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101303 Turcica 50 00 16 Comptesrendus.Indd Mohebbi (Parviz), Les mots et les choses de l’Europe en persan (12e- 15e siècles). Le pays des Francs, pierres précieuses et fines, pierreries, métaux, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2016, 244 p. Fort de sa maîtrise de plusieurs langues, dont le persan et l’arabe, Parviz Mohebbi inter- roge les textes persans pour faire le point de ce que l’on savait du monde européen en Perse entre le XIIe et le XVe siècle. Il arrivera que l’auteur franchisse cette limite chronologique pour suivre la destinée d’un texte médiéval intéressant. Toutes les fois où c’était possible, l’auteur a confronté les textes persans à des sources européennes, notamment italiennes. Il s’agit donc d’une contribution originale et majeure à l’histoire globale. Parviz Mohebbi a choisi de donner à son ouvrage le plan modeste d’un dictionnaire : la première partie concerne le terme farang « le pays des Francs » dont le champ d’application est cerné à travers plusieurs sources (farang en cartes, farang dans les textes, farang diplomatique, farang commercial, farang technique, farang fables et merveilles). Cet ordre d’apparence rigide est encore plus vrai dans la seconde partie, où Parviz Mohebbi en s’efforçant de cerner les relations entre les Persans et l’Europe à travers le monde de la joaillerie euro- péenne, fait se succéder ambre jaune, bague, corail, cristal de roche, émeraude, étain, mala- chite, rubis et pierres rouges. En réalité, du fait de l’intérêt porté aux acteurs, on a affaire à une véritable recherche et non pas seulement à la compilation organisée de résultats connus. Farang, « pays des Francs », le terme pour désigner dans son ensemble le monde des infidèles est dérivé d’un terme persan ancien farang qui existait en effet à l’époque des Sas- sanides mais qui désignait alors le trône royal ou le custre. Mais la première apparition dans un texte persan pour désigner par farang le pays des Francs est la relation de voyage de Nâser Khosrow en Égypte entre 1047 et 1050 où il est venu pour rencontrer ses coreligionnaires fatimides, ce qui donne à penser que le terme farang est une transposition en persan du terme arabe qu’il a entendu prononcer par les Égyptiens. L’origine du terme est donc frappée d’un mystère, mais son champ sémantique demeure mystérieux lui aussi. Si La cartographie du pays des Francs a progressé entre le XIe-XIIe siècles (cartes d’Estakhri et d’Ahmad Tusi) et le XVe siècle (coordonnées produites par Jamshid Kâchâni), le mouvement ne s’est pas poursuivi. Même si la carte de 1662 mentionne pour la première fois l’Amérique – « yengi donyà » –, elle demeure une représentation du monde en sept climats selon la connaissance antique et médiévale. Pourtant les textes d’histoire et de poésie abondent en allusions au pays des Francs, les aléas des conflits et des alliances provisoires nourrissent les archives diplomatiques ; et le commerce des armes et des bijoux est une occasion pour souligner les capacités techniques des Francs qui à la fin du Moyen Âge en viennent à supplanter les Chinois aux yeux des Persans. Le pays des Francs demeure pour l’essentiel la partie du monde, diversement située selon les acteurs¸ proche tantôt de la Russie, de l’Égypte ou de l’Andalousie, où demeurent les « infidèles ». Cette lacune dans la connaissance a été relevée par un acteur important qui inspire le travail de Parviz Mohebbi : il s’agit de Rashid al-din, grand vizir de deux rois mongols de Perse, Ghâzan Khân (1295-1304) et Oljaïtu (1304-1316), et qui fut exé- cuté en 718/1318 par leur successeur. Son ambition était d’abord de rivaliser avec les Francs pour construire une carte du monde. « Les Francs [ahl-e Farang] ont tracé la figure et les contours de l’hémisphère occidental et ils appellent cela Bâbmundu [Mappa mundi]. Et ils y ont représenté la forme de tous ses pays, de ses îles, de ses montagnes, de ses mers Turcica, 50, 2019, p. 471-518. doi: 10.2143/TURC.50.0.3286584 © 2019 Turcica. Tous droits réservés. 472 COMPTES RENDUS et de ses déserts. Et pour le mesurage, ils ont un instrument de mesurage en parasanges [farsakh, 6 km environ]. » Le livre où Rashid al-din pensait transmettre ces informations cartographiques ne nous est pas parvenu. Mais on sent bien sa préoccupation d’y voir plus clair dans le « pays des Francs » par le travail d’histoire qu’il a accompli en 1305-1306 et sur lequel Parviz Mohebbi insiste à juste titre puisqu’il y voit « la description la plus complète et détaillée du pays des Francs jusqu’au XIXe siècle… Rachid al-din brasse un large tableau des pays européens du sud jusqu’à la Scandinavie en débordant sur l’Europe orientale. » Cette œuvre passa à l’époque inaperçue. Les Persans se souciaient davantage des avancées technologiques des Francs que de la délimitation exacte de leur(s) pays. C’est à l’une de ces technologies, jalousée et enviée, la fabrication des bijoux, que Parviz Mohebbi consacre la seconde partie de son ouvrage. Mais il nous fait d’abord connaître le principal inspirateur de ces pages, qui, en dépit de leur allure de dictionnaire, vont se révéler passionnantes. Il s’agit de Jowhari Nishâburi, joaillier de son état, qui publie en 1196 un traité intitulé javâher nâmeh-ye nezâmi (livre des joyaux de Nezâmi). C’est le premier texte persan qui contienne des renseignements sur la joaillerie européenne. La ville de l’auteur, Nishâbur, est d’une étonnante avancée dans l’art de facetter les pierres précieuses, durant les Xe et XIe siècles comme l’ont prouvé les découvertes archéologiques du Metropolitam Museum de New York. À ces connaissances des hommes de métier, Nisahâburi ajoute une connaissance des classiques grecs (pseudo Aristote et pseudo Apollonios de Tyane), il est familier de Biruni qui, inspiré des Grecs de l’Antiquité, a formulé une manière de distinguer les pierres par leur poids pour un volume donnée (1131). Grâce à Nishaburi, nous allons suivre l’ache- minement de l’ambre jaune de la Scandinavie à la mer de Bolghâr (la Baltique) où l’ambre est mise en vente. Le chapitre suivant consacré aux bagues va ouvrir une enquête passion- nante qui demeurera ouverte. Nishâburi précise que les Francs « ont l’habitude de sertir sur une bague plusieurs petites pierres, chacune de la taille d’un grain de millet » ; de même, certains Francs paient le prix fort pour insérer dans les chatons des émeraudes réduites ou des rubis rouges. En confrontant les descriptions de Nishâburi aux ressources archéologiques médiévales, on aboutit à la conclusion que les bagues les plus proches sont celles de l’Empire romain dont on a découvert quelques exemplaires en Syrie. Tous les articles sur les métaux et pierres précieuses sont construits avec le même souci de croiser les sources. On retiendra tout spécialement les pages consacrées au jeu d’échec en pierres précieuses, à cause des belles reproductions bien commentées et du témoignage direct du marchand vénitien, Piero Veglione, mort à Tabriz, qui lègue en 1263 deux échiquiers à des Vénitiens. L’article final sur les rubis et les pierres rouges constitue une conclusion de ce livre. On y voit les lapidaires persans s’obstiner à rechercher de quoi distinguer les vrais rubis (yâqut) des autres pierres rouges moins précieuses ; ils mettent à profit le savoir que livrent les textes antiques, le témoignage des marchands européens, leur connaissance directe de la taille et des mesures proposées par Biruni et qui se rapprochent de celles du poids spécifique. Parviz Mohebbi, dans son ouvrage, nous transmet son estime pour les auteurs qu’il cite et dont il s’efforce de trouver les sources et les ressources. Ce sont des hommes du Moyen Âge persan que nous rencontrons dans leur débat difficile et compliqué avec les pays des Francs : avec une bibliographie complète et bien présentée, ces 242 pages constituent une vraie contribution à l’histoire globale. Roger ESTABLeT Ancien professeur émérite de sociologie à l’Université de Provence Membre du Laboratoire méditerranéen de sociologie (LAMES) COMPTES RENDUS 473 Winter (Stefan), A History of the ‘Alawis. From Medieval Aleppo to the Turkish Republic, Princeton-Oxford, Princeton University Press, 2016, xiii + 307 p. The past two decades have witnessed an immense increase in publications on the Alawis, with emphases on their beliefs, the emergence of their creeds, and ethnographic and socio- logical research. Among the outstanding works are: Y. Friedman, The Nuṣayrī-῾Alawīs; M. M. Bar-Asher & A. Kofsky, The Nuṣayrī-῾Alawī Religion; and F. Balanche, La région alaouite et le pouvoir syrien.1 Because of their close ties to the ruling elite, the Alawis have played a disproportionate role in the civil war in Syria which began in 2011 – a fact that has increased the attention given in Western media to this community. Still needed, however, has been a study on the history of the Alawi community focusing on political, economic, and social rather than religious developments. The book under review is just such a study. Its author, Canadian historian Stefan Winter, has done exten- sive research on the Alawis and here has written not only a synthesis of existing studies but – more importantly – has dug up many new sources about them, among which are numerous archival documents and records in Ottoman Turkish, Arabic, English, and French (cf. the Introduction p. 6-7, and the impressive list of mostly unpublished sources p. 275- 279). The book covers roughly a millennium of Alawi history, from the formative period in the 10th century down to the dawn of World War II.
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