ourselves and in our students. logical Literacy (MRTL) is like these other tools that we have used to enhance our capability. MRTL will In this first stage, there are 10 levels of compe- enable us to enhance our knowledge about and our tency from which the researcher selects, or systemti- experiences with technological literacy.It will be a cally groups, to determine at what cognitive compe- valuable tool to enable us to think systematically tency level the research is going to be conducted. through the complex maze of technology so we may These levels are: better know the focus of our efforts and be able to 1.Is ignorant measure those efforts and their results.It also can and should be, like all tools, continually refined and 2.Is aware reapplied. The purpose in presenting MRTL is to en- 3. Knows facts able people to DO. . .to do research in the area of technological literacy. 4. Knows relationships within and between facts Since Technological Literacy (TL) is very com- 5. Knows universals and abstractions plex, a model is an ideal way to help us understand 6. Manipulates knowledge and contribute to TL. 7.Applies knowledge Basically, a model is a symbolic representa- 8. Analyzes knowledge tion of the various aspects of a complex event or situation, and their interrelation- 9. Synthesizes knowledge ships. A model is by nature a simplification 10. Evaluates knowledge and thus may or may not include all the variables.It should include, however, all of those For example, if the researcher was interested in variables which the model builder considers determining who in a population had the Cognitive important and, in this sense, models serve Competency Level (CCL) of "Knows facts" about the as an aid to understanding the event or situ- technology of nuclear power generation, then ques- ation being studied. The true value of a tions about those important facts would be con- model lies in the fact that it is an abstraction structed at this stage of the model. Most so called of reality that can be useful for analytical pur- "technological literacy" or "scientific literacy" tests poses. (Lippitt, 1973, p. 2) deal only with the content and the competency at this level and this level only (Gies, 1982; Peterson, Since all models use symbols, the symbols and 1986). the relationship of the symbols to each other are important. With MRTL you will see a process flow from When the levels of cognitive competency are the beginning to the end. At each stage of the mod- determined and perhaps categorized into types of

113 A Model for ResearchingTechnological Literacy (MRTL) in / a The Technological 78Cognitive a Components in a :Competency 3 Culture I2 Level

At the Desired Praxis Level Attitude

JNovicei Toward Levels Technology which measures... n of creates< kLD TL

114 1 i 5 118Defining, Determining, and Contributing to Technological Literacy

knowledges required (language, mathematics, phys- with tools and processes, using analysis and synthe- ics, chemistry, etc.), one then goes to the next stage sis cognitive competence. Nonetheless they have in the model of selecting the Technological Compo- attained the expert role in that technology.In our nent in a Culture (TCC). These depend greatly on continuing example of nuclear power generation, the situation upon which one wants to do research. again given our previous choices, we are probably in- Given the above nuclear power generation example, terested in the novice or learner level and our inter- we could focus our research at this stage on the est may be addressed as: "Aware of the processes Tools (devices), the Processes (mining, refining, involved in nuclear power generation and attends shipping, using, generating, cooling, waste manag- public hearings and forums on plant initiations." ing, material handling, etc.), or the Materials (fuel The fifth level of MRTL is the Attitude Towaid rods, containment buildings, distribution networks, Technology (ATT). Together with the selected Cog- etc.) of the technology of nuclear electrical genera- nitive Competency Level (CCL), with the Technolog- tion. Since our example CCL is "knows facts," a logi- ical Components in a Culture (TCC), at the Desired cal TCC could be "about the process of nuclear pow- Praxis Level (DPL), in the specified Technological er generation from mining to distribution and waste Role (TR), it asks the question: "What attitude to- handling." ward technology is predicted, desired, optimal, Given the TCC and CCL results, we are now etc.?" (This decision is dependent on the research- ready to consider the third stage of MRTL: the De- es purpose for using MAIL.) If, in our example, we sired Praxis Level (DPL). This stage of the model en- want to be able to create a curriculum that would pro- ables us to go beyond what most research in TL is vide a positive attitude about nuclear power genera- capable in that we have a way to determine what pro- tion, then we might derive the following from this ficiency level we want to test, measure, or set for our ATT stage: "Expresses optimistic views about nucle- research efforts. The levels of DPL are: ar power generation." 1. Seeker Other decisions at this stage might be research 2.Understander decisions to find populations with a specific positive, 3.User negative, or neutral attitude toward a particular tech- 4 Maker nology and then trace back through the model for 5. Designer correlations and antecedent variables that might be 6. Creator useful in predicting the specific attitude formation In our nuclear power generation example, given under study.It should be noted that although the the decisions at the previous two stages, we are like- model displays only three majors directions of atti- ly to be considering the lower level DPLs of Seeker, tude (positive, negative, or neutral) there are multiple Understander, or User. The research would then be and perhaps infinite strengths of each of these direc- further focused by the DPL to "uses resources to tions that the researcher needs to consider in using gather information (technical, financial, environmen- the ATT level of MRTL. tal, etc.) about nuclear power generation." MAIL has now brought the researcher to the Since, in a technological society, we all function stage where the research problem, hypotheses or at various levels of technological literacy in our multi- research questions, the variables of the study, and ple roles, the role must be considered when doing the population of the study can be identified and resew& about TL. This stage of MRTL is called the systematic research procedures can be created to Technological Role (TR). The four levels of TR are: measure technological literacy at one of three levels (Roy, 1986). 1.Novice 2. Learner C1 Comfortable with technology, 3. Experienced C2 Competent in technology,or 4.Expert C3 Control of technology. While the upper two levels might be classified as Roy (1986) discusses these three levels or slates "occupational" roles and the lower two as "citizen of technological literacy as unique to each other and roles," this would not be correct to all situations. One yet related to each other. Comfortable with technol- is frequently faced with an individual who occupa- ogy is that ".. .statein which a human being is at tionally does not use the "expert" role that he or she home with, the technological means that she or he has attained, at the maker or designer praxis level, uses, but unable to assess their impact on persons i.. 1 l6 ... Technological Literacy Symposium 119

or society"(p. 133).The other end of this Drucker, P. F. (1986). The frontiersuf management. "comfortable" continuum is "uncomfortable with New York: Truman Talley. technology" which is defined by Roy (1986) as a ".. Dyrenfurth, M. J. (1983). The route to technological .state where due to ignorance, one is both wary and literacy. Vocal, 13(1), 42-44. afraid of even the means one must use on a daily basis to attain one's goals" (p. 133). Gies, J. C. (1982). Technology: A new liberal art? The second level ofcompetent in technology AGB Reporta, oil, 17-20. denotes the acquisition of the necessary cognitive, Haberer, J. (1986). Technological literacy and the attitudinal, and psychomotor skills to function and university: Concepts, priorities, and political real- operate effectively with the technology to attain ities. Bulletin of Science Technology and Socie- one's goals. The third level ofcontrol of technology ty, 3, 222-228. builds on the competency attained in level two And Lewis, A. J. (1983). Education for the 21st century. enables the individual or group to display behaviors Educational Leadership, 41(1), 9-10. that demonstrate to the researcher that the subject(s) can achieve a high level of cognitive under- Lippitt, G. L. (1973). Visualizina chance:Model standing of the technology and can ".. .shape or building and the change process. Fairfax, VA: adapt it as necessary to achieve even new goals NTL-Leaming Resources Corporation. based on an assessment of its potential for good and Lux, D. G. (1977). From heritage to horizons. 114.Ur: or (Roy, 1986, p. 133). nal of Epsilon Pi Tad, 3(1), 7-12. With these three levels as behavior indicators, Lux, D. G. (1981, April).Reality, Aristotle, and the the researcher has a construct to create or discover teaching of learning about and learning how-to. measures of technological literacyin conjunction School Shop, 4Q(8), 24-25, 33. withthe other decision points in MRTL. Indepen- dent and dependent TL variables are more easily McGrath, J. H. (1972). Planning systems for school Identified using the MRTL than without the model. executives: The unity of theory and practice. The MRTL permits some standardization and control Scranton, PA: Ir text Educational. of the conceptualization process and helps the re- Miles, L. (1984). Liberal arts in an age of technology. searcher to define terms, processes, and systems American Education, 2Q(5), 2-6. within the TL area of study. The MRTL, while a sim- Miller, J. D. (1986). Technological literacy: Some ple model to use, still addresses the complexities of concepts and measures.Bulletin of_Science TL and enables the researcher to adapt to the tech- Technology and Society, 3, 155-201. nology under study, the diversities of the population, the multivariate nature of TL, and the different Missimer, W. C., Jr. (1984). Business and industry's ways to measure TL. To a great extent theMode! for role in improving the scientific and technological Researching Technological Literacymay serve as a literacy of America's youth. American Education, useful tool in conceptualizing and creating systemat- 22(4), 6-9. ic research to answer the questions of "What is tech- Nelson, A. (1987). The layman's perspective on the nological literacy? and "How do we teach it?" constitution. jrnprimis,13(4). References Peterson, I. (1986). Knowing little about how things Adams, D. L., & Baker, R. E. (1986). Science, tech- work. Science News, .123(8), 118. nology, and human values: An interdisciplinary Roy, R. (1986). Technological literacy--clarifying the approach to science education. Journal of Col- concept and its relation to STS. Bulletin of lege Science Teachina, 11(4), 254-258. Science Technology and Society, 5,131 -137. Albrecht, J. E. (1984). A nation at risk: another view. Schonberger, R. J. (1986). World class manufactur- Kaman, 33(10), 684-685. ing: The lessons of simplicity applied. New Beaver, D. deB. (1986). Technological literacy, old York: The Free Press. and new. Bulletin of Science Technology and Slaght, R. L. (1987, February 18). We can no longer society, 3, 229-234. separate the thinkers from the doers in the liber- Carroll, L. (1955). Alice in New York: al arts. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 38- Random House. 39.

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Smith, D. B. (1986). Axioms for English In a technical age. College Englisn,_6(48), 576-579. Swanson, R. A. (1987). Talk is cheap. News and Views National Association of industrial and Technical Teacher Educators, a(1), 1. White, M. R. (1978). IA and voc ed: Looking ahead to the eighties. VocED, 52(4), 57-58. White, M. R. (1979). A rationale for industrial arts teacher education in power and energy technology. Man/Society/Technology, 52(4), 9-12. White, M. R. (1984). The confessions of an industrial arts teacher educator. Illinois Journal of Industrial Education, fi(1), 3-5.

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What Price Progress?: The SocialImpact of Technology on Society

Dr. Albert Me,drs Department of Industrial and Vocational Education The University of Alberta Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

Industrial Arts Education had a mandate to interpret Course Criterion industry. Technology Education, as successor to In- One way for a course on Man and Technologyto dustrial Arts, inherits that still valid mandate. carry out the Technology Education mandate to in- Changes in technology produce changes in interpret industry is to select an Industry (e.g. commu- dustry. Some of these effects are social, and the so- nications), and then determine the effectson the in- cial impact on society of the changes brought about du ;try of a new technology (e.g. fibre-optics), and by technology is becoming as significant a factor in the social effects of both on the society (e.g.crea- understanding industry as the economic impact tradition of jobs in fiber-optics, potential invasion of priva- tionally studied. cy). Man and Technology: A Suggsted Course However, so vast is the number of technologies, Industries, and social changes (including, In order to facilitate the understanding of indus- as Maley suggests, the past, present, and future heritage), try it is suggested that a course be introduced enti- that some criterion must be established for selecting tled Man and Technology. The course would consider the implications of specific technologies in indus- which technology, which industry, and which social change (including whether its coming, going, try for the improvement of our standard of living (the or gone) should be studied. "SO WHAT" content). The course, part of a suggested curriculum in general education called PRODUC- The criterior, used In selecting a technologyor TION SCIENCE, was described, broadly, in an article industry for study is its implication for society (the by this author in the February, 1985 issue of The "SO WHAT" content), where that implicationappears Technology Teacher. A justification for including this to be profound. curriculum as part of a person's general educatio3 is One example of such implication is the fact that offered in DeVore's (1983) statement on the power technology has expanded the productive capability of technical knowledge. of industry. Product development derives, in part, If we are to remain as free citizens in a demo- from the capability of the equipment, but equipment cratic society and control our own destiny, is expensive. Therefore, decisions on the introduc- then it is important that we control our tech- tion of new products are increasingly being madeon nical means and direct and use them to at- the basis of what the equipment can produce rather tain agreed upon social purposes.To do than what products are in demand. Machine capabili- otherwise will bring about a society con- ty, not the marketplace, is determining the products trolled by an elite group who are knowledge- to be produced. Demand, itself, is becoming a prod- able in creating and controlling technical uct, and, like any other other product, it can be man- means for their purposes. (p. 11) ufactured. Markets, therefore, no longer have to be found, they can be created. Also described was the remainder of the curriculum, the study of production techniques, using labor- Another example of an implication is that locus- atory courses to demonstrate the use by industry of try, for years unmindful of the waste it has created, is materials, tools, and processes to improve products increasingly being held accountable for the damage and productivity (the *HOW' content). As this paper to the environment caused by the toxic wastes it is limited to describing the implications portion of the pours into the air and water. This is a reaction, at last, curriculum, production techniques will not be discussed further. 1 1 9 122 What Price Progress?: The Social Impact of Technology on Society

to such dream-shattering realities as that experi- are forgetting the power of the second chance in enced when, finally having the time and money, you turning some losers" into winners. take that long awaited trip down the Rhine River to Another example of thfs tendency toward ma- find yourself traveling on what has been called the chine worship is offered by Sayre (1984) in his re- filthiest waterway in Europe. Much the same is being view of the book Technostress in which, writing on said of the scenery in the United States and Canada, the attituJe of youth toward computers, he noted with action still at the talking stage in eliminating acid the author's point that: rain from the once beautiful streams, rivers, and mountains. Many of today's youth have chosen the computer as an inspiration role model, rather than a Further implications of technology derive from parent or teacher. Children are beginning to viewing technology as a benefit, a curse, or a mixed accept the computer's speed and efficiency blessing. as desirable human traits while completely The Benefits of Technology overlooking the machine's lack of social and creative human characteristics. These chil- The benefits of technology, briefly, are two: dren are viewing teachers and parents as 1.Extension of human physical and intellectual being longwinded, boring individuals whose capabilities efficiency is very limited. (p. 55) 2.Decrease in some forms of human physical Another value that is questionable is that devel- and intellectual labor oping personal integrity does not seem to be as ma- As a result of these two benefits North America jor a concern of society as developing technical skill. has one of the highest material standards of living in Consequently society is developing skilled mechan- the world. We enjoy an increase in the number, qual- ics who cheat us. ity, and variety of material products, an increase in Another interesting value: people often meas- the value of products, per dollar, and an increase in ure their status by the quantity and quality of their the opportunity for leisure time in which to enjoy material possessions leading them to be less con- these products. The enormity of these accomplish- cerned with purpose or function. As a consequence ments can more readily be appreciated when one we see the fascinating phenomenon of people with views the standard of living in other nations. hearing difficulties owning hi-fi stereos, and people The Curses of Technology buying products that have the brand names conspic- uously displayed. Society benefits from technology, but it also pays for those benefits.When we consider the It looks, too, as though we are becoming ser- problem of acid rain, for example, we consider some- vants of our technology. Consider the time spent thing tangible. It can be seen and measured and de- wondering where you parked the car, how much gas bated and the consequences are obvious. More there is in it, what that noise is, where that liquid is subtle are those social costs that include the adop- leaking from, how competent the mechanic is, how tion of values that favor industry a lot more than they honest the mechanic is, where the money for the re- favor society or that work against being human. One pair is coming from, etc.--and that's just the car! How of these misplaced values is the use of the Protest- about the house, food, clothing, vacations, gadgets, ant Ethic by unscruplous employers during the In- etc. Finally, there is what may be the supreme insult dustrial Revolution, to give a veneer of respectability to the human spirit--people, without fuss, turn over to what authors like Charley Dickens (Hard Times) their decision-making responsibilities to inanimate showed to be the outright exploitation of people, objects.It is perfectly possible to get a ticket for down to the shameful use of seven year old children crossing a prairie street at three o'clock in the morn- in the coal mines of Wales. ing when there is not a car around for miles and it is 30 degrees below zero because you passed a red A particularly dehumanizing behavior in this light.Carried to the extreme, an ominous scenario world of increasing technology is the tendency to im- can be imagined in which the military gives the power itate industry. One evidence of this may be seen in to computers to launch nuclear missiles in the event some people's preference for Industrie! measures of of a hostile military first strike because people cannot performance (judgement by checklist) over human be depended upon to have the sangfroid to push measures of performance potential (judgement by the button when the moment comes. faith), in the prediction of future performance. We 120 ,zamims Technological Literacy Symposium 123

On an entirely different theme, industry is affecting, perhaps, the incidence of marriage breakdown, ed by the need for cost reduction and the cost of hu- cardiac arrest, or escapist activities (drugs, alcohol, mans in an enterprise is often expensive. In general, suicide). tie highest cost in producing a product is the cost of Technology as a Mixed Blessing the person producing it. Money is spent not only on wages for productive work, but for wages paid where Finally, technology can be a mixed blessing. there is no productive work due to a myriad of human Our citizens enjoy an increase in their life span and a causes including incompetence, immorality, and ill- reduction in its pain, while at the same time livinga ness. Examples abound of low productivity due to life style that, until relatively recently, gave mostly lip alcoholism, absenteeism, cheating, stealing, and service to the idea of fitness and the maintenance of personality clashes. Wages also vary in accordance health. People hava an increase in leisure time avail- with skill and it is a wise worker who makes himself in- able through a reduced work week, but an increasing dispensible, and therefore expensive, by increasing number of people spend that leisure time working at the skill requirements of his job. But employers are a second job. wise, too, and they are vitally concerned with keep- Implementing the Course ing employee costs down and productivity up. If the proposed course Man and Technology is Concerning skill requirements, "Since the be- to be taken by all students then it must be a course ginning of the Industrial Revolution," Levin (1984, p. acceptable for college admission. Otherwise, no stu- 14) noted, "employers have sought ways of reduc- dent in the college-bound track will take it.It should ing the skill requirements associated with work." The therefore probably be offered in the last year of high work of men like Frederick (Speedy) Taylor and Frank school. Gilbreth at the turn of the 20th century pioneered the use of time and motion studies to improve pro- Discussions designed to understand the impli- ductivity, introducing scientific management as a cations of technology for improved quality of lifemay field of study in manufacturing. Industrial engineers be reinforced by guest lectures of teachers of often design production lines, not so much for effi- science, biology, social studies, and economics, and ciency of production as for simplicity of tasks suited by visits to industrial or government agenciescon- for low skilled labor, for it is more profitable to hire ad- cerned with these problems. Alcom's (1986) book is ditional low-skilled workers than to produce a product an excellent source for ideas on issues for class dis- more quickly using highly skilled workers.Low- cussion. skilled workers work for less, require less training, It is emphasized that the class discussions must and, at the employers discretion, can easily be re- arise from events occurring during the role-play in placed. company operation. To do otherwise is to risk having Concerning worker productivity, it is theoretically the experience degenerate into an exercise in Social possible that if people were replaced in a production Studies taught in a stage setting made up likean in- line by machines, the profits due to improved pro- dustrial factory. ductivity would soar to the point where, if those sav- To illustrate how the course has been taught,a ings, instead of being given as increased dividends course outline is offered in Appendix A. Anyone to the stockholders were translated into lower selling wishing further information is invited to contact the prices, almost everyone could buy almost anything author. for almost nothing. In a society in which work is considered a moral good, what will be the effect on peo- References ple of having work as the privilege of the few rather Alcorn, P. (1986). Social issues in technology: A than the right of all? format for investigation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pren- As another example of misplaced values, a com- tice-Hall. pany's progress often consumes more of an employ- DeVore, P. (1983, April 20).Education- - ee's time than his or her children's progress, leading technology and public policy.Paper presented at to estranged family life and having children growing the Summit Conference of the American Industrial up almost without parents. Arts Association, Milwaukee, WI. (ERIC Document Excessive concern with a company's progress Reproduction Service No. ED 265 406) (e.g. bringing home the company's problems) could contribute problems to one's personal life, increas- 121 124 What Price Progress?: The Social Impact of Technology on Society MIIIIIIMEN,

Levin, H. (1984). Education and jobs In a techno- Specific Objectives jogical world. Columbus, OH: National Center for Re- At the end of this course, the student will be search in Vocational Education, The Ohio State Uni- able to: versity. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 240 383) * List and discuss the factors involved in setting up and running a company in a technology-based Maley, D. (1983). Teaching the heritage of tech- society. nology. Past. present. and future. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 234 019) * Discuss the impact of technology on production methods. Meyers, A. (1985, February). Productivity as the content base for industrial arts. The Technology * organization Teacher, 411(5), 4-8. planning Sayre, S. A. (1934, Fall). The Journal of Epsilon 1;1 * control Liu, X(2), 55. Discuss the implications of technology for future production methods. APPENDIX A Discuss the changes in values and life styles brought about by technology. MAN AND TECHNOLOGY Discuss the implications of technology for: Course Outline alternative energy sources Instructor: A. Meyers * environment protection (conservation of natural resources and scenery) Required Text: Teich, A. H. (Ed.) (1986). Technolo- gy_ and the futd1e (4th ed.). New York: St. Mar- ** pollution control (air, noise) tin's Press. quality of life Recommended Reading General Methodology Brown, J. A. C. (1964). Social psycholoay of indus- The learners will achieve the course objectives by try,. London: Penguin Books. establishing, operating, analyzing, and disbanding a Packard, V. (1957). The hidden persuaders. New simulated manufacturing company typically found in York: David McKay. a technology-based society. Problems arising from the operation of this simulated company will be dis- Packard, V. (1960). The wastemakers. New York: cussed at a conference session held during the last David McKay. 1/3 of each daily laboratory period. Learning meth- Petit, T. A. (1967). The moral crisis in manage- ods used in this course include: directed discovery, ment. New York: McGraw-Hill. simulation, case-study, role-playing, conference, Pytlik, E. C., Lauda, D.P., & Johnson, D. L. and discussion. Learning aids include: field trips, guest lecturers, management games, films, library (1978). Technology.Ghanciaandmrdedy. searches, and directed readings. Worcester, MA: Davis. General Evaluation General Objectives. At the end of this course, the student will be ex- Students will develop an understanding of the pected to demonstrate the degree of his awareness role of technology in our society. of the impact of human beings and technology on Student will be able to describe the factors in- each other. volved in operating production companies in a tech- Topical Outline nology-based society. Unit I:Introduction: Development of a technolo- Student will be able to discuss the impact of gy-based society technology and society on each other. Elements Student will be able to discuss the future of HistoryUnit II: Elements of a company in a tech- technology. nology-based society

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Una III: Organization Unit IV: Management philosophies Unit V: Effects of present production system * Materials supply Pen life style Environment Unit VI: Future production system in a technology-based society Alternative energy sources Change in one's value system Change in nature of products Unit VII: The changing responsibilities of management Course Evaluation Presentation 50% Participation ** 20% Final Examination Am Total 100% Leresentalion The student will select a topic relevant to the Specific Course Objectives and give a 30 minute presentation to the class. A fifteen minute class question and discussion session will follow the presentation, followed by a fifteen minute follow-up of the discussion, by the instructor. The L.udent will distribute a one page summary of the pisentation to the class at least one week before the presentation, and hand in a typewritten copy of the contents of the pu:sentation on the first school day of the last month of the term. fiactirtalloi

The student has an obigation to share his views and knowledge with the teat of the class. Students are therefore expected to torcome actively involved in the class discussions and to contribute meaningfully to the class discussion. DiSy will be evaluated by their peers on the quality of their cmtributions to these discussions.

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An International Study of Curricular Organizers for the Study of Technology

James L. Barnes President International Institute for the Study of Technology, Inc. Blacksburg, Virginia

Introduction nology (p. 27). Logically, this affects theway tech- Possible curricular changes emanating from nology curricular organizers should be identifiedto technological chang '3s will require careful appropriately represent the study of technology. study and deliberation over a long period of The present curricula organizers for technology edu- time. (Educating Americans for the 21st cation:construction, manufacturing, communica- Century, 1983, p. 13) tion, and transportation, do not appropriatelyrepre- sent an intellectual technology that is advancing ex- Education in this decade has been dominated ponentially. by the thrust for excellence in education. Numerous recent reports have called for a complete reform of These curricular organizers were derived froman our total education process. State after state has industrial base. Although the industrial implications echoed the report, A Nation at Risk, to overhaul their of industrial arts can be traced back to the Industrial- education system. Pervasive throughout these re- Social Theory or the Russell-Bonser Plan, Warner's form movements has been the importance of the curriculum organization has been the most widelyac- study of technology as an essential element for a cepted within the industrial arts profession technologically literate citizenry. (Snedden & Warner, 1927, pp. 7-8). Warner identifies the same four curricular organizers: manufactur- In Educating Americans for the 21st Century, ing, construction, communication, and transporta- the report stressed the importance of technology tion, for the study of industrial arts. The research and education directed toward the needs of our future development done by Warner and his associatesre- citizens. flect the technology of post-World War II.Interesting- Students must be prepared to understand ly enough, Warner's selection of his four curricularor- technological innovation, the productivity of ganizers was based on his continuous monitoring of technology, the impact of the products of census and economic data, beginning in 1925 (p. 5). technology on the quality of life, and the Warner's curriculum was designed to be taught in need for critical evaluation of societal mat- what he termed a laboratory of industries" ters involving the consequences of technol- (Department of Practical Arts & Vocational Educa- 09Y. (P. 44) tion, 1930). Ernest L. Boyer, in the Carnegie Foundation for Wilber (1948) looked at industrial arts' role in the Advancement of Teaching Report titled High general education. He defined industrial artsas: School: A Report on Secondary Education in Ameri- those phases of general education which ca (1983) cited the need for the study of technology deal with industry--its organization, materi- that would lead to a more technologically literate citi- als, occupations, processes, and products-- zenry. and with problems resulting from the indus- We recommend that all students study tech- trial and technological nature of society. (p. nology: the history of man's use of tools, 2) how science and technology have been In orgpnizing his three objectives of general edu- joined, and the ethical and social issues cation, Wilber used the term industrial as a curricular technology has raised. (p. 110) organizer for transmitting a way of life. The implica- Bell (1973) identified that society has transcend- tions for industrial arts stated by Wilber reflected the ed from machine technology to an intellectual tech- thinking of Warner. 128 An International Study of Curricular Organizers for the Study of Technology

Olson (1963), a student of Warner, classified intechnology is and what the study of technology em- dustrial arts' subject matter through an industries compasses. Therefore, the purpose of this study is analysis. His analysis Identified eight categories of to identify key descriptors of a definition of technolo- industries:manufacturing, construction, power, gy and the appropriate curricular organizers for the transportation, electronics, research, services, and study of technology. management (p. 95). Research Questions The numerous curriculum projects of the 1960's influenced by Sputnik and the federal and private The research questions in this study included: legislation that followed emphasized industrial arts' 1. Looking into the future, what will be the key curriculum to be organized with an industrial base. descriptors of a definition of technology? The Industrial Arts Curriculum Project (1966) orga- 2.Looking into the future, what will be the ap- nized the study of industrial technology under two propriate curricular organizers for the study of major organizers: manufacturing and construction. technology? Likewise, curriculum projects such as the American Industry Project (1968), the Functions of industry Significance of the Study (1962), and Georgia Plan (1967), the Industriology Herbert Spencer wrote "before there can be a Project (1968), and the Orchestrated Systems Ap- rational curriculum, we must settle which things con- proach (1968) all reflect similar industrial curricular or- cern us most to know; we must determine the rela- ganization of Warner. tive value of knowledge" (19, r1, p. 7).Therefore, The Jackson's Mill Industrial Arts Curriculum one must ask the question, what is the true value Symposium (1981) adopted construction, manufac- and purpose of education? Simply stated, it is to pro- turing, communication, and transportation as their vide youth with a wellspring of skills and abilities to curricular organizers. The Technical Foundation of apply knowledge efficiently. More specific, the sy- America study and guide, Industry and Technology: noptic study of technology provh.2.1s a synergistic ap- A Guide for Curriculum Designers, Implementation, proach to all school disciplines to accomplish this and Teachers (1984), also used the same four indus- mission. trial curriculum organizers. Dugger called for the need to research and iden- LaPorte (1986) identified six challenges that the tify appropriate curricular organizers to reflect the technology education profession must meet. study of technology (1985, p. 2). Maley, in his key- Among these are that: note address at Technology Symposium VII, agreed with Dugger by challenging the technology profes- A clear definition of technology education sion with a three part curriculum, involving the con- must be communicated to the various content, the individual (student), and the society. Maley stituencies which are to be served, the cur- stated lila' curriculum has been largely content tax- rent major organizers of production, commu- onomies or content delineations with little concern nication, and transportation must be discard- for the student and their internal goals, as well as ff e ed or revised because they are inclusive of human quality needs of society" (1985, p. 10). In hi industrial technology, not technology in speech, Maley also called for a concensus on an op- toto, the relationship of technology educa- erational definition for technology education (1985, tion to related programs must be esta- P. 3). blished and clarified, and the advantage of teaching the 'how to' aspects of technology Squier, in a paper presented at the Mississippi must be irrefutably defended and delineat- Valley Industrial Teacher Education Conference in ed. (1986, pp. 71-72) 1985, challenged the members that the present curricular organizers for the study of technology were To date, there has not been a study conducted to ck. limiting and that they did not appropriately repre- determine the appropriate curricular organizers for sent the study of technology. In this paper, Squier the study of technology relative to its future nature stated that skill development is not the primary pur- and how technology will be learned. Therefore, it is pose of technology education and that technology necessary to examine this crucial issue. education should not focus upon technical content. Statement of the Problem "The real focus, however, must be upon the knowledge, skills, and attitudes essential for all students to The problem of this study stems from the vast live and interact in the artificial, human-made world" misunderstanding or broad interpretations as to what

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(1985, pp. 6-7). Problem-solving and concept de- ophers of technology, and (7) philosophersof edu- velopment through a holistic approach are the key cation. The first round Delphiwas open-ended. The components of technology education. second round Delphi asked theexperts to 0 sort Numerous excellence in education reports is- both the key descriptors ofa definition of technology sued in recent years have called for drastic educa- and the appropriate curricularorganizers for the tional reform. Most reports agree that three subjects study of technology. The third roundDelphi used a are essential for all youth's education; science, math- sort method for ranking both the key descriptorsof ematics, and technology education. However, their a definition of technology and the appropriatecurric- reference to technology education Is notone of the ular organizers for the study of technology. vocational curriculum, but rather a general education A Thurstone Equal Appearing IntervalScale was curriculum. The reports, for the most part, recom- used to assign a scale value to each itemranked in mend that technology education must be holistic in the 0 sort. The results of eachresearch question nature, utilizing a problem-solving and critical think- were ranked based on their scale value. Items reaching approach to integrate and apply other discipline ing consensus of opinionwere determined by those content. items whose scale value was equalto or greater than The National Science Foundation Report (1983) the 80th centile. Each round calledfor a ten day stated that "technology topics need to be integrated turn-a-round period once the expert receivedthe in- into the present curriculum. This includes science strument. To ensure this, a postcardwas mailed to and mathematics classes, industrial arts, social stud- each expert as a reminder five daysafter the instru- ies and the language arts, and art and music" (p. 75). ment for that round had been mailed. Two daysafter Boyer, in the Carnegie Foundation for the Advance- the deadline for a round,a follow-up telephone call ment of Teaching Report,High School: A Report on was made to each expert whose instrument hadnot Secondary Education In America(1983) cited the been received. The data was then analyzed. need for technology education that would lead to a Validation of the Procedure as BeingRepresentative more technologically literate citizenry (p. 11). of the Delphi Technique Shane (1977) identified twenty-eight cardinal To ensure that the Delphi procedureestablished premises for educational change that stressedthe was valid and would yield significant results, there- need to organize curriculum in a holistic, life-long searcher used the following method. process that fosters interdisciplinary problem-solving and critical thinking activities (pp. 59-68). The school 1. A review of the literaturewas conducted to of the future should embrace technology toencour- understand the educational applications ofthe age creativity, problem-solving, efficiency, and con- Delphi Technique and how it could bebest used in thiS study. trolling the world (1981, pp. 351-356). Bellconcurs with Shane when he outlines the need to reorganize 2. The Delphi procedure was establishedby curriculum to better learn "intellectual technology" the researcher's review of the literatureand it (1973). was approved by a review committee.

Truly, if technology education is to playa role in 3. The Delphi instrument was received bya preparing a technologically literate citizenry, its curric- panel of Virginia Tech faculty membersto ensure ulum organization must be studied to appropriately clarity and to confirm that the right questions identify and gain consensus on the curriculumorga- were being asked of the panel of experts. nizers for the study of technology and the definition Selection of the Panel of Experts for the field of study.It is, therefwe, significant that this research study will accomplish this. From the review of literature andrecommenda- tions from the people interviewed, the The Design of the Study researcher developed a list of experts for each Delphi panel. A three round Delphi Techniquewas used to The researcher then identifiedan expert in each cat- conduct the research for the study. Seven panels, egory to review the list for that panel and torecom- composed of five members each, were used for the mend ten experts from the list of other theyfelt more three round Delphi. The panels included: (1) tech- appropriate. Following this step, the expertswere nology education professionals, (2) industrialists/ selected for each panel by a random draw ofnames business leaders, (3) futurists, (4) historians of tech- from a hat. The first five names drawn foreach panel nology, (5) anthropologists of technology, (6) philos- served as the panel of experts for thatgroup, the 130 An International Study of Curricular Organizers for the Study of Technology

other five names served as alternates. The first five Each expert was asked to answer the two re- names drawn for each panel served as the panel of search questions in brief and concise statements or exports for that group, the other five names served lists. Once all responses were received, they were as alternates. Each of the panelists selected were compiled under their appropriate research question. contacted by telephone to ask if they would be will- All responses were reviewed to avoid redundant re- ing to serve as a panelist for the study. If a selected sponses. Following this, all response items were re- expert could not serve, the first alternate was called typed on 0 sort cards as outlined in Thurstone and as a replacement, and so on until five experts repre- Chave's equal appearing interval scale procedure. sented each panel. This 0 sort procedure then became the Delphi II in- If, for some reason, a panelist decided not to strument. continue once the study had begun, the panelist The Delphi II instrument was sent to each panel had to state specific reasons for doing so in writing. of experts. The instrument provided each expert Another expert was selected at random to replace with a description of the purpose and requirements the panelist, provided the first round had not been of the second round instrument. An example was completed. After the first round, panelists were not provided for clarity.For each research question, replaced. each panelist was asked to 0 sort the items undar each qestion, according to Thurstone and Chave's Conduct of the Research equal appearing interval scale procedure. A Thur- The Delphi procedure used in this study paral- stone and Chave equal appearing interval continuum lels the research of Helmer (1963, 1967), Dakley was provided to aid the experts in sorting the items. (1967), Gordon and Helmer (1964), Linstone and The continuum consisted of 11 interval cards, rang- Turoff (1973), and Brooks (1979). A review of doc- ing from card A to K. The A card represented unfa- toral dissertations on ioducation that have used the vorable, the F card represented neutral, and the K Delphi Technique was also conducted. They were card represented favorable. For both research ques- consistent with the research of the aforementioned tions, statements compiled from Delphi I were placed experts. The research procedure for this study con- on a separate card. The panelist was then asked to sisted of a three round Delphi to gain consensus of sort the statements along the A-K continuum, based opinion on the two key research questions: (1) look- on the increasing or decreasing degree of favorable- ing into the future, what will be the key descriptors of ness or unfavorableness. a definition of technology and (2) looking into the fu- Once all responses were received, they were re- ture, what will be the appropriate curricular organizers viewed to eliminate responses that were carelessly for the study of technology? done or for those panelists who misinterpreted the For each round, measures were taken to pre- instructions. A criterion was used that eliminated re- vent attrition and to increase the response rate. The sponses that placed 30 or more statements on any Delphi I was mailed to each panelist within one week one card. A scale and 0 value were calculated for after all experts agreed to serve on the jury. The sec- each item, according to Thurstone and Chave's ond and third round instruments were also mailed to equal appearing interval scale procedure. the panelists within one week after all responses had Results been received from the previous round. A follow-up postcard was sent to all experts on the fifth day after The Delphi I instrument was mailed to all 35 ex- the Delphi instrument for that round was mailed. A perts. Twenty-five experts or 71.4 percent complet- follow-up telephone call was conducted to each pan- ed the instrument, with 23 of the 25 experts return- elist whose instrument had not been received two ing the instrument within the required time frame. days after the deadline for that round. The other two participants returned their Delphi I instrument within five days of the original deadline. The first round served to gain a general consen- The attrition was due to changes in already busy sus of opinion of all panelists. The first round was work schedules of the 10 experts who dropped out. open-ended. This technique was supported by the All 25 remaining experts completed the other two basic Delphi procedure outlined for the first round by Riefler (1968). The Delphi I gave a description of Delphi instruments. The participant breakdown is summarized in Table 1. the purpose F nd requirements of the first round instrument. An example was provided for darity.

127 Technological Literacy Symposium131,

Table 1 also appeared from the data that the definition for Summary Table - Participant Bre0:down technology will be described in more holistic terms than narrowly focused to a specific type of tech- Pula Delphi IDelphi! Delphi NI nology. Technology educators 5 5 5 The technology educators viewed the item crea- Philosophers of education 5 2 2 tive as the most important descriptor of a definition Philosophers of technology 5 3 2 for technology, followed by invention and innovation HIstoeans of technology 5 4 4 respectively.It appeared from the data a strong emphasis on a holistic description of technology. The Anthropologists of technology 5 4 4 data indicated relatively strong support for a problem Futurists 5 4 4 solving, a decision making, and a process approach. Industrialists/Business leaders 5 4 4 Little emphasis was placed on narrowly focused descriptors.

Total 35 26 25 The data appeared to indicate that philosophers of education placed a greater emphasis on describing technology relative to the human and how tech- After a content analysis was completed on the nology affects the human. Based on the data, they Delphi I instrument, 0 sort cards were developed for described technology as applied knowledge, tech- each research question. The research question rela- nology as a means for maximizing human potential, tive to key descriptors of a definition for technology technology used to solve problems and create op- consisted of 133 cards, while the research question portunities, and technology as a process.It ap- relative to the appropriate curricular organizers for peared from the data that philosophers of education the study of technology contained 88 cards. The were less likely to describe technology as closely re- same cards were used for both the Delphi II or Ill in- lated to science or engineering, as a class of materi- struments, except the Delphi ill instrument included als, or the system that determines population size or the scale value for that item on the card. density. It should be noted that the 80th centile was the It appeared from the data that the philosophers point at which consensus was reached on an Item for of technology had a more difficult time reaching a each research question. Only the consensus items consensus of opinion on the items for the key de- are listed in this report.It is also important to under- scriptors of a definition for technology than did the stand that the higher the 0 value for an item the other panels. However, liku the philosophers of ed- greater the panelists differed in agreeing on an kern. ucation they tended to be concerned with describ- The consensus cutoff point for the key descriptors ing technology in the terms of its effects on the ad- of a definition for technology was 9.27, while the vancement of humans and how its helps humans 80th centile scale value for the curricular organizers function in the environment by extending their capa- for the study of technology was 9.68. bilities. Key Descriptors of a Definition for Technology Based on the data, the historians of technology were more concerned with describing technology Fourteen items reached a consensus of opinion skills and techniques that help humans manipulate relative to what will be the key descriptors of a defini- their environment. It appeared from the data that his- tion for technology from the panels of exports (Table torians of technology believed that technology is a 2).it appeared from the data that the defirution will process and has a definite body of knowledge. The be described in terms of statements that imphasize data also tended to indicate that they were less in- concepts and processes. The data also appeared to clined to describe technology as uncovering indicate a strong emphasis on the relationships be- science, or that system that determines population tween humans, their capabilities and potential as size and density. they interface with the social, economic, political and environmental impacts of their culture and their Like the technology educators, the data tended future. to show that anthropologists of technology placed greater emphasis on innovation, extension of human According to the data, there tended to be great- potential, invention and creative among their key de- er emphasis on innovation invention, creativity and scriptors of a definition for technology. The data also problem solving than on hardware and soft ire.It

1213 132 An International Study of Curricular Organizers for the Study of Technology

appeared to indicate that they described technology Table 2 as a core component to ale Indigenous cultural sys- Delphi IN tems. Conversely, the data tended to indicate that Key Descriptors of a Definition for Technology- anthropologists of technology were less likely to de- Cumulative scribe technology as technology management, a Scale a dass of materials, or as advancing civilization. lam Value vamp The data appeared to show that futurists, like Innovation 1 o.ar 235 other panels, described technology in the terms of Invention 10.08' 2.30 innovation, creative, invention, and a body of knowl- Creative edge. However, unlike most groups, futurists tend- 10.06' tea ed to place a high value on the application of tools as Extends human capabilities 9.91' 1.93 a key descriptor of a definition for technology. The -111Ysical - social data also tended to indicate that futurists were less - intellectual inclined to describe technology in a narrow scope. A process 9.88' 2.03 Unlike othef panels, the industrialists/business - change leaders tended to place a high value on describing - hdviduai - commie technology as an approach to solving problems cod -design creating opportunities. The data also suggested that - we*, they contend that technology extends human po- - systematic tential and human capabilities. The data also ap- Extension of human potential 9.81' 2.36 peared to indicate that industrialists/business leaders were less likely to support the notion that tech- Problem solving 9.75' 2.66 nology should be described as a class of materials or Purposeful, human manipulation of tte 9.71' 2.36 as skills or technological products. material world Closely linked to science but not simply 9.60' 3.09 Curricular Organizers for the Study of Technology applied science

Collectively, the data tended to indicate that the Body of knowledge 9.55' 3.48 curricular organizers were based on concepts and Used to solve problems and create 9.40' 2.26 methods, instead of content (Table 3). The data opportunities showed that there was also almost total consensus Played an important role in the emergence of 9.33' 3.39 on problem solving as the most important curricular Nano sapiens organizer. Four out of seven groups ranked problem solving as the most appropriate curricular organizer. A system of 100b, knowledge, and behaviors 9.33' 3.89 associated with the exploitation of The data also appeared to indicate that process orga- environments nizers that are composed of the integration of prob- Has social, economic, political, and 9.29' 3.06 lem solving and creativity with systems, enterprise, environmental impacts and inventions, values in technology, the process of technology, design and innovation, and research and development were also highly appropriate curricular organizers for the study of technology.Al- study of technology. though awareness of implications and potential of Relative to the philosophers of education, the technology also reached a consensus of opinion by data appeared to indicate that the study of technolo- the panelists, it should be noted that it is subsumed gy were organized around concept and process or- under the aforementioned curricular organizers. ganizers.It appeared from the data that they highly From a review of the data, technology educators favored design and innovation as an appropriate cur- believed the problem solving is the most favorable ricular organizer for the study of technology. The curricular organizer for the study of technology. The data also tended to show that the philosophy of data also appeared to show that technology educa- technology, the process of technology, and technol- tors tended to agree on all the curricular organizers ogy literacy elements were very favorable as appro- that gained a consensus of opinion by the panelists. priate curricular organizers. Again, the data indicated The data tended to indicate that technology educa- that the philosophers of education will tend not to fa- tors were less inclined to support content organiz- vor specific content organizers as being appropriate ers as appropriate curricular organizers for the curricular organizers for the study of technology.

12 Technological Literacy Symposium 133

Based on the data, it appears that the philoso- Conclusion phers of technology were more inclined to organize the study of technology around ethical and social The findings of this study providean excellent concepts. They tended to place a greater emphasis foundation for organizing the study of technology. on the limits of technology, appropriate technology, The consensus items for each researchquestion the history of technology, ethical implications of parallel each other in context and both supportholis- technology, the social studies of technology, and tic and lifelong learning theory of Shane(1977), the philosophy of technology as beingvery favora- Woodruff (1973), and others. This isa conceptual ble curricular organizers for the study of technology. On the other hand, they tended to view organizing Table 3 technology around work, leisure time and progres- Delphi III sion as less favorable. Curriculum Organizers for the Study of The data appeared to indicate that historians of Technology Cumulative technology, like the philosophers of technology Scale 0 km tended to organize the study of technology around Value Value social and ethical concepts. The data tended to indi- Problem solving 10.76' 1.50 cate that they highly favored the history of technolo- Process organizers 10.61' 3.33 gy, technology and organizational change as being - creativity very favorable curricular organizers for the study of - enterprise technology. Conversely, the data appeared to show systems - inventions that historians of technology tended not to be willing - problem solving to organize the study of technology as a content structure. Values in technology 10.00' 2.13 The process of technology 9.91' 2.25 Like the technology educators, the dataap- peared to show that anthropologists of technology Design and innovation 9.80' 226 viewed problem solving and process organizersas Research and development 9.76' 222 the most favorable curricular organizers for the study Awareness of knplIcations and potential of 9.69' 255 of technology. Values in technology, the theory of technology technology, the elements of technology, andre- - health - food search and development also tended to be highly fa- - communkadon vorable, according to the data. The data tendedto - production indicate that anthropologists of technology were less - control likely to organize the study of technology around content. approach to the study of technology, nota content The data appeared to show that futuristsagree approach. Therefore, the curriculum is drivenby with the majority that problem solving will be the most methodology and concepts, instead of contentthat favorable curricular organizer for the study of tech- may not be relevant in the future. This approachpro- nology. However, unlace other panels, the futurists vides a means to apply knowledge ina synoptic highly favored physical technologies and thesys means through the integration of school discipline. tems of technology as being very favorable curricular However, at the same time the organization structure organizers. Like the other panels, the data tended allows for the curriculum to maintain itsown identity. to show the futurists will be less inclined to organize The literature gives strong support for the defini- the study of technology as content. tion of technology to be studied. LaPorte (1986), The data tend to indicate that industrialists/ Maley, (1985), among others have called fora con- business leaders will egree with the technology edu- sensus on an operational definition of technology. cators and the anthropologists of technology that Shane (1986) discussed education ina microelec- problem solving and pi ocess organizers will be the tronic age that has direct impliactions to the need of most favorable curricular organizers for the study of an operational definition to help education through this new age. technology. Like all other groups, the data appear to support the notion that industrialists/business lead- Educational reform reports have also impacted ers will be less likely to organize the study of technol- on the need to study and develop an operational ogy as content. definition for technology. Boyer (1983) called for all 134 An International Study of Curricular Organizers for the Study of Technology

students to study technology, not narrowly focused, Ben, O. (1973). Iliasamicaotposkindushialacia: but holistic in nature. The report, Educating Ameri- ly. New York: Basic cans for the 21st Century also emphasizes the study Boyer, E. L. (1983). High school: A report on sec- of technology from a broad context. =law education in America,. New York: Harper As with any curriculum, the organization for the & Row. curriculum must parallel the definition for that curricu- Brooks, K. W. (1979). Delphi technique: Expanding lum. Such is true with the study of technology. As applications. North Central Association Quarter- supported by Shane (1986), Naisbitt (1982), and ly., 52, 377-385. other futurists, one can only speculate on what the future will be. Therefore, it is important that the cur- Dalkey, N. C. (1967). Delphi. Santa Monica, CA: riculum be organized in such a fashion that will take Rand. into account preparing students to be able to ana- Dugger, Jr., W. E. (1985, October).Association lyze the unknown variables and solve the problems name change: A challenge to the profession. of the future.This notion is supported by Shane Manuscript submitted for publication. (1986) and Glatthom (1987) in discussing the curriculum of tomorrow. Edwards, A. L. (1957). Tochniaues eattitude scale construction. New York: Appleton-Century- Again, technology educators, like LaPorte Crofts. (1986), Dugger (1985), and Maley (1985) have called for the study of technology to be reorganized Face, W. L, & FIug, E. R. F. (1968, Odcber 15). The to reflect a more holistic approach to its study. More conceptual study of American industry. Improv- specific, Squier (1985) emphasized the need to use ing Instruction In Industrial Education. Menomo- a problem solving and critical thinking approach to nie, WI: Twelfth Annual Industrial Education the study of technology. This approach is the pre- Conference, Stout State University. dominant approach for the study of technology in Gardner, D. P. (Chair) (1983). A nation at risk: The the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Australia, knoerative for educational reform. (A report to just to mention a few countries. the nation and the Secretary of Education, U.S. Interestingly, the data collected in this study Department of Education.) Washington, D. C.: support the aforementioned beliefs relative to the National Commission on Excellence in Educa- need to study a definition for technology and the ap- tion. propriate curricular organizers. The data show a Glatthom, A. A. (1987). Curriculum renewal. Alexan- strong emphasis for describing the definition of tech- dria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curric- nology in holistic terms. Likewise, the data place ulum Development. strong support for organizing the study of technolo- Gordon, T. J., & Helmer, 0. (1964). Report on a gy around concepts and methods. Special empha- long-range forecasting study (Report No. P- sis should be placed on problem solving and pro- 2982). Santa Monica, CA: Rand. cess organizers that integrate creativity and problem solving through a systems approach.It is the re- Hackett, D. F. (1964). Study of American industry is searcher's belief that the literature and the data col- essential to liberalizing general education. lected and analyzed in this study lend impetus to dust ria I Arts and Vocational Education, 53, 25- moving toward the implementation of the key de- 28. scriptors of a definition for technology and the appro- Helmer, 0. (1967). Analysis of the future: The del- priate curricular organizers for the study of technolo- phi method (Report No. P-3558). Santa Monica, gy that gained consensus in this study. Therefore, CA: Rand. the following recommendations should be considered in this implementation process. Jndustrioloav:The science of industry.(1968). Platteville:University of Wisconsin-Platteville. References (A brochure developed by the industriology Bateson, W. M., & Stem, J. (1963). The functions of staff.) industry as a basis for industrial education pro- LaPorte, J. E. (1986). Challenges in the new name. grams. journal of Industrial Teacher Education, journal of Industrial Teacher Education, LI(2), 1(1), 3-16. 71 -7. 1.1 1 Technological Literacy Symposium 135

Unstone, H. A., & Turoff, M. (Eds.) (1975). The del-, Warner, W. E. (1930). Organizing pupil personnel phi method:Technioyes and implications. the laboratory of industries. Columbus; The Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Ohio State University, Department of Practical Maley, D. (1985, October 11). Issues and trends jg Arts andVocational Education. technology education.Paper presented at Wilber, G. 0. (1948). industrial arts in general educe- Technology Symposium VII, University of Califor- Ilan. Scranton, PA: International Textbook. nia, Pennsylvania. Woodruff, A. D. (1973). The life-involviiment model National Science Board Commission on Precollege of education (LIM1 a system description. Salt Education in Mathematics, Science, and Tech- Lake City, UT: Bureau of Educational Research, nology. (1983). Educatina Americans for the The Graduate School of Education, The Uni- 21st century. (A report to the people and Na- versity of Utah. tional Science Board.) Washington, DC: Nation- al Science Foundation. Wright, T., & Sterry, L. (1984). industry and technology education: A guide forcurriculum design- Olson, D. W. (1963). industrial arts and technology. ers. implementators. and teachers. Lansing, IL: Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Technical Foundation of America. Pfeiffer, J. (1968). New_look at education. Pough- keepsie, NY: Odyssey Press. Shane, H. G. (1977). Curriculum change toward the 21st century. Washington, DC: National Edu- cation Association. Shane, H.G. (1986). Teaching and leamino in a microelectronic age. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa. Sneeden, D., & Warner, W. E. (1927). Reconstruk. lion of industrial arts courses. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. Spencer, H. (1911). Essays in education. London: Dent. Squier, T. J. (1985, November 8). What specifiG camolonclaralhauldierboalagyeduolionde- velop in today's students in grades 7-12 to help them prepar4e for life and work in their future? What experiences will need to be provided to students ire grades 7-12 in she year 2001? Pa- per presented at the 72nd Mississippi Valley In- dustrial Teacher Education Conference, Chica- go. Stern, J. (1964). The functions of good-producing Industrial establishments: A validation of selected elements in a definition of Wiggly as a framework for curriculum In industrial education. Un- published doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, Detroit. Towers, E. R., Lux, D. G., & Ray, W. E. (1966). Am; tionale and structure for Industrial arts matter, Columbus: The Ohio State University.

132 Technological Literacy Symposium 137

An Instructional Model for ElectronicsTechnology in the Republic of China

Chun-Hsieh Shih National Taiwan Normal University

Introduction A Subject Has Its Own Characteristics Electronics technology has a great impact on our Electronics technology is complex and changing society. Christopher Evans (1979), Joseph Daken in nature. (1981), Frederick Williams (1983), Friedrichs and Schaft (1983), and Feigenbaum and McCorduck Each area of knowledge--a subject or a disci- (1984) have dealt with the issue of the impact of el- pline--has at least two main characteristics: it ectronics technology either directly or indirectly on has its own fund of acquired information and society. Evans deals with the microelectronics mil- a specialized method of inquiry, or a strategy lennium; Oaken focuses on how electronics chang- of acquiring that knowledge. (Taba, 1962,p. es not only how we live, but ultimately how we think 172) by forcing the development of a new age of logic; It is necessary to emphasize here that electron- Williams studies the communication revolution and ics technology is a subset of technology. stresses that electronics technology plays a major The study of technology has been ap- role in it; Friedrichs and Schaft discuss microelec- proached too frequently by studying the tronics and society; Feigenbaum and McCorduck fo- parts without reference to the whole. How- cus on the fifth generation computer whtct will be ever, as is the case with human beings, the greatly influenced by electronics technology. sum is greater than the parts.(DeVore, It is important to educate the public to better un- 1980, p. 243) derstand the tremendous influence of electronics It is important to illustrate here that technology is upon our daily lives.It is also necessary to establish one of the domains of human knowledge. First of all, electronics technology programs for vocational it is necessary to think of how technology should be schools. Taiwan, the Republic of China, has been thought of today. Von Bertalanffy (1972) states that: exporting many electronic products such as radios, televisions, and accessories for microcomputers. Technology has been led to think not in Leaders in the Taiwan educational system are aware terms of single machines but in those of sys- of the fact that it is important to provide an electronics tems in the present day. An automobile, or technology program for both general and vocational radio receiver was within the competence of education. Currently, an electronics technology cur- the engineer trained in the respective spe- riculum is included in the junior and senior high cialty. But when it comes to ballistic missiles schools, technical colleges and teachers' colleges. or space vehicles, they have to be assem- Today, electronics technology has become an impor- bled from components originating in hetero- tant subject both in general and vocational education geneous technologies, mechanical, elec- in the Republic of China. tronics, chemical, etc.; the relation of man and machine comes into play; and innumer- When an instructional model for electronics able financial, economic, social and political technology is considered, the first step is to answer problems are thrown into bargain. Again, air the question: why an instructional model for elec- or even automobile traffic are not just a mat- tronics technology is necessary? ter of the number of vehicles in operation, but are systems to be planned or arranged. Innumerable problems are arising in production, commerce and armaments. (pp. 3-4)

133 138 An Instructional Model for Electronics Technology in the Republic of China 41:111111

Human Knowledge Technology and Science This paper attempts to identify the context of el- Though technology and science are not the ectronics technology within the broader framework same, their relationship is vital.If the relationship be- of human knowledge. Man's knowledge has been tween technology and science could be clarified, a digested and accumulated from generation to gener- more adequate understanding of technology will be ation. To obtain efficiency in education, the classifi- attained. cation of man's knowledge is necessary. Towers, If science is a method for the description, creation Lux, and Ray (1966) described the need to structure and understanding of human experience, technolo- knowledge into domains: gy may be defined as human activity directed toward Man's accumulated knowledge, increasing the satisfaction of human needs (real or imagined) by at an accelerating rate, is vast in scope and the more effective use of man's environment. heterogenerous in nature. It is not econom- It is important to note the obvious fact that ically feasible to deal with this amorphous technology is older than science.It is treat- mass without structuring it into logical divi- ed thus as obvious, since all the records of sions.Thus, for various reasons, knowl- early man indicate clearly that he created edge has been subdivided into more man- tools and evidently used them long before ageable divisions which are functional, for he attempted any systematic account of the one reason or another. It may be postulated meaning of his activities. The only thing we that one such division would include man's can say with some assurance is that technol- knowledge of how to do things efficiently, ogy emerged before science, simply be- without such knowledge, the world of work cause man had to overcome the leisure to would be chaotic. (p. 1) indulge his curiosity about the world in an in- The knowledge of doing things efficiently is tellectual sense. (Lindsay, 1962, p. 212) called technology. People have sought new knowl- Technology and Humanities edge and efficient ways of doing things since beginning of humankind. The truth is that doing things ef- The story of technology is the story of man's ficiently is at the very heart of human existence and ceaseless striving to extract what he calls a better liv- has been central to human history. To take a view ing out of his surroundings, and the tale includes the point based on historical review, it is found that man invention of countless gadgets to make life at once is a tool-maker; man is an environment-changer; man more comfortable and more exciting. But does this is a power machine developer; man is a control- means we shall all live "happily* ever after? It is impor- machine developer; and man is a social animal. The tant to point out that the role for value judgments is writer summarizes that: considered a part of the humanities. Humanities relate to varying sets of beliefs, values, and norms and Human beings use their inherent tools--hands, are very culture related. Technology is said to be and mental toolssenses and brain, to create power concerned principally with tools and machines, while tools for matter and energy conversion and control the humanities deal with values. Technology does tools for information management. With inherent not pretend to tell us how to lead happy lives.It tools, man made power and control tools, humans merely provides the tools necessary for civilization.It are able to adapt to or change their natural or social has left philosophers and other wise men to answer environment. the fundamental questions so crucial for the behav- Man's civilization progresses in a spiral trajectory ior and fate of the individual. While modem technol- based on this fundamental pattern. No one ques- ogy tends too make the lives of people more materia- tions the importance of technology in our contempo- listic in their attitude toward life, the challenge really rary civilization, in which technologists have been led comes from vie continual adjustment required by all to think not in terms of single machines but in terms the new technological experiences being forced on of systems. Therefore, knowledge of the nature of society. technology and its relationship to other ways of de- Technology and FormGI Knowledge scribing and understanding human experience is needed as background. To integrate other knowl- The disciplines without formal knowledge edge into the field of technology is important. serve as tools which are to order all knowledge....Mathematics and logic are examples of fundamental disciplines.(Tower,

.134 Technological Literacy1=111MKM Symposium 139

Lux, & Ray, 1966, p. 9) certain sequence. Mathematics plays a role of language in technol- 1. Hand tools (muscle drivenor neuromotor ogy.In mathematics the symbols initially haveno tools) meaning except in their relation to each other and 2. Sensory tools (automotive tools) the various operations which they represent. The 3. Brain tools (intellectual or automathematical symbols obey a small number of relational rules, tools) through which human beings can represent a wide variety of phenomena. Merely the clever identifica- Thus, the complexity of technologycan be illus- tion of symbols can contribute to the action of tech- trated as shown in Figure 1. nology.It is indicated that, mathematical and logical symbolism are increasingly providing technology with a more efficient means of communication. The Complexity of Technology The development of complex technology itself should be regarded as an important subject in the study of technology, as well as providing a valuable source of instruction. There are many approaches to study the development of technology.Alvin Toiler (1981) cites three waves c,f change occurring of civilization and these waves also relate to technology.The first wave of change was unleashed ten thousand years ago by the invention of agriculture.The second wave o4 change was touched off by the industrial rev- Figurel. Complexity of Technology in Terms ofHu- olution. The third wave of change speaks of a boom- man Organisms ing Space Age, Information Age, Electronic Era,or Instruction is the process of arranging human, Global Village (p. 9). temporal, material, and spatial resources with thein- DeVore identifies the development stageac- tention of facilitating one's own learningor the learn- cording to a time dimension. DeVore's stagesare: ing of others (Belland, 1976). From this definitionit Modern Craft (1000-1784), Machine Age (1785- is obvious that instruction at least: 1869), Power Age (1870-1952), Cybernetic and Au- 1. involves man, and tomatic Age (1953-present) (DeVore, 1980,p. 54). 2.is concerned with environment. The complexity of technology Is parallel with the evolution of technology. What the levels ofcom- The previous discussion about the level of tech- plexity should suggest Is a gradual progression, be- nological complexity provides information about what ginning with simple hand or muscle driven toolsmov- should be an appropriate environment for the in- ing upward through ever increasing levels of ad- struction for technology. However, instruction in- vanced technology. The writer suggests that from volves man and human aspects are another factorin- an illustrative viewpoint an analogy can be given to fluencing technology instruction.DeVore (1980, show how the evolution of technology can be repre- pp. 223-224) explains that being humankind weare sented in terms of human functions.It progressed intimately related in the on-goingprocess or life. from the invention of hand (neuro-motor or muscle Man's physical and mental characteristics relatedto driven) tools, to sensory (automotive) tools to brain- technology result from this relationship. The human- like (intellectual) tools. From this we can developa ly inherent tools are the hands,senses, and the good teaching model to explain the development of brain, therefore the fact that hand tools andpower technology to students. The different levels of tech- machines were invented indicates that human hands nological complexity can be represented in terms of provide both matter-energy transformation and infor- human functions. These also form the fundamental mation control. Control machines are invented for spiral trajectory of technological evolution.This extending man's senses and brain. For thepurpos- study affirms that all instruction Is a spiralprocess es of technology instruction, this study statesan al- which is based on a fundamental pattern that hasa ternative way to express the evolution of technology (Figure 2). 140 An Inetrnctional Model for Electronics Technology in the Republic of China

gcJial field of electronics which is concerned with the use of electrons. "Carrying intelligence signals" relates to communication and information. Communi- Iniwerd lads %%%%% IL% cation technology !Er identified here for two reasons. ..%%%%% First, communication technology largely overlaps el- Control ectronics technology in today's world. Communica- tion technology includes such things as telecommunications, radio waves and radio telegraphics, which

Hand has led to the birth of the field of electronics technology.In turn, this was destined to affect the life of man as he had never imagined possible. Second, les the history of communication is also a study of technology. Speech and hearing form a relatively sophisticated mode of human communication. Figure 2. An Alternative Way to Express the Evolu- tion of Technology. In addition, communication systems are widely discussed in many fields. Firstly, it runs the gamut of The most important concepts in this figure are: the electricity and electronics field.Secondly, it is The way in which the use of inherent tools domi- dealt with in the field of instruction. Thirdly, it has be- nates the other tools (machines) throughout the hu- come an important concept in general Systems man civilization. The number of control machines is Theory. increasing at an explosive rate. The evolution of A communication system conveys information technology is continuous not revolutionary in nature. from its source to a destination. Figure 3 is a typical In other words, a Is analog rather than digital. These simple model. First, it is explained from the viewpoint concepts can be summarized, by saying, even in a of electronics, and elaborated on in the field of in- complex technology instruction unit, inherent tools are also required and these will dominate others. Be- struction, then compared with a living system, and then one kind of general curriculum systems theory. cause control machines are increasingly popular, the principle of continuity in learning activities is important for the instruction of technology. Input Output Signal oral Electronics Technology Input CornrunIceden Output L DessInalcm ...... 01Sou" Transducer itystern Transducer To understand the field of electronics ,-0 technology, the relationship of electricity to electronics must be defined and clearly understood (Inaba, 1970, p. 73). Figure 3. A Simple Communication System From the definitions of theEncyclopedia Ameri- Few message sources are inherently electrical, can(1980, p. 134), and theWorld Book Encyclope- consequently, most communication systems have india(1986, p. 146), this study defines related terms put and output transducers. The input transducer as follows: converts the message to an elec.: Ica, signal, say a Electricity is the study of how electrical charges voltage or current, and another transducer at the are produced and used to provide electrical en- destination converts the output signal to the desired ergy to do wcrk. message form.For example, the transducer in a voice communication system could be a microphone Electronics is the study of how electrons are as the input aild a loudspeaker as the output. The controlled to carry intelligent signals for mankind communication system block in Figure 3 is given fur- through electronic products. ther detail in block diagram and can be expressed by Electronics technology is the science of study- Figure 4. ing efficient action and practicing the ways elec- The transmitter processes the input signal to trons are controlled to carry intelligent signals for produce a transmitted signal suited to the character- mankind through electronic products. istics of the transmission channel. The channel is the According to these definitions, the term electrical medium that bridges the distance from "electronics technology" refers to that part of the source to destination. The receiver operates on the

3 6 Technological Literacy Symposium141

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Figure 4. A Communication System output signal from the channel in preparation for de- There must be feedback since thatman is a living livery to the transducer at the destination. system. A living system is self-regulating becausein- In esctronic communication, signal processing put not only affects output, but outputoften adjusts for transmission always includes modulationor en- input. The result is that the system adaptshomostat- coding. Modulation and encoding are operations ically to its environment (Miller, 1978;Asimov, 1972; performed at the transmitter to achieve efficient and & Phenix, 1964). reliable information transmission. Feedback system has been increasinglyused in On the other hand, receiver operation includes the field of curriculum. Jackson's Mill useda feed- demodulation and decoding to reverse the signal- back system as a universal system toexpress indus- processing performed at the transmitter. trial arts oxiculum construction (Figure6). Figure 5 is a feedback connection popular in el- This section integrates the communicationtech- ectronic circuits. nology, electronics technology andfeedback system to form a general theory about The term feedback is increasingly used in a living system. many This in truth contributes to the instruction fields. of electronics technology. The term feedback met Is that two channels Computing is the technology that derives exist, carrying information, such that chan- from all other technologies (Feigenbaum &McCorduck, nel B loops back from the output to the in- 1984, p. xvii), so whenever there is put of channll A and transmits some portion talk about electronics technology, the solution of the of the signals emitted by channel A. (Miller, computer is mentioned. Most people label the first 1978, p. 36) four generations of computers, each basedon its central technology, in the following ways:

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Flo, 5. An Electronic Feedback Circuit

1 3'1 142 An Instructional Model for Electronics Technology in the Republic of China

Group 1 would answer the question by saying that "Al is about moving computers into the space above (advanced computer tech- rtrttr LICESSPR OUTPUT nology)". Group 2 would say "Al is simulat- ing human behavior and cognitive process- '-171;011ACK es on a computer (computational theories in J psychology)". Group 3's answer would concern the study of the nature of the whole Untoroff *film Sold space of intelligent minds. As can be easily noted, each of the above Figure 6. A Universal System three camps borders one of the three established areas of computer science, psychol- 1. electronic-vacuum tubes computers, ogy and philosophy. (Yazdani, 1984, p. 9) 2.transisterized comuuters, It is important to elaborate upon important concepts: First, before the computer was invented, hu- 3.Integrated circuit computers, and mans handled symbols and numbers by themselves, 4. very large-scale integrated (VLSI) comput- with or without the abacus or calculators. Second, ers. the first four generations of computers handled just numbers and the fifth generation will handle both This clearly indicates that the progress from elec- symbols and numbers. Third, there are both sym- tronic-vacuum tubes to VLSI is representative of the bols and numbers to be handled in human lives. Re- evolution of electronics technology. search and study are being focused on the develop- The fifth generation will stand not only because ment of a machine that can perform functions that are of its technology, but also because it is conceptually normally concerned with human intelligence, suchas and functionally different from the first four genera- learning, adapting, reasoning, self-correction, auto- tions with which the world is familiar. These new ma- matic improvement. chines will be known as Knowledge Information Pro- It is interesting and necessary to point out here cessing System (KIPS). This term is extremely ini- that: portant.It signals that shift from mere data processing, which is the way present-day computers func- Man is not a machine and a machine is not a tion, to an Intelligent processing of knowledge. man, but as science and technology ad- These new machines are to be specifically designed vance, man and machine seem to be be- for artificial intelligence functions.It can be summar- coming less and less distinguishable from ized by saying that KIPS are specially designed to do each other. (Asimov, 1972, p. 838) symbolic manipulation and symbolic reasoning

(Feigenbaum, 1984, p. 15). AL lathe study of Mn spoon of Infolloant things There is no clear definition for artificial intelli- (Pond* minds sludge so In philosophy). gence. However, the most widely accepted %Obit InSollIgont beings is Minsky's (Yazdani, 1984, p. 9). AL Is ollmulallno tam e bohowkur Artificial intelligence is the science of making ma- on compass' chines do things that would require intelligence if (oomputolkond 'human beings Owe.. In done by men. Prioh01090 Yazdani states that: It has identified twee distinctions of Al resulting from different motivations or back- ...... I 'digital cofrozAoro grounds. In order to see the point, consider AL Is about moving computers So the spoof above (admand oompuw technology} a class of objects which we would regard as intelligent, e.g. cats, dogs, people and Mar- Figure 7. Artificial Intelligence Definition tians. Outside this class, we ha., such un- intelligent things as tables, chairs, and cur- The study of computers and elated techniques rently, digital computers. (See Figure 8) is to supplement the intellectual capabilities of man.

138 ;,: Technological Literacy Symposium 143

As man has invented and used tools to increase his Classics and has had an influence on evencommon- physical powers, he now is beginning to use artificial place everyday life in China for more than two thou- intelligence to increase his mental powers. Judging sand and `We hundred years. from this discussion, it is v-laessary to emphasize that for electronics technology instruction, how to The significance of the I Ching as a book of science lies in its logic system of mathematic use inherent tools efficiently is most important. symbols. This logic system is based on the symbols Yin Selected Concepts From I Ching (--) and Yang ().It is the same as the computer's Why I Ching? use of zero (0) and one (1) for its principles. An electronics technology instructional model Combination is made by putting together there based on instructional theories and the context of el- lines either Yin () cv Yang () which are represented ectronics technology is incomplete because it fails to by zero (0) and one (1) respectively. The sight Tri- account for the cultural context in which the model grams then are accorded a natural segue. .e of num- will be applied. Adapting concepts from the Chinese bers. The numbers from 0 through 7 refer to three culture and philosophy makes the model specifically lines of the Trigram, making the "" small weight from relevant to the Republic of China. This is because top to bottom. These can be expressed as Figure 8. the valuable cultural treasures are familiar and inherent to the Chinese. itis well known that Figure 8. The comparison of Yin and Yang and Bi- "Confucianism" is the most influential of all to the Chi- nary Number System. nese culture and society. The most distinguishing feature of electronics technology is that k accumulat- _ _ ed changes and continuously progressed.In order Decimal Numbers 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 to learn this changing subject matter, it is important to remember a Confucian remark: "To learn with indefa- Binary Numbers 000001002)03 0040)5006)07

tigable zeal and diligence in teaching." Other than .11. awl. EightTrigrams - . . that, it may be very helpful to consider "the ways of =_- Erm am...... 4..., ..n .... - A change" for developing an electronics technology instructional model. The bottom line has the most significant weight The following are the reasons to choose / Ching in a binary number system. The bottom lines of the among so many Chinese heritages as the elabora- four foregoing Trigrams numbered from 0 to 3are tion to contribute to the proposed model. disconnected lines (0). The bottom lines of the sub- I Ching influenced the philosophy of Confucius sequent four Trigrams, 4 to 7, are Yang lines. The and therefore of the Chinese. bottom lines determining the position of Trigramsare exhibited circularly.If the bottom lines are Yin, the I Ching is a book which uses a symbolic repre- Trigram is drawn back counter (clockwise upward), sentation method that provides a symbolic means of while bottom lines are Yang advanced forward clock- reducing the complexity of knowledge. wise upward, than obtaining the Eight Trigramsex- I Ching discusses "changes," so it is very suita- hibited circularly as in Figure 9. ble to the instruction of the ever-changing electronics technology. 0111111 Electronics technology deals with two states, open and closed; a digital computer deals with binary numbers, 0 or 1, while I Ching deals with Yin and Yang.It shows that although the I Ching is an old book in Chinese literature, k's duality concept is in accordance with the most advanced technology or science. The Concept of I

1111/1 The world "I" means change. So I Ching is usual- 1111111. IMO ly called in translation "The Book of Changes." The / Ching is the most important of the five Confucian Figure 9. The Eight Trigrams

1'3 144 An Instructional Model for Electronics Technology in the Republic of China

2. transformation and changes, and The sixty-four Hexagrams exhibited circularly are 3.invaribillty. the same as Eight Trigrams being expanded. The The first aspect of the concept of "I" is the ease circle which is considered as a whole can be divided aria the simplicity. The "r in the midst of complexi- by two parts of the right and left. The right part of the ties reveals simplicity. First of all, the I Ching asserts bottom Yin lines draw back counter (clockwise up- that the complex phenomena of the universe are ward), while the left part of the bottom Yang lines ad- simply derived from the Tai chi (Supreme Ultimate). vance forward (clockwise upward). In the Hsi Tz'u Chuan (Great Commentary), there is By putting together the upper (outer) Trigram in the statement: accordance with the succeeding natural sequence ...Therefore, in the system of the"I" there is the of (0): (1): (2): (3): (4): (5): Tai chi.This generate the Two Primary (6): and (7) and adding each group in the same lower Forces. The Two Primary Forces generate (inner) Eight Trigrams, the sixty-four Hexagrams are the Four Images. The Four images gener- then formed as exhibited circularly in Figure 10. ate the Eight Trigrams. (Sec.l. Ch 11) Sui;:marizing the major concepts for this subsec- This statement can be illustrated in Figure 11. tion yield the following: Yin and Yang can be used as the same concept a as ON and "1". Trigrams and Hexagrams in I Ching represent both numbers and symbol in accordance with modem scientific concepts. Trigrams and Hexagrams are appropriate materials for teaching digital logic concepts in electronics technology in the R.O.C. everywhere.

..5-..-vg..Eveg.:,. ... 10 ...... 4.00,44. e,,,,h *IN/\MI _ .- alk ..'N1:44.4". M.D 111 IMP 1111=11 11 11E11110.1MS. s pi pli sAt a=11 IMMO /00 41-7 11 traih 4$10 0 ii;iIt,

\ OW CO 11111 AMP ii MO gali I MI MO MAIM OM .11110 alm amilaum 1111 I I II 11 1 I II 411111,1 * 14 11111111.: A XX EX X 0, , 112 r. 1, ONG Figure 11. A Structure Model of 1 Ching. ilat\NI X 0 11 a 0 0 111 .14/4 .00* ) NEEErninqpn V: The symbols and formulas represent the process 44444 '''\-:-,r r it4r, t of transforming what is simple and easy into what is VA"-ffol,44-_,AA "' complete and different The "Supreme Ultimate," Tai chi, plays an important role in later Chinese natural ,-.:---.7==:_-:--r.---,5, 4.1-171 philosophy. Figure 10. The Sixty-four Hexagrams The conditioning elements are further designat- ed as an undivided line, while the conditioned ele- Three Attributes of I ment is represented by means of a divided line (--). The word IN primarily means change, and the These are the two polar primary forces later designat- word "Ching" means cannonical text.Thus the / ed as Yang, the bright principle, and Yin, the dark. Ching has become known as "The Book of Chang- Then, through their combining, these arise the four es".In fact, the concept of I,it is said, has three images: meanings: Old or great Yang Old or great Yin = 1. ease and simplicity, young or !Ma Yang Young or little Yin =

140 Technological Literacy Symposium 145

These correspond with the four seasons of the means change. In / Ching, it is said that: "All change year. Through the addition of another line, there and transformation are the result of movements."In arise the Eight Trigrams: the / Ching the word "I" is used interchangeablywith MEP Chien Tut u 17.7Z. ch311.7.1. the Tao. And Tao is simply definedas "the altera- tion of Yin (the shade/soft) and the Yang (the light/ ;;*m). Interaction of the e two primal forcesproduces Sun = Klan =v. Ken Kul all kinds of movements and changes. In the Hsi Tzu, there are the following statements: Originally, the Eight Trigrams may not have had any specific meanings attached to them, but later on As the firm and the yielding lines displace they were elaborated upon so that each came to be one another, change and transformation sybolically representative of certain things or ideas. arise. (Sec. I. CH. 2) The objects or attributes thus symbolized by the One Yin and one Yang constitute what is Eight Trigrams are made the constituents of the uni- called Tao. That which is perpetuated by it verse, which form the basis of a cosmological sys- is good. That which is completeo by it is the tem. By combining any two of these Trigrams to form essence:It possesses everything in com- a diagram of six lines. A A tal of sixty-four combina- plete abundance: this is its great field of actions is obtained and are known as the sixty-four tion.It renews everything daily: this is its Hexagrams. The Eight Trigrams, together with the glorious power. (Sec. I, CH. 5) Sixty-four Hexagrams formed by their combinations, The Tao, given here as the result of theunceas- therefore, represent all the possible situations and ing movement of the Yin and Yang, correspondsto mutations of creation, a universe in miniature. This the Tao as a part of "the unceasing movement" offers a good illustrati "n of the transformation from and hence it is good. Everything transform andcom- simplicity to complexity. pletes its power in the "unceasing movement." Be- The "I" makes Gillen, or Creative ( = ) and K'un cause of this, the Tao achieves the great field of ac- or Receptive (ii.) represent what is easy and simple: tion, being abundant and daily renewed; indeedits for only from what is easy and simple can there be achievement is achieved in daily renewal; that is, the "complex phenomena" and "great movement." As unceasing movement going on in the world. As the the Great Commentary puts it: Hsi Tz'u says: The creative is known through the easy. It is the great virtue of heaven and earth to The Receptive can do things through the bestow life. (Sec. I, CHI) simple. What is easy, is easy to know: what As begetter of all begetting itis called is simple, is easy to follow...By means of change. (Sec. I, CH 5) the easy and the simple we grasp the laws of the whole world. ISec. I, CH. 1) The dark begets the light and the light begets the dark in ceaseless alternation, that to which all life The creative is the strongest of all things in owes its existence, is Tao with its law of change. the world. The expression of its nature is invariably the easy, in order thus to master the Moreover, the / Ching equates the Yang and the dangerous. The Receptive is the most de- Yin with the Creative and the Receptive, themale voted of all things in the world. The expres- and female principle, as p:iysically represented by sion of its nature is invariably simple, in order Heaven and Earth. As the Hsi Tz'u says: thus to master the obstructive. (Sec. II, CH The creative and the Receptiveare indeed )130 the gateway to the Changes. The creative is This idea of ease and simplicity attached to the the representative of light things and there- "I" explains why the emphasis is often placed on ceptive of dark things. In that the natures of ease and simplicity as the gateway to the pure prov- the dark and the light are joined, the firm and ince of the "I". Because of the concept that lies in the yielding received form. Thus give mani- the easy and simple, the I Ching can speak of the festation to the phenomena of Heaven and most contusion (Hsi Tz'u, Sec. 1. CH. 8). Earth and comprehension to the power of spiritual enlightment. (Sec. II, CH. 6) The second aspect of the concept of "I" is the transformation and change. The word "I" primarily Because of the union of the creative and receptive, all things come into existence, and hencecome .141 146 An Instructional Model for Electronics Technology in the Republic of China

all changes and transformation. As is said in the Hsi Nevertheless, these phenomenal changes all Tz'u: follow a constant order. The Tao of Heaven and There is an intermingling of the genial in- earth is constant and unceasing.The sun and fluence of Heaven and Earth, and transfor- moon, pertaining to Heaven, can shine forever. The mation of all things proceeds abundantly. four seasons change and transform, and thus in their There is intercommunication of seed be- Tao, and the world is transformed to completion. tween male and female, and all creatures are When we see how there are constant, the born and transform. (Sec. II, CH. 5) nature of Heaven, Earth, and all things can In the Hsi Tz'u there is another important pas- be seen. (About Heng, or Duration, the thir- sage: ty-second Hexagram.) Therefore they called the closing of the gate As a further expression of the "Tao of Heaven the Receptive, and the opening of the gate and Earth" which everything obeys, the following the Creative. The alternation between clos- passage forms the Hsi Tz'u which be expressed: ing and opening they called change. The Good fortune and misfortune are constantly going forward and backward without ceasing overcoming one another by an exact rule. they called penetration. (Sec. I, CH. 11) The Tao of Heaven and Earth is constantly The content of the course of change is the un- to manifest themselves. The Tao of the sun ceasing process of "the opening and closing" sym- and moon is constantly to emit their light. All bolizing the primal forcesthe Creative and the Re- movements of the world are constantly sub- ceptive, the Yang and the Yin. Of these two primal ject to one and the same rule. (Sec. II. CH. 1) forces, the one is vivid, the other docile, the one All the passages quoted above clearly indicate gives forth, the other receives; to the one all things that all things in the universe follow a definite order- - owe their beginning, and to the other they all owe i.e. the Tao of Heaven and Earth-- according to which their birth. Thus in the Hsi Tz'u, there is the state- they change and transform constantly. These pas- ment: sages also imply the ideas of the invariability as a ne- There is Creative: "In a state of rest the crea- cessary attribute of the concept of I. tive is one, and in a state of motion it is In conclusion, the concepts of "I" has their im- straight; therefore it creates that which is portant attributes: ease and simplicity, change and great. The Receptive is closed in a state of transformation, and invariability. These attributes rest, and in a state of motion it opens; there- should make clear three points. fore it creates that which is vast. (Sec. I, CH. First, the process of transformation starts from 6) the easy and the simple, and hence when one Thus, the Creative and the Receptive comple- knows the cause of the easy and the simple, ment each other and so the things in the universe one can predict the causeof the complex and ever change and transform. the difficult. The third aspect associated with the concept of I Second, things in the universe are ever chang- is invariability. The I in the midst of variability also re- ing and changeable, but the underlying princi- veals an element of invariability. The tings in the uni- ples, for which the Tao can be employed, are verse are always in a state of flux and change. In the constant and invariable. Tuan, there are the following statements: Although all the things in the universe are com- When Heaven and Earth deliver them- plex, forever changing, yet among the complexi- selves, thunder and rain set in. When thun- ties simplicity can be found, among the changes der and rain set in the seed pods of all fruits, something unchanging. plants, and trees break open. The time of The Concepts Derived from I Ching for Instruction Deliverance is great indeed. (About Hsich, or Deliverance, the fortieth Hexagram) There is a paper about curriculum from PHilip H. Phenix (1962). Heaven and Earth undergo their change, and the four seasons complete themselves My thesis, briefly, is that all curriculum con- thereby.(About Ko, or Revolution, the tent should be drawn from the disciplines, or forthninth Hexgram.) to put it another way, that only knowledge 142 Technological Literacy Symposium 147

contained in the disciplines is appropriate to the learning of the student. What is a structure? the curriculum.... (p. 273) Chung Ying Chong (1985) indicates that tare Phenix further defines that a discipline is knowl- are two forms of transformation in the I Ching: the edge organized for instruction (p. 273). Then heex- transformationof things through theself- plains how to make knowledge instructive: transformation of the creative source--the Tai-Chi; ...There are three fundamental features, all and the transformation of the interaction of things via of which contribute to the availability of their relative relationships in the totality of things(pp. knowledge for instruction and thus provide 9v-91). The first form of transformationcan be called measures for degree and quality of disci- vertical transformation, and the second form oftrans- pline. These three are: formation can be called horizontal transformation. The transformation from the Tai-Chi to the sixty-four 1.analytic simplicatio, Hexagramatic situation is a matter of vertical transfor- 2.synthetic coordination, and mation. The inter-relationship, interaction andmutu- 3. dynamism. (p. 275) al transformation among all the sixty-four Hexagrams is a matter of horizontal transformation. The vertical Phenix explains that the prime essential for ef- transformation illustrates how the totalities on differ- fective teaching is anairic simplification. All intelligi- ent levels of ontological differentiation relate toeach bility rests upon a radical reduction in the multiplicity other and how they differentiate as wellas integrate. of impressions which impinge upon the senses and the imagination.Phenix continues to explain the In the horizontal transformation, things are parallel on the same level. One thing may exist in second feature of a discipline which makes knowl- mean- ing to a certain condition, but an other edge in it instructive, namely, synthetic coordination. may not be relevant to the condition. Analysis is set an end in itself; it is the basis of synthesis. By synthesis is meant the construction of The writer's structural learning concept isthat new whole, the coordination of elements into signifi- basic concepts can be extended to become learning cant coherent structures. A discipline is a community blocks. Using these blocks many complexconcepts of concepts. Just as human beings cannot thrive in can be developed. The model is shown in Figure isolation, but require the support of other persons in 12. This structure does not mean that complexcon- mutual association. coots will be fewer in number than basic concepts. On the contrary, complex concepts The third quality of knowledge in a discipline that can be buiff almost infinitely. Phenix dynamism. It is the power for leading on to further understanding. Phenix explains: An Instructional Model for Electronics Technology Developing the Model A discipline is a living body of knowledge, containing within itself a principle of growth. Electronics technology is changing, complex, Its concepts do not merely simplify andcoor- and comprehensive in nature. The followingsare dinate; they also invite further analysis and the characteristics of electronics technology instruc- synthesis. A disciplinary contains a clue to tion which are identified from the findings of previous discovery. discussions:

In the similar way as Phenix does, the writer ad- Electronics technology instruction shouldactu- vocates to fit the three attributes of I Ching into the alize some goals of total education for today's field of instruction. complex and changing world. For educational purpose, the writer advocates Electronics technology can be classified,or- that electronics technology should be able to be dered, and coded in a flexible structure which is classified, ordered, and codified.If it is classified, adequate for different levels and purposes of an then It becomes simplified and can be taught. if it is electronics technology program. ordered, then it has a hierarchy and can be taught in An adequate model is necessary for electron- a logical sequence. If it is codified, then It becomes ics technology instruction to carry out the learn- flexible and suitable to different situation and inter- ing objectives. val. The classified, ordered, and codified electronics technology can be arranged and become a struc- Because of the inevitability of change of elec- tured instruction. A structured instruction will help tronics technology, some of the educational goals can be actualized by learning activities of electronics 143 148 An Instructional Model for Electronics Technology in the Republic of China

we can build a number of complex concepts. Tnese concepts are like the bricks in a wall or conversely them form an ever enlarging fanlike effect.In both models they are examples or endless construction both or ordered any yet uncontainable. The writer extends these ideas to develop the following model for use in electronics technology instruction illustrated in Figure 13. This model can consist of a single block or the 4 combination of many woks as a more complex model following the writer's structure concept. Figure 12. A Structural Concepts Model Motivation is depending on learning content or technology. The following goals are seieVied from learner's condition, and the Confucian remark-- the goals which derived from ASCD (Brandt & Mod- to learn with indefatigable zeal and diligence in rak, 1980, pp. 9-12). teaching--is deeply rooted in Chinese mind that can be used for both the teachers and the stu- Bases actions and decisions on the knowledge dents when learning electronics technology. that it Is necessary to continue to learn throughout life because of the inevitability of change. Doing in this model is different from conducting an experiment. It is not used to prove a theory or Bases actions and decisions on an under- a fact.It is used to learn simple skills, knowl- standing that change is a natural process in soci- edge, or concepts which can be used to expand ety and one which increases exponentially. to more skills, knowledge, and concepts. The Works now for goals to be realized in the fu- doing is for learning. ture. Expansion is used to integrate the human Entertains new perceptions of the world. knowledgeintothefieldof electronics Selects viable alternatives for actions in chang- technology. ing circumstances. Conception is important in this model for identi- Because of the nature of complexity and com- fying some specifications which serve as out- prehension of ^lectronics technology, the following puts that can in turn serve as another input's goals should be considered: specifications. * Apply basic principles and concepts of the Both input and output specifications contribute science, humanities and formal knowledge to in- to the model. Only when a model has input and terpret the nature, the process, and the issues output specifications can it be connected to an- of electronics technology. other model and become a structurable model connected to other models and become a unit in * Generates a range .1 imaginative alternatives an even more expansive model. as stimuli. * Entertains and values the imaginative alternatives of others.

It is necessary to develop the model in a flexible INIPA structure which can be adapted for different levels 1.116.1se Irapordne C- and purposes of an electronics technology program in order to have efficient instruction. The Diagram of the Instruction Model The following are the bases derived from the previous discussions for establishing the instruction- 1Z. An Instructional Model for Electronics al model. Technology The writer advocates that learning is a spiral process, so we can assemble the concepts upon which

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References Asimov. (1972). jssac Isimov's guide to science. New York: Basic. Braudt, R. S., & Modrak,nudnon. N. C. (Eds.) (1980). Alex- Meas- andria, VA: Assodation for Supervision and Cur- riculum Development. Deken, J. (1981). The electronic cottage. New York: New American Lbrary. DeVore, P. W. (1980). Technoloav: An introduction. Worcester, MA: Davis. Evans, C. (1979). The micro millennium. New York: Simon & Schuster. Feigenbaum, E. A., & McCorduck, P. (1984). The fifth generation. New York: New American Li- brary. Friedrichs, G., & Schaff, A. (1984,. Microelectronics and society. New York: New American Library. Inaba, L A. (1970). The development of a framework for and a model teaching- teaming sygeLrtin electronics technology for the elementary =pa Columbus: The Ohio State University. Lindsay, R. B. (1963). The role of science in civilization. New York: Harper & Row. Miller, J. G. (1978). laylliosystems. New York:

Phenix, P. H. (1964). Realms of meaning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Towers, E. R., Lux, D. G., & Ray, W. E. (1966). Aia: tionale and structure for industrial arts subject mita Columbus: The Ohio State University. Von Bertalanffy, L. (1972). General system theory: Foundations. development. applications. New York: George Brazil ler. Williams, F. (1983). The communications revolution. New York: New American Library. Yazdani, M., & Narayaran, A. (1984). Artificial intelligence: Human effect. West Sussex, England: Ellis Norwood LTD.

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"Jackson's Mill" and "Industry and Technology Education" Project Reports as a Guide for Organizing Content for Technology Education

Dr. R. Thomas Wright Department of Industry and Technology Ball State University Muncie, Indiana

Technology educators face major challenges challenge to develop these educational programs: and opportunities as they convert industrial arts pro- namely; "Hot/ should the curriculum be organizedto grams, with their tool skill emphasis, into technology provide articulated learning." Some states have trav- education, with its technology literacy mission. A eled a provincial, narrow path developing their number of individuals and groups suggest that this unique answer to this problem. This path has a num- transition is an educational imperative. A recent ber of hazards including (1) a diminished ability to ex- workshop sponsored by JETS (Junior Engineering change materials with other states, (2) a failure in Technical Society) on "Fr ndamentals in Precollege sending commercial publishers a clear signal for de- Technology Education" (1983) suggested "a foun- veloping text materials for the entire range of tech- dation in technology be regarded as fundamental for nology courses needed, and (3) confusion for stu- allnot just the high-achiever...Every student de- dents moving in and out of the state. serves to be aware of the impact of technological advance, and be able to understand the underlying A better course of action seems to be developing technology education experiences using broad- technology itself..Society must insure that an understanding of technology be a part of each stu- er-based philosophies and documents. Boyer dent's basic education" (p. 1). (1985) suggested an appropriate avenue when he wrote "your profession must take that remarkable In a similar vein, Walker (1985) suggested that a document, the Jackson's Mill statement, and bring it good liberal education for life in a technological soci- into fashion to the school and the classroom" (p. 6). ety will contain more than a smattering of study in This paper will address this challenge which has science, mathematics and technology. He elaborat- been enlarged to incorporate Jackson's Mill compan- ed by writing, "The responsibilities of managing our ion document Industry and Technology Education: environment are fully as high a calling as those of citi- A Guide for Curriculum Designers, Implementors, zenship traditionally defined.Buildings, bridges, and Teachers. highways and machines are cultural artifacts as char- The Jackson's Mill Theory acteristically human and worthy of study in their own way as poems, novels, plays and paintings" (p. 97). The Jackson's Mill Industrial Arts Curriculum Symposium was a group of 21 individuals who met Waetjen (1985) presented a parallel view when he wrote, "A central role of an educational institufion over an 18-month span to live the "challenge of in- is to offer a curriculum that gives its students a basic quiry, assimilation, compromise and consensus" (Snyder & Hales, 1981, p. ii). The result was a philo- understanding of the society in which they live. Pro- sophical position that the several "camps" in the proceeding from that premise, it is logical that 'in a democratic, technological society, the curriculum would fession could view as a legitimate compromise and, hopefully, use so that the various technology educa- strongly reflect those characteristics" (p. 9). tion curriculum efforts would have a common thrust. These and other writings suggest that the edu- The key points in this philosophy were: cational experience of youth should be enlarged to 1) Technology education offer programs that promote general understandings is a study of technology, industry, and their impacts. of technology (technological literacy) and that these programs should be viewed as being as important as The project document (Snyder & Hales, 1981) mathematics, science, social studies, language arts, states "industrial arts is a etc. A major problem faces any person accepting the comprehensive education program concerned with

146 152 A Guide for Organizing Content for Technology Education

technology, its evolution, utilization, and signifi- construction, manufacturing, and transportation.. cance; with industry, its organization, personnel, sys- .(p. 12) and that the course content be "offered in tems, techniques, resources, and products; and the broad systems of communication, construction, their soclaVcultural impacts" (pp. 1-2). This definition manufacturing, and transportation (p. 17). was reaffirmed in the Standards for Technology Edu- 3) Each of the human technical endeavors is a cation Programs (1985, p. 7). Accepting this state- system which has inputs, processes, outputs, ment, curriculum planners must develop programs feedback, and goals/restraints. which help students understand creating and using tools to extend the human potential (technology), The Jackson's Mill (Snyder & Hales, 1981) docu- AND the societal institution developed to convert re- ment indicates that viewing the four human technical sources into products and services (industry) AND endeavors as systems "suggest there is some regu- the impacts these have on individuals and society. larity to human adaptive behavior and that the elements in the system relate in orderly, predictable 2)The study of technology and industry is best ways" (p. 10). organized around the human technical it further states that "the jnputs to the system provide all the needed resources to accom- activities. plish the goals of the system" (p. 11). These inputs The project report (Snyder & Hales, 1981) sug- are people, knowledge, material, energy, capital, and gests that the "subsystems of the human technical finance. The systems processes, according to the endeavors are communication, construction, manu- document, are "a scheme of actions or practices" facturing, and transportation. Each of the subsys- and are *the technical means of the system" (p. 13) tems represent a discrete human endeavor which or the technology employed. can be studies in isolation. For example, throughout 4)Each human technical system often are devel- history people have manufactured goods, construct- oped into managed productive systems. ed structures, communicated ideas, and transported goods and people" (p. 23). These four curriculum The document (Snyder & Hales, 1981) sug- organi-ers were defined as follows: gests that all four subsystems of the human technical endeavor use "productive proce,:ces (those activi- Communication: a technical adaptive sys- ties designed by people which utilize selected in- tem designed by people to efficiently utilize puts to reach desired outputs), and managerial pro- resources to transfer information to extend cesses (those activities designed by people to inhuman potential (p. 26). sure that productive processes are performed effi- Construction: a technical adaptive system ciently and appropriately) which result in a "managed designed by people to efficiently utilize re- productive systems (a system developed by people sources to buil4 structures and constructed In which each step in the transformation of inputs works on a site (p. 33). into outputs is efficiently planned, organized, direct- Manufacturing: a technical adaptive system ed, and controlled with respect to company goals designed by people to efficiently utilize re- and in concert with society objectives)" (p. 25). sources to extract and convert raw/recycled 5) Human technical endeavors are dynamic activi- materials into industrial standard stock and ties which have a history, present practices, then into industrial and consumer goods (p. and a future. 33). These philosophical statements were summar- Transportation: a technical adaptive system ized in the Jackson's Mill report (Snyder & Hales, designed by people to efficiently utilize re- 1981) with the diagram found in Figure 1. sources to obtain time and place utility and Industry and Technology Education Report to attain and maintaindirect physical contact and exchange among individuals and socie- Following the Jackson's Mill project a second tal units through the movement of materials/ project, the Industry and Technology Education Pro- goods and people (p. 36). ject (1984), was conducted to move the .lackson's Mill Curriculum Theory into model curriculum struc- These definitions appear in slightly edited forms tures for small-, medium-, and large-sized schools. In the Standards for Technology Education Pro- This project suggested that the "mission of educa- grams (1985, p. 7). Additionally, the Standards sug- tors in our profession is to increase each person's gest that the philosophy of an exemplary program ability to compr6hend and apply the concepts of "focuses on t' ,e broad systems of communication,

147 Technological Literacy Symposium 153 111111111111=11111111111

Impacts on Individuals, Society & The Environment

Communication Construction

PAST ORESENT FUTURE

Manufacturing Transportation

Figure 1. The Global Context of Human Technical Adaptive System. (Hales and Snyder, 1983, p.25) interface between research and develop- industrial and technological systems" (p.9). There re- ment, industriaVtechnological systems, ser- port further suggests that "the study of industry and vices, use, and personal-corporate manage- technology should result in people who (1) adjust to ment interaction. a changing environment, (2) deal with the forces that influence the future, and (3) eagerly participate in 3. The program must include specific ex- controlling their own destiny" (p. 9). periences in each of the four industrial/ technological systems--communication, The Industry and Technology Education Project construction, manufacturing, and transpor- used the Jackson's Mill philosphy to develop pro- tation. gram structures based on ten fundamental assumptions, which were: 4. The experiences in the industrial/ technological systems should include both 1.All students need a basic framework of the productive and the management activi- knowledge and experience about industry, ties of the system. technology and their societal context. 5. The industrial/technological systems 2. The foundation must include broad inare best understood if examples are provid- troductory exoeriences which present the ed of the design of the product or system 154 A Guide for Organizing Content for Technology Education

and the productive activity within the sys- suggested time allotments. Additionally the project tem. report contained content taxonomies for each of the 6. The enrollment of the industrial arts four industrial/technological systems. program will deter- Using the Reports to Develop Curriculum mine the number and variety of courses that can be offered. The Jackson's Mill and the industry and Technoi- ogy Education Reports provide the curriculum plan- 7. Synthesis coursos in research and de- ner with the philosophical basis and content struc- velopment and in enterprise should be in- ture guidelines needed to enter the curriculum de- cluded in the program of any school. velopment process. The first major step,as one en- 8. Prerequisites should be minimized to encourage flexi- ing. At a local level central office and building admin- bility in student enrollment. istrators along with the industrial arts (technology education) faculty must see the curriculum change ef- 9. All courses should use practical labora- fort as necessary and become a TEAM. At the state tory activities to enhance fundamental con- level the TEAM must include the state department of ceptual development. education, teacher education institutions, and the 10. Experiences about the industrial/ state industrial arts (technology education) profes- technological systems should be integrated sional association.Failure to establish the TEAM into the elementary school curriculum concept early on will create an environment for fail- (Wright & Sterry, 1984, pp. 11-12). ure, or at best, limited success in developing and implementing the curriculum. Figure 2 presents the medium-sized program model. A brief outline was developed for each Once the curriculum development team is esta- course in each of the three program models. These blished, a goal-oriented leader who fully under- outlines presented a course description and objec- stands the Jackson's Mill and Industry and Technolo- tives, content listings, representative activities, and gy Education Documents and thecurriculum

IEXPLORING INDUSTRY AND TECHNOLOGY I

INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEMS Cossunination ConstructionManufacturing Transportation

COMMUNICATION CONSTRUCTION MANUFACTURING TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS SYSTEMS SYSTEMS SYSTEMS

Z 0 .4 N M 0)4 Z 0in X 0 Xid 0 014 0 0-4 y) K )4 tn 14 x cis Z o 0 Z a. N 14 X X C.) N N

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT I ENTERPRISE

Figure 2. Medium School'Model (Wright & Sterry, 1984, p.16). .14j Technological Literacy Symposium 155

development process must be selected. Many cur- 3.Pilot Implementation-- Testing the curriculum riculum developments have failed duo to the lack of in selected schools. This phase clarity of the mission and/or effective leadership. In a includes the following tasks: recent videotape, Peters (1985) suggested that anything of value that is accomplished is the result of a (a)Soliciting schools to test the total program turned "n leader or group- monomanics with a mis- (not selected courses). sion. (b)Selecting a limited number of schools (3- The curriculum development team, with Its effec- 6) from the applicants to test the curricu- tive leader, must then develop an action plan. This lum. plan should have at least five basic steps: (c)Provide administrator, guidance person- 1.Philosophy--The development or acceptance nel, and teacher inservin. of a philosophy for the curriculum (d)Provide field service and monitor progress which answers such questions as: during the pilot test. 4. Curriculum Revision--Revise courses based (a)What is technology, industry, technology literacy, and technology education? on pilot school results. Use many of the pilot school teacher in the rewrite process. (b) Why should students study technology 5. education? State-wide and District-wide Implementation -Introducing the new curriculum to an aver in (c) What are the content organizers for a tech- creasing number of schools through a con- nology education program? trolled growth plan. (d) What are the goals of technology educa- It is important to bring schools on-line with the tion? new curriculum only as fast as inservice and field ser- (e) To what extent are laboratory activities im- vice activities can be provided. portant? This plan was used to develop a new curriculum (f) Does skill development have a place in which emphasizes technology literacy for the State technology education? of Indiana. The program, as shown in Figure 3,has been pilot tested and will enter state-wide implemen- (g)What is the relationship of technology ed- tption in the Fall of 1988. ucation to general education? to vocational education? The ability of the Indiana Industrial Technology Education Curriculum Committee to move forcom- (h) What student population should be mittee appointment through pilot testing in less than served by technology education? three years is due to at least four factors: (i)What content is appropriate for technology 1. Strong cooperation between the Indiana De- education? partment of Education, the Indiana industrial 2. Curriculum Development--Implementing the Technology Education Association, and the philosophy into a teachable curriculum. This phase three Indiana industrial arts teacher educa- involves a number of tasks including: tion institutions (Ball State, Indiana State, and Purdue Universities). (a)Selecting program structures with course titles 2. A dedicated curriculum committee with equally dedicated course writing teams. (b)Preparing course descriptions. 3. Support emanating from the Governor's of- (c)Selecting major modules (units) for each fice who wrote it was with a great deal of course. pleasure that I learned of the efforts of the In- diana Industrial Technology Education Cur- (d) Determining the format for the course riculum Committee to develop new curricu- guides. lum which would be more oriented to the (e)Selecting authors or teams of authors to technological future which our school stu- prepare each course. dents of today will be facing when they graduate...Pursuit of industrial technology (f) Editing course guides.

15u 156 . A Guide for Organizing Content for Technology Eaucation .....r. -.1 Field IIntroduction to Industrial Technology awareness

1 I--- Cluster Introduction .0 Introduction to Introduction to Introduction to exploration Manufacturing Communication Construction Transportation courses Technology Technology Technology Technology _L Olv f--- c C o C iTC C = 01 01 Cluster U OP E.is E t E specialization cl c g ?, o2 2 I8 a. is Courses V. ' 0 :a >. 2. 71 2 c w c40 0 E0E o a o c c a Q 0 0 a 0 It:

Cluster Design Ig and Integration Manufacturing Community Evaluating courses Enterprise Commun. :allons Planning Transportation stems I 3

Field Industrial Integration Research and courses Development Ref:Kmiec, prom Indiana Industrial Technology Education CurriculumRationale end Structure Figure 3. Indiana Industrial Technology Education Curriculum Model. (Wright, 1986, p.35)

education along these functional lines References will provide a much technology education: A perspective on imple- more useful set of courses than current in- mentation. Reston, VA: International Technolo- dustrial arts preparation which student re- gy Education Association. ceive today" (Orr, 1984). Junior Engineering Technical Society. (1983). fun: Six school districts and their teachers who 4. damentals in precollege technology education. were willing to tar' a risk and accept the chal- New York: JETS. lenge of implementing an untested curriculum so that other schools could have a field- Orr, R. D. (1984, December 21).Letter to R.T. tested product. Wright. Developing technology education programs Peters, T. (1985). Passion for excellance. A pro- which are viable is made much easier when the gram appearing on PBS. change agents decide that much of the essential Snyder, J. F., & Hales, J. A. (Eds.) (1981). Jacksoda groundwork Is ther.. The goal of developing a quali- Mill industrial arts curriculum theory. Charleston, ty technology education program is attainable is a rel- WV: Department of Education. (The Jackson's atively short period of time when they rise above pro- Mill Project is available from the Center of Imple- vocial thoughts of developing a unique local or state menting Technology Education, Department of curriculum and build upon the work of a large number Industry and Technology, Ball State University, of professionals who participated in both the Jack- Muncie, IN.) son's Mill and Industry and Technology Education Projects.

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Standards for technakgy education. (1985). South Holland, IL: Goodheatt-Willcox. Waetjen, W. B. (1985). Pawls and culture inour technological society in technology education: Eelageggylualmglemenlalign. Reston, VA: International Technology Education Associa- tion. Walker, D. F. (1985). Curriculum and technoloov in current thoughts on curriculum. Arlington, VA: Association on Supervision and Curriculum De- velopment. Wright, R. T., & Sterry, L. (Eds.) (1984). Industry and technology education: A guide for curriculum desionemimplemenlarlandleachera. Lans- ing, IL: Technic!! FarKiation of America. (The Industry and Technology Education Project Re- port is available from the Center of Implementing Technology Education, Department of Industry and Technology, Ball State University, Muncie, IN.) Wright, R. T. (1986, April). India's industrial technology education curriculum ,..oject provides an answer. School Shoo. 34-36.

152 Technological Literacy Symposium 159

The Future of Work in America: Workers, the Workplace, and Technological Literacy

Ivan Charner National Institute for Work and Learning Washington, D. C.

Introduction about and challenges for meeting the changing Work in the future will depend as much on the needs of a technologically changing workplace. characteristics of tomorrow's workers as on the na- Structural Changes in the Economy ture of the changing economy. We can be fairly certain about the demographic composition of our Education and workplace policies and practices country in the next 50 years. We are less certain, are developed in response to a complex set of factors. Major demographic, economic, and technologi- however, about the effects of technological and eco- cal shifts' are predicted for the next quarter center. nomic changes on the future of work and working. One thing that is certain is that technology is here to These have consequences for the workplace and for the preparation of the citizenry that can meet the stay.It is critical that we prepare a citizenry that is challenges of the future. technologically literate if our nation's productivity and (* Because the focus of this paper is on technology, the technological shifts economic viability are to remain competitive. are discussed in Section III.) This paper explores the future of work in Ameri- Demographic Shifts ca focusing on the effects of technology and on the preparation of workers for the technological age of The changes in the composition of the U.S. the future. Before outlining the content of the pa- population and in the composition of its labor force per, it is necessary to clarify what technology means: have both direct and indirect consequences for the Technology is the physical devices and apparatus workplace and for the preparation of people to meet the changing needs of that workplace. (tools, instruments, machines, appliances) used to perform tasks. It is also the technical activities Aging of the Population- Since the baby boom (skills, methods, routines, procedures, and so- of the 1950's the U.S. population has been aging. cial organizations) that people engage in to per- The number of young adults (16-24 years old) will form the tasks. Technology then, includes decline through 1995, affecting the pool of entry- level workers in the labor force. both the activities of people and the way their activities are combined with materials and physical The 1980s and 1990s will see the baby-boom devices in organizations and social systems. generation move into middle age, increasing the Technological literacy is the possession of the number of workers thirty to forty-nine years old by 79 percent. By the year 2000, the median age of the skills, knowledge, abilities, and attitudes necessary U.S. citizenry will be almost thirty-five. The labor mar- to effectively use technology as a tool for occupa- ket behaviors and attitudes of this cohort of workers tional, educational, or personal use. will be affected by "generational crowding" or "mid- The paper begins by tracing the structural career compaction." That is, there will be far fewer of changes facing the economy throughout the remain- the job and career promotions usually associated der of this century and well into the next. This dis- with the mid-career stage than there will be middle- cussion sets the context for the remainder of the pa- aged workers. Those who are technologically literate per. The second section explores the effects of will be at a distinct advantage in competing for these technology on the nature and availability of work. promotions. One consequence of this phenome- This is followed by an examination of the preparation non is that many in his cohort will need to make major required for work in the technological age of the fu- career and life shifts, looking to other word and non- ture.The final section offers some conclusions work opportunities for their financial, social, and

1 53 160 The Future of Work in America

personal rewards. The last baby boomer is 27 and clear implications, it is the changes themselves that long out of school.Most of this cohort are not tech- will have the major impact on the future. nologically literate. They will need lifelong techno- Decline of the Industrial Sector In 1984, 30 per- logical literacy training offered through the workplace cent of the work force was employed in the industrial or through the more traditional providers of educa- sector.However, this sector has been declining tion and training. since the early 1950s, and the decline is expected to Medical and nutritional advances will continue to continue through the next decade, due, in large increase life expectancies. .While many older work- part, to increased automation and robotizatlon, im- ers will retire early, others will remain in or re-enter the proved operational procedures, and competition labor force, for financial, social, and psychological from developing countries with low labor costs. This reasons. New work patterns are expected that will sector is expected to employ only 11 to 12 percent enable these older workers to work part-time (daily, of the work force by the mid 19908. The automobile, weekly, monthly, or yearly) while pursuing other ac- steel, dothirk. and support industries have been af- tivities traditionally associated with retirement. These fected by the growing trend of importing, which has older adults adults also will need to be technological- led to large numbers of displaced or dislocated in- ly literate whether they continue to work or not. The dustrial workers. services and resources these older persons will Growth of the Service Sector - The service sec- need wilt, to an increasing extent, require them to be tor is, by far, the dominant sector of employment with technologically literate. They, like their younger about two-thirds of the work force employed in ser- counterparts, will need lifelong technological literacy vice jobs in 1984. Over 80 percent of the employ- training. ment growth projected through 1995 is expected to More Women and Minorities in the Labor Force - occur in the service sector. The growth of this sector The numbers and proportion of women in the paid la- is due to a number of factors. First, the growing pro- bor force have been steadily growing. It is estimated portion of women in the paid work force is increasing that women will comprise 65 percent of all new hires the number of dual-income households (75 percent during the next ten years and over half of the labor by 1995). These households are "short" on time but force before the end of the century. At the same "long" on money, and consequently they "buy" time, the population of Blacks and Hispanics in the more time by purchasing more services, such as U.S. work force will steadily increase. By the year meals, home repair, dependent care, and education. 2000, these two groups will constitute almost one- In addition, there is an increase in the number of sin- quarter of the work force.Increased immigration gle-parent households, which may not be long" on (legal and illegal) is expected as a result of shortages money but will need to purchase many services, of entry-level workers. These groups have tradition- nonetheless. ally been the last to adapt to new technologies. A second factor that will affect the growth of this While women have clearly incorporated new ofize sector will be the millions of workers displaced by au- technologies they generally have not expanded into tomation, technological advances, and foreign com- other areas of technology. Minorities, with their low- petition. Since many service Jobs involve relatively er levels of education, lower basic skills, and lan- unsophisticated, commonplace skills and knowl- guage problems (Hispanics and immigrants), will con- edge, the service sector has always been the natural tinue to suffer from technological illiteracy.it is criti- employer of last resort. The ready supply of dis- cal, however, that these groups be prepared for the placed workers with limited employable skills will lead technological age of the future. to low wages in parts of the service sector and thus Economic Shifts will promote the general growth of service-related Major economic shifts and corresponding business.Millions of people use low-level service changes in the employment sector have occurred employment as a transitional phase in their careers, while they acquire some form of retraining to quality over the past two decades, and further shifts are expected through the first quarter of the next century. for work in higher-paying jobs in the service and oth- Some of these shifts have been or will be dramatic, er sectors of the economy. while others will be more gradual. What we produce, Continued Growth in Self-Employment - Self- how we produce, the way we work, and the distribu- employment, which reached a low of seven percent tion of jobs are changing and will continue to in 1970, has been on the rise since then and is exchange.While the speed of these changes has pected to continue to grow. The growth of the

1 5 4 ..,

Technological Literacy Symposium 161

service sector and of the information industry within duce new products and systems. Communication all of the sectors, will reinforce this rise by encourag- has also been affected by new technologies. Tele- ing independent information and service entrepren- conferencing (video and audio), satellite systems, eurs. It Is projected that self-employment will double videotext, and car phones are Just a few of thenew by the year 2000 from its low point of 1970. As mid- communications technologies that have emerged in level, mid-career workers are laid off or not promoted, the past few years. The advances in biological and they will be "forced" to become self-employed in health sciences, as a result of technological change, new venture enterprises. Others will see the oppor- are no less staggering. tunities for self-realization, independence, and per- The high-technology revolution is all around sonal advancement in starting their own businesses. us -- in the factory, at the office, in our communication, The computer software and support industries pro- transportation, and health care systems, and in our vide clear examples of this growing phenomenon. In homes. The growth of these technologies will con- many cases these new entrepreneurs will require tinue, but the implications for employment, social re- technological skills if they hope for their new ven- tures to be successful. lations. and personal development are yet to be fully recognLed. In this section I explore some of these Growth of International Trade and Third-World implications.I begin with a general discussion and Development - Developed countries are rapidly us- then explore how technology effects the nature and ing up their reserves of natural resources while con- availability of work. tinuing to upgrade the quality of human resources. This will cause increased dependence on develop- There are many predictions about the ways in ing nations for raw materials and "cheap" labor for which technology will impact work and the workplace. It has been suggested that technology: mass-produced goods.It is projected that, by the year 2000, one-third of the world's goods and servic- Decreases the skills required to perform jobs. es will be consumed or used outside of the country Increases the skill requirements of jobs. of origin. Dramaticallyincreases the mismatches be- The structural changes that are anticipated for tween the skills that jobs require and those the next twenty-five years are sure to affect the work available in the workplace. force, the workplace, the lives of workers, and society in general. The combined effects of the ongoing Requires that workers be "technologically liter- economic transition, the changing demography of ate." the population and the work force, and the nation's Eliminates many jobs. assimilation of new applied technologies assure a steadily increasing demand for training, education, Creates many jobs. and human resource development. I believe that all of the predictions are true but, Technological Effects on Work in and of themselves, they are too simple. Techno- logical change does not occur in a vacuum. Eco- From microcomputers to robots, word proces- nomic and demographic factors are powerful in- sors, and genetic engineering, we have witnessed fluences on the adaptation of new technologies in rapid advances in technology in the past two to three the workplace. Productivity, competitiveness, and decades. These new applied technologies have af- profits often dictate when, how, and which technolo- fected every sector in the labor force and in the gen- gies will be implemented. Also, technology r.;cne eral society. Agricultural advances have allowed few- does not determine the availability or nature of jobs. er and fewer farmers to produce more and more. The microcomputer and word processor have trans- Technology does not, by, itself, decrease, or informed the office from one that is largely labor inten- crease skills; cause mismatches; or eliminate or sive to one that relies heavily on electronic storage create jobs. While technology may set limits or open and transmission of information, creating the possibilities, it is the managers and decision makers "paperless office." Automation has transformed the that ultimately are responsible for determining the assembly Nnes and factory floors in many industries options for workers. In other words, new technoloby using robots to perform the tasks of large num- gies sometimes compel, but more often permit, in- bers of workers. Computer-aided design (CAD) and dustries and organizations to reorganize and restruc- computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) have been ture jobs. And, the impact of technology on workers used in a wide array of industries to design and pro- is primarily determined by management decisions

155 162 The Future of Work in America

and worker/management relations. product centered work organization will replace compartmentalization; scheduling will be more flexible; Technology and the Nature of Work the use of temporary workers will increase; part-time Although technology alone does not determine work will increase; and multiple job holding will in- the nature of work, it is a strong factor in determining crease.* (* Office of Technology Assessment, Con- work options. Robotization, CAD/CAM systems, and gress of the United States. Technology and Structu- other new manufacturing and industrial technologies ral Unemployment: Re-employing Displaced Adults. are projected to eliminate five to seven million jobs Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Of- (mostly blue collar) before the turn of the century. In- fice, 1986.) formation and communication technologies, on the Technology and the Availability of Work other hand, are expected to eliminate seven to 12 million white-collar positions. The total loss of jobs is The availability of work is influenced by a combi- projected to be between 15 and 20 million by the nation of ;actors including technology, international year 2000.At the same time, the production of trade, domestic competition, and consumer prefer- these new technologies will create two to three mil- ences.It is clear, however, that new technclogIes lion new jobs, while positions related to the mainte- are transforming many kinds of work and influence nance and repair of these new technologies will gen- the availability of different types of work. The Bureau erate an additional four to fivemillion high- of Labor Statistics, in its projection of the fastest technology service positions. In addition, these new growing occupations, suggests the potential impact technologies will affect the production of finished in- of new technologies. As Table 1 shows, of the ten formatior products (books, magazines, disks, cas- fastest growing occupations seven are directly relat- settes, and video media) in their "publishing" indus- ed to new technologies while the remaining three try. Between 1.5 and 2.5 million jobs are expected are impacted indirectly by new technologies. to be generated in this area. The net result is a loss Table 1 of between five and 13 million jobs due to the new technologies. t.Inge in Employment Percent Occupation New technologies can also displace work tasks. 1984 -1995 Robots that weld car pieces together or new technological processes eliminate tasks performed by work- Paralegal personnel 97.5 ers. Work also can be restructured to use technolo- Computer programmers 71.7 gy, resulting in fewer people performing the same amount of work. The word processor and computer- Computer systems analysis, electronic ized information system are examples of technolo- data processing (EDP) 68.7 gies that reduce the number of workers required to Medical assistants 6Z.0 perform specific tasks. Data processing equipment repairers 56.2 At the same time, new technologies can create Electrical and electronics engineers 52.8 work tasks. Medical technicians, for example, will need to learn new skills to perform the new tasks as- Electrical and electronics technicians sociated with new technological equipment. Auto and technologists 50.7 workers will need to learn programming, machine Computer operators, except 46.1 monitoring, and maintenance to perform new tasks peripheral equipment associated with the introduction of robots and automated processes. Peripheral EDP equipment operators 45.0 New technologies, hav3 other potential effects Travel agents 43.9 on the nature and organization of work, including: (Source: Silvesti, G., & Lukasiewics, J. (1984, No- broader definition of productior jobs; the tendency vember;. Occupation of employment projections: for companies to provide more training; allocation to The 1984-1995 outlook. Monthly Labor Review, groups of workers sonic of the responsibilities vest- lail(11), 51-52.) ed in foreman and first-Nne supervisors; motivational In addition to the growth in a number of specific and attitudinal factors may weigh more heavily in se- occupations there are a number of general trends lection criteria than credentials or past experience; that have emerged. First, in manufacturing, ob op- production workers may have a greater say in deci- will probably increase for technicians, sions about new equipment and procedures; portunities 156 Technological Literacy Symposium 163

mechanics, repairers, and installers, as well as for en- Tablet gineers and computer scientists. At the same time Occupation opportunities for all production workers will fall. This 54of Total Job Growth 19844995 includes operatives, laborers, machinists, and press operators. Lower and middle management job op- Cashiers 3.6 portunities may also decline.Second, in offices Registered nurses growth opportunities will more than likely slow down and by the 1990's may show a decline. There too, Janitors and cleaners 2S opportunities for lower and middle managers will fall. Truck drivers 27 Third, new technologies are greatly reducing the number of opportunities in agriculture. Finally, in the Wailers and waitresses 2 7 service sector, particularly health, and communica- Wholesale trade saleworkers 2.3 tion related, new technologies are creating new Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants tasks and new occupations. 2.2 Salespersons, retail 22 New technology has an indirect effect on the availability of occupations not directly dependent on Accountants and auditors 1.9 the technologies themselves. For example, the in- Teachers, kindergarten and elementary1.9 crease in free time will result in changes in entertainment ocupations. Those involved in literature, mu- Secretaries 1.7 sic, the arts, and athletics will be busier than even Ccrrputer programmers 1.5 since their audience will grow steadily. General force larks 1.4 Service occupations also are projected to in- Food preparation workers crease in the next decade. While not directly due to excluding fast food 1.4 new technologies, these increses will greatly impact Food preparation and service the nature of our society. The Bureau of Labor Sta- workers, fast food 1.4 tistics, has projected the occupation with the largest Computer systems analysts, job growth. Table 2 presents those occupations with electronic data processing 13 the largest job growth. (See Table 2) Electrical and electronics engineers 1.3 At first glance these projections may make us rest Electrical and electronics technicians easy. While many workers will be displaced by tech- and technoiogists 1.3 nology or will not possess the skills needed for new Guards technological occupations, htere will be available 12 jobs for them. The problem, however, is twofold. Automotive and motorcycle mechanics 1.2 First many workers who are displaced cannot *afford" ( Source: Silvestri, G., & Lukasiewics, ,J. (1984, to take these available jobs. That is, the available November). Occupation of employment projections: jobs tend to be lower paying (substantially) than the The 1984 -1995 outlook. Monthly Labor Review, jobs workers wer forced to leave. Second the work- 1011), 51-52.) ers who do not possess the necessary skills for the technological jobs will tend to be less educated, minority, limited English proficient, and/or older adults. ucts, new markets, and new jobs.Technological The result may be a class, no a caste, society like changes also effect non-technologically-based oc- none we have seen since the slaves were freed. Un- cupations. One potential result of technological less we can change this trend the very foundation of change will be a greater division of labor between our nation's fabric will be greatly deteriorated. those citizens who are technologically literate and That technology is, and will continue to be, a ma- those who are not. The chasm, in terms of opportu- jor influence on the nature and availability of work nities, income, and standard of living is potentially cannot be denied. Changes in technology disrupt very wide and threatening to the future of work, existing industries, making some jobs obsolete and workers and the society in general. reducing opportunities in other occupations The Preparation for Work In a Technological Age nature of work also is altered by technological change.While technology eliminates the demand Preparation for work in a technologically chang- for some skills and occupations it creates new prod- ing workplace, to a large extent, depends on the 151 --- i--

164 The Future of Work in America

skills, knowledge, and abilities needed by different after they have jobs. They should, however, have groups of workers. For this discussion I focus on the some familiarity with basic technological equipment, preparation of three groups of workers: entry level especially computers. In addition, these entry level workers, mid-career and older workers; and manag- workers should understand how technology affects ers.It should be pointed out at the outset that my work, working, the workplace, and society in general. discussion is general and does not focus on specific The college graduate entering her or his first full- sectors, occupations, or types of work. time job also will need to be prepared for a t ;hno- At its most basic level, preparation for work in the logically changing workplace. While many of these technological age means preparing people to be will enter directly into positions requiring specific flexible and adaptable to change. There are other technological skills others will be managers and deci- skills that are also needed. One set of skills Is directly sion makers. As such they will need to be "literate" in related to the technology itself.For example office both the machine and human sides of technology. workers need to learn word processing skills, auto The preparation of both groups of entry level workers need to learn to operate robots, and medical workers rests with our elementary, secondary, and technicians need to learn about automatic instru- postsecondary education systems. Early emphasis ments. at the elementary and secondary school levels must Other skills are less technology specific. Work- be placed on the basic skills outlined above. The ers will find that manual and routine mental skills will lack of these skills will greatly limit the options for en- be in less demand than the capacity for judgment try level workers. Access to math, science, and tech- and evaluation, an understanding of technological nology skills should ado be increased. These skills equipment, the ability to spot problems, and an un- are critical for further education and training in tech- derstanding of how one's own work fits into the larg- nological occupations. Also, education at this level er picture. Social skills such as teamwork and com- must stress the human side of technology and an munication will be increasingly valuable for workers. understanding of how technology impacts work and New organizational approaches that encourage society. Our elementary and secondary education workers to participate in solving problems and mak- system must provide students with the skills and ing decisions will require new skills for managers. knowledge they will need to cope with a changing environment. We must teach our students to be For workers the skills that could be in demand flexible and adaptable and we must do this by con- will require a good basic education.If workers can necting the educational system to the real world, in not read they can not be technologically literate.If both theory and practice. they cannot do math, think, analyze, and learn they cannot be technologically literate. And. if they can At the postsecondary level the focus should be not work with others, communicate, and make deci- on delivery of technology specific curriculum as well sions they cannot be technologically literate. as a solid general education. The technology specific curriculum requires postsecondary education sys- A new conceptualization of technological literacy tems to adapt to the changing technology of the will be required for managers and corporate decision workplace and society. In addition, the postsecon- makers.It will require them not only to understand dary institutions need to be concerned with prepar- machine or apparatus technologies but "social tech- ing the future managers and decision-makers of the nologies" which will be necessary to organize and workplace. This requires preparing students in the coordinate human resources, as well. human resource side of technology as well as in or- How do we prepare people for the new and diffi- ganizational approaches that effectively integrate cult roles and responsibilities they will have in a tech- people and equipment. nologically changing workplace? The process will be Preparing Mid-Career and Older Workers different for different groups of workers. New technology will require the (rr)training and Preparing Entry Level Workers education of mid-career and older workers. While High school graduates looking for their first full- preparation will necessarily have to focus on basic, time jobs need basic skills--communication, mathe- social, and specific technology skills, there are a matics, problem solving, working on a team, decision number of barriers faced by adults that need to be making, learning to learn"--for successful entry into addressed before we can even attempt to prepare a technologically changing ,vorkplace. Most of their them for a new technological age. These barriers are technological training will take place in the workplace categorized as follows: 158 Technological Literacy Symposium 165

Structural barriers are those factors which arise With regard to preparation of adults to meet the out of an individuars position in a family, workplace, a requirements of new technologies a number of criti- social group at a given time. Social-psychologIced cal elements are required to overcome these barriers bafflers are those factors related to the attitudes, and including:low costs, employer financed training; self-perceptions an individual has or to the influence support services; short length of training; programs of significant others on the action of the individual. at the workplace; remediation; peer instruction; Structural barriers are policies and practices of rgan- counseling; clear links to future work; programs of- izations that overtly or subtly exclude or disc-Jrage fered in the community; experiential learning op- adults from participationin education or training accliv- tions; and joint programs of business and education. ities. labia 3 provides a listing of the specific factors Two basic delivery strategies that can incorpo- that fall under each category of barriers. rate all or most of these critical elements are possible. The first are employer provided education and train- Table 3 ing programs offered in-house or through contracts with education and training providers. The programs CategolY Specific Factors should respond to changes in a company's technol- Situational Barriers ogy, organization, or products. Currently, the private *Cogs sector spends $30-$100 billion annually on corpo- Lack of time rate training programs with a larger and larger share " Age going to remedial math and reading instruction. Fur- Prior educational attain- ther efforts by employers should focus on preparing mart workers to meet the anticipated changes brought on Home responsibilities by new technology. Job responsibilities The second delivery strategy includes the array Occupational status of offerings provided by education institutions in- Level of income cluding public school systems, noncoilegiate postsecondary schools,two-year colleges, and four-year Social-Psychological Barriers colleges and universities. Lack of confidence in &ay Educational institutions at all levels would do well Feeling too old to rethink their missions in terms of preparing adult Low self-concept workers to meet the needs of a chr.nging workplace. * Tired of school Training and retraining will become ever more impor- Lack of interest tant as new skills are needed by workers over their Family or friends don't life span. Educators should begin thinking in proac- Ike the idea tive terms, anticipating changing educational demands, rather than simply reacting to crisis situations Structural Barriers related to the immediate needs of the moment. Course scheduling If demographic and economic conditions do not 1".'ork schedule bring employers to invest more resources in indus- Inconvenient location of try-provided training, then, once again, the responsi- COMM bility will revert to the educational system. As others Anandal support restric- have suggested, we may be moving toward a "truly tbns continuing educational systems--one that is more Too long to complete flexible and beLer adapted to shorter term pas- VOgrani sages." Too much red tape For the educational system to be responsive to Lack of information on the needs of adult workers, it must look beyond its program traditional role of education of youth toward its Lack of information on emerging role in training adults. The educational support assistance system must be responsive to the diverse needs of a Inadequate counseling diverse society, but education and training providers cannot work alone; they must work collaboratively withbusiness, labor, government, and other 166 The Future of Work in America

educational organizations. work environment, managers will need to be pre- Such collaborative efforts are important because pared to lead in each of these areas. This will require technologies have expanded rapidly in many sectors time, commitment, and energy.It will also require of the economy. This has resulted in a formidable managers to take on the roles of "coach" and training task.It is critical that this process ensure the "resource agents" for the teams of workers they su- equitable availability of training in all aspects of new pervise. Training programs, whether at the graduate technologies for all current and future members of level in formal higher education programs, through the workforce. Training that prepares workers to be executive or management training offered through flexible, adaptable, and competent in the basic, so- the workplace, or a combination of the two, should cial, and technical skills that will be needed in the fu- stress the new sets of competencies required by ture. managers of sociotechnical systems. Such programs should be interdisciplinary focusing on the Preparing Managers and Decision Makers sociology, economics, politics, history, philcsophy, New technologies can only be implemented by and psychology of managing a work environment human decisions. Human decisions are also central that is characterized more by change than stability. in the distribution of the benefits of change, includ- Conclusions and Challenges ing the economic growth made possible by greater productivity, and the improved quality of work life in The principal resource of the U.S. economy is safer and more pleasant surroundings. Some of not its great stock of money, plants, equipment, or these implementation decisions impose significant technology, nor its abundant natural resources and costs on the people least able to bear them, in the rich farmland. Rather, it is its human resource. A human resource that is knowledgeable, skilled, enthu- form of extended unemployment and reduced earnings prospects. Decisions should take human re- siastic, and versatile. A human resource, however. that source impacts into account to reduce these costs is dependent on education and training and redistribute them more in accordance with the throughout their lives, to maintain these characteris- distribution of the benefits of change, which should tics in light of rapid economic and technological also be made more equitable. There also may be a changes. Our nation's ability to respond to competi- need to better control the pace of technological tive challenges, to an ever increasing extent, is de- change in order to minimize the social and personal pendent on the quality and quantity of education costs of groups of workers. and training offered to an engaged in by workers. These decisions are, to a large degree, made by The challenge is for employers, workers, unions, managers and other corporate decision makers. government, and educators to work together to re- These individuals need to be prepared for the spond to the need for a skilled, trained, and trainable changes in workers, and the workplace that will result workforce. This will require new roles for and relationships among these sectors. from changes in technology. The successful integration of technology and Entry level workers will need to be better pre- human potential is dependent on the adequate pared to meet the changing work and nonwork preparation of creative and motivated managers. worlds they will face. This task will rest heavily on the shoulders of our public school system. Educational Managers will need new sets of competencies. They will need to become skilled not only in the new tech- resources should be allocated to the teaching of criti- nologies and in the new methods of organization cal basic skills including: reading, writing, math, communication (oral and aural), decision-making, plan- and human resource development, but in the socio- ning, teamwork and thinking. Entry level workers will technical systems or "humanware" that integrate the need to understand that flexibility and adaptability will two. Managers will need to look at the whole system- -the people, the work, the culture, the technology, be critical in the workplace of the near future. Be- the demand, and the market--and be able to link cause the vast majority of technology skill training will occur at the workplace, these enetry level workers hardware and human resources effectively. will need to be prepared for lifelong technological lit- This notion of a uhumanware" manager will re- eracy training." quire the ongoing education and training of managers on human resource strategies and technological Many new entrants, however, will require some advances. Because of the need for training, retrain- preparation before they are ready to work. Vocation- ing, communication, and cooperation in the "new" al schools, technical institutions, and community colleges offer programs that prepare and retrain large

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numbers of workers. The institutions require up-to- and economic systems is to prepare the human re- date, state-of-the-art equipment and faculty. Private source to meet the exciting challenges that will sector employers and the government need to help emerge as a function of the technological age of the in these areas. Through direct assistance, tax cred- future. A human resource that will be essential to its, personnel exchange programs, equipment meeting the competitive challenges our nation will loans, work experience, and other programs educa- be facing. As Isaac Asimov suggests: tion institutions can better prepare new entrants into The 21st century, for all its advancement, the technologically changing workplace. will be one of the great pioneering periods Much of the impact of economic and technologi- of human history, as people work under to- cal change is felt at the workplace. Adult workers, totally new conditions, doing totally new day and in the future, need lifelong technological lit- things in totally new ways, taking totally new eracy training. More effective and timely workplace risks to achieve totally new triumphs. learning systems would not only allow us to keep We need to prepare these pioneers--young and better pace with these changes, but would also en- old, male and female, and of all races and ethnic per- courage more career and human resource develop- suasions--to enter, work in, and manage the work- ment for workers. place of the future, and to be trained and retrained Current federal tax policy gives employers great- throughout their lives. er incentives to invest in machines and research than Without technological literacy that links the hard- in people. Comparable incentives are needed for ware and human resources, the future will be bleak. each factor of production: capitol, technology, and With a technologically literate popuiation the future workers. Through a training tax credit, for example, will be an exciting one full of individual and societal employers would be encouraged to respond to com- change and triumph. A technologically literate popu- petitive challenges through human resource, as well lation requires that business, labor, government and as machine investment. education work together in new collaborative ways to A better understanding of training and develop- the benefit of all. ment in the workplace is also needed. This would help education and training providers outside the workplace to develop practices that compliment learning on the job. It would also help create stronger linkages between learning on and off the job and encourage more cohesive lifelong learning for workers.Lifelong learning provided, in large part, through employer supported programs including: in- house education and training; contracts with postsecondary institutions and other providers of education and training; tuition assistance programs; and labor-management cooperative programs. As state earlier, management decisicns are critical to the successful implementation of new technol- ugies and to the nature and quality of work. A new type of manager is needed. One which is sensitive to both the equipment and human sides of technology. One that is aware of the critical importance of education and training for workers, and one that recognizes that new and different work organizations will be required to respond to the changing technological workplace. The challenge is for the education and training system to prepare these new managers and for businesses and corporations to identify them and allow them to implement changes at the workplace that will be required in the future. The basic challenge for our education, political,

161 V.11.1Ma=.. Technological Literacy Symposium169

Technological Literacy Needsin Preservice and Inservice Teacher Education

1n2 Technological Literacy Symposium 171

New Technology, New Lifestyles, and theImplications for Preservice and Inservice Vocational TeacherEducation

Dr. Carolyn Litchfield Worms Associate Professor, Memphis State University Dr. Allan Joseph Worms Associate Extension Professor, University of Kentucky

In modem society, change occurs so rapidly that artificial intelligence. Computers, videotext, teletext, it is difficult to imagine what will occur within the next teleconferencing, telemarketing, office parks, elec- decade. Long term predictions regarding the future tronic banking and robots are becoming common- are even more difficult to make as the possibilities place tools of business and industry. Many of these become unlimited. One item of new technology tools have enabled the exchange of information to presents additional items and thq influence of tech- occur at dramatically increased rates. nological advancement multiplies. Such progress is creating both positive and neg- As technological change continues to acceler- ative results. Members of our society are quickly ate, its application to agriculture, business, industry, learning that there are two dimensions to technologi- health, education and other fields becomes more di- cal progress. Many of the advances in the health sci- verse and more difficult to anticipate. Preparation for ences, communications and business efficiency employment in current settings is challenging, and have yielded positive results. Yet hackers and the the design of vocational education programs re- problems of crime, fraud, invasion of privacy and val- quires a great deal of creativity. ue conflicts continue to create dilemmas. As an aspect of becoming technologically liter- New Lifestyles ate, vocational teachers need to be aware of recent changes in technology and the influence of such New technology has resulted in new options for technology. This paper is designed to present an personal and professional lifestyles. Homes, work overview of some recent changes in technology, fol- places and schools are changing as a result of new lowed by a discussion of changes in personal and technology. Some indicate that the home is chang- professional lifestyles which follow technological ing from an electronic cottage to an electronic castle. change. Changes in personal and professional life- The electronic cottage concept developed with styles create challenges for vocational educators. telecommuting. Through telecommuting, selected These challenges will be overviewed followed by a wcrkers are able to work from their homes or other lo- discussion of the role of preservice and inservice cations through the computer. Most of these em- teacher education in assisting vocational teachers in ployees perform work at home, via computer at times reaching the goal of becoming technologically liter- of their own choosing. ate. Telecommuting has both advantages and disad- New Technology vantages. Some of the advantages include the lack Society was awakened to the momentum and of commuting and parking expenses plus theman- significance of change by Toff lees (1970) Future ageable overhead for companies. The convenience Shock. Our attention has been confronted by a of flexible working hours or "flex-time" is certainlyan state of "hyperturbulence" which Selsky and adantage for selected populations such as parents McCann (1984) define as "the condition that results of young children, older workers and the physically when available resources and institutions prove inad- handicapped. The major disadvantage of this work equate to deal with the speed and diversity of situation is the isolated work environment and the change." lam of social contacts. In less than forty years, human ingenuity has The computer has assisted the creation of the used technology to carry our society from vacuum electronic castle. This futuristic home will enablea central tubes to transistors to microchips to superchips to computerto control other household 163 e. 172 New Technology, New Lifestyles, and the Implications of Preservice and Inservice

computers including robots who will do household more money on education for employees and their chores and basic home maintenance. While driving families and customers than is spent by all higher ed- from the last appointment of the day to home, the ucation, public and private combined.Educators homeowner can program the appropriate tempera- have an opportunity to work with business and in- ture and humidity, the music desired, the evening dustry as some corporations have commissioned meal and a planned program of entertainment in the technical institutes to provide such training. home media center.Medical alert systems, tele- Although many jobs will be eliminated with the phone security systems, smoke and fire detectors new technology, others will emerge.With opportu- will be used and forcefield devices will detect nities for training, workers will find new occupations intruders. to replace those that become obsolete. Displaced Videotext and teletext are entering homes at in- workers will need opportunities to obtain new skills. creased rates. Videotext is a two-way information As more single parents enter the work force, the system that can be summoned with a computer key- need for appropriate child care services has become board. The two-way information flow may be made more and more important. Today, several corpora- by means of a pushbutton telephone, cable- tions are providing such centers for preschool chil- television system or a cable-television and tele- dren as one aspect of enlightened self-interest. phone combination. Teletext is a one-way informa- Managers have discovered that workers miss fewer tion service activated by pressing a button or keypad days of work when they have adequate child care. to extract information from the television signal with which it is intermixed.These technologies have Teleconferencing is another concept that has strong implications for homes of the future. They en- been introduced In the workplace.This enables able electronic shopping, banking and correspon- workers to attend meetings in a cost-effective man- dence from the homes. Such factors could become ner.It is not necessary for the worker to be away important to older populations. from the family in order to attend a conference. This method is an excellent manner of educating employ- Leisure may become home-based as video- ees and providing additional professional develop- games, cable televisions and "videocassette recor- ment. ders enter the family media center. These concepts also raise some interesting questions. For example, Computers have also influenced marketing ef- will the electronic home be available to all popula- forts.Telemarketing is now being used to build tions or only the affluent? Will this increase the gap memberships, raise funds, and obtain new informa- between the rich and pocr? Will programs be nces- tion in addition to making sales. sary to provide access to electronic services for Today's lifestyle is an enlightened one. As a re- those who have not elected to purchase or who can- sult of technology, individuals are aware of what is not afford to purchase such systems? occurring in a global context. News is transmitted at Those who elect to leave the home for work ac- increased rates of speed.In many instances, the tivities will find that the world of work is constantly public watches the news as it occurs. Cable televi- changing.Managerial, administrative and profession provides constant contact with news in the mak- sional roles will not remain constant. In fact, today's ing. worker is not likely to follow a single lifelong career. Challenges of New Technology and New Lifestyles Work will require retra: ling and continuing education or professional development.It is difficult if not im- New technology results in new lifestyles and possible for today's educational programs to com- these items create challenges for educators and par- pletely lrepare individuals who can operate success- ticularly vocational euucators. Some of these chal- fully in the age of technology. Business and industry lenges include: probably do not expect this to occur as they will pro- 1.Assisting students in developing appropriate vide training to help meet these needs. skills in the a'eas of reading, writing, listening, According to an article in Time magazine speaking, computing basic math and solving (February 11, 1985), annual corporate expenditures problems. for education and training have reached $40 billion. 2. Helping students realize the importance of This amount is two-thirds of the total annual college the computer and assisting in the develop- and university budgets in the United States. Accord- ment of computer literacy. ing to Knowles (1977), business and industry spend 164 Technological Literacy Symposium 173

3. Helping learners gain appropriate insight and Seisky, J. W., & McCann, J. E.Social triage: An ethical judgments needed in the age of tech- emergent response to hyperturbulence. World nology. future Society Bulletin, 21, 1-19. liam. (1985, 4. Assisting learners in the process of identifying February 11). bias, propaganda, and other techniques Toffier, A. (1970). future sh ock. New York: Ran- which short-circuit personal knowledge. dom House. 5. Accepting and promoting the concept of lifelong learning. 6. Learning to work cooperatively with business and industry in order to provide training and development for employees. 7. Assisting in the development of appropriate child care centers for employees. 8. Preparing individuals for the growing service industry where employment opportunities are increasing. 9. Conducting research regarding the impact of technobgy on workers, the work place, the home, the family, school, and the learner(s). Such challenges will not be resolved without the assistance of preservice and 'nsenfice rational teacher edvsation which will prepare vocal.al educators to meet their roles. Implications for Vocational Teacher Education Vocational teacher education is challenge. to provide teachers who are technologically literate and able to assist in solving the challenges that society will face with new technology and resulting lifestyles. In order to meet this challenge, vocational educators will need to work with business and industry in order to design effective programs. in addition to having adequate equipment and funds for training, personnel from business and industry will be futuristic thinkers who desire creativity and productivity from workers. Vocational education must move beyond advisory committees, the cooperative method of instruction and staff industry exchanges to produce more proerctive partnerships with business and industry. Vocational teacher education is challenged to prepare teachers who are able to work in this capacity. Such teachers should be effective ct,ange agents who are able to work with diverse cultures in global markets. References Knowles on outede resourc3s and adult education. gales and MaricetinTraininq.1(2), 18-20.

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Technology and Eduction: TheAppropriate ThreadsI Or a Complex Tapestry

Dr. John C. Thomas College of Education Eastern Kentucky University Richmond, Kentucky

Introduction competencies? Those of us in education knowthat The issue of technology being taught inour we cannot make this assumption--but why not? schools brings with it a variety of questions that need Should not students academically belowgrade-level our utmost attention as well as our resolve. The tre- be the exception?A history of poor academic mendous changes in industrial arts/technology edu- achievement develops long beforea student reach- cation have emerged during the same period of time es the secondary level and especially before select- that teacher education programs have been under- ing an occupa.anally specificprogram. The remedy going comprehensive internal and external scrutiny. must lie in requiring much greater attentionto basics This appears to be an appropriate time for rethinking while children are in elementary andjunior high the relationship of several of themany threads that school. Better and earlier academicinstruction for make up the broad picture (tapestry) of education in students would produce a larger payofffor instruc- general and practical arts and vocational education in tors of practical arts and vocational education.Stu- particular. The selected threads woven into this dent performance in the classroomwould improve, presentation will involve:(1) the mission of secon- communication and computational skillswould be dary education, (2) the scope of teacher preparation enhanced, and problem solving techniqueswould programs for technology teachers, (3) tho relation- have a sharper focus. All of these studentcharacter- ship between technology education and trade and istics are required by virtually all oftoday's employers industrial education, and (4) technological literacy. for entry level positions. This isnot to say that corn- muniction ard computational skills would Mission of Secondary Education be ignored by teachers in vocational education.Howev- More than thirty reports issued by task forces, er, many vocational education and technology edu- commissions, and individuals r...andate that urgentat- ",ation instructors are ill- equipped for the demanding tention be given to our schools. Most of thesere- task of remediation.If vocational instructors haveto ports emphasize the need to better prepare stu- spend considerable time on remediation,less time is dents for entering college. Yet, a college education available to deliver quality job-specifictraining in is not the choice of the majority. Seventy-fiveper- these ever-expanding and more complextechnical cent of high school youth never graduate from col- areas. lege. Even more drastic, recent data indicate that A report by the National Academy ofScience 3,000 students each day drop out of high school in (1984) on high schools and the changing the United States. Those who plan and conduct workplace stated that the largest segment of theAmerican work secondary education cannot ignore these data. force consists of high school graduateswho have The Committee for Economic Development not attended college, and that the nation's economic (1985) published a document focusingon the in- well-being depends to avery large degree upon vestment we place in our children. A push was made their performance. The report concludea thatevery for placing academics first on the priority list in educa- high school graduate shouldpossess: (1) the ability tion.it would be difficult to find an educator that to learn and to adapt to changes in the workplace,(2) would oppose this recommendation. However, this mastery of core competencies, and (3)a positive atti- does not imply that all educators have to teach the tude and sound work habits. The pattern offuture "basics." When a student reaches the secondary job opportunities is very complex. However,it is al- level, should not the teacher be able toassume that most a certainty that today's young people willface, the student has accomplishedgrade-level during their 45 to 50 years workingcareers,

1 6 6 176 Technology & Education: The Appropriate Threads for a Computer Tapestry

cumulative technological and organizational changes tne state level want a great deal of standardization of every bit as large as those that confronted their curriculum which will result In student achievement parents. data. Other groups desire flexibility and freedom. As an Important "new basic" in the educational The main problem is to what degree can academic effort, technology education must be perceived and freedom be exercised at a time when the profession implemented in the context of the modem school is being asked to document what students know and setting. Even studerts can see the importance of can do as a result of being in a particular program? dealing with technological Issues in their education. Teacher Preparation in Technology Education Irwin Hoffman 9987), a high school teacher from Clearly, the strength of our discipline depends Denver, asked hit high school students, "What on the development and maintenance of an efficient should the school in the future offer?" The students and effective technology education system at the lo- developed six areas that all high school students cal level. Maintaining a strong, quality-driven tech- would be involved with before graduation, which in- nology education system rests with the preparation clude: of competent and caring teachers. After students, 1. The Shrinking World teachers are the most important people in the 2. Environmental Issues schools. 3. Moral Issues 4. Technological Issues Teachers are the only producers of learning in 5.Recreation the education business. Researc1ers have identi- 6. The Future fied which teaching methods work well; school administrators have organized facilities and created the Students realize that they need to know how to proper climate for good teaching; state departments live in today's society with an understanding of to- of education have conducted program evaluations; day's technology. Perhaps we can liaam from them and legislators have tried to provide the financial sup- as we consider the mission of secondary education port for quality education. But in the last analysis, and the role technology education in this mission. what counts most is the teacher's performance in any For some educators the resistance to change is given classroom. strong, but we must continually remind ourselves that students must be prepared to enter a rapidly We can ask ourselves two questions: (1) what changing job market - -a market built on today's and kind of teachers do we need in technology educa- tomorrow's technology. tion, and (2) what kind of teacher education programs do we need in technology education? To ad- Within the field of technology education, there dress the first question, one can tum to Joseph ED- are numerous decigions to be made regarding the stein and his book, Masters:Portraits of Great specific mission of the field. For example, some be- Teachers. Epstein described teaching as a perform- lieve that distinctions should be made in the middle ing art and likened it to opera. He found that in school and high school setting among the following teaching, like singing, there is many a tried, but no missions: true, method or technique for getting the subject 1. Exploratory programs to assist in career across. However, Epstein found that all great teach- choice. ers have some common characteristics, which in- 2. Prcgrams geared toward specific entry-level clude: positions. 1. Love of their subject 3. Job search and emplo, ability skills. 2. An obvious satisfaction in arousing this love in 4. Employment counseling their students 5. Participation in joint venture with employers. 3. An ability to convince them that v,.fat they are We need to clarify the mission of technology edu- being taught is deadly serious. cation and the role of trade and industrial education (Lewis, 1981) in the total educational program. Understanding and These qualities describe in part the kind of teach- supporting a collective mission will fuel our individual ers we need in teitnolooy education. Many of us al- efforts on the local levels. ready know outstandinc technology teachers who Other decisions that we face include tt 9 specific possess these characteristics and have observed planning and implementation of programs in terms of the powerful, positive influence they have over their a standardized curriculum as opposed to the aca- students and the quality of their programs.Of demic freedom of the instructor. Certain groups at course,thebeginningtechnology education Technological Literacy Symposium 177

teacher should also have a fair understanding ofour our success in preparing future-oriented teachers. present technological society, a broad picture of the However, the true test of our successcan only be industrial and technological trends of our time and measured by the secondary student's ach'evement their implications for the educational program brought about by the efforts of the technology (Whitesel, 1956). teacher. At this time we do not have a standardized What kind of teacher education programs dowe examination for evaluating achievement at thesec- need in technology education? Do we need to de- ondary level. emphasize skill training and focus on technological Excellence in technology education teacher concepts? Do we place too much emphasis on tradi- preparation will require honest leaders with much vi- tional skill training, while neglecting more current tality, a commitment to developing evaluation instru- technologies? How do we divide the time and effort mentation centered around critical competenciesre- devoted to the general education, major, and profes- lated to technological literacy, the fine tuning ofour sional education components? Many ofus are teacher preparation programs basedupon outcome strongly aware of the differing opinions on these results, and the support of a strong professionalor- questions, but to strengthen our field we need to ganization. unify our ideas of how to produce the best possible Technology Education and Trade and teacher of technology education. This teacher will Industrial Education have to have a basis understanding of the broad range of today's technologiessomething every fu- s we took at occupational requirements for the ture teacher must be prepared to do. According to future, it is becoming more evident that specific rraft skills will give way to understanding systems DeVore, Maughan, and Griscon (1979), "The perpet- and that skills will need to be transferrable so they uation of manipulated skill training and teacher edu- can be ap- cation programs to the exclusion of the study of plied in a variety of situations. Vocational education technology, technological systerei, and other relat- will no longer be a narrow field of study. Ratherthan ed disciplines that contribute to the understanding an inadequate remedy of quick legislation for a of behavior of sociological, ideological, and ecologi- stalled economy, vocational education willprepare students for careers of challenges and changes--not cal systems and their interrelationship, producesan educator ir.capable of rising to the challenge" (p. just for a first job. We must carefully define whatwe 214). mean by the technical basics. We must also describe in detail the roles and relationships between technol- Research has been conducted to investigate ar- ogy education and that of trade and industrial educa- eas of professional education preparation that are tion. There are many differences between the two necessary for technology education teachers. Fos- programs: teachers with degrees versus teachers ter, Kozak, and Price (1985) found that a curriculum with work experience; teachers thatare familiar with a for preparing technology education teachers should wide range of technologies versus teachers whoare include elements related to: highly specialized within a single occupationalarea, 1.Discipline in the classroom teachers dealing with exploration versus teachers 2.Planning, organizing and conducting instruc- preparing students for employment -the compel- tion sons can go on and on. Admist the many difference, 3.Financial responsibilities however, there is one thing they have in common 4. Awareness of curriculum changes in the field the lack of trust they feel for each other. The trade 5. Middle school and high school experiences and industrial education instructor does not totally 6. Student organizations. trust the technology instructor to teach the technical basics that relate to occupational preparation. The This list is by no means exhaustive, but it gives us technology teacher does not totally trist the traria a common core from which to build our teacher ecu- and industrial education teacher to prepare students cation program. for careers of changes and challenges. The truth is The only standardized external avaluation we that each knows very little about the other.In this have of our teacher education programs is the Na- age of keen competition for students, the technolo- tion?! Teacher Exam (NTE). The technical portion of gy teacher and the trade and industry teacher must the teacher preparation curriculum can be evaluated educate themselves about the other and join forces through the results of the NTE specialty examina- t- build strength into our programs. tion. The broad spectrum of technologies covered A quality middle grades exploration program can on the specialty exam will give us some indication of

16 8 178 Technology & Education: The Appropriate Threads for a Computer Tapestry

benefit it boh technology education and trade and someone has to have a glimpse of the finished work. industrial education by alerting young people to the Leaders with vie m--step forward. vast number of technical careers requiring high References school or college credentials.In many states the largest technology education enrollment is at the Clark, D. (1985). field experience in teacheueduea- middle school level. We must use this resource lionA model for industrial arts/technoloay edu- wisely. gaga. Series No. 52. Columbus: The National Center for Research in Vocational Education, Technological Literacy The Ohio State University. The most difficult, yet one of the most important Committee for Economic Development. (1985). threads to weave into this tapestry of education is vesting in our children. New York. that of technological literacy. Without this thread, the impact of practical arts and vocational education will DeVore, P. W., Maughan, G. R., & Griscon, W. E. be less than what it could and should be. However, (1979).Influence of technology on industrial at this point the process of defining technological lit- arts matter. In G. E. Martin (Ed.), industrial arts eracy and the selecting of components from our dis- education: Retrospect, prospect. Bloomington, cipline which relate to technological literacy is precari- IL ous in nature. Funded research of a continuing na- Dyrenfurth, M. (1984). Literacy for a technological tureis needed to identify and analyze those world. Columbus: The National Center for Re- components. search in Vocational Education, The Ohio State The possession of a bread knowledge of techni- University. cal basics, together with the necessary attitudes and Foster, P., Kozak, M., & Price, G. (1985). Assess- physical abilitir - to implement this knowledge in a mantaLlnclasirial arts field experiences. Project safe, appropriate, efficient and effective manner is No. 84-178.Austin: RCU, Texas Education part of technological literacy. Being technologically Agency. literate also requires that one be able to perform tasks using tools, machines, materials, and process- Hoffman, I. (1987, February). A high school in the fu- es resulting from technology (Dyrenfurth, 1985). A bm. Paper presented at meeting of Science, recent study (Foster, 1986) concluded that a tech- Technology, Society on Technological Literacy, nologically literate person would: (11 be ability to use Washington, D. C. the design process in the solution of technical prob- Lewis, A. (1981). Good teachers: What to look for. lems, (2) be knowledgeable of computer applica- Arlington, VA: The National School Public Rela- tions, (3) use acquired knowledge to fi.rther their ed- tions Association. ucational career, and (4) understanding systems, National Academy of Science. (1984). ligh schools processes, machines and materials. and the changing workplace. Wash,ngton, D.C. In a democracy where it is claimed that all people Richter, J. (1980). The construction and partial vAll: should have a right to determine their future, a citizenry that is knowledgeable of technology is impor- dalionstazaalalaiMISUffti gy of communication_technoloov. Unpublished tant. Therefore. as a part of general education all citi- doctoral dissertation, West Virginia University, zens should study fundamental technological sys- Morgantown. tems as routinely as they acquire other skills for literacy (Richter, 1980). Smalley, L. (1986, October). Technology literacy. Paper presented at Technology Education Sym- Sumitvgy posium, Roanoke, VA. The mission of secondary education in the Unit- ed States is under close scrutiny. Teacher education programs have proposed vast changes for the future. The role of technology education and trade and industrial education is being reviewed at the local, state, and national levels. Technological Mere / holds much promise. The Job of weaving the tapestry is before us. But before the appropriate threads can be chosen, 16 Technological Literacy Symposium 179

Computer Literacy: An Essential Elementof Technology Literacy

Kenneth Welty Associate Director Illinois Plan for Industrial Education Illinois State University Normal, Illinois

Introduction Without a basic understanding of the techno- Microelectronics have revolutionized the world logical systems at work in our soniety,one has es- of work in industry, agriculture, health, homeeco- sentially surrendered control to those whodo. In or- nomics, and business. The microprocessor has not der to participate fully in our technologicalsociety, only changed the world of work to include robotics, one must be more than computer literate. However, optical scanners, and word processors, it has the attention already given to computer literacycan changed our everyday lives with devices likepro- help schools meet the technologicalliteracy of their grammable appliances, personal computers, andau- students. tomatic teller machines (ATM). Computers have be- The microcomputer is an indispensible teaching come an everyday fact of life. tool when preparing students for life andwork in our The advent of the inexpensive microcomputer technological society. It can facilitate learningexperi- has revolutionized information technology in much ence that would otherwise be impossible ina tradi- the same way as Gutenburg's printing press. The tional facility. With simulation software,a microcom- widespread availability of the printed word createda puter can be transformed into a nuclearpower plant, need for people to be literate. Recent innovations in a flight simulator, an automated factory, oran elec- computer technology have necessitated a r-3w kind tronic bulletin board. With CAI software, students of literacy. This paper will address the relationship can explore topics ranging from careers to robotics, between computer literacy and technological litera- from animal husbandry to AC and DC circuits.With cy, identify definitions for computer literacy, and applications software, studentscan experience real identify the computer literacy needs of preservice world computer application in areas like agribusiness, and insetvice practical arts and vocational educators. biofeedback, cardiovascular fitness, wordprocess- ing, dietary analysis, electronic publishing,comput- Computer Versus Technological Literacy er-aided design/drafting, and computer-aided To help prepare students for a life in a society in- manufacturing. undated with computers, most of our schools have In order to address the technological literacy established microcomputer laboratories and have im- needs of students, it is safe to say, practical arts and plemented computer literacy courses. Unfortunate- vocational educators need to be computer literate. ly, computer literacy falls short of a greater and more Unfortunately, while a whole generation is growing urgent need, technological literacy. While computer up with computers as part of their lives, some practi- literacy is essential to technological literacy, it does cal arts and vocational educators report they have not constitute technological literacy.It is merely a never used a microcomputer (Welty, 1987). Both significant part of a greater whole. In the sameway preservice and inservice teachers need 4o become electronic switching systems have become anes- computer literate, learn how to integrate computer sential part of telecommunications, computer literacy technology into the curriculum, and be able to utilize is an essential part of technological literacy. Being tele microcomputer as a teaching tool. computer literate can help one understand how a telephone number is processed. However, it con- Defining Computer Literacy tributes little to understanding the network of trans- A review of educational computing literature will ducers, transmitters, receivers, and links that make uncover a variety of definitions for computer literacy. up a telecommunication system. Given the evolutionary rature of computer technology and the growing number of applications for

I 70 180 Computer Literacy: An Essential Element of Technology Literacy

computer technology, it seems unlikely that a single ability to solve problems and communicate agreed upon definition for computer literacy is forth- effectively with others. (p. 17) coming. To identify what constitutes computer litera- Kay (1984) emphasizes the affective aspects of cy, one must synthesize several definitions. computer literacy in the following definition: In a study sponsored by the National Center for Computer literacy is a contact with the activi- Educational Statistics, Lockheed, Hunter, and An- ty of computing deep enough to make the derson (1984) provided the following definition for computational equivalent of reading and computer literacy. writing fluent and enjoyable. (p. 59) Computer literacy may be defined as what- Computer Literacy In Teacher Education ever a person needs to know and do with computers in order to function competently With an idea of what constitutes computer litera- in our informEtion -based society. cy, the next step is to Identify a set of competencies that characterize a computer literate educator. The Computer literacy includes three kinds of author would like to propose the following list of com- competence: skills, knowledge, and under- puter competencies for teachers addressing techno- standing. It inckides: logical literacy. 1.the ability to use and instruct computers As a result of their preservice and/or inservice to aid in learning, solvingproblems, and education, vocational and practical arts educators managing information; should be able to: 2. knowledge of functions, applications, explain how a computer works and use com- capabilities, limitations, andsocial implica- mon computer terminology. tions of computers and related technology; and use software for self-instruction, information collection and retrieval, modeling, simulations, 3. understanding needed to learn and problem-solving, and word processing. Q evaluate new application^ and social issues as they arise. (p. 8) analyze and describe a simple problem using pseudo code, flow charts, or a high level com- Watt (1980) defined computer literacy as that puter language. collection of skih, knowledge, understandings, values, and relationships that allows a person to func- relate a variety of computer applications in the tion comfortably as a productive citizen in a comput- world of work and in everyday life. er-oriented society. He suggests that a computer lit- describe the social and economic issues :late person should be able to: (a) program and con- caused by computer technology. trol a computer for personal, academic, and professional goals; (b) use a variety of computer- evaluate, select, and adapt commercial soft- applications software within a personal, academic, ware for technology education. and professional context; (c) understand the increas- develop and integrate computer-based learning social, economic and psychological impacts that ing activitiesintotechnology education computers are having on groups and individuals; and programs. (d) make use of ideas from computer programming The importance of programming needs to be and computer applications as a part of an individuars kept in perspective.Only a small percentage of strategy for retrieving information, communicating, those who use computers need to know how to pro- and problem solving. gram computers. However, learning how computer For purposes of discussion, Hunter and Aiken programs are structured and encoded is basic to un- (1984) adopted the following definition in a report dertstanding how computers process information. In prepared for the U.S. Department of Education, terms of technological literacy, some programming Computer Literacy in Vocational Education: Per- experience can help the compute. user think logical- spectives and Directions. ly, develop problem-solving skills, appreciate soft- Computer literacy may be defined as the ware, and discover the real power of computing lies ability to use computers and associated in- with people. formation technologies in ways which en- Some research suggests the greatest challenge hanceone's productivity, creativity, and forteacher educatorsis inservice. Vocational 171 Technological Literacy Symposium 181

educators seem to know very little about microcomputers and their potential as a teaching tool (Yuen, 1984; Foe II, 1984). In addition, experienced voca- Hunter, B., & Aiken, R. (1987). The evolution of tional educators tend to be less receptive to educa- computer courses in vocational education: Per- tional computing than inexperienced and preservice spectives and directions. T.H.E. Journal,14(7), teachers (Yuen, 1984; Foell, 1984). Inservice activi- 54-57. ties should emphasize "hands-on" learning activities Hunter, B., & Aiken, R. (1984). Computer literacy in using "user-friendly" software and de-emphasize the vocational education: Perspectives and direc- technical aspects of computers and programming Wm. State-of-the-art Paper.Knoxville: Ten- (Foel!, 1984; Welty, 1987). nessee University, Office of Research in High In terms of preservice, Hunter and Aiken (1987) Technology Education. (ERIC Document Re- recommend integrating computer-based tools and production Service No. ED 254 620) methods into the curriculum in contrast to address- Kay, A. (1984, September). Computer software. ing computer technology as an isolated subject. In SgiolificAmmican. 53-59. addition, preservice teachers need to learn how to Lockheed, M., Hunter, B., & Anderson, R. (1984). use the computers and software packages common- rgomputerikeracylDellnitandsumt items ly found in schools. for assessment in school. Washington, DC: Na- Given the financial constraints in education, it is tional Center for Educational Statistics. often impossible to replicate the computer technolo- Tesolowski, D. G., & Roth, G. L. (1985, December). gy found In business and industry. Therefore, both Identification. verification. and importance of preservice and inservice teachers need to learn how competencies for applying the microcomputer in to simulate real world technology using education vocational education. Paper presented at the le.fel software and hardware. In addition, they need American Vocational Association Convention, to learn how to identify and present the concepts be- Atlanta, GA. (ERIC Document Reproduction ing simulated and transfer them to real world applica- Service No. ED 264 392) tions. For example, industrial educators need to be able to teach the concept of electronic publishing by Watt, D. H. (1980). Computer literacy: What should having students make a poster or newsletter on a schools be doing about it? Classroom Comput- microcomputer. er News, 1(2), 26-27. Summary Welty, K. D. (1987, March). Facilitatina chancre through hands-on worlkshops.Paper present- Computer tertmology represents one of the ed during the International Technology Educa- most powerful and versatile information processing tion Association Convention, Tulsa, OK. tools developed by humankind.Vocational and practical arts educators can not ignore a technology Yuen, C. (1984). An analysis of vocational teacher's as pervasive in our culture as computer technology. understandina of and attitudes toward using mi- If they are going to address the technological literacy crocomputers in vocational education. Universi- needs of their students, they need to contribute to ty Park: Pennsylvania State University, Depart- and build on the computer literacy movement in their ment of Vocational Education. (ERIC Document school. To achieve this goal, preservice and inser- Reproduction Service No. ED 241 744) vice teacher education programs need to produce computer literate educators. References Barger, R. N. (1983). Computer literacy: Toward a clearer definition. T.H.E. Journal,11(2), 108- 112. Foell, N. A. (1984). Microcomputers and vocational industrial education: The industrial cooperative education teacher's perceptions. Journal of In- &stria, Teacher Education, 22(1), 6-13.

172 Technolog:r,alLiteracy Symposium 183

Computer Anxiety Levels Related to Computer Use and Teacher Inservice Educational Needs

Barbara J. Malpiedi Agricultural Education North Carolina State University Raleigh, North Carolina

Introduction (1985); and Foster and Miller (1985) indicated that Managing the increased use of microcomputers barriers to computer use included expensive soft- at all educational levels continues to be one of the ware, access to computers, lack of computer teach- greatest challenges facing educators of the 1980s. ing materials, and lack of computer knowledge. Wig- U.S. News and World Report (Malpiedi, Papritan, & gins and Trede (1985) studied the influence of stu- Lichtensteiger, 1985) estimated that educators and dent characteristics on achievement in a computer students in 86% of all U.S. schools now have access programming class. They concluded that mathemat- to microcomputers. Seventy-five percent of the stu- ic ability was one of the prime indicators of computer dents and teaches studied by Marshall and Bannon achievement. While microcomputer ownership, for- (1985) agreed that people will not be able to escape mal computer instruction, and programmable calcula- the influence of computers on their lives. tor experience did not significantly influence student achievement, prior computer experiences tended to Simply having microcomputers in the schools influence student attitudes toward computers which serves few purposes unless students and teachers in turn influenced student achievement. While nu- are prepared to use them. Authors (Willis, Johnson, merous barriers have been identified, all have the & Dixon, 1983; Zahniser, Long, & Nasman, 1983; pitential for impeding the use of microcomputers Becker, 1984) agree that the uses for computers in and also serve as blocks toward developing a posi- education include the following: computer assisted tive attitude toward computer. instruction (CAI), computer managed instruction (CM!), computer literacy, and occupational applica- Teachers and students generally have a positive tions - word processing, data base management, and attitude toward using computers (Jay, 1981; Marshall word processing. Vocational educators tend to sup- & Bannon, 1985). However, Norris and Lumsden port the importance of students and teachers learn- (1984) quickly pointed out that educators seem to ing to use occupational application so, .rare and cur- be positive about computers as long as the function riculum related software used as computer assisted of computers was removed from their classrooms. instruction software. New York vocational educators Komoski (1984) and Montag, Simonson, and Maurer indicated that occupational application software was (1984) contended that computer anxiety was a viable used most frequently and while teachers agreed that barrier to the use of computers by students, teach- the ability to use CAI was important, in practice, CAI ers, and administrators. Individuals who experience was seldom to never used (Sutphin, 1984). Malpie- cyberphobia, the fear of interaction with computers, di, Papritan, and Lichtensteiger (1985) discovered rarely enrolled in computer courses (Cowlishaw, that Ohio teachers used commercial farm manange- 1986). However, enrollment in university computer ment programs most frequently for instruction and classes was significantly increased after Cowlishaw Henderson (1985) concurred that Illinois teachers conducted short courses for those who exhibited were using agriculture related software programs high levels of computer anxiety. W.ggins and Trede more than other applications. (1985) concluded that students who were self- motivated to enroll in their computer class had a more Beyond the status of microcomputer use and positive attitude and performed better than those desired competencies, few studies have investigat- who were not self-motivated. ed the barriers to using compu is in terms of the users attitude toward computers. Kanderson Need for the Study (4985); Malpiedi,Papritan, and Lichtensteiger The National FFA computer study revealed that

173 184 Computer Anxiety Levels

only 5% of the vocational agriculture departments in (Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1985). This was a survey North Carolina were using microcomputers in 1984. study with the major purpose of describing selected Over the past three years, the number of microcom- characteristics and exploring possible relationships puters in the schools has increased. The North Car- by employing correlational techniques (Isaac & Mi- olina State Department of Public Instruction has chael, 19e3). identified required computer competencies for all The Sample educators and competencies for educators related to their content areas. However, during the same A population of 372 teachers was identified from three year period, only one on-campus university the 1985 - 1986 North Carolina Directory of Voca- computer course and three state-sponsored work- tional Agriculture Teachers.Revisions including shops have been offered for vocational agriculture teacher retirements and position changes as noted teachers. No formal plan for computer education has by the State Department of Public Instruction were been developed. There is a lack of evidence as to used in determining the accurate number of current which teachers are using microcomputers, how they teachers as of August 1,1986. Sample size was cal- are using them, and what barriers-particularty attitudi- culated from the Krejcie and Morgan (1970) formula nal barriers-still impede the adoption of microcompt- so that the sample proportion p would be within ± ers by the teachers. Before systematic microcom- .05 of the population proportion P with a 95% level puter instruction can be conducted in the state, this of confidence. A sample size of 189 teachers was study is needed to address these concerns. required for the study. Each member of the population was assigned a three digit number. Using a table Purpose and Objectives of random numbers and a random start, the 189 par- The purpose c4 this study wa"o determine the ticipants for the study were drawn. degree of microcomputer use and the computer atti- Instrumentation tudes of North Carolina vocational agriculture teachers in order to more effectively deliver computer edu- The survey used in this study consisted of two cation. A secondary purpose of the study was to ex- parts. The first part elicited demographic, academic, plore possible relationships between teacher charac- and computer training information from the respon- teristics and computer anxiety levels, a measure of dents. The North Carolina State Ur.iwarsity Agricultu- computer attitude. ral Education faculty reviewed Part I to establish the content validity of the instrument. Revkions to im- Research questions answered by the study prove readability were made. A five point Likert-type were as follows: scale was adopted from instrumentation validated by 1. How much computer educational training and Herring to measure degree of computer use. Points experience did the teachers possess and of the scale were defined as: 1 .,i very rarely, 0 > 1 what were the relationships of prior education hrs/day; 2 .. rarely, 1-2 hrs/day; 3 - some, 3-4 hrs/ with computer use? day; 4 - often, 5 - 6 hrs/day; 5 - very often, 7 + hrc/ 2. To what degree were teachers using microcom- day. puters, particularly as a tool for teaching, for The second part of the survey was the Comput- class preparations, and for other school and- er Opinion Survey (Maurer & Simonson, 1984) used personal related work? to measure computer anxiety levels by obtaining a 3. What computer anxiety levels were exhibited computer anxiety index (CAIN) score. The instru- by the teachers and how did the mean level ment consisted of 26 computer attitude statements, compare to national norm? such as *Computers are too complicated to be of much use to me', to which respondents indicated 4. What charateristics were associated with com- their agreement, 1 .. strongly agree to 6 - strongly puter anxiety levels ? disagree. A raw score from 26 to 156 was divided by 5. What were the computer educational needs of 26 to obtair the CAIN score. The lower the score, the teachers ? the lower computer anxiety and more positive the attitude. Reliabilty estimates were as follows: the test/ Methods and Procedures retest coefficient of stability was .90 and the Cron- The study was of the descriptive research type. bach's coefficient alpha measuring internal consis- Descriptive research studies are designed to obtain tency was .96. information concerning current status of phenomena

1 7 4 Technological Literacy Symposium 185

Administradon Lknitations of the Study The surveys were administered by the re- Conclusions of the study were limited to those searchers in August at the1986 North Carolina Voca- who were identified as vocational agriculture teach- tional Education Workshop. Surveys were mailed to ers in North Carolina for the 1986 -1987 school year those teachers included in the sample who did not as of August 1, 1986. The study represented a complete a survey at the workshop. Two follow-up *slice of time" and what was true for that time period. mailings of the surveys were done at two week inter- The researchers can not control local school system vals. Miller and Smith (1983) discussed several tech- activities which might include the sudden infusion of niques for handling non-response error, one of microcomputers and microcomputer instruction local- which was comparing early and late respondents. ly.Therefore, the results of the study must bere- Since research has shown that late respondents are garded as short term. Survey research is also de- similar to non-respondents, one way to estimate the pendent on the honest reporting of the participants nature of replies of non-respondents is through late and data were interpreted with that assumption in respondents. Third round respondents were treat- mind. ed as late respondents. No statistical differences Findings were found on selected variables between conference participants (early respondents) and late re- Demographic, Academic, and Professional spondents. The technique was also chosen in order Characteristics of the Sample to dispel! any suspicion that there were differences Ninety-five percent of the respondents were between those who did and did not attend confer- male. The age groups of the respondents included: ence. Finding no differences, the researchers were 21-30 years (26.54%); 31-40 (33.33%); 41-50 justified in generalizing from the respondents to the (19.14%); 51-60 (19.14%); and over 60 years sample. One hundred sixty-three teachers returned (1.85%). All respondents held college degrees with completed surveys for an 86% return rate. 97 bachelor, 63 masters, 2 associate, and I six year Data Analyses degrees. College math grades earned by the re- The StatView microcomputer program spondents (A4 points) were reported by the respondents to be mostly Bs (47.85%), followed by Cs (Feldman & Gangnon, 1985) was used for the data (39.88%) and 12.27% were As. analysis. Measures of central tendency, distribution, frequencies and/or percentages were reported to Most of the teachers were production agriculture describe demographic, academic, computer educa- teachers (41.72%). Others primarily taught horticul- tional training, amount of computer use, and profes- ture (29.45%) followed by agriculture mechanics sional characteristics. Data were examined and met (14.11%), introduction to ag/natural resources the necessary assuptions thus permitting the re- (8.60%), forestry (2.45%), natural resources searcher to use relational statistics. Correlation coef- (2.45%), prevocational (.61%), and other (.61%). ficients appropriate to the data level were used to ex- Computer Experience and Education plore the relationships between the respondents' characteristics as well as degree of computer use Only 89 (54.6%) teachers have ever used mi- and the respondents' CAIN scores.In order to ex- crocomputers. Of those who used computers, Apple plore relationships between nominal data and CAIN computer was the predominant brand used scores, the scores were grouped as high (greater (35.58%) followed by Radio Shack (14.72%). Elev- than one standard deviation above the mean), mod- en percent of the teachers actually owned a micro- erate, and low (greater than one standard deviation computer. below the mean) anxiety scores. The alpha level was A lack of formal computer course training was set at .05 a prior. Davis Conventions (1971) were evident as 122 or 74.85% of the teachers had never used for the interpretation of the strength of the rela- taken a college credit computer course. Thirty teach- tionships. The conventions used were as follows: ers or 18.40% completed one semester course, Coefficient Description eight (4.91%) completed two semester courses, and .70 or higher Very strong association three (1.84%) completed 3 semester courses. On .5010 .69 Substantial association the other hand, 109 (66.87%) indicated that they .30 In .49 Moderate association had Participated in computer workshps or inservice .1010 .29 Low association activities, while fifty-four (33.13%) teachers had not. .01 to .09 Negligible association The mean number of hours spent workshops/

1 75 186 Computer Anxiety Levels

inservice was 9.62 hours with a standard deviation of 12.56, a range equal to 70, and a median of 4. The Table 2 positvely skewed distribution indicated that while the teachers had computer training, the amount of train- Rank Ordered Means of Perceived Use for the ing for the most part was very limited. Microcomputer in Education Rank Computer Use Mean Was there d relationship between computer edu- 1 Managing student infor cation and hours of computer use by the teachers ? 'ation (grades, SOE As shown in Table 1, there was a significant moder- reaxds,etc.) 2.26 ate association between the number of computer 2 Teaching students (tutorials, courses taken and the number of daily hours the simulations, ed games,etc.) 2.50 leachers use computers. A significant low associa- Nonstudent school related tion was found to exist between the number of work- 3 shop/inservice hours completed and the number of work (letters, reports, mail 1st et.) 2.81 daily hours the teachers used computers. 4 Networks (Agri-Data, Table 1 CompuServe, et) 3.85 Relationships Between Types of Computer 5 Personal management Education and Computer Use (budget, tows, etc) 4.00 Typed Hours alDelly 6 Entertainment (non ed game) 5.51 Computer Education Computer Use University computer courses .323' Note. Respondents ranked the use from Hours of workshop/ inservice 1 = most important to 6 = least important. computer training 291' n = 163 Note. Relationships determined by Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient, Pearson r. *p < .01 Computer Attitude and Anxiety Levels Teachers tended to be more positive toward using computers than negative. Out of a possible Educational Computer Uses 156 points, scores ranged from 26 to 132, with a On the average, teachers used microcomput- mean of 64.45, standard deviation of 21.39, median ers .55 hours per day with a standard deviation of equal to 61.5 and a mode of 39. The converted 1.31.In terms of specific uses, of those who used mean CAIN score for the teachers, obtained by divid- computers, 36.20% used them as a teaching tool ing the raw score by 26, was 2.48 with a standard de- (CAI); 32.51% for school related and other personal viation of .82, Md - 2.36, and Mo =1.5. No statisti- work, applications i.e. correspondence, inventory, cally significant or practical difference was found be- budgets, etc.; and 28.22% for preparation of course tween the North Carolina teachers' mean score, materials, student grades (CMI). 2.48, and the national norm group mean 'or teach- Teachers perceived that managing student in- ers, 2.44 (t = .597, df=159, p < .375). formation was the most important use for microcom- Relationships Between Selected Characteristics and puters (Table 2). That use was followed by teaching, Canputer Anxiety nonstudeM school related work, networks, personal Statistically significant (p <.01) moderate nega- management, and entertainment. When the rank- tive associations were found for the relationships beings of those teachers who used computers was tween computer anxiety and the following character- compared to the rankings of 'hot:a who did not use istics: daily hours of use, r = -.361; degree of com- computers, the orderings of the twee were identical. puter use as a teaching tool, r . -.381; degree of computer use for course preparation, r . -.367; degree of computer use for other school and personal use, r = -.387. As the degree of computer use increased, anxiety levels decreased. Low significant

176 Technological Literacy Symposium 187

negative relationships were found between the number of computer college courses taken and anxiety scores (r. -.192, p< .05) and between the num- Table 3 ber of workshop/inservice hours and anxiety scores Mitt! Computer Anxiety Levels and the (r. -.243, p< .01). It follows that as computer educa- Teachers' Desire for Courses and Workshops tion increased, computer anxiety scores decreased. Iselin &Milani Desire Coke Age and ones computer anxiety score are not 121alrist(n) fire 22. petit it_ Cergirskeffe illarialll 211 independent (X2 . 15.277, C.V.-12.59, df.6, p< .05). A statistically significant (p <.01) positive low 1 14 2.501.002.613.69 750.0 750.0 association existed between age and computer anx- 2 iety (Cramer's V ..219). College math ability was in- 26 2.52 .542.40- 519.2 2284.6 dependent of the anxiety score (X2. 7.132, C.V.- 3 30 2.46 .722.432.73 1653.3 1653.3 9.49, df-4, p< .05). A low association between 4 26 2.26 .682.19- 16 55.2 1965.5 math ability and computer anxiety scores ( Cramer's V e" 15 2.32 .842.111.50 637.5 1381.3 . .149) was not significant. The area of teaching - 6 15 production agriculture, horticulture, agricultural me- 2.39.852.041.73 640.0. 11 73.3 chanics, and others combined- was also indepen- 7 23 2.77 .982.902.00 840.0 11 55.0 dent of the anxiety score (X2 . 5.178, C.V.-12.59, 8 13 2.741.202.331.50 653.8 758.3 df . 6, p< .05). A low association, Cramer's V. .127, was found but not significant. Note. Total number of respondents, n=161. Per- Computer Educational Needs centages do not total 100%; they represent percent- Computer attitudes and educational needs of ages of teachers in each district responding yes to teachers by districts are displayed in Table 3. Only courses and to workshops. 42.94% of all responding teachers indicated interest Conclusions in participating in credit computer courses while 65.64% were interested in computer workshops. Based on the findings of the study, the follow- State staff members were interested in knowing the ing conclusions relevant to North Carolina vocational frequency and percentage of teachers per vocation- agriculture teachers were warranted: al education district who desired computer courses 1. Computer education for North Carolinavoca- and/or computer workshops. The mean computer tional agriculture teachers has not occurred to anxiety level held by teachers in that district provides a great extent.With additional education, an indication as to the computer attitudes held by teachers should increase their microcomput- teachers in those areas of the state. There was no er usage. relationshipAween the teachers' anxiety score and their desire for computer courses, Cramer's V= - 2. Although there is limited computer use by the .173. A low negative relationship that was statistically teachers, they identified important uses of significant did exist between the teachers' anxiety the microcomputer as a management and scores and their desire for workshops (Cramer's V = - teaching tool, consistent with the literature. .212, p< .01). 3.Teachers' attitudes toward computers are The teacher computer attitudes in North Caroli- generally positive and do not differ from the na tend to be more positive in the central part of the national norm. With increased computeruse, state - districts 3,4,5, and 6, than in the western area the anxiety levels felt by computerusers - districts 7 and 8 or the eastern and southern coastal should diminish. areas - district 1 and 2. Teachers in district 1 tend to 4. As higher anxiety levels are associated with be negative toward using computers although 50% increased age, computer workshop /course are receptive to courses and 57% to workshops. instructors need to be sensitive to providing Teachers in district 7 and 8 had higher mean anxiety successful experiences for all, especially old- levels than other teachers but both had more low er students. On the other hand, math ability scores than high. At least 50% er more of the teach- and teaching area were not associated with ers in districts 3,4, and 8 desired computer courses. computer anxiety levels and should not be The desires for workshops were strongest for dis- viewed as indicators of computer anxiety. tricts 2,4,5, and 6. 5. Teachers are most likely to participate in

177 188 Computer Anxiety Levels

computer workshops and seam*, courses Hendersou, J. (1985). Microcomputer use in Illinois even though higher computer anxiety levels vocational agriculture programs. The Journal of are associated with the desire for computer Ihe American Association_oLTeacher Educators workshops. jd Agriculture, 2.6(3) 2-11. Recommendation Herring, D. (in progress).Survey of computer/ 1. A systematic computer education plan should gomputing resource utilization by vocational ad- be developed and implemented immediately ministrators, Unpublished doctoral dissertation. since computer use is associated with com- North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC. puter education. Short workshops or other Isaac, S., & Michael, W. B. (1983). Handbook in re- positive experiences with the computer search and evaluation. San Diego, CA: EdITS. should be developed for those teacher who Jay, T. B.(1981). Computerphobia: What to do have scored high on the anxiety index. about it. Educational Technology, 21,47-48. 2. Computer courses and workshops should Komoski, P. K. (1984). Educational computing: The continue to emphasize using the computer burden of insuring quality. at Delta Kaopan, as an instructional and as a management tool fd(4), 244248. in the classroom. Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. M. (1970). Determining 3. The Computer Opinion Survey should be ad- sample size for research activities. Educational ministered before instruction as it provides a and Psychological Measurement,an,607-610. useful indication as to which students need the most help in diminishing negative com- Malpiedi, B. J., Papritan, J. C., & Liehtensteiger, M. puter attitude barriers. (1985). Status of microcomputer hardware, software, and instructional needs for vocational agri- 4. Further research should be conducted to in- culture in Ohio. Paper presented at the Cen- vestigate those characteristics which are the tral States Research Meeting in Agricultural Edu- best predictors of computer anxiety. cation, Chicago, IL. 5. Further research needs to be conducted to Marshal, J. C., & Bannon, S. H. (1985). Computer determine how various instructional tech- knowledge and attitudes in ruralsettings. Be niques affect computer attitude and learning. search in Rural Education, 2(4), 155-158. References Maurer, M. M., & Simonson, M. R. (1984). Computer Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Razavieh, A. (1985). Intro- opinion survey (Version AZT. Ames: Iowa State ducto to research in education (3rd ed.). New University. York: CBS College Publishing. Miller, L., & Smith, K. L.(1983). Handling nonre- Becker, H. J. (1984). Computers in schools today: sponse issues. Journal of Extension, 21,45. Some basic considerations. Amnon Journal of Montag, M., Simonson, M. R., & Maurer, M. M. Education, 22(1), 22-39. (1984). Test administrators manual for, the stan- Cowlisha ,C. (1986). Computing for the terrified. dardized test of computer literacy and computer perspectives in Computing, ft(2) 16-19. anxklyhdox. Ames: Iowa State University. Davis, J. A. (1971). Elonionianimilexonalysk. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. National Future Famiers of America (1984). Prelimi- nary report of microcomputers in vocational agri- Feldman, D., & Gagnon, J. (1985). Stet View: The vIture education. Washington, DC:United GriakidatislicaalillixthLibitiaCiAlith. Cala- States Department ofEducation. basas, CA: Brain Power. Norris, C. M., & Lumsden, B. (1984)., 'motional dis- Foster, R. M., & Miller, W. W. (1985). Microcomput- ers in Nebraska and Iowa vocational agriculture tance and the attitudes of educators toward computers. T.H.E. Technological Horizons in programs: Competency assessment and usage. Educational Journal, 11, 120-132. Paper presented at the Central States Research Meeting in Agricultural Education, Chicago, IL.

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North Carolina Department of Public Instruction. (1985). 1985-1988 North Cp.rollna Vocational Agricutruce Directory. Raleigh, NC: Division of Vocational Education, Agriculture; Education- Section. Sutphin, D. (1984). agglicallooistriamanguirare and need for computer competency develog: rcrogulgelloxyglIsidalgdoullAgal secondary and extension ts. Paper presented at the Na- tional Agricultural Education Research Meeting, New Orleans, LA.

Wiggins, T., & Trede, L. D. (15 .An evaluation of student characteristics, sto I attitudes, and teachinu -ethods on st.sm achievement in an agriculturalcomputer programming course. The Journal of the American Asseation of Teacher Educators in Agriculture, 2fi(4), 34- 42. Willis, W. W., Johr.,ton, D. L., & Dixon, R N. (1983). Camaideraileaching,AndleaminaL A gukiela using computers in schools. Beaverton, OR: Di- lithium Press. Zahnizer, G., Long, J. P., & Nasman, L. 0. (1983). julicro computers in vocationaleauggion, clut: rent and future uses. Columbus:The Ohio State University, TheNational Center for Re- search in Vocational Education.

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Energy Literacy: The Changing ofCocksure Ignorance to Thoughtful Uncertainty

Dr. Thomas A. Singletary Industrial Technology Department Georgia Southern College Statesboro, Georgia

The Energy Dilemma The industrial reaction during the 1970'swas Energy Is classically defined as the ability toper- somewhat more definite and constructive. Manyin- form work. This definition in itself is somewhat isolat- dustries converted oil-fired systemsto coal and ed until the implications are examined from several adopted cogenen on and heatrecovery systems standpoints of relevance. Energy basics dictate that where practical. Some ofour industrial manufactur- our supply of this commodity is derived through ing segments, such as those engagedin plastics "energy conversion" techniques thatare utilized to and petro-chemicals, had little choiceand raised their convert fossil fuels, solar, and nuclear energy into ul- pricing in order to reflect their basepetroleum costs. timately useful forms. These forms of useableener- There was also much talk about syntheticsand other gy manifest themselves in the actual production of substitutes deemed possible to alleviate thefossil goods aad services which Is the total gross national fuel extractives. However, the vastmajority of these product of our society as we knot, It. Therefore, it is schemes never materialized andwere shelved with a imperative that all persrms within our society be sigh of relief as OPEC floundered indisagreement "energy literate" to some degree.Furthermore, over oil pricing and production quotas. In short,we since energy directly affects our standard of living, in- opened our pocketbooksa little wider, purchased dustrial productivity, eccnomic well being, anda host enough petroleum from abroad to conductbusi- of other related fai.;tors, those persons involved in ness, and stuck our heads in the sand. technical education have a tremendous opportunity The Reaction of American Education and obligation to include "energy literacy" in their hierarchy of educational objectives. The Russians launched their firstsatellite "Sputnik" in 1957. This launchingcreated a mam- An acute energy awareness was brought about moth effort to overhaul American education andalign L; the Arab oil embargo during which time Americans curricula with increased math and sciencerequire- lined up to purchase a dwindling supply of higher ments. Congress endorsed'forts to fund these priced fossil fuels to power their automobl'es. Gov- educational improvement thrusts ata level unprece- ernment reacted by initiating tax credits for solar dented by today's standards. Engineeringcurricula home systems, lowering vehicle speed limits, was revamped to include increased mathematicsand preaching energy conservation, and a host of other more abstract design content to enable engineersto measures designed to ultimately render us " enegy cope with the demands of the aerospace industry. In as a nation. During which time many fact, this led to a design oriented, highly abstracten- thought that our energy problems would be an- gineering graduate that had difficulty contributingto swered by a scientific miracle while others assured us manufacturing industry upon graduation withouta that solar energy was really the answer and that there substantial and costly "in-serve" trainingperiod. was enough *free" energy from the sun for our soci- Henceforth, engineering technologywas born to fill ety to once again flourish as we always did. Otler this void. more exotic energy answers were advocated in the forms of geothermal energy, wind farms, biomass Other reactions to the Russian "Sputnik"were techniques, conversion of vegetation to alcohol, and the revision of textbooks, reviewing andequipping others. Many Americans discussed these as they laboratories, and a general endorsement ofany activ- "topped oft their automobile gasoline tanks at every ity that might support science, math,or engineering. opportunity. Industrial arts, vocational education, end othertech- nicaleducationstudents could even be seen

u 192 Energy literacy: The Changing of Cocksure Ignorance to Thoughtful Uncertainty

tinkering with small rockets both Inside and outside scored lower than all other groups with a population the laboratory. mean of 36.4 percent. In retrospect, American education reacted to the Through discussions, many of the individuals demands of aerospace during a demonstrated time within the tested groups indicated that they guessed of need. However, the crisis of energy in America at many test items and that energy wa ot a part of has largely been Ignored even though its implica- their educational preparation. tions are equally as important. The science curricula This author offers the aforementioned "Energy is probably addressing energy education more so Literacy Survey" as an integral part of this paper. As than is technical education. However, science does educators, perhaps through the process of intro- include the introduction of energy units such as spection, the void of energy literacy within technical Joules, BTU's, watts, and the like in a :tether frag- education is best illustrated by your personal reac- mented manner. This results in the science student tions. not understanding the American energy picture as a whole. The world energy crisis to typically not ad- ENERGY LITERACY SURVEY dressed whatsoever by the exact science curriculum INSTRUCTIONS: PLEASE DO NnT WRITE ON nor the social science programs within our schools. THIS INSTRUMENTUSE ANSWER SHEET FOR Furthermore, an analysis of the various national dir- ALL RESPON.4ES. ectories of industrial teacher educators reveals that iess than thirty (30) technicai educators indicate Respond to the energy related items contained herein "energy" as a part of their teaching repertoire or area .(:0 the best of your ability.Please do not guess if you have insufficient knowledge to respond of expertise.It is therefore evident that energy education is presently not an organized thrust within to a particular item. In such instances, indicate your lack of knowledge by selecting choice "5" which is la- American education. beled "?". This energy literacy survey has no effect Energy Literacy instrument on your grade. The author constructed inttrumerd included 1. Which segment of our society utilizes the most within the body of this paper was .designed to ascer- energy? tain the level of energy literacy of educators. This instrument was administered to the following groups 1.Residential 2.Commercial during the period May 1985 to March 1987: 3.Industrial 1. 120 baccalaureate aspiring college students 4.Transportation enrolledin technical education academic 5.? majors. 2. Most of our electrical energy is presently pro- 2.48 public school teachers of science, math, duced from: and social science currently teaching in the southeastern U.S. 1. Water power 2.Oil 3.A cross section of 30 vocational teachers cur- 3.Coal rently employed within the southeastern U.S. 4.Nuclear 4. 62 senior citizens enrolled in the national El- 5.? derhostal program from throughout the U.S. 3. The electrical energy you consume in your The results of the administration of the energy home is billed or sold to you in what units? literacy instrument to the previously cited groups was 1.Watts less than gratifying, however, they did confirm the 2.Kilowatt hours fact that all groups were indeed not energy literate as 3. Amperes measured by the instrument.It' was interesting to 4. Vohs note that no one single group scored significantly 5.? better comparatively speaking. However, the 120 college students scored best with a grand pdpula- tion mean raw score of 41.2 percent. The population mean raw score of all participating groups was only 39.4 percent. The group of 30 vocational teachers Technological Literacy Symposium 193

11=111771M1Nr

4. Which of the following inare electrical appli- 10.Whicit tsrgy source heats more than half of ances consumes the greatest amount of en- the homes and apartments in the U.S.? ergy on a monthly basis? 1.Heating oil 1. Television 2.Natural gas 2. Refrigerator 3.Electricity 3. Hot Water Heater 4. Wood 4.Electric Range/Stove 5.? 5. ? 11. Two of the statements below are correct, 5. Which statement is true? which is incorrect? 1.noel accounts for most of our known re 1. Under normal operating conditions, nuclear servos of fossil fuels plants release only a very small 2. Coal produces less air pollution than oil or amount of pollution into the atmosphere. natural gas 2. Nuclear energy is used commercially for only 3. We use more coal than oil or natural gas one purpose: to produce 4. We must currently import massive amounts electricity. of coal 3. The major problem for the nuclear industry 5. ? has been a poor long term safety record. 6. Which energy source is used to produce more than half of our electe,city? 12. Solar hot water collectors on the roof ofa 1. Coal house are an example of which solar energy 2. Natural gas form? 3. Oil 1.Direct solar heating 4.Nuclear 2.indirea 4olar heating 5.? 3. Solar-thermal conversion 7. Which of the following fuels has more energy 4. Thermosiphon Principle per unit volume? 5.? 1. Alcohol 13.ti` hich if a potential aource of large amounts 2. Gasoline of liluid fuel for transportation? 3.Diesel Fuel 1. Geothermal energy 4. Wood 2. Shale 5. ? 3. Nuclear Fusin.. 4. Peanut oil 8. Which of the following terms relates to the rate 5. ? that work is done? 1. Energy 14. Which source makes no contribution what- 2. Joules soever to our energy supply? 3. Power 1. Wind 4. Calories 2. Solar 5. ? 3. Nuclear Fusion 4.Fossil Fuels 9. Which tuel became our leading source in the 5. ? 1880's and played a major role in powering our industrial revolution? 15. How much of our total energy supply is used to produce electricity? 1. Wood 2. Coal 1.Less than 20% 3.Oil 2. 35% 4. Manpower 3. 50% 5. ? 4. 70% 5.?

1 8 2 .,..194 Energy Literacy: The Changing of Cocksure Ignorance to Thoughtful Uncertainty

16. How much of the energy consumed In the 23. Which is the most economical speed for an U.S. each year is used in the transportation automobile? sector? 1.10 mph 1. 25% 2. 40 mph 2. 50% 3. 55 mph 3. 70% 4. 60 mph 4. 90% 5. ? 5. ? 24. Which of the following does not cause your 17. Which of the following electrical appliances is car to use more gasoline? most efficient? 1. Turning on headlights 1. Stove 2. Spt ,..iing up 2. Refrigerator 3. Passing another car by accelerating 3. TV 4.All of the above increase gasoline use 4. Hot Water Heater 5. ? 5. ? 25. Which is the mast efficient home heating 18. Which fuel became our leading energy unit? source in 1950 and remains so? 1.Fireplace 1. Natural gas 2.Electric Furnace 2. Wood 3. Heat pump 3. Oil 4.Air tight wood stove 4. Nuclear energy 5. ? 5. ? 26. When washing clothes In hot water, it costs 19. What was the cost of foreign oil t3 the aver- more to heat the water than to operate the age American family in 1980? washing machine? 1. $100 1. True 2. $400 2.False 3. $600 3. ? 4. $1500 5. ? 47. Fluorescent lights are about 3 times more efficient than ordinary incandescent lamps in 20. What is the leading product made from oil? terms of energy vs. light output. 1. Heating oil 2. Gasoline 1. True 3.Electricity 2.False 4. Lthricants 3. ? 5. ? 28.Electric lighting is one of the major consu- 21. Which of the following woods contains more mers of electric energy in the home and heat energy? throughout our nation. 1. True 1. Wet nine 2.False 2. Dry pine 3.? 3. Wet oak 4. Dry oak 29.It is more energy efficient to leave Qiectric 5. ? lights turned "one father than to swrtcrl them "off" and use them only when needed. 22. Which solar technology % most practical in 1. True cost today? 2.False 1. Solar cells 3.? 2. Solar power towers 3. Solar space heating 30.Refrigerators and air conditioners are actually 4. Solar water heating heat pumps. i'; 5. ? TrueI rue 2.False

183 Technological Literacy Symposium 195

31. What is the typical lead time" from planning 38. Solar energy is safe and completelynon- to actual production relative to an electrical polluting. power generating plant? 1. 5 years 1. True 2. 7 years 2. False 3. 10 years 3. ? 4. 20 years Energy Technology for Technical Educators 5. ? Since it has been demonstrated that energy ed- 32. Concerning outside electric lighting, which of ucation and literacy is not presently being included the following would be the most energy effi- within the framework of teacher-educationor voca- cient in light vs. electrical power consumed? tional teacher preparation, it is proposed by thisau- 1.Quartz- Iodide thor that such content be adopted. Also, sinceener- 2.Fluorescent gy literacy is desirable for all, technical education 3. Mercury Vapor could serve as the vehicle for the insertion ofenergy 4. High Pressure Sodium education into the curricula of vocational, technical, 5. ? and other industrial education instructional offerings. 33. What portion of the average household ener- This can be viewed as a tremendous opportunityas gy bill is attributable to domestic hot water well as an obligation insofar as energy education is heating? not being presently addressed on an organized ba- 1. 30% sis by an educational sector. 2. 15% Traditionally, vocationa; education has been of 3. 7.5% 'less than college" wade. However, in manyareas of 4. 52% the country, this is rapidly changing to rendervoca- 5. ? tional-technical schools to the status of college credit 34. Man-made radioactive materials are more granting institutions. This change will mandate mam- dangerous than those that occur in nature moth changes in vocational faculty preparation and per unit of measure. the accreditation standards and procedures applied 1. True to such institutions. This new role for vocational edu- 2.False cation could better allow it to offer such relevant 3.? "spin -off" occupational training related toenergy such as "energy management" or "energy instru- 35. A coal fired electric generation plant produc- mentation."It is obvious that inservice vocational es no nuclear radiation pollution but may have teacher training will be required if energy education undesirable air emissions. is to be included. 1. True 2.False Energy Education Topic Recommendations 3. ? This author proposes the following topical ener- 36. One watt of electricai energy is equal to gy education outline for inclusion within those tech- about BTU's of heating capacity? nical education segments, vocational or not, that 1. 3.14 cher -4e to include such There is no claim for com- 2.1.0 pie, less or uniqueness of content insofar as each 3. 6.25 individual topic cal be expanded or further subdivided. 4.1,000 5,? In your perusal of the proposed energy education topic outline, please mentally review the follow- 37. How: many electrical watts,a equal to one ing objectives of this paper by answering the follow- horsepower? ing questions: 1.1,000 2. 235 1. Do you consider yourself energy literate? 978 2. Do you think our educators should be 4. 746 energy aerate? 5, ? 3. Should vocational r Aication serve the cause 196 Energy Literacy: The Changing of Cocksure Ignore-x.0 to Thoughtful Uncertainty

of energy education? 4.Is energy education knportant to aN? 5. Who, If anyone, is presently serving energy education needs?

PROPOSED ENERGY TOPIC SUBJECT OUTLINE I. Basic Energy Concepts A. Energy-Definitions and Types B. Work C. Power D. Energy Conversion E. Laws of ..nergy Conservation- Enropy F. Energy Units and Conversions

ILEnergy Consumption and Utilization A. World Energy Consumption B.U.S. Energy Consumption C. Energy ConsurrObn vs. Industrial Produo

My . D. Sectors of Society as Energy Consumers III. Fossil Fuel Energy-Derivation, Conversion Distribution A. ON B. Coal C.Natural Gas D.Electricity IV. Solar Energy A.Photovoltaics B.Diced Solar C.Indirect Solar V. Other Energy Sources and Alternatives A. Nuclear B. niamass C.1 ..ermal D. Wind E.Tidal Power F. Wood VI. Social - economic implications of Energy A.Industrial Productivity B. Gross Natbnal Product vs. Energy C. Per Capita Energy Utilization: State, Nation- al, World D. The Food-energy Equation VII. Energy Conservation A. History of Energy Use B. Energy in the Home C. Energy Rsiatod to Transportation D. Conservation Measures

1 S 5 Technological Literacy Symposium 197

Florida's Assessment of Vocational Teachers' Training Needs: The First Step in a Five-Year Statewide InservicePlan

Marvin D. Patterson Assistant Director, Center for Instructional Development & Services Florida State Univerey Tallahassee, Florida introduction and Bacicground Organization of the Plan The quality of education is largely dependent The FIVE Plan contains seven man sections upon the professional competence of those who de- within the three phases of Development, Implemen- liver it.in vocational education, this competence is tation, and Evaluation: closely rElated to currency of knowledge. Techno- DEVELOPMENT logical changes are particularly acute in vocational education, where advances in the workplace are rap- 1. Coordination id and have an immediate impact on curricuium and 2. Needs Assessmei it and Priorities instruction.Thus, maintaining technical currency IMPLEMENTATION amongvocational teachersisof paramount importance. 3.Delivery Strategies 4.Involvement_ of Business, Industry, and The vocational staff development issue in Flori- Other Employers da in 1985 was to determine how the State could do 5.Certification a better job of helping vocational teachers keep up- 6.Resources to-date technically and professionally. The legislature responded by passing, as part of the Teacher EVALUATION Education Center Act, a mandate for the Department 7. Data r Alection and Monitoring of Education to develop a five-year statewide master inservice plan for vocational education. Each section contains a goal, an overview, a narra- tive of the proposed plan, and finally a plan of action The plan was developed according to the out- in chart form. comes of an invitational conference and the overall Status of the Plan recommendations of hundreds of individuals from diverse groups. It was the consensus of these groups The plan was submitted to the State Board of that the plan should: Vocational Education and received provisional approval at its meeting of July 1, 1986. Full acceptance 1. Be a plan of action, rather than a repor. of what exists, was contingent upon the following provisions: (1) an 2.Briefly report on the current status of voca- inventory of all existing, inservice activities and re- tional ins srvice to illustrate the need for a sources would be compiled; (2) an assessment of in- new approach, service training needs among vocational instructional 3. Recognize the worth of existing systems in personnel would be conducted; (3) regional public place and build upon them, hearings would be held on the plan; and (4) the plan 4.Include plans of action with specific goals, would be revised based upon these activities. objectives, activities, timelines, and resourc- The plan itself had called for conducting a needs es, arid assessment and an inventory of inservice activities 5. Be developmental in nature and use forma- and resources. However, with the State Board re- tive evaluation as a part of implementation. questing these activities their credibility and importance was strengthened. The master plan itself took on an identity when it was namedtheFloridakiservice Vocational A.Inventory of Inservice Activities Education Plan...The f-IVE plan. InMirch, 1987 the statewide inventory of

1 R 6 198 Florida's Assessment of Vocational Teachers' Training Needs

inservice activities and resources was completed. two instruments designed to identify teacher- Data for all 28 community colleges and 59 of the 67 perceived needs for (1) professional updating and public school districts were collected. The inventory (2) technical updating. document clearly shows where technical updating is 1.The Professional Needs Assessment not receiving much emphasis at the district and community college level. Out of the 16,609 persons par- The professional needs assessment was enti- ticipating in inservice, 53% of them were engaged in tled: 'The Vocational Self-Assessment Inventory" professional updating activities vs. 43% In technical and was a stream-lined version of a needs assess- updating activities. (NOTE: the 16.609 figure is not ment developed through a study by Dr. Roger Kauf- unduplicated persons, i.e. an individual teacher may man at Florida State University. have been counted several times to reflect each up- Instructors were asked to rate their ability to per- dating activity experienced by the teacher.)Four form specific tasks related to competency-based in- percent of the activities were classified as a combina- struction and dealing with special needs students. tion of professional and updating activities.The They were also asked to rate the importance of the data, which described 1985-86 activities showed task based on the following rating scale. that a total of $1,741,241 was spent by Florida schools to update their vocational teachers. Table 1 Rating Scale Ability to perform tasks: summarizes the resources expended. 0 - Not Able 2 - Adequately Able Table 1. Florida Inservice Dollars Spent for Vocation- 1 - Somewhat Able 3 - Confidently Able al Teacher Updating (1985-86) importance to you: bunkoWent Sate Loots Other 0 - Not Important 2 - Important Activity $ Spent $ Spent $ Spent$ SpentTable Pet 1- Low in importance 3 - Extremely Important $ 411,228 $140,445 $55,459 $ 804,994 Updatino $197,863 Computer analysis of the data from the instru- Tech. ment generated printouts which described respon- Updadi ci 59,486 684,196 96,686 18,976 860,343 dents average ability and perceived importance for Both CO04 16,624 3,581 396 76,904 teaching competencies clustered along these di- Totals $313,663 $1,112,047 $240,711 $74,83 $1,741241 mensions: A. implementation for instructors/ Administrators B. The FIVE Plan Needs Assessment B. External Needs Assessment The needs assessment was conducted be- C. System Planning tween August and October of 1986. All vocational D.Instructional 'Manning teachers in Florida school districts, community col- E. System Development leges, and correctional institutions were given an op- F. Resource Determination and Procurement portunity to indicate the extent of technical and pro- G. System Evaluation and Revision fessional updating they desired. H. Special Needs One hundred percent of the commur.!.y colleg- Part of the analysis included the calculation of the es and correctional institutions and ninety-four per- difference between the Ability and Importance rat- cent of the school districts participated in the volun- ings, called the differential.It was suggested that tary survey. planning inservice activities might take into consideration differential figures that described teachers per- The statewide results of this needs assessment ceived low ability to perform a competency that was have been compiled by Florida Stale University for Judged of high importance. Competencies judged the Division of Vocational, Adult, and Community Ed- to be of low importance and/or perceived high ability ucation. The Division has used them to establish pri- by teachers would not be caused to plan inservice orities for allocating federal dollars to provide inser- on that topic. vice training. 2.Technical Updating Needs Assessment Local and regional rep: ^s were distributed to all Local Education Agencies (LEAs) for their use in The instrument that was designed to assess the setting local staff development priorities technical updating needs of Florida's vocational instructors was entitled: "The Vocational Education Essentially, th9 needs assessment consisted cf

18 ? Technological Literacy Symposium 199

Inservice Training Request for Technical Updating." made inservice more relevant to these needs. The technical training needs assessment of in- Results of the needs assessments for individual structors was based upon the mandated curriculum schools, districts, community colleges, and G, standards. In Florida, statewidt. Curriculum Frame- tbnai institutions were disseminated through fivere- works and Student Performance Standards have gional meetings held in Fetruary. A complete train- been adopted by the State Board for Vocational Ed- ing package entitled: "Guidelines for Using the FIVE ucation pursuant to Florida Statutes. Plan Needs Assessment Data," was developed by Through these standards do not dictate specific the Center for Instructional Develoment and Servic- techniques or instructional methodology, they must es at FSU to assist LEAs in getting maximum utiliza- be adhered to by schools in planning, implementing tion of the needs assessment results.In addition, and evaluating vocational courses and programs. the results were disseminated to state level Occupa- The extent to which these standards are adhered tional Program Specialists through a series of work- forms a primary basis for program review and evalua- shops. 1 hese workshops focused on developing tion. The standards are revised and updated annual- and using guidelines and criteria for setting priorities ly based upon changes in occupations utilizing input for training in the various vocational programareas. from business and industry employers, licensing and Appendix F lists the criteria that was used for setting crednetialing agencies, professional associations, statewide training priorities. and other -eoresentatives of the private sector. Although it la still too early to say exactly how 1achnical updating needs related to specific useful the FIVE Plan needs assessment has been, Performance Standards and Intended Outcomes of several significant activities have occurred: the Vocational Curriculum Frameworks were collect- 1. Most, if not all, RFP staff-development dol- ed through the "Vocational Education Inservice lrrs have been allocated based on the Training Request for Technical Updating" form. needs assessment results; Teachers were asked to respond with the amount of training they desired for each intended outcome in 2. A $300,000 sabbatical program for vocation- the curricuLim frameworks) for their program(s). The al teachers has been operationalized and ap- rating scale uss..1v,as. plicants' needs were validated using the assessment; 0 no training desired 2 - moderate training desired 3. virtually all tecnical updating activities planned for Florida's Annual Statewide Vo- 1 a little training desired 3 - much training de- cational Conference will be based on the sired needs assessment; I number of different reports were generated by 4.All federal staff development doilars in voca- the computer for state, regional and local use. For in- tional education must now be used for tech- stance, one set of reports was prepared that sum- nical updating; marized the perceived training needs across all In- tended Outcomes for all teachers who responded 5. There is some evidence of regional planning or consortium arrangements materializing as statewide in a particular vocational program. a result of common needs having been iden- Another type of report was provided for each vo- tified; inservice activities are being jointly cational program which showed the average training planned between neighboring districts and/ needs ahong instructors for each intended outcome or community colleges; and in the program's Curriculum Framework.These re- 6. Bridges are being built between vocationa' ports aggregated the data statewide, by districts, by community college and even by individual high directors and district staff developers in order to meet the updating needs of vocation- school when applicable. The reports have been es- al teachers. pecially useful to state and local staff developers and vocational personnel in planning specific inservice What are some of the technological training activities. They have also been helpful in conducting reeds in Florida that might to of interest to this sym- joint planning efforts between various districts and posium? Let's look at the top two priorities identified institutions. The needs assessment data provided oa a program-by-program basis: information about teachers' perceived needs directly related to classroom instructor and has consequently lea 200 bridals Assessment of Vocational Teachers' Training Needs .m.=a,

Table 2 Reflections of the Researchers Florida's Top Statewide Technical Updating inservice Aftor all the forms had been submitted, the last Priodlies for Vocational Teachers (1986417) computer run had been completed, and the last workshops to disseminate the results were over, the Pmcr Elfatimiliolaktollattlariming Proorams Tweets' research team reflected on the events of the past Ma year. Truly some incredible things had occurred. In Agabusineu Control Insects, diseases, Farm Prod. Management light of the fact that participation was voluntary, coop- and plied pathogens Ag Production eration by so many schools and teachers was al:raz- Ornamental Horticulture ing. State-level staff are encouraged by the demon- Nursery Operation strated desire of schools to learn about the training Operate. maintain. mask Ag. Business Tech needs of their vocational teachers. equipment Ag. Mechwics Ag. Production Still, there are measures that can be taken to im- Oamental Horticulaxe prove the process, the number of useful returns, Nursery Operations and the dissemination process. The following is a list Business Perform data processing Accounting Operations of actions that the researchers propose to implement activities Secretarial when the assessment Is repeated. Clerk Typist Receptionist 1. Since about 12% of the responses were un- usable due to erroneous information record- Perform decision making Office Sys. & Menagement aciAties Word Processing 1.42t. ed on the response sheets by teachers, a verification system to provide essential infor- Industrial Ms Demon. technological Practical Ind. Systems mation on the forms should be implement- Meng al:cut Industrial systems ed...such as having local administrators vali- date the course, school and district identifi- Demon. computer Homy Al LA. programs cation numbers. It was impossible to check and wink:Eon these at the state level since no teacher tearketbg Role of mangier and the Rai Estate Mar 'gement names appeared on the form to provide the Ed. antrepreneur Parts Marketing Restaurant Management basis to correct or enter missing information. 2. Even though forms and sample reports were Knowledge of merchandis- kV Marketing Management field tested, as It turned out not all the re- activities Reel Estate Management ports have been found to be useful. For instance, the reports that showed data com- Demon. empioyablity sideEMI' Ha= piled by school type (e.g. all high schools, all comfiti201 Health Cara Mr Anon! Message community colleges) were not found to benefit either state or local planners. Streamlin- Appty Computers in Medical Health link Coord. Tech Explor. of Health Occ. ing other reports was found to be desirable and will be incorporated in the next cycle. hi& Demon. employability skillsFire Sdenoe Tech Sake, OATS 3. A number of person complained about the length of the professional instrument and its Apply first aid/CPR Correctional Officer Law Enforcement applicability to inservice planning. A number Firefightirp of the items seemed to confuse or bewilder respondents. A more thorough evaluation aygragg Demon. employability skillsDiwirsified Cooperative of the usefulness of this instrument is cur- DcGualksil Training Educalka rently underway.

Industrial Apply plasma arc skills Welding 4. Results from the assessment wL 'e provided F4113120 to local vocational deans and directors. How- Appy basic heat gain, healAk Conditioning ever, the planning and organization of most ices, and design sidle Rerigeradon and Healing MechenIcs inservice activities are typically the responsibility of others such as staff devel- 11002e Provide for special needs ofHorne and Fvnly Mgmt opment personnel in districts. To maximize F.0O221MIGI frrai EilitGatiBB the resources available to them, the voca- Care for children with Chid Dev., Guidance and tional administrators have to communicate 'pedal needs Cwe Technological Literacy Symposium 201

with staff development personnel. Having available to every district and community collegean observed the general lack of communication electronic communications network called the Florida between these groups, the researchers are Information Resource Network (FIRN), through which inclined to recommend that more formal link- electronic mail, calendars or bulletin boardscan be ages be established if necessary, and join used to announce workshops, conferences, techni- planning be initiated within districts where itiE cal updating activities, etc. However, since too few not naturally occurring. administrators and staff developers have used the 5. Refinements should be made in the analysis system, a series of training sessions in the use of of the results. Priorities were set within pro- FIRN should be implemented. gram areas.Procedures, criteria and meth- In addition, a new Clearinghouse for Economic ods for establishing priorities across program Development has been established by the Depart- areas still need to be developed and implement of Education to provide information to district mented. In order to set priorities across pro- and community college inservice planners. Informa- gram areas and fund activities, additional tion availablt )ugh ACCESS (the title of the clear- data besides needs may need to be provid- inghouse) describes training proarams, education- ed to decision makers.For instance, a business partnerships, names of inoi:duals in the weighting system might be developed and private and public sectors that can actas 3ducational applied to favor programs with certain charac- consultants, etc. teristics, e.g. new and emerging programs, Conclusion high technology programs, programs critical to the economic development of the state or The Florida Division of Vocational, Adult ant region, etc. Community Education (DVACE) has long supported 6. Questions whether or not LEAs are getting the professional and technical updating of vocational maximum benefits from the assessment is instructional personnel and believes in the value of inservice training. being explored. For instance, feedback to local agencies is limited to the printed re- The FIVE Plan was developed in the belief that ports provided by the state. Future assess- current inservice programs in Florida are generally ef- ments may explore the feasibility of provid- fective, accessilk, and responsive to the needs of ing schools with electronic access to their vocational educators. The important point for the fu- own data. Menu-driven software could be ture of vocational inservice in Florida is the belief that developed to allow districts and community it can be improved. The legislation calling for this colleges to merge and sort the data in many plan emphasized improvement in the currentsystem ways to provide information in planning local of vocational inservice, particularly in betteruse of updating activities. currant resources, increased use of technology, and The Future and the FIVE Plan further integration of the business community into the process. There are other indicators that the FIVE Plan and the assessment have had an impact in Florida. An overview of the plan will reveal that it iscompre- Teachers may now use back-to-industry experiences hensiveyet reasonable; practical--yet bold; andrea- such as summer work for their updating require- listicyet far-reaching. In time, it may prove to beone ments for recertification. Program Reviews will now of the more important planning documentsever de- include a series of questions to determine if teaching veloped by the Department of Education.The staff have had updating experiences that meet their DVACE believes that this plan, which is the result of needs reported through the FIVE Plan needs as- a great deal of thought and communication, provides sessment. The statewide assessment results can be a framework for change that builds upon the suc- used to document professional and updating needs CeageS of the paii, accepts the challenges of the of vocational teachers in order to acquire additional present, ani meets the needs of the future.If ;bri- funding from the Florida Legislature and other sourc- de is to keep pace with changes in technology, infor- es so that more training activities take place. mation, and population, it can do no less than offer the best possible plan for improving its most valuable Many examples can be found of counties and/or educational resource -- teachers.It is to all these community colleges Joining forces to pool their re- ends that the FIVE Plan has been committed. sources to meet common staff development needs. To assist persons planning activities, Florida has

1 9(i Technological Literacy Symposium 203

The Impact of Computer Techno!ogyon Graphic Communication

Dr. Edwin T. Boyer and Gary R. Bertoline Department of Engineering Graphics The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio

KART I It is interesting to note that in most schoolor in- The Board Impact of Present and Future Comput- dustrial settings a blend of some manual drafting and er Technology on Graphic Communication. (Boyer) some computer assisted drafting is common. Few classes are either 100% manual, or 100% computer. Introduction However, most students will at least have hadsome Within the last 15 years, a near revolution has exposure to CADD during their technology class- taken place within graphic communication, and that is room experiences. the common use of the computer. Graphics classes Hardware at virtually all levels of the educational spectrum now use co--,puters to some degree. My comments will The computer is only a tool for the professional be principally directed towards the drafting or engi- to use to help produce more accurate work in less neering design portion of the graphic communica- time than by manual methods. Many PC'sare "stand- tion field. Several major topics such as Technological alone" computers. Others may be linked together literacy, hardware, software, and trends will be dis- with a host computer; this is called networking. Net- cussed. working allows a person at any computer in the network to share and contribute to thecommon data Technological Literacy base of information within the network. The classroom at any level is the formal setting The cost of hardware has reached a level low for teaching people to use computers to help per- enough that most of the design and draftingpro- form tasks faster, more accurately, etc. It la in this set- grams can afford one or more computers for their ting that the terminology of both software and hard- classroom. Those who complain about lack of funds ware can be presented to the students. Prior to the to purchase such equipment are generally trying to 1970's drafting and design was accomplished using purchasa enough computer work stations to filla manual techniques. During this period, large indus- classroom all at once. Manufacturers often have tries were using CADD (Computer-aided design and srq- ciel educational packages to help solve this problerm drafting), but high costs prevented the use of this equipment in schools. In the late 70's and early 80's, New technology reaches the marketevery day. the introduction and wide acceptance of the PC Some of the more recent developments to beac- (personal computer) level computers meant that the cepted into common use are hard discs, laser disc cost of computers had reached a level that the technology, laser printers, color printers, the ability to schools could afford. One area of graphic communi- make 35mm color slides from a screen image,etc. cation, the design and drafting area, benefitted If the past trend continues, the cost of the hard- greatly by this acceptance and the availability of com- ware will decrease even more, but the power, speed, puters and related software. and capacity of the computers will greatly increase. It is now common to visit a school design and Within the past few years, "lap-top" computers have drafting area and see students using a computer to proven this rationale. create designs and drawings. Through this expo- At several universities, students aro provided sure to computers and computer applications, the computers to virk on, either in an academic build- door has been opened for students to learn the no- ing, or in the student's dormitory room.Some menclature and techniques necessary to use the schools require their students to purchase theirown computer to their advantage. computer before enrolling in classes. 204 The Impact of Computer Technology on Graphic Communication

Software Tess expensive. The formatting of these programs When the PCs first entered the educational mar- must be presented in each a mrr that the "up ket, softare packages were available. Now there is an time" for the learner can be reduced isiderably. abundance of CADD software for any hardware sys- 3-Dimensional mod ling is presently available in tem your purchase. existing sophisticated and expensive CADD packag- At first a knowledge of computer programming es. The trend will be to offer 3-D solid modeling at a was necessary if a person was to create drawings us- more affordable price. This should become one of the next major trends. ing a computer. Then the various software packages began to emerge on the market. This user friendly Technological advances indicate that voice rec- software allowed the user to create drawings by se- ognition is on the horizon. Some knowledgeable lecting from a set of displayed commands that ac- people predict that voice recognition will take the cessed internal programming. The user no longer place of typing input into the computer within just a had to be a programmer. With the introduction of ic- few years. This could be a bit optimistic on the time ons, light pens, special keyboards, digitizing pads, scale, but it should happen in time. etc., as input devices for this software, the commer- Some university engineering programs require cial CADD packages are much more "user friendly." their students to create their own CADD package in One of the biggest problems concerning soft- order that the student can custom design a CADD ware is the length of time necessary for a beginning package that meets his/her own specific needs. user to master the menu format of commands in or- However, most educators see a decline in the need der to manipulate the program successfully. This is to program to create technical drawings. There la often referred to as "up time." The biggest of the such a variety of good CADD programs available that commercial CADD programs are so powerful that it the user ;.:an employ these within a knowledge of takes a considerable number of hours to become programming. Some educators even suggest that competent enough to maneuver around the pro- programming will son be the nearly exclusive domain gram comfortably. The cost of some of software is of the computer science major. still very high. There is also a problem of unauthor- Trends in General ized "pirating" of software. Site licenses are a step in the direction of solving this problem, but they rely on Some people suggest that the computer will voluntary compliance. lead to the "paperless society." Hard copies will always be needed, but data manipulation time and or- Trend: in Hardware ganization can and will become greatly enhanced. Hardware changes will be evident from a market- The engineer will become very adapt at creating ing standpoint. Computers will be smaller, more designs and drawings using sophisticated CADD powerful, and have more memory. As soon as the packages. technology of screen readability improves, the "lap- top" computers will possibly replace the present PC There will become a resurgence of the need for configuration. This is true because the lap-tops will sketching skiPs for engineers and designers. With be truly a portable computer that is at least as power- good sketching skills, seetches can be used to aid in ful as todays PC's. the creation of technical drawings on the computer. As for printers, advances will be made to improve 2-Dimensional drawings will always have their the speed and quality of the printer output. Even place, but 3-dimensional drawings and graphics are more fonts of type will be available than are presently just on the horizon. offered to the public. Self-paced instruction will have 16 place in the The new computers will become more compati- training of people to use CADD programs for the ble with other manufacturer's computers.Tele- production of drawings. phone links will assume a much greater role in help- The designer will not only communicate with the ing computers communicate with each other. computer, but via networking or phone lines, com- Trends in Software munication with other designers and engineers will be possible. The designer will also have a *eel link Within the last few years software has become to the machine tools used in manufacturing. more powerful and easier to use. In the near future commercial CADD packages will hopefully become

1Q2 Technological Literacy Symposium 205

Educational environments will have more hard- seem obvious to many, but It is important that this ware and software available for students to use. The idea be the center of any curriculum changes con- shift from manual drawing to computer drawing is ine- templated by technology teachers. Do not become vitable. Manual drafting will become an "endangered enamored with one particular CADD system or soft- 3pecieJ," but should not become "extinct." ware to the point that the use of CADD becomes a Summary narrow type of vocational training.If technological literacy is the goal of the curriculum then CADD simply If you think there has been a lot of change in the becomes adifferent tool to be used for graphic last fifteen years, be prepared, be flexible, and al- communications. ways have an open mind for new hardware and software technology. The change in the future will be If CADD is only a tool used to communicate several times greater than in the past. graphically, then what do technology teachers need to know about this tool to effectively integrate it into PART their curriculum? The proposed method is not to Technological Literacy Nieds in Graphic Commu- teach CADD at all but to teach graphic communica- nication. (Bertoline) tions using CADD as one of the tools that can be used to create graphics. This might be called the Introduction "generic" method of teaching graphics with CADD. The evolution of communications has closely Unfortunately this is not the method most usedas paralleled the technological development of human- evidenced by the proliferation of CADD textbooks kind. Through many years of development, draw- written specifically for a certain type of CADD system. ings used as a means of communicating graphically, With these approaches, the CADD system becomes has evolved into a very complex system. Graphic the focus of the curriculum and the tool becomes communications is an extremely important compo- more important than the subject. This can be com- nent of many industries. The generation of graphic pared to the "tail wagging the dog," where the tech- images is rapidly being automated through the use nology used to create graphics becomes more im- of computers. The use of computers for graphic portant than the human adaptive system of commu- communications has slowly evolved until recently. nications. This flies directly in the face of what tech- The rapid development of computers used for nological literacy should be. If the goal is technologi- graphic communications has occurred because of cal literacy and one of the components is graphic the development of the microcomputer and related communications, then CADD should not be taught hardware and software. It is now possible to design, as a stand-alone course. It should not be taught on a modify, document, illustrate, and produce camera single system with the focus on learning specific ready copy of new products entirely with a computer. commands and procedures. Much of this is accomplished using the graphic data Integrating CADD into Graphic Communications base of the design produced on a computer. In addition, it is possible to control the manufacture and as- What might be the best method of integrating sembly of the product using the same graphic data CADD into draphic communication? For a number of base. This automation of graphic communications reasons, the student should have a solid foundation through the use of computers and software is com- in orthographic projection and sketching.If CADD is monly called CADD (Computer-aided design/ a tool used to create graphics, then technological lit- drafting). eracy in graphic communications should have a CADD component. However, it should be taught as CADD in the Commu sications Curriculum any tool is that can be used to create graphics. For It is important fc the technology teacher to real- example, when teaching the basics of design one of ize the tremendous pmer and flexibility available to the components is the documentation a; the final the user of a CADD system. ft is also important to re- product. In the past, this documentation was accom- alize that CADD is a communications tool and should plished using hand tools such as the compass, t- be taught at a subset of communications technolo- square, triangles, pencil, and eraser. When this was gy. By making it a part of the total communications done, was the focus of the course on the use of the technology curriculum, the full power and application tools or the accepted methods of documentation? of CADD will be realized by the student. Why should this change? Some wi:; argue that the CADD is a tool used to supp!ament traditional software is too difficult and time consuming to learn. A better approach is to teach CADD first, then show tools used in designing and engineering. This might

1.93 206 The Impact of Computer Technology on Graphic Communication

how the tool can be aplied to graphic communica- an understanding of technological systems and how tions. they relate to each other and to humanity? Given a common data base, design and manufacturing can This is a strong argument that must be carefully be more closely linked because of the computer. considered before a CADD component in graphic The same data base that is used to communicate a communications can be Implemented successfully. design can be used to generate the programs to run It is true that CADD can be very difficult to learn and a NC (numerical control) machine tools to finish raw maslow introduction to the use of the tool may be ne- terials, control robots to supply, direct, monitor, and cessary before the student becomes productive. correct the manufacturing and assembly of the prod- However, this can be accomplished by following uct, and order the materials, plan the production, and some of the same techniques used to introduce stu- transport the product. dents to traditional tools. One of the first problems assigned to drafting students is to draw horizontal, This powerful tool should be an important part of vertical, and inclined lines. This is followed by circles, the communications curriculum.It has the potential arcs, simple figures, and lettering. The same ap- to change our understanding of communications as proach can be used with CADD. Traditional graphic a human endeavor. The computer can change the concepts are introduced and reinforced with a spe- way we think about communications and how it re- cific drawing assignment that is chosen to meet a lates to other technoiogies. There is the potential to specific goal. Because of the complexity of even the change the very nature of communications. Tradi- most simple CADD programs, it is recommended that tional methods of documenting designs for manufac- more time be spent on learning the basics of the sys- turing and communications may no longer be neces- tem than would be normally spent with traditional sary. The communications medium for manufactur- tools. ing will be a stream of electrons. Blueprints will be replaced with bits of data. Designing will change from a After the basics of the system are learned by the paper intensive task to a paper-less and powerful student, the CADD system should become a trans- graphic image displayed on a computer screen or an parent tool to the student and the teacher. CADD image suspended in space similar to a hologram. can now be used to create graphics and to introduce Technical illustrations will come directly from the 3-D the student to other graphic communication topics model produced when the part was designed. The using CADD and related software. However, there graphic image of the design will be merged with text are times when it will be necessary to demonstrate for technical manuals, advertising, and other printed how CADD is used to perform a particular task. media. It is conceivable that television commercials Related Areas Served by CADD will be produced using the same 3-D design model through animation programs. The topics to be discussed in graphic communications may depend a great deal upon the available summary hardware and software and the ingenuity of the Preparing teachers and students for technologi- teacher. Micro-based CADD systems are becoming cal literacy in communications is not an easy task.It very powerful devices that cd..1 be used for design, will take a dedicated professional e lucator willing to drafting, illustration, manufacturing, and publishing. take the extra time and energy necessary to offer a This could be called CAD/CAM literacy. This can be curriculum that will be judged of value to all students defined as krowledge of the capabilities and applta- regardless of their role in society. Communications is tions of CAD/CAM in communications and manufac- an important element of technological literacy. turing. Important topics to be included are: design- CADD might se em like a small part of communica- ing, wire-frame and solid modeling, design analysis tions but it has the capabilities and the potential to functions, desktop publishing, CAM (Computer- become the unifying element for a better under- .sided Manufacturing), robots, flexible manufactur- standing of the communication and manufacturing ing, CIM (Computer-Integrated Manufacturing), the process. factory of the future, and the social implioations of these technologies. Alth..ugh some of thc_A f:les may be better served under manufacturing :: !s '-nportant to show the interrelations between technologies and the artificial harriers that hai.e b4an impased by man. Is not one of the goals of technological literacy toprovide 194 Technological Literacy Symposium 207

Impications of Technological Literacy for Vocational Service Areas

195 Technologice Literacy Symposium 209

Dichotomies, Relationships and the Development of Technological Literacy

Dr. Paul W. DeVore Program for the Study of Technology West Virginia University Morgantown, West Virginia

To the best of my knowledge, one of the first in- categories and levels of technological literacy that dividuals in the field of education to use the descrip- can serve as a base for discussions about the role tor "technological literacy" was Dr Marshall Schmitt, and function of formal instructional programs In the the industrial arts specialist for the United States Of- development of technological literacy among our citi- fice of Education. He was exploring the issue in the zens. My effort will be to attempt to direct our atten- early 1960s, over 25 years ago. He was convinced tion to the more significant issues of technological lit- that a technologically literate citizen was essential In a eracy, the ones truly worthy of professional educa- democratic society where an increasing complexity tors' time and energy and taxpayers' dollars; and the of the technological base had become the norm. ones that relate to the centria mission of education in In this paper I continue, with members of this a democracy. symposium, the exploration of the issue of techno- A Growing Concern logical literacy begun by Marshall Schmitt. Concern The issue of technological literacy of our citizens and interest about technological literacy has grown is a relatively recent but growing concern in our soci- considerably since Marshall Schmitt's early explora- ety. An awareness has surfaced that a major problem tions, some legitimately, some illegitimately, some exists and that something should be done about it. self serving, some from the concern for the human However, as is evident from the literature, the per- condition and good for all. ceptions of the problem are many and varied and There have been several national conferences, there seem to be few generally accepted solutions. numerous reports on education, a number of articles A number of editorials, articles and reports pub- and several research efforts which addressed tech- lished the last several years have addressed the sub- nologicai literacy as a major concern. At this stage, ject of technological literacy. Among the most promi- even after some 25 years of increasing concern, nent reports were by the Commission on Excellence they, seems to be considerable confusion, yet con- in Education, the Education Committee of the siderable interest in the topic. States, The Carnegie Foundation for the Advance- One must question, "Why the confusion?".If ment of Teaching and the National Science Board's the issue is so vital, an educational issue, why can we Coleman Report. The general conclusion of the re- not derive a structure and an approach that will ena- ports was that technological literacy needs to be a ble the many components of the education enter- part of general literacy. There was also the recogni- prise to move out with the assurance that they know tion that technological literacy is different from scien- what they are about and get on with it? tific and mathematical literacy even though in the vari- Perhaps the problem in that the issue is being ous sections of the reports the writers were unable viewed from too many narrow provincial perspec- to transcent their own biases and often returned to tives, by the State, by education associations or by the now thoroughly rejected premise that technolog- corporate interests. Perhaps technological literacy is ical development follows scientific discovery. The re- a multifaceted, mulidimensional construct. At this ports exposed a general confusion as to what tech- point in time this seems to be a valid and reasonable nology is, yet a recognition by some that it Is a new conclusion. and emerging field of scientific study the same as biology, sociology or physiology and other sciences. Therefore, the focus of my presentation will be to explore soma of the dimensions of technological Several organizations, including the Council for literacy.Perhaps we can identify some of the Understanding Technology in Human Affairs, the

193 210Dichotomies, Relationships and the Development of Technolical Literacy

Academies of Se..ence and Engineering, the Interna- Boston, Massachusetts, could not name the six New tional Technology Education Association, the Ameri- England states. can Association for the Advancement of Science and the National Science Foundation, have spon- Apparently our people are becoming more ignorant, not less, at a time in the civilization process sored meetings on the topic of technological literacy. The Alfred P. Sloan Foundation has awarded when growth in new knowledge Is increasing at almost an exponential rate. James Kilpatrick discov- $250,000 grants to ten liberal arts colleges for the ered that, in 1950, 84 percent of high school seniors purpose of developing curricula to increase the tech- knew where Manila was. In 1984, oniy 27 percent of nological literacy of liberal arts graduates. Business the seniors knew where Manila was (Buckley, p. 4A). and industry have been heavily involved also. They are investing some $3 billion yearly to fill what they To my knowledge we do not have records of consider to be an education gap between what peo- knowledge or literacy about technology by students ple are learning in education institutions and what even in the basic areas such as energy conversion they need to know to be competent employees. systems, propulsion systems, materials manufacturing processes or technology valuing and assess- There is a growing acceptance that it is not only ment. We can only surmise that the resulu.; would be necessary to be trained in certain technical skills but similar. that the study of technology is a necessary component of an educated person, of an informed citizen- Most thinking citizens would agree that there is a ry; that not only are there skills to be learned in the relationship between education and democracy; that technologies, as there are skills to be learned that a primary component of a democracy is an educated enable one to read another language, but also mas- citizenry. And most would agree that to function ef- tery to be attained that enables one to create and uti- fectively as responsible citizens in a highly techno- lize appropriately the technical means. Being edu- logical democracy, knowledge and understanding of cated today implies, more and more, a knowledge technology is essential. Yet, we face a rather strange and understanding of the creation, use and impacts dichotomy in our society. At a time when the need of technical means. This involves the emerging field for greater knowledge and understanding by our citi- of study known as technology. To be an educated zensisneeded, we finda growinganti- civilized person today means attaining a level of liter- intellectualism among many of our youth and, in acy about technology similar to our expectations of some cases, citizens in general. There seems to be the attainments of an educated civilized person in a reversion back to simplistic answers and folk knowl- art, history, language, literature, mathematics and the edge in the search for answers to rather complex other sciences (Haberer, p. 223). questions. There is a growth of ignorance. Yet, if each of us was to evaluate ourselves in an One questions why there is this growth in ignor- objective truthful way we would have to admit a grow- ance. Why the lack of interest in learning? When ing ignorance about the field of technology. questions are asked of students about their lack of knowledge the general reply is, "Why should I know The Growth of Ignorance about some other country"? "Why should I know In a recent column William F. Buckley, Jr. wrote: about the Vietnam War?" Why should I know about Second perhaps only to AIDS, there is concern over energy conversion systems?" "Why wshould I un- the growth of ignorance (p. 4A). Buckley cites arti- derstand about telephonic communication?" With cles in Newsweek, a book by E. D. Hirsch, Jr. called respect to telephonic communications there is an in- Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to teresting story from Iowa City, Iowa. Know, a column by James J. Kilpatrick on geographi- Iowa City, Iowa (AP)At least a few listeners of an cal literacy, a proposal by Senator Bill Bradley for a Iowa City radio station fell for a real line this week. Geography Awareness Week and a program on "60 Minutes." He cites polls that expose the fact that 25 They covered up their telephone receivers percent of U.S. high school seniors believe that when Ted Burton Jacobsen, morning deejay on Franklin Delano Roosevelt was president during the KKRQ -FM, and Steve Sinicropi, sales manager, Vietnam War and that over two thirds could not place claimed the phone company was "cleaning out the the Civil War within 50 years of when it took place. lines." Twenty-five percent of the college seniors in Dallas, Jacobsen ran a fake commercial several times Texas, couldn't name the country south of the Texas Tuesday saying the phone company planned to border, while 39 percent of the college seniors in "blow soot and dust out of the line" and that people 197 Technological Literacy Symposium 211 AMMIIIMMIlliI should "bag the phones" to keep dirt from blowing control technological knowledge have the power to around homes and offices. control others and public policy. Then Jacobsen interviewed Sinicropi, who The World of Yesterday played the part of "Bill" the telephone company representative. We five in a time in civilization that is truly unique. Vice Admiral James B. Stockdale wrote in A Vietnam Sinicropi said the station received a number of Exerierce as follows: calls. The thin veneer of civilization that we know One convenience store reported people were is precious.It is also modem. We could buying plastic bags to cover their phone receivers. bring together one couple, husband and Others stopped to call spouses to tell them to take wife, for each generation of man since he appropriate action. acquired his present appearance and char- "Somebody called from one of the malls to say acteristics about 50,000 years ago. There they had covered all the phone receivers there. We would be only about 2000 couples, and even had a call from someone at the Unive:sity (of most of them would seem quite odd. The Iowa) saying they had bagged the phones," said Sin- first 1400 of the couples would have lived in icropi. caves, and only the last 33 would have ever seen a printed page. (p. 168) Noithwestem Bell officials in Cedar Rapids and Iowa City were not amused. Each had about a dozen Most of the people in this audience can recite inquiries about the sham. the major changes that have come about in the world through %:echnical inventions, Innovations and devel- "It was an inconvenience to some customers opments. Thee who reflect on changes in their and unfortunate the station played a trick on some of own families will recall that their parents were born its listtiners," said Bell regional manager Vic into an era where the airplane came of age, wherera- Pinckney. dio and television developed, where new and exotic Sinicropi said the station, after a request from materials such as rayon, nylon and composites Northwesiem Bell, ran a disclaimer pointing out the evolved, where the internal combustion engine was joke.(Dominion-Post, July 3, 1986) improve through new materials, better fuels and tur- bo charging, where a new form of heat engine How long can we remain a quality civilized socie- evolved from the work of Ellings of Norway, Whittle of ty if we have a continual increase in ignorance among England and Von Ohain of Germany, and worldwide our citizens? Ignorance is a cancer for democracy. communications via satellites, digital electronics and The condition of ignorance cannot be accepted in a programmable electronic computers. democratic society just because people are satisfied to languish through life as irresponsible self-serving, The World of Today and Tomorrow non-civilized beings. Each of us has witnessed major changes in the The potential for the rest of society is too grave relation of our country to the rest of the world. We given the power of the technical means of today. are no longer an isolated nation. We live in an inter- The choices of the ignorant in the form of collective dependent, ever-changing world, a world of acceler- human action can bring on all forms of disaster. If we ating industrialization, rapid population growth, wide- are to preserve our democracy there is no choice; spread malnutrition, increasing depletion of non- well educated responsible citizens are a necessity; renewable sources of minerals and energy, and a de- and if there are those who are not able to motivate teriorating environment. themselves on the basis of their own thoughtful ac- Our futures are linked irreversibly to the rest of tions to seek an education, then they must accept the world. More and more people of the world are the directions of other citizens and pursue education dependent on each other, whether the context is or choose to live elsewhere where ignorance is ac- the environment, raw materials, energy supply, fi- ceptable. The alternative is to abandon the concept nished products, food supply, or knowledge and of democracy and agree to an authoritarian state.If know-how. 'The advent of television and communi- the growth of cultural and technological ignorance cation satellites and the resulting rising e-:pectations continues the outcome will be a technical elite con- of people throughout the world, coupled with the mi- trolling the ignorant. Why is this so? Simply because croprocessor and its potential for accelerating the knowledge is power and those who understand and pace of technological change, portend a future far

1.98 212 Dichotomies, Relationships and the Development of Technological Literacy

different from the presort. Yet, many of our high impact on societies throughout the world than did school graduates are ignorant not only of the tech- any other technical event at any other time in history. nologies on which these worldwide changes are tak- All aspects of living are being affected directly or ing place, they are also ignorant of the geography indirectly; education, the home, agriculture, trans- and culture of the rest of the world. portation, recreation anc health care, to name a few. On a local scale we find that man; of our neigh- New uses and applications are being developed bors are unemployed and may never return to their every day. Microprocessors provide the means for former places of work. Those who are employed control of all forms of industrial and business opera- have discovered that, because of continual inflation tions providing what has been called intelligent auto- and cyclic recessions, they cannot maintain a life- mation. Microprocessors are used in oil r. glneries, style that only a few years ago was considered nor- chemical plants, paper mills, steel .Hills, power sta- mal. This is true for millions of we'r educated middle tions, research laboratories, offices, and homes. class people. They are being used to control internal combustion engines to improve fuel economy and lessen pollu- We are finding that the United States is no long- tion. The range of present and potential applications er competitive in heavy industries, and faces heavy is staggering. competition from other nations in the development and production of computers, machine tools, con- The design and construction of integrated cir- struction equipment, automobiles, textiles, electron- cuits, the core of microelectronics, have improved so ics and home appliances. Our mounting anc contin- that greater numbers of transistors, resistors, diodes uing trade deficits are manifestations of these and other electronic components can be placed on a events. single silicon chip. In 1971, Intel, Inc., following the work of their engineer, M. E. Hoff, brought out the In less than eighty years the United States has microprocessor by putting the entire central process- changed from an agricultural, to an industrial, to what ing unit of a compute: on a chip. By 1980, the power is now called a service economyManufacturing, and the capability of the microprocessor were in- mining, and construction combined account for only creased by new manufacturing capability enabling 35 percent of the current jobs in the United States. It the placement of 200,000 components on a single is predicted by various sources that by 1990 the ser- chip. The Japanese have chips in development that vice sector--banking, insurance, the communication will contain 250,000 circuits. Currently, manufactur- and information industries and fast food restaurants- - ers are working on integrated circuits with one million will provide 80 percent of the jobs. Many jobs in components and by 1990 they predict as many as 10 these fields are low in pay, part time, and offer few ca- million transistors on a single chip. reer advancement opportunities. The microprocessor has brought about the po- The heavy industries -- steel, auto, and machine tential of robotics and with robotics there will be a tools--will be replaced in the economy by businesses continuing change ir. the nature and distribution of and industries thrt facilitate, move, service, and man- jobs.It is evident that most people in the world are age, rather than make things.Manufacturing firms entering a new world for which they are not very liter- have been and are moving their operations to other ate or very well prepared. countries for a variety of reasons including lower wages. The new plants utilize the most sophisticat- No technical development in history, including ed equipment and management techniques. the computer, has had the potential of altering jobs and employment worldwide as has the development The new era we have entered is focused on el- of microelectronics and the microprocessor.Not ectronic computing equipment, telecommunica- only will jobs be eliminated through intelligent auto- tions, instrumentation and control devices, the mation, but many Jobs will be lost in the manufactur- health fields, entertainment equipment and space ing of electronic products because they contain few- vehicles and satellites. S,..rme of the new communi- er parts than the products they replace. cation firms are already recording market values twice those of the large steel and aluminum producers. The Social Dimension The Infomiation Revolution Another dichotomy and relationship category has to do with social behavior. We live in an interest- During the current decade r.;croprocessors are ing era. At a time when the complexity of technical ushering in a technological revolution that, from all meansisincreasing and major problems have predictions, will have a greater and more profound

1 9 J Technological Literacy Symposium 213

developed with respect to trade deficits and the 5. Freedom and responsibility growing ignorance of our citizens in most al! phases of learning, we find the social behavior of the nation 6. Freedom and creativity, growth, and as evidenced by a majority of business leaders to be advancement short-term and bottom line. The need in a fully functioning democracy is in- Norman Lear spoke about some of the issues as telligent well educated and responsible citizens.As he perceived them in a recent forum of the J.F.K. the complexity of the society increases sociallyand School of Government at Harvard University broad- technologically there is a corresponding increasein cast by Public Television (4/17/88). In addition to the the requirements for basic literacy in social and technological realms. short-term and bottom line behavior Lear noted that there seems to be a loss of pride in product and The technological society is a knowledge socie- lcng-term commitment to a business or industry. ty; a society that today requires a new form of literacy One business or community seems to be a goodas if all citizens are to function effectivelyas free and re- another so long as it turns a profit. The goal is instant sponsible members of the society. To participateef- success for self, perhaps a natural attitude in a "me" fectively in a democratic society it is critical thatall generation and a culture that celebrates commitment members understand the muliiple relationsamong to self and instant success. various technical systems and human affairs. Many The problem runs deep in the psych of the na- of the decisions that have been made individually tion.In an era where most of a lifetime may be re- and collectively, by highly educated scientists, in- quired to master a field of technological endeavor dustrialists and businessmen, as wellas collective di- and where the road to even small successes is lit- cisions by average citizens, have, inmany cases, tered with many failures, we promote values and atti- been highly detrimental to the long-term enhance- tudes that are detrimental to the long-term benefits ment of the quality of life and the sustainability of the of society as a whole. We seem to forget that the civ- technological and ecological systemson which human civilized life depends. ilizing process is critical to the commonweal and that this takes times; that learning and mastery of knowl- Thomas Jefferson recognized the need for intel- edge and know-how and the development of values ligent citizens for the proper functioning ofa demo- and attitudes are long term efforts. cratic society. Eric Sevareid in a recent interview for Christian I know no safe depository of the ultimate Science Monitor expressed his concerns about our powers of the society but the people them- problems today. He cited three. Each is directlyre- selves; and if we think them not enlightened lated to the creation and use of technical means. He enough to exercise their control witha believes there are three things that are new in histo- wholesome discretion, the remedy is not to ry. "One is the leap into space. Another is the exis- take it from them, but to inform their discre- tence of ultimate weapons. And the third is the poi- tion by education. soning of the natural sources of life--the rivers, air, A New Form of Literacy food." He goes on to point out that he does not believe that any of our real problems will be solved in The basic premise of Thomas Jefferson holdsas outer space. "I think," he said, "they're solved in in- true today as when he wrote it.But things have ner space and inner man and terra firma" (p. 6). The changed. We are discovering that technologicalsys- real problems are with our attitudes and values about tems designed and developed by a mentality ofan- self, others and our life giving and life sustaining en- other era are not sustainable. The problems and is- vironment. Short of abandoning the Earth we must sues facing citizens today concern the search for al- address our present and future here on Earth. ternatives to present technical systems, either by the design of new technical means or by the redesign of At issues is freedom and democracy as we know present ones. Successful designs will requirenew them. The dichotomies and relationships concern: knowledge and understanding of the behavior of 1. Freedom vs slavery systems and the relation of the various elements and 2. More control vs less control components of a system to the total. Today, technical systems function on a global basis and decisions 3.Independence vs dependence made by businesses, industries, and governments 4. More options vs fewer options elsewhere affect directly the businesses, industries and people in our own community.

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To gain control of our futures will require, espe- within an immediate and total environment. This daily in a democratic society, a new form of literacy by means that there is some context within which an all citizens if appropriate decisions are to be made element, particle, person, tool, event, action or some and implemented. The basic question becomes: other part of a system, acts and is acted upon. Per- "What learning is of most worth with respect to the ceiving the dynamics of a system requires first the design and control of technical means at the commu- identification of some central theme, function or be- nity level by citizens? At the regional or national lev- havior, whether the concern is with the composition el?" Simply answered, It is the knowledge and know- and behavior of a given material, a component of an how that has to di with the behavior and control of electronic communication system or the relation of technological systers in relation to human affairs technical devices to social or environmental change. and social purpose. The goal is understanding and predicting the behav- What should all citizens know about technical ior of technical means. means? What should they be able to do? Obviously, What has been occurring is the evolution of a every citizen cannot know all there is to know about new discipline, a new form of literacy, which is not de- all of technology and human affairs. Therefore, the pendent upon or subservient to science, as com- search must be for the structure of the discipline; the monly known and perceived, but is a new science, central themes, systems, concepts, and principles the science of technology. The intellectual endeav- that provide Insight Into the behavior of technical ors involved in the creation of the technical means of means, not only technically but in relation to, and today are of a different order from those of the craft within, social-cultural and environmental contexts. era of the past. The new modes of thinking have es- The goal is control of technical means by technologi- tablished the base for the new discipline and the cally literate human beings. This means to attain con- new science. Those involved in this new science are trol Is to gain knowledge and understanding of the concerned with the behavior of tools, machines and behavior of socio-technical systems and their relation technical systems in relation to human beings, their to human beings and their environment. societies and the environment. Technologists base True literacy will require sustained effort over their work on information about the behavior of multiple variables and dynamic environments. The goals time to develop knowledge and understanding of the abstract concepts upon which the technical are predictability, replication, reliability, optimization and efficiency of system operations based on objec- world has been created and functions. This level of tive knowledge. Emphasis is on logical, instrumen- understanding cannot be gained from hearing or tal, orderly and disciplined approaches. The view is reading about inventions and technical systems. supported by most recent investigations that con- What is required is direct and sustained involvement clude that technology and science, as commonly in the processes of the technologist. The mind must perceived, are distinctly different forms of human be- be prepared to be capable of observing and esta- havior. The concept of technology and science be- blishing differences, similarities and relationships. ing different ends of the same continuum is probably Human beings are not only perceptual beings, they false. What is probably true is that technology is one are also conceptual. They are capable of learning of the sciences as is biology, psychology, anthropol- and using technological modes of thought; the intel- ogy, sociology and other disciplines concerned with lectual processes or methods of inquiry uses human behavior, and the term science, as commonly technologists. used, is the source of the problem. Even if the prob- A significant part of the literacy issue is lan- lem is explored using the commonly accepted defini- guage. Language is not just a means of communi- tions of science and technology, we find two distinct- cating thoughts, ideas, concepts or technical infor- ly different forms of activity with different goals, ques- mation; it also structures the way people perceive tions, and means. Each field is mutually exclusive themselves and Now they act and function. Being and not mutually dependent, although as with all sci- technologically literate requires that the individual be ences, each has been enhanced by the other. conversant in several technical languages, including Technology Education the symbolic languages of the various technological systems. The design of an education system to develop a level of technological literacy in all citizens is a com- Technological systems are composed of ele- plex task. It is, however, a critical and necessary task ments that are related and which interact in some for a democratic society. way. Everything exists in relation to other elements

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The belief that human beings attain their highest standpoint as well as a social-cultural perspective. level of human attainment in a free society and that Most citizens have never had the opportunity for particttatoty democracy is the best form of govern- the disciplined and systematic study of these ment presupposes that citizens must participate in systems. Even the technical experts are limited in their decisions concerning the design, development, and understanding. The generally know about and use of technical systems. Participatory democracy in understand the physical forces and principles which a society with more than a primitive order of technical provide stereophonic sound, linear induction motors means requires participatory technology. One without the other will not work. and color photography. Those who create these devices know about and can control these devices. Participation in social or technical decisions re- But the issue is not the control of a single device; the quires social and technical knowledge and access to issue is the understanding and control of the behav- social and technical tools. ior of technological systems as a major component of These are the preconditions if citizens are to social systems and as a critical factor in cultural again become part of the process with a sense of in- change and disruption within societies. telligent participation and not alienation. The chal- The education of citizens for participation in de- lenge to education brought about by the random decisions about and the management of society for hu- velopment of technical means demands major altera- man purposes concerns not only the study and com- tions for one primary reason. The characteristics of a prehension of the behavior of the various technolog- society based oli a high order of technical means al- ical systems and the technical elements and the ter the questions with respect to error and failure. tools associated with these systems, but also the be- Failure in a complex, modem society is of far greater havior of total systems including the relationships to consequence than in earlier societies. human beings, the social/cultural components of the In earlier times are technical means was not as environment and the total system.The concern powerfui, dependency on multiple subsystems not would be with the dynamics of the system. The fo- as great. If systems were disturbed they returned to cus would be on what eAch element does within the equilibrium in a relatively short period of time and system, not what a thing is. The goal of education damage to human beings and the environment was would be to provide citizens with ameans to gain limited. Not so With respect to the technical systems knowledge, to gain contr., and thereby mastery of the twentieth century. Yet, as dependent as the over the tools to serve human purposes. survival of society is on the efficient functioning of Unfortunately, education efforts with respect to highly complex technical systems, we find that today the study of technology have been narrowly direct- the great masses of people are denied access to the ed, for the most part, toward the preparation of indi- tools. The tools of our technical systems have be- viduals for jobs and specialized role in society rather come the property of experts and are under the con- than the preparation of self-governing citizens. Also, trol of specialists. Thus, the control of the evolution it has become evident that Ike new and expanding of technical means and society becomes the prov- knowledge base of technology has transcended ince of select specialists, none of whom have the re- most educators, and the compett..n,e o' the average sponsibility or mandate to be concerned about i.u- citizen. Many educators have treated the study of man affairs, social purpose and total systems. technology as something apart from the daily affairs If citizens are to regain their freedom and obtain of citizens and the responsibility of public education. control of their destinies, then they must become in- By doing so they have effectivoly turned over the volved in the study of technology and gain access to control of a powerful tool to a regime of experts and the tools' (*Tools in the sense used in this seciton denied their students access to the very knowledge refers to all devices from the most simple to the hie 1- and tools so vital to the processes of creating, man- ly complex which are used by society to produce aging, regulating, and directing technical means for goods and services; transmit, store or retrieve infor- human purposes. Educators often view technology mation; and transport goods and services; together as an "object" and not as a "subject," as something with the know-how of their use.) Dependency on "out there" not really important to education for life common sense and the folk knowledge of yesterday and living and thus inappropriate for study. The will not suffice. The techia.cal means of today, with its technical mean 3 of society seems to be an abstract sophisticated tools and knowledge, requires disci- created by some individuals which exists outside the plined and systematic study, from a technical sphere of awarene3s of educators.

202 216 Dichotomies, Relationships and the Development of Technological Literacy

Because of this the education system has mut- literacy focuses on the role of the individual In a free ed the awareness of citizens of their ignorance of society who functions in many roles and is ultimately technology and pursued the policy of machine tool- responsible in democratic societies fcr the proper ing citizens into marketable commodities in narrow functioning of their communities and nations. specialities. It Is also important to remember in the age of The education system creates what Arthur high technology that technologically literate citizens Koestler calls an "urban barbarian" by denying stu- are better able to serve the needs of their nation in dents access to knowlige and tools and limiting times of national emergency, political or otherwise. their interest in and awareness about technology. Without access to tools and knowledge of tech- Citizens are placed in the position of being effective- nokrgical systems, citizens effectively lose control of ly shaped e..d controlled by those in command of their technology. They have become totally depen- the tools and know:edge of the new technologies. dent on technical means, yet ignorant about them. Also, the comprehension of the behavior of total sys- To alter this course will require that technology be- tems is voided and technology becomes less and comes a basic component in the education of all citi- less responsive to citizens and human purposes. zens so they are conversant In the language of tech- The issue seems to be one for which education, nological systems and can comprehend the basic as a social institution, has not developed successful concepts, the dynamics, and the interrelatedness alternatives. Most education programs have focused and Impact of technological systems at all levels of on the past, the here and now, and on meeting rath- society. er specific vocational needs. What is required is a The Human Dimension new mentality, a different way of perceiving society an:. technology. All citizens should be involved in The human factor in society presents us with determining the questions and finding the answers, many problems because of the great variabilities that and they should be prepared for participation in the exist. These variabilities bring to the field of educa- process with adequate knowledge and tools for the tion many problems which pose serious obstacles to task. This means a comprehension and understand- any effort addressing complex issues such as tech- ing of the concept of system and the understanding nological literacy. As one explores the issue, it be- of the interrelatedness of systems and the elements comes obvious that in addition to the dichotomies of a system. Everything effects everything else. and relationships already explored, there are also dichotomies and relationships related to human traits The goal of education should be to provide indi- and behavior. viduals with the means to find order in a complex global society and to attain the knowledge, skills, tools, Some 17 years ago, I had the pleasure of orga- attitudes, and values required to participate fully in nizing, with Wil J. Smith, a conference at West Virgin- determining the nature and direction of their society ia University on the theme, "Education in a Techno- andinthe management and operation of their logical Society." society. It was a two-day conference and during this time The issue of technology education and techno- we explored topics such as Technology and Social logical literacy impacts on all levels and categories of Purpose, The Future of Man in a Technological Soci- society. Technologically literate citizens would not ety, Technology and Change: Educational Impera- only enhance and protect our democratic way of life tives, and Education,Technology and Human at all levels by being capable of participating in the Values. decision making and management of their society, One paper was delivered by Waiter Lowen who but they rould also be better able to contribute in at that time was Dean, School of Advanced Technol- significant ways to the needs of business and indus- ogy, State University of New York, Binghamton (pp. try in a highly competitive global economy where 34-351. change is inevitable and continual learning and re- laming is required. The new literacy, technological Walter Lowen made three points in his oresenta- literacy, can enhance our competitive potential. lion which impressed me. One, he said he was very optimistic about the role of technology in -3ociety. He The technologically literate citizens would also believed we should not become enslaved by tech- be more self-reliant and capable of meeting their own nology; rather, technology should make us free and needs and those of their communities, thus enhanc- therefore add to the dignity of man and give us more ing the quality of life at the local level.The new 2 mm--_,..

Technological Literacy Symposium 217 IM

of an opportunity to be human, not less. Second, he sensory inputs, while the other pole focuseson addressed the reason why many people are nega- things and graphical sensory inputs. Thehorizontal tive or less hopeful about technology. He stated that axis dichotomizes the concrete and abstractand the primary reason Is that there is confusion about Identifies people who are characterized by theway what technology really Is. He noted that technology they relate to their world, some ina coordinated way is not the products produced or the things suchas and others in a symbolicmanner. light bulbs, automobiles, Jet enginesor nuclear reac- tors. Rather, he stated: It is a way of thinking, a ser- Lowen further analyzed personality types follow- ies of methodologies that have evolved for solving ing Cad Jung's work. Jung postulated therewere in- problems." Lowen noted that certain words haveen- troverts and extroverts and later proposed that there tered our language as concepts that enableus to were people who could be classified as feeling 'think about" and solve technical problems. These types, intuitive types, thinking types, and sensation include feedback, critical mass, network, parametric types. Lowen superimposed these characteristics systems, programming, algorithms and operational on his dichotomous diagram as is shown in Figure 2. modeling, to name a few. In his analysis Lowen noted that peolecan be combinations of adjacent fields by rarely combinations of The importance of the second point made by cross fields. Thinking and feeling are opposite poles Lowen at that time has, I believe, been overlooked as are intuition and sensation. by educators. For the most part educators consider technology to be things and thus focus the curricula on teaching about things, thus missing the potential to develop the field of study so that students gain insight into the discipline and are able to reduce the confusion that exists about technology in society. The third and very significant point that Lowen reminded us about in the fall of 1970 was that people are different; that there is a whole spectrum of human traits or behaviorally built-in characteristics. In his presentation Lowen developed a model which he referred to as a map of human characteristics. The model is shown in Figure 1. You will note that in the model there are two axes. The verticalaxis has one pole which focuses on people and verbal

Figure 2. Human traits in relation to curricular offerings. (Lowen, 1970, p. 41) The importance of Lowen's work is that it illustrates the difference in people. His work has importance for those in education as they consider currier: lum development or abstract concepts suchas technological literacy. If we relate various types of human endeavors to the various segments of Figure 2we have an interesting and informative model whichen-

tobas ables us to observe the spectrum of human traits and their related human endeavors. Figure 1. Classification of human traits. (Lowen, 1970, p. 39) Notir:e that schooling, for the most part, has dichotomized the curriculumintosimilar com- partments. The goal istoproduce highly

204 218 Dichotomies, Relationships and the Development of Technological Literacy

compartmentalized, focused, polarized individuals capacities were the prime factors in tt,creation of who function appropriately as biologists, sociolo- our complex, pluralistic society of today. gists, mathematicans. Lowen in his study provides examples of various The problem is that the probloms of today are human profiles that relate to certain work activities systems problems.There are no one-discipline (see Table 1). The profiles are categorized by the problems. Our problems today have to do with urban four poles -- intellect/abstract, verbal/people, hands/ and rural housing, toxic waste, energy conversion, things and body/concrete. unemployment, health care, international competi- The two poles that have traits associated with tion, privacy, transportation and education, among the field of technology are intellect abstract and others. The appropriate solution to our problems hands/things. Within these modes as Lowen identi- rests with people who are able to bring the opposite fies them are profiles which are identified by terms poles together toward the center where they can be such as analyst, conceptualizer, suspector, and the- creative and where the thinking concerns concepts, oretician for the intellect/abstract mode and imple- policy, structure and management. mentor, organizer, operator and moider for the In 1982 Walter Lowen authored a major work hands/things mode. titled A Systems Science Model of the Mind and Per- Concepts, Consequences and sonality-- Dichotomies of the Mind. In this work he Technological Literacy developed a 16-pole model, expanding on his earlier work. Figure 3 illustrates this model. The original di- The dichotomies and relationships that have dichotomies exist, abstract-concrete and people- rect impact on the question of technological literacy things, together with the identification of the range from the growth of ignorance in an era of in- "capacity traits" related to mouth output, mind out- creasing technological complexity, to the lessening put, hands output and bcdy output that relate to commitment to teaming and an increased concern words, tone, data, and facts. Lowen calls this dia- for short-term monetary gains in a society that re- gram a "map of capacities." Each individual is differ- quires more intellect commitment, not less, more ent. It can be posited that this diversity of traits and knowledge. nC/i iess and longer-term commitments 601. so Ras on Wog Adhlis Mete Pad. Mat MAMA* bombs Itawisco AIWA Went on NOW scent WOW mei ad Mama "OW wow rat" ownwswie wean. low. mime w dwwwww min WwwWw etwohlos Itwohne lowc WA wwIW WM Ownewakaw Ardelareere. wpm worm wan few 890% alomMen1 warn. wowestiwa wf wr w wwww Noweate wmiwte Weal swam WA wan WA SWOON Damn tw000t. pat sorhownt. unwary w wow pima& cropollw WOWS ol- wewsonnwes wol pilaw. mei win M- aw ISIMPOSA clap MMIN0G11111 ANISNICai faCtlig. ildrAIIMINVOR 011111111R11 Vend SWAN Owne ostockw. dolma sass w train. Pune went. caw wises a OM OINK miss useter, bur Wow Wed*. e nolowt ntedill eftwees 811111101 iiell 011110 ?WNW CANNINA nollowele tooll silent. In* left bee lew. Naafis COWIN Pea 10111M. arspsts, new. 01~16. must Mode lueirwor es leamet, ortswoweol stisWIL POO MOO nita eve, noltna

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Figure 3. Map of Capabilities (Lowen, 1982, p. Table 1. Examples of Profiles and Work Activities 100). (Lowen, 1982, p.231).

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to mastery of the complexities of an interdependent The preparation of intelligent responsible citi- increasingly technological world.it is difficult to de- zens for life in a complex interdependent changing termine how best to approach the question of tech- world then rests on the identification of those con- nological literacy in a democratic society especially stants relating to knowing and doing in the technolo- when we recognize the great diversity of human be- gies required of all citizens. This assumption follows ings. Are there any constants? Are there any central Netzet's Rule of Irretrievable Loss which says: themes that educators can use to aid in addressing Students should be taught on a compulsory the problem? Certainly it would be impossible to re- or universal bans, only those things that quire all citizens to become experts in all phases of knowing and doing in music, art, literature, biology, 'ergo proportion* of them will nailer learn un- psychology, technology and other fields of human less exposed to the material at the stage in endeavor. How, then, can the problem be ad- the education process in question, and which ft is important that most people pass- dressed? Where shall we direct our efforts? ing through that stage do learn. I suggest that any valid approach must emerge from one's world view. What are your assumptions There are many ways of approaching the question of "what should be universal and compulsory in about life and living, about people, resources, life on Earth and the purpose of life? Who are we? Why are the study of technology studies?" There are many we here? Where are we going? Answers to these ways to answer the question. An economist would questions, which are as old as civilization, provide focus on the production function, an engineer on the base to determine "how are we going to get the technical, an anthropologist on the cultural and a there?" sociologist on the sow!. None of these single discipline external views of technology 'A sufficient to Various approaches to the question of techno- structure a program of technological literacy today. logical literacy have been proposed. Some are nar- What is needed is a focus whkh has been evolving row or instrumental and focus on corporate needs, from the new and emerging science of technology, national defense and job preparation. These ap- namely, the study of the creation and use of techni- proaches serve the operational needs of society. cal means' -- tools, machines, techniques, technical Other approaches focus on the larger cultural and systemsand the behavior of technological systems democratic dimensions of technological literacy in relation to people, their societies, the environment (Haberer, p. 225). and the civilization process." ( Technical means is Given the problems of the growth of ignoranc ,,, used by the author rather than technology. Technol- and the social behaviors of short-term goals, instant ogy is the discipline or field of study (-ology); techni- success and the bottom line, and the ever limited re- cal means are the elements created and used which sources of public education, it seems best that atten- are the object of study.) A technological literacy fo- tion be directed to basic literacy first, together with cused on the creation, use, b9havior and relational emphasis on human goals and social pu rpose. If one factors of technical means provides a base upon does not have the basic tools for learning and has which to develop programs of study for the prepara- not determined answers to the quest on of where tion of intelligent and capable citizens of a democrat- and why they are tending, ft is of little Lee to attempt ic society. to address the complex question of technological To place the foregoing definition in focus and to literacy. provide a perspective from other standard forms of Secondly, it seems imperative that the equation literacy, the question can be asked: "What does ft of technological choice and social and environmental mean to be literate in French or Russian?" A typical consequences be addressed. Rather than accept reply would be that the student should be able to as a given the continual infusion of technical means speak, read and write in the French or Russian lan- into society, the equation must be reordered. The guage, implying a knowledge and ability to perform primary equation should be the design and selection using the language. It also implies a knowledge and of technical means for an agreed-upon social pur- understanding of the history and culture of the coun- pose. This approach then provides a base to ad- tries where the language is primary. Similar criteria dress technological literacy for all citizens. This ap- would apply with respect to technological literacy. proach focuses on knowledge about and assess- The definition of technology provides clues to ment of technical means in a context that provides the learning activities that would be meaningful, cu- for intelligent choices. mulative, and have long-term applications.For 206 220Dichotomies, Relationships and the Development of Technological Literacy

instance, studies concerning the creation and evolu- new technical means into a social and natural con- tion of technical means and systems would provide text. Involved would be the processes of technolog- insight into the relation If these means and systems ical assessment and the prediction of probable im- to human beings and society, thus establishing data pacts and risks. for the derivation of concepts and principles con- Emerging from an analysis of the definition is the cerning their behavior on which assessments and realization that there are four basic interrelated sys- predictions could be based. tems that determine the structure and ethos of any Understanding how technical means are created society.There are: the ideological, sociological, tech- would aid in improving our ability to design and nological and ecological systems shown in Figure 5. create appropriate technical means for our communi- The diagram in Figure 5 provides a structure ties. Citizens knowledgeable about the use of tech- which illustrates the major systems and their relation- nical means and systems would have better Insight ships. In addition to a system relational diagram there into the best or most appropriate procedures as well is a need for a structure which illustrates the dynam- as problems associated with the adoption and use of ics of the processes of the system. The participatory technical means by society. The latter knowledge processes in which people are involved as they pur- could then be used in the design of alternatives to sue the design of technological systems to serve so- our present problem-plagued technological systems cial purposes are shown in Figure 6. The first dia- or for the redesign of current systems to attain a gram answers questions about systems and relation- greater degree of compatibility with human beings, ships while the second diagram illustrates the dy- their communities, and the environment. namics of the content by showing the relationships An example of the relation of technical means to among the systems -- ideological, sociological, and human beings and society is provided in Figure 4. technological- -and the human intellectual processes Here we observe that changes in sanitation facilities, involved in the evolution of the ideological, sociolog- brought about by changes in population, are related ical, technological, and ecological systems and soci- to increasesor decreases in disease carrying ety. Three critical processes are involved--valuing, bacteria. enabling, and assessing. Number of people In thy et Other categories implied by this focus would be Amount of studies about evolving and future technical means and public policy concerning the adoption and use garbage icy taliModernization per SIMI of new technologies. Included in the latter would be studies concerning employee adaptability to technological change and the appropriateness of given Bacteria+1 BB technical means and systems with respect to quality per "Well Migration Xi of life and sustainability of communities. into city

4\1/4 Number of/of is)Sanitation diseases ,Nip...... facilities

Figure 4. (Maryyama, 1966, p.58) Knowledge of the technical aspects of systems would focus on the behavior of material transformation processes. However, the operational behavior of systems and subsystems would focus on techno- social relationships, perhaps one of the more complex categories of learning. The techno-social relationships would concern the relation of technical means and systems to individuals, communities, work and employment, and the natural environment. Here, the focus of learning would be on the Identifi- cation and use of concepts and principles for assessing and predicting the effects of the introduction of a Figure 5. The Interrelationship of a System (DeVore, 1980, p.339).

2 .i''7 Technological Literacy Symposium 221

The structure illustrated provides themeans to system of instruction in the field of technology that identify content for curricula for the study of technol- will meet the needs of al! studentsas part of their ogy and the measurement of outcomes to determine basic education as citizens in a democratic society. technological literacy. This is the basic challenge, the rest is commentary. PlIph Slaght cautions us to not confuse courses References in technclogy, where a technical system itself is taught and mastered, with courses about Buckely, W. F., Jr. (1987, April 25). Growth of ignor- "technology," where a technical syste.n is examined ance attracts media. Dominion Post 4A. and evaluated but seldom learned. Slaght stresses DeVore, P. W. (1986). Measuring technological liter- the need to know and be able to use the intellectual acy: Problems and issues. Bulletin of Science. processes of the technologist by having direct ex- Technology and Society, fi(2,3). periences in the technologies (p. 30). Slaght's posi- DeVore, P. W. (1980). TechnolooyAn introduc tion is valid. Just as it is not possible to be literate in fign. Worcester, MA: Davis. another language without being able to read, speak and write the language so too is it impossible to be Haberer, J. (1986). Technological literacy and the technologically literate without becoming involved university: Concepts, priorities, and political real- with technical knowledge and technical systems and ities. Bulletin of Science. Technology and Soci- their elements and operations. WY., fi. Kidder, R. M. (1987, January 28). Eric Sevareidon U.S. future. Christian Science Monitor, 7 9., 1, 6.

IMUING MOMS 1111111MMINT Koerner, J. D. (Ed.) (1981). The new liberal arts: Apt MOWN. IIMOCUOU PIOCOMU ONO Oa WV KM NM WI SSW Wel AM exchange of views. New York: Alfred P. Sloan IOW AM Ill *NW sora. tow WI NOW menus so mum TAM Foundation.

SOCIOL Lowen, W. (1982). A systems science model of the SYOSICIMMS 110111.111111111 mind and personality -- dichotomies of the mind. ATTAIN IMPOIM '41 H...... New York: John Wiley & Sons. 8101 MUMPS name mainiss 141marry Lowen, W. (1970). Technology, education and soci- ono &mow e em ascatom ety. Education in a Technological Society. Con- 'ITIO010101111r" $111111111 ference Proceedings. Morgantown, WV: Office MUM NOVA. RONS" H of Research and Development, Appalachian Center, West Virginia University. IMMO IONCIOTIVIL 111111P01/STIAL}....., IRO 1100StY IMP MOMS Miller, J. D. (1986). Technological literacy: Some 11101111101r1 concepts and measures. Bulletin of Science, IfILhOplatiorlerid 1Y,fi.

Figure 6. The Evolution and Relationship of Tech- Netzer, D. (1981). Response no. 5. The New Liber- al Arts: An Exchange of Views. New York: Al- nological Systems (DeVore, 1980, p.340). fred P. Sloan Foundation, 36-38. The same is true for those who would propose Sevareid, E. Christian Science Monitor. programs for attaining technological literacy that do not involve the relation of technical systems with hu- Slaght, R. L. (1987, February 18). We can no longer man beings, social knowlecige and social systems. separate the thinkers from the doers in the liber- Such approaches will be abortive and interfere with al arts. The Chronicle of Higher Education. the development of the kinds of programs required Stockdale, J. B. (1987, May).Points to ponder. to attain true technological literacy, a critical and ne- Reader's Digest, 168. cessary component of today's education if the goal is to return the control of technical means to people to serve human purposes. Given the multiple dichotomies and complex relationships, those who have accepted the mantle of leadership in education have a monumental challenge. It is: Design and implement a curriculum and 208 Technological Literacy Symposium 223

Technology's Impact on Education: Don't Leave it to Chance

Dr. Robert C. Harris Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana

Two truths have emerged regarding the age of molding machine and (b) a field trip to an on -line poly- technology.First, technological development will mer raw material producer. Both activities were fasci- continue to expand at its apparent exponential rate. nating experiences though they provided limited Second, the hamlet of technology will continue to structured information. However, the course was proceed from the laboratory through prototypes and really about fabricating materials, so all other leaming sophisticated application to widely used consumer experiences were in woods and metals. After all, that products. While we can forecast these technology was the knowledge industrial education teachers trends with reasonable confidence, we cannot pre- needed in 1964, or was it? dict accurately incremental changes and specific Twenty-three years later, there is more volume applications. of polymers than metals produced in the United For educators concerned with the relevance of States. (2) And, in Indiana, the polymer industry is curriculum and the timely infusion of advanced tech- one of a few which shows growth. Yet, what does nologies into programs, this systemato planning of the curriculum of the state's industrial education pro- educational change is a monumental task. Not only grams emphasize? You guessed it, we are heavy are curriculum experts seldom included in the tech- into metal.In retrospect, what should the teacher nological development processes they do not pos- education program have taught? sess sound systematic models for analyzing the im- Perhaps this isn't a serious problem. No second pact of technology on the nation's labor force. chances on this question. Indiana and many other Their choices are few in number. Curriculum ex- states are losing jobs rapidly in the steel producing perts can pilgrimage to the mecca of the futurist. and metal fabricating industries.Little wonder the Careful study of futurist predictions will lead to the midwest is unkindly referred to as the rustbelt. development of worthy concept pieces, but seldom does this fountain of knowledge lead to concrete Well, the purpose of this paper is not to kick the signs of conscientious educators who want desper- programmatic changes. The information is essential ately to offer the soundest educational programs and but not sufficient.Or, the curriculum experts can wo struggle constantly with the difficult task of conduct occupational survey and document specific changing school curricula. The purpose of this pa- knowledge and skills. But this process assumes ma- per is to describe one approach which has success- jor adaptations of the technology into common prac- fully brought together educators, scientists, engi- tice.In this case the information is sufficient but not neers, and managers to consider the pervasive im- timely. In sum, these in exact methods do not offer pact of advanced technology. sound guidelines for determining what knowledge and skills are appropriate for the educational system The Corporation for Science and Technology and at what level. What has been lacking is an organ- The Corporation for Science and Technology izational strategy which would enable educators to (CST) was established by legistlative enactment in anticipate technological change which in turn will af- 1982. It was created in part, to undergrid the state's fect programs. In-depth, sustained, and collabora- economic development effort.First, state leaders tive efforts are needed. knew many jobs would be lost to changing technolo- By way of example, let me recount an event in gy through the relocation of major employers and the 1964. (1) A teacher education class at a midwestem production efficiency reeked through advanced university included (a) the observation of an injection technology. Second, the state had to refoct's its industrial base; however, it was realistic for Indiana to

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remain product production oriented. To achl-mia this Through the partnership with government, edu- objective required focused efforts in specialized ad- cational institutions, and the private economic sec- vanced technologies. Government and private sector, CST has the capacity to promote application of tor representatives collaborated on the identification new technologies to products and services, engi- of the most promising technological fields. The ef- neering and design systems, design and test simula- fort culminated in the CST's working agenda. tions, manufacturing and quality control programs, office operations, sales and marketing programs, Wisely, legislators did not set their new corpora- training activities, and accounting and management tion creation adrift in the uncharted seas of technolo- operations. Thirty-one million dollars have been in- From the gy with a ten year budget of 150 million. vested to date in a number of projects. The projects beginning, a powerful tri-representative governing are of three types: (a) start-up and initial support of board was created. This board was composed of ma- seven research centers, (b) research and initial engi- jor government leaders (e.g. the lieutenant govern- neering pha_ees of a number of advanced technolo- or), educational officials (e.g. university president), gy new product lines, and (c) start-up of new ad- and economic sector representatives (e.g. CEO of vanced technology businesses. Magnavox Government & Industrial Electronics Com- pany). See Figure 1. The investment of the public funds is a means of leveraging private funds which have been matched on an average of 11 to one. Grants for new products have a pay back provision which provides for a portion of the products' revenues to be returned to the Corporation for reinvestment. Clearly, a major dimension of the Corporation is its investment in promising projects which are consistent with targeted technologies. Working Structure of the Corporation The small professional staff of the Corporation is primarily concerned with daily operation, proposal development, and contract administration. However, Figure 1. Partners in the CST Organization the backbone of the organization Is its technology Among the members of the 25 person board are committees. three individuals readily identified with vocational ed- There are 13 technology committees and two ucation including the State Director of Vocational Ed- educational committees (see Table 1). As noted ear- ucation and two college presidents. The board man- lier, Indiana has identified special advanced technol- ages the Corporation, a non-profit entity, and as- ogies for development.State leaders felt these suresitsconsistency with the legislative man- technologies were consistent with the human and date, the needs of the state, and the emerging capital resources of thestate and offered the technologies. greatestcompetitiveadvantagefor economic The purpose of CST is to strengthen the long development. term industrial base of the state by infusing ad- In general, the committees' mission is to "identify vanced technology into new business start-ups and the technological threats and opportunities" which new product lines within businesses (Campbell& will impact Indiana's future and to maximize the Hague, 1986). Thus, CST is a planned response to state's public and private abilities to seize economic the forecasted dramatic change in the economic sec- opportunities.in short, these business, academic, tor. Over the next two decades the state's factories, and government leaders are creating the state's offices, hospitals, medical offices, libraries, stores, foundation for economic expansion and applications schools, transportation systems, communication sys- of advanced technology. The technology commit- tems, and homes will change significanly because of tees are composed of some of our state's finest scientific breakthroughs and applications of ad- minds in research and engineering. They come from vanced technology. Consumer demands for (a) low- universities, government, and the private sector. er unit costs and (b) increased quality ofproducts Over 500 members contnbute their insights, monitor and services will continue to be a driving force. technological development, plan communication activaies,provide technicalconsultation,and 2 i 0 Technological Literacy Symposium 225

recommend funding priorities and projects. During the current year, each committee devel- Table 1 oped long range plans which synthesized itsopera- tional approach with the knowledge of the threats Technology Interests of CST Committees and opportunities it envisioned for thestate. Addi- tionally, a new plan piloted which brought selected Committee Woods committees together to study anticipated changes in Advanced Materials Powdered metallurgy: super plastics institutions and the implications these changes and adhesives; polymer, ceramic & metal might stimulate in the technologies. Thus,a kind of based composites; superconductive matrix analysis of these changing institutionswas de- materials;structural ceramics veloped. Agricultural Genetics Genetic manipulations, embryo trans- Unquestionably, homes, hospitals, schools, plants, plant genetic modfications, All farms, and factories will change dramatically in the applications to agricultune operations next two decades. These changes will no doubtre- Artifidal intelligence Expert systems,computer architec- spond to advanced technologies in many of the ture, natural language driven process kg, vision for robotics, optical scan identified areas and a change in one technology ners of written text quite possibly will prompt major developments inan- Biotechnology DNA probes, monoceonal antibodies other. For example, medical practice will likely in- and enzymes, medical diagnosis, waste clude diagnosis aided by application of expertsys- management, biotechnic quality control tems, the so-called artificial intelligence, perhaps fol- Control Systems Computers, microelectronics, optical lov.i by surgery using laser beam technology. systems,sensor systems, iterative What will these changes require in workstation de- feectiack process control syclems sign, advanced materials, and power sources? To Energy Development Combustion technologies, post combus- consider such questions, experts from the fivecom- tion treatments, shale oil, cogeneration mittees would interact. The creative potential of this systems, solar voltaic systems cross team effort shows great promise. Industrial Byproducts Elimination of waste, usable products, The committees, through members' expertise, regulation of hazardous and solid waste are the link between the frontiers of advanced tech- Information Computing pcmar, Interface processing nology and applications in the economicsector. standardization, simultaneous voice They provide a window through which and data handing one can view the likely impact of technology on the workplace and Integrated Optics Optical sensors, optical metrology, op- the implied impact on those workers whose skills will ticalsignal processing,fiberoptics, be most affected by these changes. nonlinear optics semiconductor electro- optic devices Vocational Training Committee Manufacturing Automated process controls, integrated The Vocational Training Committee and the design, Interferestandards,3-D vi- Science Education Committee are the two education sion, color and pattern recognition oriented committees. While each has itsown mis- Medical Out patient treatment in home sion, their common missions are (a) to consider the basedsystems, less invasive sur- impact of advanced technology on the needs of the gery, Implanted microelectronic circuits for musde and function control state's citizens and (b) to develop recommendations and informational programs for the education and Microelectronics Higher density, speed, and reliability training enterprise. chips, broader applications In medium and small industries The specific mission of the Vocational Training Telecommunications Integrated digital netwoiksystems; Committee (VTC) is to monitor developments, optical applications; extensive appilca trends, needs, and opportunities resulting from ad- ions In homes, medical care, busi- vanced technology to which employment education ness and industry and training systems must respond if the state's human capitalis to complement the economic This information on committee interests was drawn from a opportunities. presentation of CTS President John Hague (1987) and the This Committee was established in 1984 under CST Annual Report (Campbell & Hague, 1986). the very able leadership of Ms. Geneva Fletcher Shedd, State Director of Vocational Education. Con-

2 1 1 226 Technology's Impact on Education: Don't Leave it to Chance ...MM.. MEW

Shedd, State Director of Vocational Education. Con- implication is straight forward. Second, developers sistent with the CST membership principle, the Com- of expert systems presently appear to bring one of mittee's members are training directors in the private two thinking approaches to their tasks. The confron- sector, vocational and technical educators for all lev- tation of these styles is often counter productive to els of public education, heads of propietary institu- the creative process. Thus, by implication the questions, and leaders of job training programs. tion arises what can the educational system do to overcome these potential barriers to Al systems? On The Committee's task is to monitor trends in advanced technology, develop interpretive materials, a more ethical and philosophical level should the educational system attempt to alter thinking styles? plan communication activities, provide technical con- These questions go to the very root of educational sultation, and recommend funding priorities and projects. The Committee acts as a facilitator between principles. The issue of what to teach is elevated to the issue of how to teach and toward what goats. the scientific and educational communities. Content and process will once again be analyzed fur Regarding the advanced technology linkage, their integration. two activities merit elaboration. These activities ad- These examples suggest the types of informa- dress the questions "How is advanced technolo- tion which can be obtained by the committee linkag- gy monitored? "and "How is thisinformation es.However, the linkage alone is not sufficient; disseminated?". thoughtful probing, careful listening, and critical in- All technology committees include at least two terpreting are required of VTC members. Once ide- members from the Vocational Training Committee. as are developed, members report to the Vocational These VTC members attend the technology commit- Training Committee. This Committee must filter and tee meetings. There are three settings in which synthesize the information and determine its impor- communication occurs (a) participation in deliberation tance to education and training programs. of the technology committee, (b) informal interactive Information dissemination is an important Com- conversation with individuals and small groups (e.g. mittee task.initially, the Committee sponsored two in social context), and (c) personal consultive con- statewide conferences for this purpose. A video tacts.In the technology committee deliberations, tape of the initial conference's highlights was pro- VTC members may direct questions to speakers and duced to be used in regional planning efforts, some encourage lines of thinking among the technology of which have been held. While the conferences committee members about educational implications. were well attended and received, the Committee's However, it is important to realize the advanced tech- assessment of specific attainments was below ex- nology scientist is an information source, not a curric- pectation. Three major weaknesses were identified ulum expert or program planner. (a) the information was too general, (b) speakers had Thus, the critical function of the VTC member is insufficient time to develop essential points, and (c) to link the advanced technology with education plan- the relevance of the information to educational pro- ning.This function calls for understanding the gramming was not readily evident as presented. changing technology and interpreting this informa- The current dissemination plan is designed to tion in terms of educational implications. Sometimes overcome these limitations. Smaller, topically inten- this task is vet), straight forward, other times it is com- sive workshops are envisior,ed. Tor,Jics will include plex. Let me illustrate by an example conceming arti- specific advanced technology trends and implica- ficial intelligence. tions and include substantial participant interaction. Even an elementary understanding of expert This approach should produce more prescriptive in- systems suggest two critical principles.First, the formation. Workshops will culminate the Commit- more complex the system, the greater the reduction tee's synthesizing efforts and draw upon the infor- in the labor force and knowledge needed among mation derived from advanced technology commit- technicians who perform the original diagnostic deci- tee reports. sion tasks (Harris, 1987). This principle will argue for The Vocational Training Committee has a critical (a) shorter term specific training (one consultant, only task, the linking of trends in advanced technology to slightly tongue in cheek, suggested training could educational and training programs. Clearly, its role is be reduced from two years to two weeks) and (b) analytic and advisory. more comprehensive education in science, basic skills, and professional styles (e.g. attitude toward quality, team relationships, work ethic, etc.). This

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Reflections Finally, one impact on the education participants In the preceding sections, the organizationana in this process is clear.It can be simply put. One can operation of the Corporation for Science and Tech- not dismiss the likely impact of advanced technology nology in general have been highlighted and W,par- on education while an active participant in a dialogue ticular the link between education and technology about it.The content is too powerful to ignore. through the Vocational Training Committee has There is not an educator on the committee whodoes been developed. The paper concludes with some not have that throbbing unanswerable questioncon- personal observations about these processes. stantly on his/her mind "Are my programs relevantto the people I serve?".if you believe, as I do, that A tangible though unmeasured outcome of the change cannot occur without leaders' commitments Corporation for Science and Technology results from to change, then the idea behind the Corporation for the ongoing interaction among members of the pri- Science and Technology does not leave changeto vate sector aid educators. The dialogue involves chance. wide ranging consideration of advanced technology. Sir.ce we are all in a speculative position, there isa References genuine sense of brainstorming, creating, andana- Campbell, E., & Hague, J. D. (1986). Annual report: lyzing. Through this process a sense of mutual re- Ina. Indianapolis: Indiana Corporation for spect for each other's expertise develops, and, I am Science and Technology. confident a synergistic outcome is derived. The creative potential of this aggregated knowledge fo- Hague, J. D. (1987, April). Technology overviewre- cused on the future is a positive and powerful force. gm/. Presented at the CST combined targeted technology committee member meeting. In my Introductory remarks, a concern was raised Indianapolis: Corporation for Science and about the adequacy and timing of change under old- Technology. er and established means of accommodating advanced technology. The approach described in this Harris, R. C. (1987, March). grief meeting: Artificial paper for addressing those issues appears promis- intelligence committee. Indianapolis: Corpo- ing. However, one can not say with certainty that the ration for Science and Technology. time required to implement curriculum change and Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. accommodate new technology has been reduced California: Sage. with greater accuracy. At best a scheme has been Notes implemented and we know it works to create new products and businesses. The process possesses (1)Account from a class observation by the interesting facets and there is clear policy direction author in 1964. and legislative support for the agency's agenda. (2)Seport by Dr. J. P. Lisack of Purdue University One of the most important principles in this moders to the Vocational Training Commhtee. Dr. Li- design is the purposeful involvement of educators, sack is a noted manpower researcher. scientists, and government officials as equal partners in the dialogue of threats and opportunities. (3)An observation developed by Mr. Richard Erd- man, Director of Expert System Development The longer and more complex the dialogue pro- as Magnavox Corporation. cesses, the clearer the need for a systematic approach to analyzing the impact of technology on education. The established "positivist" approach to generating knowledge through survey research has critical limitations such as poor timing and Lend over- sights. Clearly, new approaches are needed and researchers skilled in these new paradigms are essential. The interactive approach of probing and synthesizing described in this paper, while not sufficiently rigorous, points to important methodological Ideas. Perhaps adaptations of the naturalistic paradigm (Uncoln & Guba, 1985), which is dearly a more systematic approach to interactive analysis could lead our field toward new power and timely insights.

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Implications: Technological Literacyand Vocational Education Service Areas

Dr. Ralph Ressler Executive Director Alabama Council on Vocational Education Auburn, Alabama

In attempting to relate technological literacy to vocational areas]. vocational education there is one variable which educators, including vocational educators, should espe- in this approach, designed to alert students to cially seek to address; that is the organization of their personal potential relative tocareer selection and to aid them in determining where appropriate learning experiences around SELF-CONCEPT as a oc- vehicle to student understanding of both technolo- cupational styles can be found, the cognitive subject gy and their potential place in the technology- matter becomes of lesser importance. The opportu- dominated workplace. nity for students to simulate various occupational styles and roles becomes of primary importance. The link between technology instruction and oc- From this perspective, vocationscan be examined to cupational choice--and subsequent training-- determine those occupational stylesor modes of op- became a concern in the mid-seventies as career ed- eration most prevelant or which most typify particular ucation peaked and as vocational education began service areas. to fund industrial arts for the first time. The field's response was to include mention of occupations and There is much more to this curriculum, ofcourse, careers in textbooks and to offer instructional units in but the work environment concept proposed by occupations related to industrial arts subject matter. John Holland has potential as a vehicle to bring tech- Neither have been completely satisfactory as far as nology education and vocational serviceareas together. the vocational community Is concerned. Holland hypothesized six work environments: The options available in various vocational service areas are still vague to students; there are still far REALISTIC characterized by aggressive be- too many students who switch from curriculum to cur- havior; many times requiring physical skill. riculum in the vocational program. The bridge be- INVESTIGATIVE characterized by organizing, tween technology education and occupational thinking, arid understanding. choice is difficult at best when we use occupations SOCIAL characterized by interpersonal skills, alone as the vehicle. caring. In the mid-seventies, an early seventh grade cur- CONVENTIONAL characterized by concern for riculum was introduced into the junior high schools rules, routine, self-control. of Virginia called "Careers and You". It was, and is,an attempt to enable students to relate to occupations ENTERPRISING characterized by verbal skills, via the frame of reference of "work environments." maniplating behavior. The curriculum was based upon the "tentative ARTISTIC characterized by self-expression, in- selection" stage of career development. Among the direct relations with people via art media. goals of the experience were included: It should be obvious that these work environ- The investigation of several occupational ments are not found in their "pure" form; that is, work styles and work environments found in the involves us in a mix of activity, not simply one work world of work, [and] environment. As an integral part of the curriculum under discussion, the SDS (Seg-Directed Search) The determination of the whereabouts of was used by students which gives one a profile of such occupational styles and work envi- his/her affinity to all six environments. The fact that ronments [within each career cluster or interests and aptitudes are an outgrowth of one's

2 1 4 230 Implications: Technological Literacy and Vocational Education Service Areas

personality should give educators the first clue as to the need for an intermediate step between placing a menu of occupations before a young person and asking him, in essence, to select a vocational service area for training. The Virginia experiment has several assets. ..as well as a few liabilities. Certainly the concept is acceptable to technology and vocational teachers.It does not threaten turf. The approach Itself can be superimposed over any existing curricular organization with little or no disruption. Finally, it can work. It can not only be used to relate activity to eventual occupational choice, but can be used by instructors to check on the comprehen- siveness of their instructional methods as well: Am I teaching to only the students comfortable in the realistic work environment? Are students who have an affinity for the enterprising work environment being addressed? Those "turned on by other work environments? The approach also has two liabilities which seem obvious.First, it is limited as to grade level (the "tentative selection stage"); second, as a curriculum, it does not "belong" to anyone as do others and hence can become nobody's concern. Yet, as a way in which to interface technology education and the vocational service areas, this conceptual frame of reference has somepotential andshould be considered as a supplemental approach.

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Machine Vision Literacy

Dr. Al L. Andrews Northwest Missouri State Uni-ersity Maryville, Missouri

Introduction those seeking new positions. Many times displaced The Machine Vision Team is comprised of a di- workers seem the logical candidates to fill the posi- versified group of people who devote their time to tions created by new technology, but when match- solving industrial problems. Vision provides us with a ing the position to the candidate,a lack of skills, large amount of information and enables us an intelli- knowledge, attitude and capability for retraining elimi- gent interaction with the environment. Applying vi- nate the displaced worker. The machine vision team sion in industry allows for controlling of the process requirements vary with each of the team members problem. and their educational level. Definitions of the various competencies re- The Scientist quired to maximize career opportunities as a member The relationship bef--,een the positions of scien- of the machine vision team, assessments of the vari- tists, engineers, technologists, technicians and ous titles used to discriminate between members craftspeople are provided. Note that the scientist is and findings of the machine vision survey on compe- the most theoretical member cf the team, develop- tencies necessary at the technician, technologist, ing theory and laws from science. This Investigation and engineering levels are presented. The initial may require many years of study and may have very competency list was subjected to the Machine Vision little application. Some scientists are labeledas ap- Education Committee on Certification. The Certifica- plied or pure. Many of the presentations at "Vision tion Committee is responsible for determining the 86" listed as research and developmentalcan be competencies of the technician, technologist and considered as applied activities carried out byap- engineer.This presentation provides the compe- plied scientists. These activities require a strongaca- tencies which make up the certification criteria. demic background and usually demand a Doctorate Machine Vision Teem Degree. Machine vision scientists will need to continue their acquisition for knowledge throughout We begin with the machine vision team because their working lives. The major competencies o; the most work done in industry involves team effort. The scientists are found in Table 1. With scientists, the team members include scientists, engineers, tech- "Scientific Area" will relate to the type of position and nologists, technicians and craftspeople. The team's the tasks raquired. activities center on problem-solving tasks. This requires that members constantly develop solutions to The Engineer tasks within their team, or use the knowledge of oth- Engineers apply the development of the scien- ers. Technology continues to accelerate at an ever- tists. These solutions to problems Involve systems, increasing rate as it develops one innovation after procedures, product, facilities, human resources and another.The new knowledge due to advancing finarres.The solutions also require standards, technology directly affects the machine vision team. specifications and requirements both internally and Requirements for many of today's jobs have already externally. The engineer is driven by the desire tc changed; however, people are unaware of the teen- develop a better way to accomplish a task in an at- nological changes until they consider a job change. tempt to maximize profit. Many "Engineering Areas" Many are shocked when they do not possess of specialization exist and require variations from one the competencies for the new position. Projections specialization to another. Since each area of special- of future jobs reveal a serious mismatch between the ization can also be divided into more sub-groups, the competencies for new jobs and the preparation of ability to specialize is related to the company's size.

216 ...... 4.232 Machine Vision Literacy

A large number of people emproyed by industry are Chemistry titled as engineers and do have a four-year degree. Analytical Companies have titled positions due to their tasks Biological and training acquired by serving an apprenticeship, Inorganic ov gaining work experience and education through a Interdisciplinary variety of sources. Organic Physical Recent movement in human development signifies that the title "Engineer may only be given to Solid State Geochemical graduates of accredited programs. The Accredita- Communication Competencies tion Board of Engineering and Technology (ABET) English accredits engineering, engineering technology and Speech technology-type programs.Accreditation demon- Additional General Education From: strates that a program has met criteria established Humanities, Social Science, Art, Music and evaluated by a peer team. Programs are provid- Science Areas ed that allow students the ability to gain the Bache- Biology lors of Science Degree, Masters of Science Degree Botany and Doctorate Degree. Many practicing engineers Chemistry must comply not only with State requirements, but also with professional societies' requirements to be- Physics come certified or registered. Table 2 Competencies of the Machine Vision Engineer Table 1 Mathematics Competencies Competencies of the Machine Vision Scientist Algebra Mathematics Competencies Geometry Algebra Calculus Geometry Differential Equations Calculus Matrix Algebra Differential Equations Science Competencies Matrix Algebra Physics Science Competencies Chemistry Physics Communication Competencies Pure English Theoretical Diffraction Speech or Report Writing Theoretical Electricity Additional General Education Theoretical Magnetism Humanities, Social Science, Art, Music Theoretical Matter Machine Vision Engineering Competencies Theoretical Nuclear Architectures Theoretical Optics Comparison to Human Vision Theoretical Particle Digitizing/Sampling Theoretical Quantum Mechanics Evaluating Vendor Responses Theoretical Relativity Fundamental Concepts Theoretical Solid State Image Analysis Applied Image Processing Diffraction Image Segmentation Electricity Lighting Magnetism Machine Vision Applications Matter Optics Nuclear Project Justification Optics Project Management Particle Three Dimensional Techniques Quantum Mechanics Sensors/Cameras Relativity Writing a Specification Solid State 2ii Technological Literacy Symposium 233

Table 3 hours toward the bachelors program. The capstone, Competencies of the Machine Vision Technologist or 2 plus 2 programs, provide a vision system team Mathematics Competencies member the ability to work and complete degreere- Algebra quirements at night. You may wish to refer to Figure Geometry 2, the relationships between the positions of scien- Calculus tists, engineers, technologists, technicians and Science Competencies craftspersons for a usual relationship. Physics The Technician Chemistry Communication Competencies The vision system team members apply the skills English and knowledge acquired by a specialized edgy- ation Speech or Report Writing or training program emphasizing manipulative skills. Additional General Education They often take courses with a core similar to all tech- Humanities, Social Science, Art, Music nologies and specialize in a field such as electronics, Machine Vision Engineering Technology/ design, manufacturing, quality control, laser andro- Technology Competencies botics. Many of these programs provide competen- Architectures cies to fulfill a local demand and become very special- Comparison to Human Vision ized. These competencies are acquired at a commu- Digitizing/Sampling nity college or technical college. Graduates com- Evaluating Vendor Responses plete an Associate of Applied Science or other asso- Fundamental Concepts ciate degree and have a career path toward the tech- Image Analysis nologist level with the 2 plus 2 type program. The Image Processing need to verify research and development testingac- Image Segmentation tivities provides an ideal position for the technician. Lighting This also aids the other team members to better uti- Machine Vision Applications lize their theoretical expertise. Optics The Craftsperson (Trade) Project Justification Project Management The crafts member of the team is certified asa Three Dimonsional Techniques craftsperson, usually completing a period as an ap- Sensors/Cameras prentice and requiring a set period of years. in addi- Writing a Specification tion to the on-the-job training, the apprentice is required to complete related instruction offered by the The Technologist Trade Association or by a local educational institu- The Technologist Is a four-year graduate of an tion.Certification is accomplished by the United engineering technology or technology program. Al- States Department of Labor, Bureau of Apprentice- though similar in many details to the engineer, the ship. These programs are very closely tied to unions technologist usually lacks depth in mathematics and which many times coordinate the related training ac- science. The college and university programs are of- tivities. Electricians, plumbers and tool and die mak- ten titled "Industrial Technology" or "Engineering ers are several examples of the skilled trades which Technology". The tasks of the technologists are are recognized as craftspersons. The craftsperson more applied than those of the engineers. This may becomes an important member of a team when the require the debugging of machine vision systems, traditional components of a machine vision must be the installation of vision systems, or the feasibility of a assembled. The craftsperson's skills provir'c the vision system. Accreditation of these programs may ability to manipulate the components into an ii..egrat- be by ABET (Accreditation Board for Engineering ed system and also debug the problems not eliminat- and Technology) or NAIT (National Association of In- ed during the engineering phase. dustrial Technology) and may cover bachelors, masters and doctoral programs in technology or engineering technology. Coursework will include a larger amount of laboratory work with skills in development and applied sciences. With the large number of two-year associate degrees, many students continue their education by transferring the sixty-plus

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Table 4 Conclusion Competencies of the Machine Vision Technician Mathematics Competencies School is the most ideal place to begin an under- Algebra standing of technology and the role it plays inour Trigonometry culture. Tectiology education students will be able Geometry to mace an educated decision on the benefits of Science Competencies technology in our society. As a society people can and must control the development and application of Physics technology. Chemistry Communication Competencies Machine Vision Technology provides educators English with an opportunity to apply science, mathematic Speech or Technical Report Writing and technical concepts with applications in all fields. Additional General Education The Department of Technology at Northwest Missou- Humanities, Social Sciences or above list ri State University wishes to note the support from Machine Vision Technician Competencies State of Missouri, Department of Elementary and Architectures Secondary Education; Micron Technology, Inc., Comparison to Human Vision Honeywell, Inc.; Microswitch Division, the Society of Digitizing/Sampling Manufacturing Engineers; Machine Vision Associa- Evaluating Vendor Responses tion, and the many people that provided information Fundamental Concepts for this research. Image Analysis Image Processing Image Segmentation Lighting Machine Vision Applications Optics Project Justification Project Management Three Dimensional Techniques Sensors/Cameras Writing a Specification

Table 5 Competencies of the Skilled Person Mathematics Competencies Algebra Trigonometry Science Competencies Physics Applied Sciences Communication Competencies English and Report Writing Sid II-Trade-Craft Area Automechanic Construction Electrician Glazer Plumber Sheet metal Tool and Die

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Technology Education In New York State

Michael Hacker Associate State Supervisor for Technology Education New York State Department of Education

Introduction time of excitement about space shuttles and satel- The enterprise with which we have been in- lites; and there was a growing interest in technology volved in New York State is now four and one-half in general. years old; it has involved the participation of literally It was the time when the National Commission on hundreds, perhaps over a thousand individuals, has Excellence in Education stated at "our nation was at consumed thousands upon thousands of hours of risk of losing its preeminence in science, and tech- time, and millions of dollars in financial resources; yet nological innovation." we are still in an evolutionary phase. And the National Science Board's report, This endeavor, managed by the New York State "educating Americans for the 21st century," identi- Education Department, was known as the "futuring fied technology education as an entity; and recom- project" and stemmed from the desire to match cur- mended that a full year of mathematics, science and riculum to the needs of learners in the decades technology should be required each year in grades ahead. As a result, eight committees in occupational seven and eight.It was the time of Naisbitt's Mega- education and the practical arts were convened and trends and Toffler's Third Wave; and there was visible were challenged to redefine their missions and clarify broad-based support for an educational response their goals. that addressed the need for a technologically literate This comprehensive review of educational pro- population. grams began in 1981 and brought together educa- During this period, the transition within our own tors, business and industrial leaders, social scien- profession accelerated. The professional journal tists, futurists, and engineers. New York State Com- was renamed, The Technology Teacher, and the missioner of Education, Gordon Ambach, gave the American Industrial Arts Association (now the Inter- committees their charge. The business and industri- national Technology Education Association) provid- al leaders were asked to help identify what compe- ed new leadership in assisting teachers to develop tencies were needed. The educational leaders were implementationstrategies for technology-based asked to determine how these competencies would programs. be delivered. The committees deliberated for two The sense that there was indeed a professional and one-half years during which time experts were support base, influenced the futuring committee to called upon to present papers, professional literature identify the inculcation of technological literacy as was reviewed, approaches debated, missions clari- the paramount mission of industrial arts; and to rec- fied, and a philosophic base was built. ommend in January 1983 that the name "industrial Teachers from within the field were intimately in- arts" be changed to "technology education" in New volved in all phases of the project. A group of thir- York State. teen industrial arts practitioners (called regional facili- While the futuring project was drawing up its rec- tators) attended all committee meetings. These individuals provided ongoing liaison with the field ommendations, the New York State Board of Re- gents began work on its "action plan to improve ele- throughwritten correspondence and local meetings, and solicited feedback from the teaching mentary and secondary education in New York." constituency. As a result of these parallel state-supported efforts, and the timeliness of the national reports, the Futuring came at a time when the social climate Board of Regents saw fitto include a one-unit was right for education about technology. It was the 220 2361 Technology Education in New York State

technology mandate as one of the middle school Major Differences: industrial Ads requirements. rod Technology Education Differences Between Industrial Arts and Industrial Arts Technology Education Technology Education Mission Teach about tools, There are several major differences between materiels, industrial processes,Provides technology education, and its predecessor, industri- technological literacy al arts.These differences relate to content base, Conceptual Base Undefined; teacher Defined; major con- methodology, and mission. The content base of In- choke concepts and dustrial arts was based primarily on the inculcation of behaviors we bent- skills and knowledge in the use of tools, materials, in state sylabus and industrial processes. The content base of tech- Content Discrete materials, System elements; nology involves understanding generic concepts Organizers Or processes Inputs, resources, common to all technological systems (inputs, re- processes, outputs, sources, processes, output, feedback and control). feerbacWconkol Use of Project Often used as an Means to an end The methodology of both programs relies upon end h ibelf hands-on, laboratory-based, "design and construct" activity, however, technology programs stress pro- Mental Process An informal program Planned as a formal Sklls(Problem program element; element of program; cess rather than product. Problem solving and diver- SoMng; Dedslonoccasionally entrel to activity gent thinking are fundamental skills which are care- making, Creative overlooked fully integrated into laboratory activities. thinking) The mission of Industrial arts was to prepare stu- Activity Base 75% hands-on; Unit 75% hands-on; dents for life in an industrial society. Manufacturing Shop technology systems laboratories was the chief enterprise which underpinned the economy. The mission of technology education is to Relationships to Philosophically Constants addressed other disciplines yes; in practice, in each activity; provide students with technological literacy in a rare. Uttle formal technology education knowledge-based, post-Industrial society. Techno- attempt to match Is conceived as an logical literacy transcends a knowledge of technolog- interdisciplinary IntegratingdeciPlihe ical processes, and Includes and understanding of concepts to irxte- technology within a social and economic context. Mal arts activity (See Appendix A, Definitions) The transition from industrial arts to technology education is a logical evo- The Systems Approach lution of the discipline. The most baffling questions that faced the futuring committee were "How do we teach about technology? What are its essential concepts, and how do INDUSTRIAL ARTS --TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION we teach about a sublqct that is undergoing such A LOGICAL EVOLUTION rapid change?" For several months members of the JUYSON'S MILL CHARLES IMOIA14011 WILLIAM WARNIR IAC.0. Al0 NYE FUTURING committee explored these Issues. INDUSTIMAI. wouSTIMAL INOWITMAL MCNN01.00T ANTS ARTSTTICITNOLOCIT 11C10301.00T IDUCATION ISM IMP Mrs ISM After Intense professional discussion, the indus-

MASS TOODUCTION IRA TRANSISTOR PIIIISONAL COAINNIRS trial arts futuring committee suggested a systems ap- MOIL 1- SWIMS SPACA SmurTTS WRIGHT ONOTTNINS 001041ADIDCUICINTS WWI PRATT proach, which would Incorporate hands-on learning PIASTIC SON/ WRIT RAM MOON tAND150 NYLON PRICLIAR POSTON OIWITIC SNONSIOlima RALL POOR NW LAMAS NORTISNIDI activities similar to those which have made industrial *AMMO* 1,01 SAT1tutt COMMUNICATION N MCI KIIMWITS arts so popular with students for generations. N N Technology was viewed as being comprised of 30 various systems and subsystems. We are surround- 30 ,C ed by examples of these systems, large and Email, IS usiTTO Tool such as hydroelectric systems, and automated pro- HSS nentracie a ilORKFOloCt IN MANUFACTURING AND 01,01,3TION !Oil duction systems. This general systems model can be used to point out the similarities that exist among all technological systems.If we can identify those systems 22j Technological Literacy Symposium 237

concepts that are generic, ourstudents will be better Resources able to see familiar patterns reoccurring although the 014 Gio, or Eliculdoi technologies themselves may be new to them. arc Whet is a System? Oes load Output Timonium Room Tomonnun A system, simply stated, is a means through which we can accomplish our desired results. All systems have inputs, processes, and outputs. The input to the system is the desired result; the command which tells the system what to accomplish. The pm- Conceptual Content Framework Based on cess is the action part of the system. It combines re- the Universal System Model sources in response to the input command. It is the technical means we employ, the "how" component A new vision for organization of technology edu- in the system. The output is the actual result.It may cation content may be borne out of the preceding be the expected, desired result. The output also analysis. Based upon the universal system model, may include unexpected, undesired results. A sys- curriculum may be generated which identifies ele- tem, consisting of an input, a process, and an out- ments whk,h are generic to all technological systems. put, is called an open-loop system. These elements are inputs, resources, processes, outputs, feedback, and control, and may be used to An open-loop system. The process combines define content for technology programs in any or all technological resources (people, information, materi- of the cluster areas. als, tools, and machines, capital, energy, and time) to produce an output in response to a command in- These universal system elements are integral to put. all systems, whether they are production, communication, transportation, biological, economic, or social Closed-Loop Systems systems. Understanding the common principles that How do we know if we get the output we want? apply to all systems can help students transfer knowl- We monitor the output, and derive "feedback." The edge from one specific occurrence to the next. Stu- feedback permits us to make a comparison between dents will be able to see familiar patterns reoccurring the desired result (command input) and the actual re- although a particular technology may be new to sult (output). Once the comparison is made, we can them! adjust the process so that the system's output more The System Model as a Content Organizer closely agrees with the input. The systems analogy can provide the content organizers for technology education program: the Resouroes clusters can be viewed as lachnological contexts within which the systems operate. Input The benefit of using the systems analogy is that it not only can be used to help students analyze familiar technologies, but can also be used to help them interpret previously unericountered technologies as well. A robotic material transport system might be a General System Model of Closed-Loop System technology new to most students.The systems The operation of technological systems (e.g. a model can help explain this technology. home heating system), can be clarified through the The input (desired result) is to move material to a use of the universal system model. In this closed- desired position. The process involves the robotic loop system, the input is the desired temperature arm and its motors; the output is the actual position setting. The process is the furnace which combines of the material. A sensing device, perhaps an optical resources (like oil and electricity) to produce an out- sensor, monitors the position. The comparison be- put (the actual room temperature). A thermometer tween the desired position and the actual position is monitors the temperature and a thermostat com- made by a digital computer. The computer adjusts pares the desired and actual temperature and ad- the process by sending a signal to the motors in the justs the process (by turning the furnace on and off). robotic arm.

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The systems analogy can be used to model vir- organizers for the New York Technology Education tually any technological system, and therefore, can Program. At the seventh grade level, the resource be used as a means through which content can be inputs, systems, and impacts of technology serve to organized for technologies such as manufacturing, provide structure. Several contexts are suggested construction, communications, or transportation. from within which examples might be drawn. These Consistency can thus be achieved in the way subject are systems in biotechnology, communications and matter is presented. Transfer of learning will thus be information technology, production technology, and facilitated for students. transportation technology. Problem Solving as a System Seventh Grade Program Those of us who have ever taught 7th grade rec- Module 1 introduces the student to this new ognize that we will have only a modicum of success if field of study, addresses the evolution and impor- we depend upon drawing systems diagrams on the tance of technology, and focuses on reasons why blackboard. We must do what we've always done in people must study about technology.Students good industrial arts teaching; that is, provide the stu- should know that technology influences their rou- dents with an activity, and then elicit the concepts tines and satisfies human needs. They should know from their own base of experience. that technology predates science; that before the In this case, the student were presented with a science of chemistry, people were making glass. technological design problem to design a rubber- Module 2 focuses on the seven resources band powered vehicle which could carry a raw egg which are generic to all technologies. Whether "ye safely over a distance of seventy-five feet, at a speed are referring to ancient technologies like flowing, or greater than that of any other competing group's ve- ultramodern technologies like satellite communica- hicle. tion, the resources of people, information, materials, The students were encouraged to do a lot of trial tools and machines, energy, capital, and lima, are and error, testing, and crative problem solving...and required. to refine their design until it worked the way they Resourose wanted it to. It is well accepted that these kinds of investigative activities are an excellent way to stimulating higher level mental process skills, like decision making, and critical thinking; but this problem solving experience is really an expertise in systems thinking, and serves to introduce the students to systems concepts. Module 3 is a problem solving module where We can look at the problem solving process in students could be challenged to solve a prescribed systems terms: the input was the goal, or what the technical problem, design a device for a handi- student wanted to accomplish. The process consist- capped person, or participate in a competitive probed of generating, selecting, and implementing alter- lem solving event. It serves as a natural introduction natives; and the output was the actual result. to the systems module, since when people are solv- What systems thinking can do for the student, is ing problems, they are working within a system. to help them develop a problem solving routine, and to create the perception that we don't have to be sat- isifed with the initial results. We use our failures to help us improve our performance.

Thus, the basic systems model becomes a sim- 80 Goals Idol* and Establish Select II.Results ple conceptual tool that the student can picture easi- Creeds Allernathlos ly and employ to assist in the solution of problems and in the analysis of technical systems. Conceptual Cuniculum Framework Monitor Results }- The systemsanalogy provides the content

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Energy In Module 4, students are introduced to systems Midi& le terminology at this point. Inputs, processs, and out- blorrnstfon puts are studied. The concept of feedback is lightly introduced.

Resources

Input

Module 8 introduces concepts of sensing and control. Thus, the feedback loop is studied. Con- cepts of open and closed loop control are introduced. Module 5 focuses on the positive and negative impacts of technology. (The outputs) as well as the match between technology and the environment, and technology and the human user are illustrated.

Module 9 is a look to the future. Students look at future impacts of technology, from a global perspective. The student is placed at the center of a The Eighth Grade Program time continuum from his or her grandparents era to the time when the student will most likely be a grand- The eighth grade program wanes the1000"in parent,and is asked to discuss the changes in our technology model. Module 6 revisits the resources for technology, however, emphasizes the choices people may make outPuts in selecting resources. (Future Oriented)

technology that haveor may occur during that period. Module 10, the final module, illustrates how the systems model itself can be used as a problem solv- Module 7 addresses the process component of ing tool.Students are encouraged to use systems the system and looks at three types of processing: thinking to design a system. It is in this module that processing energy, materials, and information. students are encouraged to synthesize their new knowledgeinthecreationofafunctioning technological system.

2 2 4 240 Technology Education in New York State

Risouross additional money. A distance competition is held and results discussed. The winning vehicle is the one which is most cost-effective. Input Output Systems and Subsystems in Model Rocketry (Module 4) - Students will construct, pre-flight test, launch, and measure baseline and flight altitudes of model rockets and analyze the component systems and subsystems. Technology Learning Activities Hydrcponic Greenhouse (Module 5) - Proto- types of hydroponic greenhouses will be construct- One of the most unique facets of the New York ed as a means of exemplifying how technology can program is the evolution of an activity format known be better adapted to the environment. as the Technology Learning Activity (TLA). The TLA serves two major functions: first, concepts are identi- Optimizing Resources in Transportation Sys- fied and become the driving force behind the choice tems (Module 6) - In this TLA, students will identify of the activity. Thua, a match between major con- resources that can be replaced by others in order to cepts and student dctivity is assured. Second, the optimize a transportation system. TLA's identify a series of stonstart3," among which Material Processing: Drying Foods for Preserva- are those that directly relate middle school mathe- tion (Module 7) - Students process various fruits, matics, science, and social studies concepts to the vegetables, nuts, spices, by subtracting moisture study of technology. These concepts have been from the foods. A variety of drying processes are specifically identified by subject matter specialists. used, comparisons made as to cost, effectiveness, The constants serve to provide genuine inter- and efficiency. disciplinary connections to other school subjects, Controlling Technological Systems (Module 8) the world of work, and to life's experiences. Sensing and control concepts are studied through There are ten constants which have been identi- the use of toys such as armitron robots, and feed- fied within each TLA. They include: systems, math- back games. ematics, science, social science, safety and health, The Committee on World Repair (Module 9) psychomotor skills, communications skills, problem Students will identify a variety of global social issues solving, career related information, and transfer of which parallel the growth of technology, will propose learning. Attention to the constants epitomizes the alternative technological solutions, and physically essence of technology education. A distinct empha- model one solution. sis is placed on the interdisciplinary nature of technology as an integrating discipline. Clean the Air (Module 10)Students will apply previous technical knowledge to the design of a sys- Presently, several dozen TLAs have been gen- tem to remove air pollution from a room. The original erated. Among them are the following: set of TLAs was developed by a group of select Time,The Fourth Dimension (Module 1) - Stu- technology teacher-trainers as part of an intensive dents construct samples of time keeping devices three week inservice workshop at Oswego University (e.g. sand, water and candle clocks, sundials, burn- during the summer of 1984. These TLAs are de- ing rope clock, etc.) that reflect the evolution of time signed to serve as models for teachers who are en- pieces. couraged to develop their own. Presently occurred during the 1984-85 school year involved the genera- Logo Design (Module 2) - The seven generic tion of the second part (the eighth grade portion) of technological resources are represented by a logo the syllabus. A planning group comprised of five which the students design, and reproduce as but- project leaders met to develop the framework for the tons, or on silk screened T-shirts. eighth grade syllabus. Mouse-Trap Powered Vehicle Design Problem The planning group members served as team (Module 3) - Working inteams, students will design leaders for 3-4 person satellite curriculum writing and build a mouse-trap powered vehicle. One hun- teams. Each team was met often to assess work in dred dollars in play money will be given to each team. progress, and to ensure continuity among the writing A basic bag of parts is purchased for twenty-five dol- teams. The entire group of curriculum writers met lars. Additional parts and tools may be purchased for

226 Technological Literacy Symposium 241 three times during the curriculum writing process to hunk* Training present its work to the group at large, and to receive Over a period of four years (1984-1987), approx- feedbadc. imately 1300 industrial arts teachers have been The eighth grade portion of the curriculum has trained by the New York State Education Depart- been twice field tested across the state. Reaction ment's Technology Teacher Training Project. A su- was formally solicited, and resulted in a syllabus revi- perb corp of 40 technology teacher trainers has de- sion which win be distributed to teachers before the voted many weeks to intensive study of the syllabus 1987-88 school year begins. Full implementation of and to the generation Of technology learning activi- the program has occurred for grade seven student in ties to support its delivery. These teacher trainers September, 1986, and will occur for grade eight stu- have dispersed across New York state to provide lo- dents in September, 1987. The Commissioner of cal inservice training to groups of industrial arts/ Education and New York State Board of Regents technology teachers at 19 regional centers. The have mandated that one year of technology educa- teacher trainers have provided the critical functions tion must be taken by all students who complete the of translating a theoretical document into an activity- eighth grade by June, 1988. based program, developing implementation strate- Technology and Occupational Education gies, and communicating the feasibility of the entire approach to their peers. Technology education is an integral part of the occupational education continuum In New York. A The professional commitment that has been dis- coordinated curriculum has been generated which played by the teachers themselves is astounding. views the introduction of technology program (along The regional inservice programs were entirely volun- with another course entitled home and career skills) tary, required between one and two weeks of sum- as providing occupational educational core compe- mer attendance, and did not offer financial support to tencies at the middle/junior high school level. the teachers. As a component of all high school occupational Teacher Reaction to the Program education sequences, students must take two re- The technology education program is a signifi- quired introduction to occupation courses (personal cant departure from traditional industrial arts. Teach- resource management, and the working citizen). ers therefore have been challenged to assimilate Students may fulfill graduation requirements in new content, new Procedures, and accept a new attaining sequence credit in any of several occupa- conceptual base for their discipline. tional education programs including agriculture edu- The teacher trainers report that the overwhelm- cation, business education, health occupations edu- ing majority of the teachers who have participated in cation, home economics education, technical educa- the inservice program have additional contributions. tion, technology education, or trade and industrial Attending teachers were encouraged to view the education. The high school technology program is curriculum as dynamic, and therefore felt free to sug- viewed as providing core skills for students pursuing gest changes, many of which were incorporated into further experiences in technical education, and/or the approximately 125 TLAs in various stages of grade and industrial education. completion during the first year of field testing. The GENERAL ED tre4 commitment to the new program appears to be quite 1104, solic among those who have participated in the inser- .000 vice sessions. A.,0 There remains a corps of teachers who have not had the opportunity to study the new material, and o, therefore have not had the benefit of the sharing An. 6 and support of colleagues. Among that group there are mixed perceptions. Some have heard good 0 0 things from their fellow teachers and are receptive, whileothers remain committed to more traditional approaches. The technology fair, held at the New York State Technology Education Association's annual confer- encelastspring, was Inspiring.Fieldtesting TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION AS PART OF THE OCCUPATIONAL EDUCATION CONTINUUM 226 242 Technology Education in New York State

teachers displayed computer controlled hydroponic gardens, exhibited time keeping devices used to teach the evolution of technology, and an impres- sive array of problem solving activities. This has not been an easy road. There have been challenges right from the beginning: this has been a radical upheaval for many of us. Technology education represents a substantial departure from traditional industrial arts and involves quite a new content base. But those involved in the technology movement share a vision that has united our profession. The comraderie that exists can only be felt by those committed to a common cause. No one ever promised us that change would be easy in our profession, but the changes have come from teachers from within our own discipline. We have not forgotten that it is industrial arts that has breathed life into the technology education movement in this country, and much of what will sustain technology education is the best of our present practice. I believe that we are in fact, evolving a new discipline. Very few educators are provided with that con- summate opportunity during their careers. And I believe that we are to be envied. Appendix A Basic Definitions TECHNOLOGY: The use of accumulated human knowledge to process resources to satisfy human needs and wants. TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION: An integrating discipline designed to develop technological literacy as part of all students' fundamental education, through an activity-based study of past, present, and future technological systems; their resources, processes, and impacts on society. TECHNOLOGICAL LITERACY: The ability to use, maintain, design, construct, analyze, and assess the impacts of technological systems. TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEM: A means of accomplishing a desired technological result by processing resources in response to a command input. A system may be open-loop (feedback) or closed-loop (using feedback).

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Technological Literacy: Roles for Practical Arts and Vocational Education

Dr. Donald Maley Department of Industrial, Technological and Occupational Education University of Maryland College Park, Maryland

The educational establishment of this latter part Technological literacy is sc encompassing in its of the twentieth century is beset by a task that has scope that there are no areas of the human's exis- had no parallel in the history of humankind. This task tence that are not under its pervasive influence. is to educate a generation of citizens who would not Technological literacy is a universal requirement that be strangers in a world they hay( lnhelited, as well as reaches into all sectors of society and all levels of hu- having had a part in its shaping. The central issue is man activity. one of technological literacy for practically all persons The earlier concepts of literacy, centering living in a democratic society that is so profoundly im- around reading, writing and calculating, were largely pacted by technology in envy aspect of the human's one of skill or task development. The issue of tech- existence. nological literacy reaches into every dimension of hu- Literacy, as a concept with respect to Technolo- man involvement, ranging from skill development, gy, is a dynamic phenomena in itself. That is to say, manipulation, broad understanding, philosophical technological literacy is an ever-changing quality that positioning, ethical and moral consideration, and atti- is dependent on time, place and conditions. tude formulation. The factor of time creates its own unique dimen- There are two important concerns at the heart of sion of literacy when we speak about technological the issue of technological literacy. The first is a con- literacy. The agrarian society, the industrial society, cern for effective citizenship in a democratic ad- the post-Industrial society, and the super-industrial vanced technological society wherein the individual society, all operating within given time frameworks, can feel some sense of control as well as contribu- provide for a dynamics of literacy in relation to the tion and accommodation. The second major con- state of the technology in each. cern is for the future,the nature of a world that our The factor of place plays an important role when future generations will inherit, since humankind now one takes into account the tremendous variation in has the technology to design the kind of a world that technological developments as experienced by the is wanted. The human, for the most part, is no longer citizens of Silicon Valley, the City of New York, the at the mercy of the elements (natural and man-made) Third World countries of Africa, or the primitive tribes as was the case with earlier generations. Advances of New Guinea in the year 1987. in technology in a broad range of fields have put the future to a much greater degree in the hands of the The conditions factor brings into play the circum- humankind. stances in which a given group or society live or carry out their livelihood. Such varying conditions may be Technological literacy is based on the concept of identified as one views the life styles of the astro- understanding and not the possession of artifacts of naut, the wandering nomad of Saudi Arabia, or the an advanced technological age. "Technological liter- boatpeople of Hong Kong, all living in the year 1937. acy is the possession of a reasonable understanding of the behavior of technological systems and re- Technological literacy in the present age here is quires knowledge of scientific and mathematical con- these United States is as fundamental to human cepts" (NSF, p. 74). Technological literacy instruc- functioning as is the need to read and write. It is bas- tion must help "people understand the limitations as ic to human performance in practically all areas of liv- well as the capabilities of emerging technologies. ing, as well as the very existence of the individual on The technologically literate person should have a this planet. sense of what technology can and cannot do. He or

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0:4 244Technological Literacy: Roles for Practical Arts and Vocationa; Education

she should not believe that technology can solve all 4.The change occurring in current tech- ills, nor that technology is responsible for most prob- nology, and lems" (NSF, p. 74). 5. An understanding of technology assess- The publication, Educating Americans for the ment as a method of influencing the choice 21st Century (NSF, 1983) contains tt ., statement: of future technologies. (p. 74) Technological literacy needs to be a part of The above five areas of understanding provide a general literacy and "numcracy." In a sense, framework within which the practical arts and voca- we are speaking of "basics" in education, tional education can function. and we are identifying the knowledge and The historical role of technology has been an understanding of technology as basic... integral part of the industrial arts/technology educa- (NSF, p. 73). tion program in the study of early innovations on the Technological literacy is an area of literacy that anthropological unit approach (Maryland Plan, 1973). extends across practically every discipline in the sec- The relationship between technological deci- ondary school program and as such, it's pursuit in our sions and human values can be integrated into the schools must include strong implications for mathe- practical arts and vocational education as the respec- matics, science, history, economics, social and envi- tive professions deal with such areas as housing and ronmental impact, as well as the areas of technology construction, transportation, communications, pow- education, practical arts and vocational education. er, energy and manufacture. Human values enter The cross-disciplinary and multi-disciplinary na- into the application, purchase, use, maintenance ture of technology as an area of study was ex- and selection of technologies within each of the are- pressed by Truxal (1986) as follows: as listed. Technology, after all, (in the present setting) The benefits and risks in choosing technolo- is simply the application of scientific knowl- gies can be dealt with in the practical arts and voca- edge to achieve a specified human pur- tional education by including these two elements pose. As technology is directed toward a (benefits and risks) as additional areas of concern societal goal, every new technology in- When studying the respective trade areas as well as volves questions of ethics and values, the areas listed for the practical arts. There are few which must be judged from aesthetic, histor- technological areas that can not be subject to the ical and philosophical viewpoints. Further- scrutiny of benefits and risks. more, technological change has economic, The changes occurring in current technology is sociological, and behavioral implications for an area of literacy directly applicable to every service both the country and those individuals di- area of vocational education, as well as the previous- rectly involved. (p. 12) ly mentioned construction, manufacture, power, en- Thus, knowledge of technology becomes fun- ergy, communications and transportation. The in- damental in this latter part of the twentieth century. structional plan or strategy should include an empha- Life and living in this technological society demand a sis on such changes as well as their impact. literacyan understanding that makes technological An understanding of technology assessment literacy an imperative. as a method of influencing the choice of future tech- The National Science Foundation report, Edu- nologies is another area of technological literacy in cating Americans for the 21st Century (1983), lists which the practical arts and vocational education can five important areas of understanding that would make a contribution. The broadening of instruction contribute to technological literacy. These areas of in the practical arts and vocational education may well understanding are: include discussions and analyses of the merit or lack of merit of the technologies involved in the program. 1.The historical role of technology in hu- Such analytical examination of the technologies pro- man development, vides a whole new dimension for literacy which may 2.The relationship between technological lead to more effective decision making. It might also decisions and human values, involve raising the right questions, such as: 3. The benefits and risks of choosing tech- What are the alternatives? nologies, What are the soda; impacts?

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What are the environmental impacts? out in technology education, practical arts andvcca- Who should be involved in the decision? tional education, adds a wholenew and important dimension to the development of technological litera- What are the principles of science and/or math cy. It is that dimension of reality with respect to what involved? is being studied, and also to the realities of theworld What role has the technology or innovation beyond the school. The programs in technologyed- played? ucation, practical arts, and vocational educationpro- vide a unique setting in the modem school What are the ethical, social, oral and legal issues for the in- associated with or brought into play by the tegration of mathematics, science, social studies,ec- technology? onomics, history, art and environmental studies. It is a setting conducive to a holistic study of technology The role of the practical arts and vocational edu- as opposed to the atomistic approach so characteris- cation in the development of technological literacy is tic of much of one's education. one that may be plotted along a continuum ranging A Place In the School to Put tt All Together from relatively small or insignificant to a broad and encompassing function.The determining factor is Another very Important role that technologyed- largely a matter of perspective, as well as choice and ucation, the practical arts and vocational education commitment on the part of the profession. can play is serving as a point in the school where the student can put it all together in the context of the The matter of perspective is related to a number world beyond the school. of issues that the profession must face or resolve. 1. Is the profession interested in being a vital Such areas of instruction can provide the setting component of the education of all students or is where mathematics can be applied in the worldof reality with concrete appiications of principles and it concerned with a limited constituency? concepts. The principles and concepts of scienceare 2.Is the profession interested in being an inte- used to explain and interpret the phenomena of heat gral part of an interdisciplinary involvement with exchange, power transmission, forces, lift, drag, fric- the total school and community? tion, and numerous other realities of the technolo- 3.Is the profession willing to broaden its scope gies associated with the area of Industrial Arts/ of content to include the dimensions of literacy Technology Education and Vocational Education. that extend beyond the parameters of the tradi- In addition to science and mathematics princi- tional practices and limited craft activities? ples and concepts, the Industrial Arts/Technology A Unique Role by Virtue of Settkig, Education and Vocational fields abound in theop- Process and Content portunities to real with the social impact and theen- vironmental impact of many of the items studied in A unique role that technology education, practi- the laboratory instructional programs. cal arts and vocational education can play in technology literacy is related to the nature of the instruction- This plea for a place in the school where the stu- al setting, as well as the kind of instruction that can dent can put it all together is supported by a com- be carded out in each of these fields. ment by Alfred North Whitehead (1952) in the following quotation: The instructional setting contains many of the tools, materials and equipment associated with the The solution which I am urging is to eradi- technology of such areas as communication, power, cate the fatal disconnection of subjects energy, medical science, construction, manufacture, which kills the vitality of our modem curricu- transportation, business and agriculture. lum. There is only one subject-matter for education, and that is Life in all its manifesta- The opportunity for students tc have concrete, tions.Instead of this single unit, we offer first-hand experiences with the tools, materials, and childrenAlgebra, from which nothing fol- processes of an advanced technological society pro- lows; Geometry, from which nothing follows; vides the fields of technology education, practical Science, from which nothing follows; Histo- ads and vocational education with unusual opportu- ry, from which nothing follows; a couple of nities to contribute to the technological literacy of the languages never mastered... It is a rapid students. table of contents which a deity might run The experiential nature of instruction, as carried over in his mind while he was thinking of

23 0 246Technological Literacy: Roles for Practical Arts and Vocational Education

creating a world, and had not yet deter- those of us who have the great privilege of being citi- mined how to put it together. (p. 18) zens in a democracy that also happens to be one of the most advanced technological nations in the Later on in the same writing, Whitehead summar- world. This important citizenship role has caused ized the need In education by stating that "...The some of our educational and public leaders to see pupils have got to be made to feel that they are stu- what has been happening in our schools with re- dying something and not merely executing intellec- spect to the need for technology studies. tual minutes (p. 21). There have been numerous concerns about a That setting, that place in the school and the society that has given littie direct attention to the program areas, are most appropriately in the fields of study of technology in our public secondary schools. Industrial Arts/Technology Education and Vocational Boyer (1983), in his book,High School: A Report Education. The professions in these respective are- on Secondary Education in America,wrote: "We are as need to broaden their focus of what is obviously frankly disappointed that none of the schools we vis- In their instructional settings. possible ited required a study of technology. More disturbing The Process Skills Required of the Future Citizen still is the current inclination to equate technology A third role that the areas of Industrial Arts/ with computers" (p. 111). Technology Education and Vocational Education This lack of attention to the study of technology can play in developing technological literacy must be has implications for a concern that sees a growing seen in the larger context of current and future edu- chasm or gulf that tends to separate the technolo- cational thought. These are with respect to the de- gists from the population in general. John Slaugh- velopment of skills in the processes of problem solv- ter, a former Director of the National Science Foun- ing, inquiry, synthesis, analysis and decision making. dation, quoted in the publication,Educating Ameri- These skillsarethe skills 0 thefuture.They will re- cans for the 21st Century(1983), warned of the quire new emphases and new perspectives on the growing chasm between a small scientific elite and a nature of schooling and its function in a highly accel- citizenry ill-informed, indeed, uninformed on issues erated changing world. with a science component" (p. 10). All of the ingredients for such human potential Maley (1969), in a presentation at the 1969 con- development exist in abundance in the world and vention of the American Vocational Association in processes associated with the fields of Industrial Boston, made the following comment: "The brighter Arts/Technology Education and Vocational Educa- tomorrow will be there only if a bridge can be de- tion. The essential concern must be one of how the signed that would span the gulf of technological ig- student gets the answers rather than the answers norance which exists between the vast majority of themselves, for as we all know, the answers will the populace and the technical elite" (p. I). change. This position has been supported by a number Bridging the Gap of Technological Ignorance of citations warning of the consequences of the gulf One of the most important roles for Industrial of ignorance that appeared to be so obvious some Arts/Technology Education and Vocational Educa- twenty years ago. Wafter Finke (1967) pointed out tion in their involvement with technological literacy that the gap between the technologist and the pop- certainly must be the contributions they can make in ulace in general was a concern of Sir Charles Snow helping the citizen achieve a greater understanding when he said: of the technological society in which he/she must . . .that he feared that technological function. This increased citizen role goes beyond progress would eventually lead to a situation that of career information, work skills and those attrib- in which life-or death decisions would one utes of a successful employee. The new dimension day be made by a small scientific elite 'who is in the broad arena of technological literacy, where- do not quite understand what the depth of in thefuturecitizencanmake effective decisions the argument is'. about technological alternatives, the merit of one That is, he said, 'one of the consequences technology over another, and the application of of the lapse or gulf in communication be- technologies in the sokrtion of major problems in the tween scientists and on-scientists'. (p. 50) community, the nation and the world. The citizenship contribution issue is brought into focus as one A similarconcernwasexpressed byBarbara considers the responsibilities as well as roles, for Ward (1966) in her text,Spaceship Earth,in which 231 r

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there is a concern for trio impact of technology and Technological Literacy and the Need for the control of political and economic policy. Continuous Literacy Development In a world that is being driven onward at Technological literacy is not a one-shot deal, apocalyptic speed by science and technolo- wherein a student has taken a good program or ser- gy, we cannot, we must not, give up the ies of courses contributory to technological literacy. idea that human beings can control their po- The requirements for technological literacy willre- litical and economic policies...(p. 1) main with the individual throughout his/her working Perhaps an even more pointed element was or useful life. This has grave implications for what we contained in the report from the Commission on the do in education in this latter part of the 20th century. Year 2000 that appeared in an article by Andrew That is to say--theprocessesby which the indi- Squibb (1968) in TheNews American(Baltimore). vidual is able to maintain a reasonable degree of The report projected: technological literacy throughout one's life in an ev- The end of democratic government as peo- erchanging technological society is one of educa- ple lose interest and leave the decisions to tion's greatest challenges. an intellectual, technological elite. (p. F-1) The picture is one of the individual moving Thus, I would propose that the practical arts and through a life of changing environment, changing vocational education take up the challenge of doing human requirements, and certainly, changing tech- their share in narrowing that gulf of ignorance that nologies. The picture gets more complicated by vir- separates the technocratic elite from the citizens in tue of the fact that it is reasonable to expect that the general. This is not a task that can be accomplished pace of the two entities, i.e. the individual and the by these areas alone. There are, however, very im- technological society, are not the same, as one portant roles that they ran and must play. seems to outdistance the other. The Consumer, User and Producer Literacy Needs The past forty years have seen a technological explosion outpace and outdistance the population Other roles for Industrial Arts/Ter,qinology Edu- of this nation in its ability to even be a reasonable cation and Vocational Educatior. are related to the competitor in the race. The increasing gap between contributions that these areas can make to the indi- the individuars understanding and the state of tech- vidual as a consumer and user of the fruits of an ad- nological affairs continues to widen and will continue vanced technological society. The tools, processes, to do so in the forseeable future. systems and equipment available to the individual call for a form of consumer understanding that is But now you say: "What does all of this so-called highly dependent on technological literacy. race of the human with the state of technological affairs have to do with the role of the practical arts and Likewise, the user of technology in practically vocational education in dealing with technological lit- every area of Ilvirv,jwork, play, communrlion, trav- eracy?' I would reply that there is an extremely im- el, food preparation, home maintenance, and health, portant role that such educational programs can and all require the individual to have a level of technologi- must play. Earlier, I made the comment thatthe pro- cal literacy unprecedented in human history. The ar- cesses by which the individual is able to maintain a eas of Industrial Arts/Technology Education and Vo- reasonable degree of technological literacy through- cational Education have a significant role in this, the out one's life in an ever-changing technological soci- consumer and user functions of the individual. ety is one of education's greatest challenges. The The producer role is one that, in today's work- word "processes" is the key to a much closer race. place, wilt require increasing sophistication In the The "processes" in this case are theprocessesof area of technological literacy. Vocational education learning.Alvin Toffler (1970) best described the has a great opportunity for contributing to the Individ- condition and the requiremz.nts in the comment: uars technological literacy as well as his/her capability "-Tomorrow's illiterate will not be the man (person) in using the technology as tools in a productive, who can't read; he will be the man who has not wage-earning capacity. learned to learn" (p. 367). Thus, I would propose that one of the most important roles for the practical arts and vocational education is to assist each and every student in their ability to learn. To do less would be to educate for 2, 2 248Technological Literacy: Poles for Practical Arts and Vocational Education

obsolescencdin a fast changing in technological References society. Boyer, E. L. (1983). High school: A report on sec- A First-Hand Experience Leading to pndary education in America. New York: Harper Technological literacy & Row. Furthermore, I would contend that the practical Finke, W. W. (1967, January). Making technology a arts and vocational education have one of educa- universally available tool. figagaDjgelf. tion's most fertile gardens for developing the individ- Maley, D. (1970, March). A new role for industrial arts ual's ability to learn. The environment, as well as the in a senior high school. &hoot Shop, 2a(7), 41- context, in which such idsming takes place is condu- 45, 65. cive to a broad range of learning styles.It Is also the setting for a multi-sensory, multi-dimensional learn- National Science Board Commission on Precollege ing that emanates from a first-hand encounter with Education in Mathematics, Science and Tech- the technology and its principles of mathematics, nology. (1983). Educating Americans for the science, social and environmental impact. The im- 21st century (source materials). Washington, portance of this first-hand experience in the learning DC: The National Science Foundation. process was the subject of a comment by Alfred Squibb, A. (1968, January 14). The year 2000: North Whitehead (1952) in his concern for a "basis What will life be like? (Pad One). The New Amed- for intellectual life." r, an, Baltimore, MD. ...First-hand knowledge is the ultimate ba- Truxal, J. G. (1986, March/April). Learning to think sis of intellectual life. To a large extent book- like an engineer. Ghana la(2), 10-19. learning conveys second-handed information, and as such can never rise to the 1111- Ward, B. (1966). Boalahluatth. New York: Co- portaik* of immediate practice. ...What the lumbia Jniversity Press. learned world tends to offer is one second- Whitehead, A. N. (1952). The aims of education. hand scrap of information illustrating ideas New York: Macmillan. derived from another second-hand scrap of information. The second-handedness of the learnedworld is the secret of its mediocrity. (p. 61) The role of helping students to learn how to ler, n is one that is enhanced in the practical arts and vocational education by virtue of the environment, the direct involvement with the technology, and the use of technology to study other technologies. The development of programs in the practical arts and vocational education with a high degree of effectiveness in achieving greater technological literacy may be one of our greatest challenges--and at the same time, it may be our finest opportunity. As to the role or roles that the practical arts and vocational education can play in the development of technological literacy here in the United States,--it is a matter of perspective of the roles they can play.It also is a matter of choice and commitment on the part of the respective professions.

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Technological Literacy: The Role of Vocational Education

Dr. Jerome Moss, Jr. Division of Industrial Education University of Minneosta St. Paul, Minnesota

This paper will begin to explore the role of voca- The most twicel explanation for the motivation to tional education in developing technological literacy. change is the desire for survival--the need to fit bet- To accomplish that end, the paper will, first, briefly ex- ter into the new wave of educational thought and amine the evolving concept of technological literacy. practice, epitomized by the emphasis on the new Second, it wil' review the present status of vocational basics. Industrial arts educators are being driven to education, particularly at the secondary level. Finally, don a mantle of greater academic respectability. the paper will attempt to answer the questions, Despite the self-serving motivation, a change "Should the twain meet, and, if so, how?" from industrial arts and interpreting industry to tech- Technological Literacy nology education and developing technological liter- The development of technological literacy is not acy is not irrational. It is not difficult to argue that it is a new idea for industrial arts educators. William War- important for all youth (general education) to under- ner and his students began studying the idea in the stand technology in a society driven in large measure 1940's (Warner et al., 1965). One of Warner's stu- by technology.Further, the change can be made dents, Delmar Olson, completed a dissertation in the with relative ease: (a) the traditional laboratory, multi- '50's which outlined a structure for the study of tech- sensory, activity-oriented approach can be retained; nology and advocated ail industrial arts adopt a cur- (b) a more credble claim can be made for reinforcing riculum that would reflect the technology (Olson, a wide variety of mathematical and scientific concepts 1963). But the great surge of curriculum activity in and for enhancing problem solving and creative the '60's ignored technology.Towers, Lux, and thinking skills; and (c) the curriculum clusters, which Ray's "Industrial Ms Curriculum Project," Face and grew out of earlier industrial arts curriculum projects Flug's "American Industry," Maley's "Maryland Plan," and which were further developed during the career Yoho's "Orchestrated System," and Stadt's education years, can be adapted as content organiz- "Enterprise" (to name just a few) were all designed to ers for the study of technological systems. improve the ability of industrial arts to interpret indus- But several important questions remain to be an- trynot technology. The interpretation of industry swered if the change to technology education and rather than the development of technological literacy the development of technological literacy is to be was accepted as the dominant purpose of industrial successful. Greater concensus is needed about the arts education. meaning of technology and of technological literacy. Why was the study of technology and the devel- The justification for this conference, and the focus of opment of technological literacy ignored then, but is every presentation in it, is to explore these concepts now being urged upon industrial arts educators? and to begin to build that concensus. Certainly it is not because industrial arts educators What is Technology? have debated and explicitly chosen to shift the philo- There are many definitions of technology; it is sophical orientation of the field from its traditional stu- useful for industrial arts/technology educators to dent-centered, humanistic approach to a subject/ think of them in four categories. Each category re- society-centered approach based upon academic ra- flects a different breadth of potential content. tionalism (Zuga, 1985). Despite some serious study of the t..3ot by Paul DeVore (1980), it is certainly The definitions of technology included in the not because practitioners better understand tech- first category reflect the broadest interpretation of nology and how to teach it now than they did then. potential content. These definitions consider technology as systems for making and doing things--all 250Technological Literacy: The Role of Vocational Education

the way from making machinists to making love. J. is to prepare students to work with technical sys- Kenneth Galbreath's (1967) use of the term provides tems; to have them learn skills, knowledge and atti- an exemplar 'Technology means the systematic ap- tudes about the systems that are uniquely techno- pli'+ion of Scientific and other knowledg.) to practi- logical (however broadly or narrowly technology is cal tasks." defined).This "technical" interpretation leads to The definition in the second category are nar- drawing the content for technology education from rower in scope. They speak of technology as sys- the technological processes themselves, and to engage students in the processes. tems (or adaptive means) for enhancing the capacity of society to produce goods and services. The defi- The third interpretation of technological literacy nitions limit the systems to those involved in the pro- is to understand and appreciate the impact of tech- duction of goods and services, but do not restrict the nology and its changes on individuals, on society systems to those associated with "industry." Medical and culture, and on the environment. One approach and agricultural systems, for instance, are included in to achieving this .ype of literacy is historical, that is, to the scope of content Identified by this category of illustrate over time the impacts of technology and the definitions.The Technology Act of 1986 defines effects of technological change. Another approach technology in this manner (100th Congress, 1986). might be to have students plan, organize and conduct a production project, and then require them to The third category contains definitions that limit introduce a "new" significant technological advance the systems to those which enhance the industrial into the production process to illustrate the effects of capacity of society--industrial technology. These such a change. definitions typically organize the systems into such components as communication, manufacturing, con- Thus, one can conceive of the content of teci struction, transportation, etc. The Jackson's Mill doc- nological literacy as varying within a 4 x 3 matrix. Four ument reflects this more limited interpretation of definitions of technology, each with a different technology (Wright, 1987). scope, and three interpretations of the most critical kinds of knowledge, skills and attitudes to be learned Fourth, and finally, a few definitions interpret from that content. Two/0 definitions, plus innumer- technology as computer (or as electronic communi- able combinations, can, therefore, be readily identi- cations systems). These are obviously the most limit- fied. But the problem of defining technological litera- ed of all. cy does not end here. What Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes Comprise What Level of Achievement Constitutes Literacy? Utemcy? To define technological literacy for educational The goal of developing technological literacy implies that r.irtain knowledge, skills and attitudes purposes, that is, to design instructional programs (ksa), drawn from the content of technology that will develop technological literacy, it is not only necessary to specify the kinds of knowledge, skills (however technology is defined), will be taught and and attitudes that comprise the meaning of literacy, it learned. Presently, the technology education literature appears to contain three interpretations of is also necessary to identify the level of achievement that constitutes literacy. There is, after all, really a the primary set of ksa's that comprise technological continuum of achievement in technology; inditmuals literacy. have varying degrees of competence. We may One interpretation is that technological literacy choose to bifurcate the continuum of achievement at means understanding the application of scientific some point to identify a minimum level of compe- principles (mainly those drawn from mathematics and tence (what's above the line is literate and what's be- physics) to the creation of tools and machines. low the line is illiterate), but an artificial dichotomy is When this interpretation comprises the primary com- being created.Nevertheless, expectations of ponent of technological literacy, then the content of achievement do need to be expressed in designing technology education needs to be organized formal education programs. around the scientific principles that are to be rein- The literature of technology education already forced; technology content is selected and struc- contains expressions which recognize a wide range tured to best illustrate and clarify the scientific princi- of possible levels of achievement. As Dyrenfurth ples. Pedretti's "Principles of Technology" illustrates (1987) has already pointed out at this conference, this interpretation. the affective, cognitive and psychomotor behaviors A second interpretation of technological literacy that comprise literacy can be learned to different

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levels of complexity.Or, as Hameed (1987) and benefit to secondary students who take vocational White (1987) have put it, literacy can be defined as education courses. Employers often claim that the having different functional levels, such as recogniz- quality of graduates' performance is low, and that the ing, using, controlling, making and designing, or put time in vocational courses could be better spent im- more simply, the consuming and the producing proving basic academic skills (Research & Policy levels. Committee of the Committee far Economic Develop- V'hat is Technological Literacy? ment, 1985). Further, as Thurow (1986) believes, it is too costly to maintain equipment representative of Technological literacy at this time is, therefore, modem industry in comprehensive high schools. Fi- an ambiguous concept. Its meaning depends upon nally, there are those, such as the Panel on Secon- the interaction of one's choice or (a) a definition of dary Education for the Chrnging Workplace (1984), technology, (b) the kinds of knowledge, skills and at- who say that there is too great a discrepancy be- titudes that comprise the primary substance of litera- tween the kinds of occupations demanded by the la- cy, and (c) the level of competence it is necessary to bor market and the kinds of vocational programs of- possess to attain literacy. fered by schools. By inference, technology education is an equal- Not all vocational educators find these charges ly ambiguous concept. It too is in transition, in a state credible, but a growing number do, and they are be- of "becoming." Progress as a field will depend upon ginning to propose solutions that would significantly reaching broader consensus about more precise alter the curriculum of the secondary school. definitions than presently exist. A Propoead Solution Vocational Education The solution most commonly proposed is to in- Vocational education, particularly at the secon- tegrate vocational and academic education dary level, a; also in a state of transition. Lke industri- (Goodlad, 1984; Finn, 1986; Silberman, 1986). The al artaffe-..hnology education, the time available in the proposal calls for defining the purpose of vocational secondary curriculum for vocational education Is be- education as improving "employability," broadly inter- ing decreased because of increases in academic preted and career long. This means recognizing that course requirements for graduation.But of even vocational education is not only a form of specialized greater impact, the value of specialized occupational education, but that it must also seriously concern it- °reparation 0 the secondary level is being seriously self with aspects of the general education of all westioned i;), a growing number of influential critics. youth. The criticisms are directed at issues of equity and of efficiency. Proponents of this solution justify its reasona- bleness on both praC.cal and theoretical grounds. Criticisms of Vocational Education They argue that the public continues to see the sec- In 1916, Dewey predicted that a narrow interpre- ondary school as a place to prepare for work (Gallup, tation of vocational educatior as specialized pro- 1985); work in the future will be more important than grams for less-than-professional level occupations ever to a growing proportion of the population.It is would harden the dichotomy of vocational and aca- claimed that much of the knowledge, skills and atti- demic education. The former for the masses and the tudes needed for success in any one occupation (or latter for the few ecor. mically able to enjoy it. Now, groups of occupations) Is also needed,r success in in 1985, Oakes reports that disproportionately great- all occupations - -in fact, the same competencies are er numbers of students from the lower socio- also needed in many other life rolesand are thereby economic groups are taking vocational classes, and important for all youth to poasess. Further, like in- that the lower the skill level of the vocational course dustrial arts/technology education, vocational educa- the more likely it is that the students will come from tion is believed to provide an effective alternative ap- the low.sst soca-economic groups. She joins De- proach to instruction; it provides a reason to learn, a wey in the charge that vocational education perpetu- way to learn, and a place to learn that can reduce ates a tracking system which intensifies an inequita- drop-outs and improve the social and academic per- ble class system. formance of students (National Commission on Sec- ondary Vocational Education, 1986). And finally, The charges of inefficiency have several bases. while the need for specialized occupational prepara- A number of studies, like Grasso & Shea (1979), tion will not be eliminated, it will be delayed to the have found that thereislittle (or no) economic post-highschoolforan increasing number of

236 252Technological Literacy: The Role of Vocational Education

students and become a life-long effort (Thurow, specific to more specialized areas (including technol- 1986). ogy education).It is quite likely that Board of Re- Thus, it is likely that vocational education In the gents approval came as the result of the cooperative, secondary school Is also in transition. Most signifi- unified planned undertaken by the practical arts and cantly, it appears that the direction of change is to- vocational educators in the State. ward making the general education aspects of voca- Technological Uteracy: A Unifying Concept tional instruction an increasingly important part of the Technological literacy may be the umbrella con- high school program. cept under which technology educators and voca- Bringing the nvain Together tional educators can jointly develop a conceptually coherent curriculum that includes both fields.It has Given the emergence of technology education that potential, provided the definition of technology with the purpose of developing technological litera- employed is appropriate, and the interpretation of cy, and the possible transformation of vocational education to improve the employability of all youth technological literacy is adequate. (general education), the two fields appear to be A definition of technology recommended by heading on a converging course in the secondary both a historian of technology and the curator of a school. What relationships between them should be special library collection on the history of romputers edvisioned? Are they on a -311Ision course, or are and technology at the University of Minnesota is one they getting closer to working cooperatively? proposed by Gendron (1977). It reads: A Reason for Cooperating Any systematized practical knowledge, based on experimentation and/or scientific There is a very practical reason for cooperating theory, which enhance the capacity of soci- for seeking a common denominator that will permit ety to produce goods and services, and the development of a conceptually coherent high which is embodied in productive skills, or- school curriculum in corporating both fiek:s. The rea- ganization, or machinery. (p. 23) son is that by cooperating the chances of both fields finding a satisfactory place in the curriculum will be The definition serves the intended purpose enhanced; by competing the chances of both fields well.It places science and technology in proper rela- will be substantially reduced. tionship; it limits technology to those systems which produce goods and services, but does not restrict Both fields are now competing with academic them to industrial systems; and, importantly, it expli- subjects for a place in the curriculum. Even the ser- citly includes the practical knowledge embodied in vice areas within vocational education, agricultural the productive skills of individuals. The definition de- education, business and office education, etc., of- scribes the source of content for vocational educa- ten appaar to be making independent arguments for tion as well as technology education! their contributions to the secondary school curriculum. Separately, it is too easy for school boards and Technological literacy mild then mean the ac- administrators to ignore the arguments, to place little quisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes about credence in the claims, and to play one field (or ser technology necessary for informed citizenship and vice area) off against the other. Separately, we are for satisfactory productivity in and satisfaction with viewed as claiming too much and producing too little. work roles. (Note that the concept of literacy is suffi- Together, by presenting one comprehensive plan, ciently encompassing to include both the consumer the probability of convincing other educators, as well and the producer roles; the knowledge, skills and at- as the public, increases dramatically. titudes necessary for occupational performance is simply considered to be a high level of specialized A good example of cooperation is what hap- technological literacy.] pened in New York State (Good, 1986). The Board of Regents approved a plan that is not just technolo- The development of technological literacy could gy education nor just Vocational education. The become a major purpose of schooling, viewed as a Board approved a single, comprehensive plan for all process requiring life long learning to satisfy both its occupational education and the practice: arts. The consumer and producer applications.The major plan allows for increased academic requirements, components of literacy include (a) understanding the and it presents a systematic, sequential, inclusive ap- systems of producing goods and services and their proach to the development of core competencies impact on individuals, society and the environment, common to all occupational areas, as well as those (b)developing a vocational self-concept,and

237 Technological Literacy Symposium 253

(c) acquiring selected occupational competencies. Gendron, B. (1977). ladnglanaollINJauman Thus, the development of technological literacy conakm. New York: St. Martins Press. would span both general education and specialized Good, J. E. (1986, February). New York State curric- education. It would be seen as an essential part of ulum plans. The Technology Teacher, 05), 5- general (and liberal) education- -the preparation 11 needed by everyone for living In a society being Goodlad, J. I. (1984). A plaoe called school: Pros- transformed very rapidly by technology.It would be pects for the future. New York: McGraw-Hill. seen as an essential part of specialized education the acquisition of specialized knowledge, skills and Grasso, J., & Shea, J. (1979). Yecelfgnaleglucalign attitudes needed to make persons employable in and training: Impact on youth. Berkeley, CA: highly technical productive systems. And it would be Carnegie Council on Policy Studies in Higher recognized and accepted that some of the special- Education. ized learning may occur for some individuals In the Hameed, A. (1987, May). A olobal model of technsk secondary school. jagicajltaata. Paper presented at the confer- Concbsions ence on Technological Literacy, Columbus, OH. Vocational education can, indeed, play a role in National Commission on Secondary Vocational Edu- developing technological literacy.More precisely, cation. (1986). The unfinished agenda: The technological literacy can be the vehicle called for by role of vocationaLeducationin the hloh school. the critics of vocational education to reconceptualize Columbus, OH: National Center for Research in its purpose in the secon&sy school. But even more Vocational Education. significantly, technological literacy can provide the Olson, D. E. (1963). Industrial arts and technology. umbrella concept under which technology education Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. and vocational education can join hands and become part of the same developmental processthe Oaks, J. (1985). Keeping track: How schools struc- process of achieving and maintaining tedmological ture...W=8h. New Haven, CT: Yale University literacy. As Thompson says, "Culture and vocation Press. are inseparable and inseverable aspects of humani- 100th Congress, 1st Session. (1986). H.R. 1203: ty" (1973, p. 226). Technologyaducationact of 1986. Washington, Obviously, this paper has concluded with only DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. the germ of an Idea. Whether it is an antidote to be Panel on Secondary Education for a Changing Work- cultivated or a virus to be exterminated, the reader place. (1984). HO school and the chanaina will have to decide. reulialmLahfutliviafffsidett. Washington, References DC: National Academy of Sciences. DeVore, P. W. 1980). Technology: An introduc- Research Policy Committee of the Committee for Ec- tion. Worcester, MA: Davis. childresBps.onomic Development. (1985). Investing New in our Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education: An in- York: Committee for Economic Development. troduction to the philosophy of education. New York: Macmillan. Silberman, H. F. (1986, Fall). Improving the status of high school vocational education. Educational Dyerilurth, M. J. (1987, May). Internationalpersoec- Horizons, 5-9. lives on technological literacy. Paper presented at the conference on Technology Literacy, Co- Thompson, J. F. (1973). foundations of vocational lumbus, OH. aduciationLlaciaLAnd4thilosaghicaLcancapts. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Finn, C. E. (1986, November). A fresh option for the non-college bound. EtalleitaNiggan. 236. Thurow, J. (1986, October). A national persogive on the changino economy. Presentation at the Galbreath, J. K. (1967). New Industrial state. New Bay State ?kills Corporation Conference. York: New American Library. Warner, W. E., Joseph, E. G., Carlton, J., Gerbracht, Gallup, A. M. (1985, September). The 17th annual H. G., Lisa*, J. P., Kleinjles, P. L., & Phillips: K. Gallup poll of the public's attitudes toward the (1965). A curriculum to reflect technology. Co- public schools. Phi Delta Kappan, hz, 35-47. lumbus, OH: Epsilon Pi Tau. 2 8 254Technological Literacy: The Role of Vocational Education

White, M. R. (1987, May). DidloklosisleminInund coniLibutiogialortffiladicallittuacx. Paper presented at the conference on Technology Litera- cy, Columbus, OH. Wright, R. T. (1987, May). "Jackson's Mir and Industrial and Technolooy Education* project reports as a guide for organizing content for Ipchpolooy education. Paper presented at the conference on Technological Literacy, Cokun- bus, OH. Zuga, K. (1985, Spring). Identifying the role of values in industrial arts education. Journal of Indus- trial Teacher Education, 22(3), 48-59.

2:id CO-SPONSORS The Ohio State University, College of Education American Vocational Association International Technoloby Education Association International Vocational Education and Training Association National Center for Research in Vocational Education

T H E OHITE O STA UNIVERSITY

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INTERNATIONAL TECHNOLOGY THE HMIONAL CENTER EDUCATION FOR RESEARCH IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION

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