The Development of British Hydrogeology in the Nineteenth Century

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From William Smith to William Whitaker: the development of British hydrogeology in the nineteenth century

JOHN MATHER Lyell Professor, Department of Geology, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 OEX, UK

Abstract: Some of the earliest applications of the principles of geology to the solution of hydrologic problems were made by William Smith, who used his knowledge of strata succession to locate groundwater resources to feed the summit levels of canals and supply individual houses and towns. The industrial revolution led to a huge demand for water resources to supply new towns and cities. Nottingham, Liverpool, Sunderland and parts of London all relied on groundwater. By the middle of the nineteenth century James Clutterbuck had already recognized that groundwater was a finite resource and that if abstraction was more rapid than replenishment by rain, water levels would decline and quality would be affected by saline intrusion. In 1851 Prestwich produced the first British geological map that included groundwater information. Before 1870 the Geological Survey had shown little concern for groundwater, perhaps because its Director, Murchison, had little interest in the economic applications of geology. After his retirement in 1871 there was an explosion of activity. Lucas introduced the term 'hydrogeology' in 1874 and produced the first real hydrogeological map in 1877 after leaving the Survey to work as a consultant water engineer. De Rance was for 20 years the secretary of a British Association Committee set up in 1874 to inquire into the underground circulation of water and in 1882 produced a 600 page volume on the water supply of England and Wales. William Whitaker, sometimes described as the 'father of English hydrogeology', was a collecter of well records and his work led to the inclusion of page after page of well records in survey publications in the southeast of England and in 1899 to the first water supply memoir- The Water Supply of Sussex from Underground Sources. From Smith to Whitaker, knowledge of groundwater grew throughout the nineteenth century, providing the basis for the sophisticated models of today.

The part that groundwater has played in the to break out higher up valleys as the water table historical development of the United Kingdom is rises. Because of the low specific yield of the obvious from any survey of place names. The Chalk, after very wet winters it is possible for rivers incorporation of such words as 'well', 'spring', to break out some distance up the valley from their 'bourne' and 'spa' into the names of farms, villages normal source and, for example, the source of the and larger settlements is ample evidence of the River Ver in Hertfordshire has varied by at least 5 importance of groundwater. However, until rela- miles (Tomkins 1969). In medieval times all bourne tively recent times our forebears had rather flows were viewed with suspicion and were primitive ideas about its origin and groundwater regarded as a token of death or pestilence or as an phenomena were often surrounded by mystique. omen of disaster. The earliest reference goes back Thus many early wells were associated with saintly to 1473 (Latham 1904) and refers to the bourne patrons and Robins (1946) suggests that the wise flow in the upper Ver valley as the Womere or Woe- men of early Christianity found the aura of sanctity water (Fig. 1). Flows of this woe-water (or brook of the best means of ensuring that a perfectly good woe) were thought to presage a calamity of some water supply was treated with the care and respect sort. As the Revd J. Childrey pointed out in 1661 necessary to preserve it from pollution and abuse. (Latham 1904), The intermittent streams peculiar to the Chalk aquifer in England were long the subject of fear and That the sudden eruption of springs in places superstition, Known as 'bournes' (Hertfordshire where they use not always to run should be a sign and Surrey), 'nailbournes' (Kent), 'levants' of death is no wonder. For these unusual (Sussex), 'winterbournes' (Dorset and Hampshire), eruptions are caused by extreme gluts of rain, or or 'gypsies' (Yorkshire), they are the result of the lasting wet weather, and never happen but in wet infiltration of winter rainfall causing source springs years in which years wheat and most other grain

MATHER, J. 1998. From William Smith to William Whitaker: the development of British hydrogeology in 183 the nineteenth century. In: BLUNDELL,D. J. & SCOTT, A. C. (eds) Lvell: the Past is the Key to the Present. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 143, 183-196. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

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Fig. 1. The now dry bed of the River Ver at Markyate where the bourne flow was described as the Womere or Woe- water in chronicles of 1473 (Latham 1904).

thrive not well and therefore death succeeds the (Tybourne) where water was conveyed to the first following year. or Great Conduit where water was supplied 'for the poor to drink and the rich to dress their meat' (Stow It is interesting to note that Childrey recognized 1603). This was followed by a number of other that the spring flows were the result of heavy rain conduits, one in Aldgate receiving its water from some 13 years before Perrault first demonstrated springs at the base of the Bagshot Sands in experimentally that rainfall was more than adequate Hampstead, and by the end of the sixteenth century to account for the flow of rivers and springs London had at least 16 conduits (Robins 1946). (Perrault 1674). The sixteenth century marked the beginning of a The significance of groundwater in the develop- new era in water supply with the commencement of ment of settlements and towns is well illustrated by large-scale schemes. London was no exception and the growth of London to the beginning of the nine- in 1582, Peter Morice (Morrys or Morris), a teenth century. The first building took place along Dutchman, established a pump, worked by water the water-bearing alluvial gravels of the Thames wheels, to bring water from the Thames to the city. flood plain, following the outcrop of the gravels However, from the viewpoint of the hydrogeologist and terminating when the London Clay came to the the pioneer undertaking was the construction of the surface (Prestwich 1872). Water was obtained both New River to bring water in an open trench from from shallow wells and from springs which issued springs near Ware in Hertfordshire. The springs where the gravels had been cut down by shallow were the Chalk springs of Chadwell and Amwell in valleys to the London Clay. A good deal of water the valley of the River Lea and in its original was also drawn from the Thames and from winding course the New River was more than 40 tributaries which flowed through the settlement to miles long (Fig. 2). The fiver was an open channel, the river. Pollution of the tributary streams and the l0 feet wide with an average depth of 4 feet and the shallow wells gradually spread and many of these elevation of the springs allowed water to flow by sources were abandoned. gravity, following the contour line, to a circular In the early part of the thirteenth century water pond, known as the New River Head at Islington to started to be supplied to conduits or public the north of the city. The excavation of the channel fountains from springs outside the populated area. was completed in April 1613 and the New River The first springs to be used were those at Tyburn Company remained in existence until the formation Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

THE DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH HYDROGEOLOGY 185

marks the beginning of significant new developments in British hydrogeology. The historical research owes much to the bibliographies appended to each of the 28 water supply memoirs published between I899 and 1938 and to chronological lists of references compiled by Whitaker in 1888 and 1895.

William Smith and the period to 1839 According to Biswas (1970) one of the earliest applications of the principles of geology to the solution of hydrological problems was made by the Fig. 2. The source of the New River at Chadwell (from Englishman William Smith. His early work was as an old print dated 1810). a surveyor undertaking surveys for both canals and colliery workings. During his work he noted, in excavations, the various soils and the character of the rocks from which they were derived. By 1793 of the Metropolitan Water Board in 1904 (Robins he had grasped the principle of rock succession, as 1946). his notes of this period show (Robson 1986). In Over the next two centuries further waterworks 1799 Smith had a disagreement with his employers were developed mostly taking their supplies from and became an independent consulting engineer. the Thames. The establishment of these works The subsequent failure of a stone quarry on his land made it possible to distribute water at any point near Bath compelled him to concentrate on within the metropolis and thus removed the restric- consulting work to pay off his debts and he applied tion in the growth of London to the area underlain his geological knowledge to many different by gravel. Development at once spread over the problems, including the location of groundwater area underlain by London Clay (De Rance 1882). resources. Smith's interest in applying geology to According to Woodward (1922) the earliest known water supply is clear from his original table of deep well near London was sunk in 1725 and strata in the vicinity of Bath produced in 1799. On obtained water from the sands of the Tertiary this table he indicates those formations which give Woolwich and Reading Beds. However, exploit- rise to springs (Sheppard 1920). He is also known ation of deeper groundwaters did not make much to have been active in restoring the dwindling flow headway for many years and deep wells did not of the hot springs at Bath (Kellaway 1991). become commonplace until early in the nineteenth Sheppard (1920) records a reference to Smith's century. This is probably because of the presence of hydrogeological work which is given in a letter running sands and/or lenses of well cemented sands from John Farey to Sir Joseph Banks dated 24 and conglomerates (puddingstones) in the Tertiary February 1808. In 1802 a Buckinghamshire cleric strata underlying the London Clay (Barrow & Wills had sunk a well at his parsonage to a depth of more 1913). Thus the availability of groundwater was than 100 feet but had found only clay. Smith, on both a reason for growth and restricted expansion consulting his geological map, assured the cleric during the early history of the development of that if he persevered through the dry clay he would London. strike water in a limestone which cropped out about It is the objective of the present paper to review 8 miles to the northwest. Limestone was reached at how the science of hydrogeology developed in the 235 feet but yielded little water. An auger hole was UK during the nineteenth century. Over this period drilled to a second limestone which produced a the impetus was provided by the needs of an plentiful supply of water which filled the well expanding population and only to a lesser extent by almost to the surface of the ground. The advice that scientific curiosity. The review commences with he gave the Canal Company in their efforts to the work of William Smith at the beginning of the provide groundwater to feed the summit level of the century and ends with the publication, by the Wilts and Berks Canal near Swindon is recorded by Geological Survey, of the first memoir on under- Phillips (1844). Although the yield of the borehole ground water supply, written by William Whitaker drilled was not sufficient to supply the down and Clement Reid (1899). The paper is divided into lockage the advice he gave demonstrated that Smith three sections: the first ends with the death of knew a considerable amount about hydrogeology, William Smith in 1839 and the second with the including the occurrence of water table and con- death of Murchison, the second director of the fined conditions and the significance of hydraulic Geological Survey in 1871. Each of these dates head. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

186 J. MATHER

Some years later, in a paper to the Yorkshire states: Philosophical Society, Smith (1827) discussed a That the bowels of the earth contain springs of method for supplementing the water supply of water in abundance, there can be no doubt ... but Scarborough using water from a borehole, drilled we know full well that those same springs, if they several years previously for draining the land, have sufficient natural force, must find their way which was found to overflow yielding a small to the surface of the earth somewhere, without volume of water. An open channel was subse- any boring, and then form rivers and flowing quently cut up to the borehole and later deepened, brooks. Why then delve a great depth at an increasing the discharge significantly. He suspected infinite expense, to procure that which we can that the water came from a confined aquifer and generally obtain so readily ]and economically on suggested the damming of this spring for summer the surface of the earth? use as the previous supply was more than sufficient for the town in winter. He recognized that new wells often reduced the In contrast, Charles Lyell was the son of a yield of adjacent wells and that underground Scottish landowner and did not need to earn his springs 'do not furnish that inexhaustible supply of own living. He had much freedom to travel and, water which some persons imagine.' stimulated as an Oxford undergraduate by the lectures of Buckland, he applied himself in his Population growth and the period to 1871 travels to an intensive study of the rocks and structure of much of western Europe (George Economic and technical developments, together 1976). Lyell's 'Principles of Geology' (Lyell with a rapid increase in population (from about 10 1830-1833) contains almost nothing on ground- million in 1800 to 19 million in 1837), brought water. Chapter 12 of Volume 1 of the Principles is unprecedented changes to Britain in the first few concerned with springs, but only in their role as a decades of the nineteenth century. East and west of means of transferring material in solution from the Pennines, the presence of coal and water depth and not in their role as a source of potable resulted in opportunities for employment which water. However, Lyell clearly recognized that attracted people from other parts of the country and springs 'are in general, ascribable to the percolation from Ireland. Housing was provided rapidly and of rainwater through porous rocks, which meeting cheaply and new working-class districts grew up at last with argillaceous strata, is thrown out to the close to mills and factories. Water supplies and surface'. Although most of his examples were sewage disposal became totally inadequate and, taken from his travels in Europe, the chalybeate when cholera first reached England in 1831, these waters of Tunbridge Wells were cited as an overcrowded settlements were ideal breeding example of ferruginous springs in which the iron grounds. London, although not directly affected in was present as carbonate. He recognized that some the same way by the industrial revolution, was also of the sulphate in these groundwaters was derived growing rapidly. Reports began to reveal the from the decomposition of pyrite. relationship between water supply and ill health but Smith and Lyell were not the only geologists it was not until 1854 that Dr John Snow, working in writing about groundwater in the early years of the Westminster, demonstrated beyond doubt that nineteenth century. Many of the published accounts cholera was spread by drinking well water contam- are merely descriptions of wells or boreholes inated with sewage effluent derived from local together with the strata intersected (e.g. Yeats 1826; cesspools. As pointed out by Price (1996), Snow Donkin 1836) and contribute little to the develop- carried out one of the earliest recorded investi- ment of hydrogeological thinking. However, the gations into a case of groundwater pollution. controversies which were to dominate discussion In order to improve the quality of drinking water later in the century were already beginning to in towns and cities sources of supply had to be surface. established. In some of the northern and midland Although it was recognised that some potential cities it was possible to develop upland catchment recharge was lost by evaporation it was considered areas. However, in other areas, particularly in the by some that infiltration to permeable formations southeast of England, this was impossible and other such as the Chalk of southern England was so rapid sources of supply had to be obtained. The Report of that hardly any loss occurred and almost all rainfall the Royal Commission on Water Supply (1869 a, b) was available for subsequent extraction. Thus there shows that at this time a number of large was felt to be a vast resource available which only conurbations were supplied by groundwater. needed to be pumped out. However, some engin- Nottingham, parts of Liverpool, and Birkenhead eers already recognized that the resource was relied on wells in the Permo-Triassic Sandstones, limited and that surface and groundwaters were Sunderland and South Shields on the Permian inextricably linked. For example Seaward (1836) Magnesian Limestone and Croydon and parts of Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

THE DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH HYDROGEOLOGY 187

London on the Chalk. London was at that time Clutterbuck's ideas were received with consider- supplied by eight separate companies, only one of able scepticism amongst both water engineers and which, the Kent Company, derived its supplies chemists. His original work seems to have been from Chalk wells. However, government offices initiated in response to a scheme proposed by and several public establishments around Robert Stephenson in 1840 to supply northwest Westminster, together with the fountains in London from a well at Bushey Meads near Watford, Trafalgar Square, were supplied by wells, sunk to a which was rejected. Other engineers felt that the depth of about 400 feet in the Chalk in 1844 (Abel chalk could supply the large volume of water which & Rowney 1849; Amos 1860). London required and initial results from the The increase in interest in groundwater resulted Trafalgar Square wells were used to support this in considerable advances in our understanding of view (Homersham 1855). Over the period from groundwater movement and the problems December 1847 to December 1858, after yielding encountered in its exploitation. Some of the earliest daily a considerable and increasing quantity of systematic observations of groundwater levels were water, the water level in the wells remained the made by a Hertfordshire cleric, James Clutterbuck, same and the water was slightly less saline than and were reported in three papers to the Institution formerly (Amos 1860). Homersham, in discussion of Civil Engineers (Clutterbuck 1842, 1843, 1850). of Clutterbuck (1863), went so far as to state that Using accurate measurements and sections drawn 'he had no confidence in any statements, with to scale he demonstrated that, in the London Basin, respect to the permanent lowering of the surface of what he termed the 'chalk water level' was the water in wells sunk in the chalk' and that described by a line drawn from the highest level at Clutterbuck 'was not justified in his views.' It was which water accumulates in the chalk to the lowest also pointed out by Clark with respect to the infil- discharge point or vent. He recognized that the only tration of sea water into the wells under London apparent vent for these waters was mean tide level that 'if they took chalk-water and sea-water, and in the Thames below London. He defined the term mixed them together, it was physically impossible 'chalk water level' as 'the height, at any point, or to make out of the two, a water corresponding to the continuous series of points, to which the water rises chalk-water under London; the theory, therefore, in the chalk, or to which it will rise from the chalk, was simply a mistake' (Braithwate 1855). in perforations through the London and plastic However, there was also support for clays above the chalk'. The practical conclusions of Clutterbuck's views. Prestwich (1851) recognized his work are reviewed in the summing up of the that if abstraction was more rapid than replenish- discussion of his 1850 paper as follows: ment by rain, and this continued from year to year, the result must be an exhaustion of the groundwater - the natural drainage and replenishment of the reservoir, a gradual fall in the water level and a chalk stratum might be accounted for by constant decrease in the supply. He recognized that observing the alternation of level in various by 1850 this was happening in the Chalk beneath localities and at different seasons London, with a fall in water level of 40-60 feet - any large quantity of water abstracted from the within the previous 30 years. He considered that chalk stratum, at any given point, causes a this could not be 'made a valid ground of objection' depression of level around the point of such against the use of groundwater generally and abstraction concluded: 'Let the demand upon any series of strata be carefully regulated not to exceed the mean - in the outcrop districts, any such abstraction of annual supply by rain, and then the yield will not water would interfere with, and diminish the fluctuate.' He recognized that supplies from the supply of the streams, by which the drainage of Chalk, though of considerable value, were limited the district was regulated and insufficient to meet the wants of a city the size of London. However, he felt that problems identi- - the depression of the level under London, by fied with the Chalk were not applicable to the pumping from boreholes, had proved, that the underlying Lower Greensand and that these sands demand already exceeded the supply, and that were extensive enough to contribute a very any attempt to draw a large additional quantity important proportion of the quantity of water for public use, would be attended with disastrous required. This was based on the mistaken view that consequences. the Lower Greensand was continuous in the He also recognized that, as the Thames was the Thames Basin. Napier (1851) also proposed the natural discharge point for the chalk groundwaters Lower Greensand, to the south in Surrey, as a under London, as water levels were lowered 'the source of water supply. His report to the General natural outfall is converted into a source of supply, Board of Health devotes much attention to the and the drainage is reversed' (Clutterbuck 1850). merits of the soft water of the Greensand compared Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

188 j. MATHER to the hard water of the Chalk. Clutterbuck's views for him to show what will be the effect of were also supported by the Royal Commission on producing a void below the level at which the Water Supply which included Prestwich as a drainage of the country naturally escapes; how member. The Royal Commission was presented what are now fertile and even irrigated meadows with evidence which suggested that immense will be converted into arid wastes; how quantities of water could be obtained from the watercress beds, now of fabulous value, will be Chalk to supply London. However, they recognized brought to the resemblance of newly metalled that the supply must obviously be limited by the turnpike roads; how in such a district all existing amount of rainfall. Moreover, they stated that as wells, many of them already some hundreds of water within the aquifer ultimately finds its way by feet in depth, will be dried, the mill-streams springs into streams at lower elevations any water disappear, and even the canals and navigable abstracted from wells will most probably be at the rivers become liable to sink and be lost in their expense of those streams. (Royal Commission on beds. Water Supply 1869a, b). Evans would have been horrified to see that The debate about the supply of London from the some of his worst fears have since been realized chalk continued throughout the rest of the nine- (Fig. 3). teenth century (see for example, Harrison 1891: The work involved with London's water supply Hopkinson 1891) and many of the discussions were produced other advances in hydrogeology. extremely acrimonious. The strong feelings of Prestwich's small book (Prestwich 1851) contains a many geologists in their opposition to the schemes map and sections illustrating the relative positions of civil engineers are well summarized by John and areas of the principal water-bearing strata Evans in his Presidential Address to the Geological around London. In the key to the map, individual Society (Evans 1876): deposits are marked according to their permeability It will, I think, come within the province of the (Fig. 4). This map marks the first British geological geologist to point out not only where spring map to show hydrogeological information. Playfair, water of good quality is to be obtained, but also in discussion of Clutterbuck (1850), describes what will be the effect of its abstraction upon the analyses of some chalk wells in and around districts where it now exists in sufficient London. From the analyses he was able to show abundance to overflow into the streams. It will be that when outcrop water, which contained carbon-

Fig. 3. The original source of the River Hiz in Hertfordshire showing the now dry spring pool. A willow, which once overhung the pool, now stands forlornly on a slope that once formed its bank. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

THE DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH HYDROGEOLOGY 189

streets, and other impervious media through which no water can penetrate into the strata, but is immediately carried off by sewers and other artificial channels into the sea, must of course diminish, in a corresponding ratio, the quantity of water that would otherwise sink down into their mass. Stephenson (1850) prepared a report for the Water Committee of Liverpool Town Council on the town water supply. This report uses the terms 'permeability' and 'porosity' in a modern context and provides a correct qualitative description of a cone of depression around a pumping well: The effect of pumping from a well under such conditions will be to drain the adjacent rock, producing a comparative dryness on all sides, in such a manner as would be represented by an inverted cone; the bottom of the well being the apex of that cone, the sloping sides would represent the inclined surface of the water, flowing towards the well in all directions: and, as the pumping is continued, the sides of the cone will become more and more obtuse, or, in other words, more nearly horizontal, until an inclination is established where the friction of the water, in moving through the pores and fissures Fig. 4. Title (top) and key (bottom) to the map showing of the rock, is in equilibrium with the gravity the water-bearing strata of the country around London upon the plane. (Prestwich 1851). Hull (1865) described wells deriving water from the Permo-Triassic sandstones in Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham and Nottingham. He ate of lime in solution, filtered throught the chalk, recognized that faults were not impervious and and came into contact with sodium silicate minerals recommended the line of the fault as the best site 'its carbonic acid seized the alkali and formed for a well as it was certain to draw water from a carbonate of soda'. What he was describing was long distance. He also recognized the excellent cation exchange whereby calcium in the ground- quality of the groundwaters and eulogized about the water was replaced by sodium from the clay sandstone as a wonderful natural filter: minerals within the chalk, alth'~)ugh it was to be another 60 years before this was recognized Receiving as it does on its surface water from (Thresh 1912). various sources, and charged with the impurities It was not only in south-east England that of various kinds, it imbibes a portion, allows it to groundwater was abstracted. The Permo-Triassic percolate downwards in a slow and gradual Sandstones in Central England (Hull 1865) and descent, every instant extracting some noxious Merseyside (Cunningham 1847; Stephenson 1850; particle, till the liquid is freed from every Roberts 1869) were used for water supply, as was substrate injurous to human life, and is returned the Magnesian Limestone in the North East. During to us limpid as the waters of a brook which development of the latter by the Sunderland and gurgles along the rugged bed of a Highland glen. South Shields Water Company between 1846 and 1868 potential interference between pumping wells was recognized and an empirical rule was Post 1871: the work of the Geological developed that no new station should be within 2 Survey and the period to 1900 miles of any other (Binnie 1981). The Geological Survey may be said to have started Cunningham (1849) was perhaps the first to as a one-man Department of the Ordnance Survey recognize the effect urbanization was having on in 1835 (Wilson 1985). The man was Henry De la recharge to the sandstone aquifer. He remarks, Beche and over the next 20 years the organization The formation of macadamized roads, paved developed and expanded with De la Beche as its Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

190 J. MATHER

Director. Early reports emphasized the applied When it came, the Survey contribution resulted aspects of geology and for example the first report principally from the work of three men: Joseph on the geology of Cornwall, Devon and West Lucas, Charles de Rance and William Whitaker. Somerset contains a 163 page chapter on the Although the latter has been given much of the economic geology of the region (De la Beche 1839) credit and has been designated the 'father of and includes information on the water problems English hydrogeology' it was Lucas who was the experienced in the mines. However, even under De innovative member of the trio. Lucas and de Rance la Beche, the Survey made little contribution to the were appointed to the Survey as a consequence of general question of water supply. In the discussion the large increase in geological staff obtained by of his paper, Clutterbuck (1850) suggested Murchison in 1867-1868. For nine years Lucas mapped the Carboniferous rocks of the West Riding that the geological survey now being carried on and later an area in northeast Yorkshire. In the West by Government, in a remote district of North Riding he was much impressed with the large Wales, where no urgent need existed for early volume of water yielded by the Lower Carbon- geological information, and where no new works iferous sandstones and, according to his obiturist of paramount importance were in progress, or in (Anon. 1926), this probably led to his taking up the contemplation, should be at once transferred to study of water supply when he left the Survey in the metropolitan districts, with a view to throw 1876. light on the real structure, mechanical and His first paper was on the use of horizontal wells chemical, of the deep water-bearing strata, in the Chalk and Lower Greensand of Surrey to relative to which such conflicting opinions had supply London and was published while he was been advanced. still on the staff of the Survey (Lucas 1874). These The second Director, Murchison, who took horizontal wells, or more correctly galleries, were over in 1855, was the epitome of the amateur to be driven along the strike at the base of the geologist- a man of position and means who had water-bearing formations. The idea was far-fetched travelled extensively and done significant geo- and by 1879 Lucas had ceased to advocate such logical research in England and Wales (Wilson wells (in discussion of Lucas 1879); however, the 1985). According to Flett (1937), in taking over the paper is important for other reasons. In it he first work of De la Beche, he had one disqualification. used the term 'hydro-geological survey' and drew He had little interest in the economic applications the first map which showed 'contours of the upper of geology which for De la Beche had been of surface of water in the Chalk'. This map was of an prime importance. area to the south and east of Croydon in Surrey and The only survey geologist with an interest in the contours were drawn at 10 foot intervals. The water supply during this period seems to have been paper contained a lot of his own gauging inform- Edward Hull who was on the English staff from ation and must have involved a considerable 1850, prior to Murchison's appointment as amount of work. It is difficult to understand how Director. According to Whitaker (1888) his survey anyone could have published privately such a large memoir on the Geology of the Country. around volume while supposedly mapping in Yorkshire. Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire is the first to contain Unfortunately he was not able to devote much well sections and he was also publishing on the attention to the editing and two pages of errata Permo-Triassic Sandstones as a source of water correcting 27 separate errors are included. supply (Hull 1865). Lucas resigned from the Geological Survey in Whether or not it was Murchison who was 1876 to pursue the profession of water engineer, holding back the development of groundwater concentrating his work in the Thames Valley. His studies within the Survey is a topic for debate but work was 'marked by a distinct originality of there was certainly an increase in activity after his thought which at once brought him to public notice' death. Whitaker's memoir on the geology of the and he published extensively over the next five London Basin, published in 1872, a year after years (Anon. 1926). He read a paper on the Chalk Murchison's death, contained 141 pages of well in November 1876, the extensive research for sections (Whitaker 1872) and thereafter all which must have been carried out whilst he was memoirs on southeast England geology had still with the Survey (Lucas 1877a). Indeed he sections on water supply. Wilson (1985) suggests records in this paper that his observations extended that the application of the science of geology to the over four years, ranging over about 200 square study of underground water supplies was 'a field miles on which almost every accessible well had pioneered by the Geological Survey more than a been measured (Fig. 5). Papers on the artesian century ago'. However, this is a view which is system of the Thames (Lucas 1877b) the hydro- difficult to sustain and in fact the Survey geologists geology of Middlesex and part of Hertfordshire were rather late on the scene. (Lucas 1878a) and the Lower Greensands of Surrey Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

THE DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH HYDROGEOLOGY 191

Fig. 5. Contours on the Chalk water table between Guildford and Dorking, Surrey (Lucas 1877a).

and Hampshire (Lucas 1880) followed. The to make any further publications of general information contained in these papers was scientific interest' (Anon. 1926). abstracted and, together with other data, was used His colleague Charles de Rance also worked in to prepare the first real hydrogeological maps (Gray the north of England and in 1874 was appointed 1968) in which colour ornament was used to secretary of a Committee appointed by the British illustrate various features of the hydrogeology of Association for the Advancement of Science at its parts of the central Thames Basin (Lucas 1877c, forty-fourth meeting in Belfast for the purpose of 1878b). The maps were accompanied by an investigating the circulation of underground waters explanatory leaflet (Lucas 1878c). in the New Red Sandstone and Permian formations He defined the new subject of hydrogeology, of England and the quantity and character of the stating, 'hydrogeology takes up the history of water supplied to various towns and districts from rainwater from the time that it touches the soil, and these formations. Edward Hull, by now Director in follows it through the various rocks which it Ireland, was the chairman of this committee and an subsequently percolates' (Lucas 1877d). Lucas initial sum of s was placed at their disposal to made a major contribution to two conferences on conduct their investigations. The remit of the National Water Supply organized by the Society of Committee was later extended to cover all the Arts in 1878 and 1879 and was awarded a silver aquifers in England. A circular was drawn up medal for his essay in response to a request for the asking for information and after committee best suggestions, founded upon evidence already approval nearly 1000 copies distributed. Individual published, for dividing England and Wales into committee members were responsible for different watershed districts, for the supply of pure water to areas of the country and Committee reports princi- the towns and villages in each district (Lucas 1879). pally consist of well records sent in by correspond- It might be imagined that this wealth of published ents. However, in some of the reports, e.g. those for research would lead to even greater achievements. 1877 (British Association 1878) and 1878 (British However, after 1881, when some details of his Association 1879), other hydrogeological infor- consulting work were published (Lucas, 1881), he mation is provided and the latter report contains an largely disappeared from sight and, his obiturist appendix on the filtration of sea water through the records, that 'although he continued to practice as a Triassic Sandstone. water engineer for some years, he ceased, after this, The Committee continued in existence for 20 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

192 j. MATHER years and de Rance was secretary for the whole of geological formations, with the amount of rainfall this time. According to the nineteenth and 20th in each river basin, it provides the data necessary reports (British Association 1894a and 1894b) as for estimating the water available. Thus the work is secretary de Rance was to produce a digest of the the first attempt in the UK to estimate groundwater previous reports giving details grouped in geo- resources. It contains a hydrogeological map in logical formations and counties, to be issued as a which the rocks of England and Wales are divided separate publication. However, this seems never to into four categories: impermeable, partially porous, have appeared and although this may be because of supra-pervious and permeable (Fig. 6). The supra- the 'pressure of official and other duties' as pleaded pervious areas were those where pervious rocks by de Rance in 1893 (British Association 1894a) it were overlain by clay. The text also contains many may also be connected with the reason for which he of his own observations, for example in the was sacked by the Geological Survey in 1898- Folkestone district he comments that fissures in the for inefficiency and addiction to drink (Wilson Chalk are rarer and joints less open at depth and he 1985). The twenty-first and final report (British doubted that fissures would occur which might Association 1895) contains a number of general conduct the sea into the workings of the proposed results but perhaps the most valuable suggestion is Channel Tunnel for which in 1882 preliminary that well records collected by local societies should headings were being constructed (Slater & Barnett be sent annually to the Geological Survey so that 1957). they could be collated centrally. De Rance also contributed to the National Water De Rance's main legacy is the first compre- Supply Congresses of 1878 and 1879 and to a third hensive overview of the hydrogeology of England Congress held in 1884. His paper to the 1884 and Wales (De Rance 1882). According to the Congress contains a covert advertisement for his preface of this book, which is 623 pages in length, book when he writes, it is based on his contribution to the National Water Supply Congress convened in 1878 by the Council the amount of information that has been of the Society of Arts together with lectures on accumulated is very large, but, investigated by water supply which he gave to the Wigan Mining Royal Commissions, inquired into by scientific School in 1876. However, it seems much more societies, it is spread over a wide range of likely that the basis is the returns which he received literature. It is difficult for any one individual to as Secretary of the British Association Committee. focus the stores of information already available, The volume describes the character and quantity of still more for him to follow up the numerous the water supplied to every town and urban sanitary lines of investigation these inquiries suggest. (de authority and by describing the area of the principal Rance 1884)

Fig. 6. Key to the hydrogeological map of England and Wales (De Rance 1882). Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

THE DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH HYDROGEOLOGY 193

investigation boreholes and temporary exposures (Whitaker 1889). These serried ranks of well records described by Bailey (1952) as being 'as dull as they are useful' came to dominate the geological memoirs such that in 1899 the first Water Supply Memoir, on Sussex, was produced. Whitaker had by then retired but was still entrusted with the work. This first memoir (Whitaker & Reid 1899) contains mostly well records with little supporting text, in contrast to later publications such as the Water Supply of Kent (Whitaker 1908) where 63 pages are devoted to such matters as shafts and galleries, geology, rainfall, springs, swallow holes and intermittent streams. Whitaker was also involved, as a consultant, in an early case of groundwater pollution (Whitaker 1886). A brewery well in Brentford west of London was found to be polluted from another well 297 feet away which had been turned into the drainage for the privy belonging to a printing works. The case, Ballard v. Tomlinson, was finally settled in the Court of Appeal, which found that no owner had the right to pollute a source of water supply common to his own and other wells. Although the science of hydrogeology had Fig. 7. WilliamWhitaker in his later years. advanced rapidly, many old ideas still prevailed in parts of the country. Thus in Liverpool some individuals still found it difficult to accept that rainfall was sufficient to supply the wells. For example 'Mr He could have quite easily added, - 'But read my Robert Bostock, an excellent practical geologist, of book: I have done it all for you!' Birkenhead, believes that sea water is decomposed Whitaker was the senior colleague of Lucas and by filtration through the rock, and that the water of de Rance and had been appointed to the Geological the sea is the main source of supply' (British Survey in 1857 at the age of 21 (Fig. 7). In contrast Association 1878). However, it was now generally to the innovative contribution of Lucas, that of accepted that groundwater was not an infinite Whitaker might be described as worthy. According resource and that heavy abstraction could lead to to his obituaries (Anon. 1925a and 1925b) he was reduced water levels and saline intrusion. By the well liked and 'made many friends but never an end of the century evidence for a reduction in water enemy' with a 'genial helpful attitude to his fellow- levels beneath London was irrefutable. workers'. He had a passion for collecting records of sections of wells and temporary exposures and it is said that in later life he would willingly accept the Conclusions presidency of any local society which was prepared to reproduce a presidential address consisting This paper has followed the development of largely of well sections (Bailey 1952). Certainly he hydrogeology from the essentially practically- afforded considerable assistance to amateur scien- orientated work carried out by William Smith tific societies and was twice President of the through to the first water supply memoir authored Geologists Association. by William Whitaker. Smith provided advice in his He must have started collecting well records role as a consultant but has left no lasting impact on early in his career and, although the Geological British hydrogeology. Survey did not publish them until after Murchison's The first individual to make systematic observ- death, Bailey (1952) records that Whitaker had ations of groundwater and apply them to develop already in 1866 prevailed upon the Medical Officer theoretical concepts was James Clutterbuck. His of the Privy Council to allow him to produce an three papers, published between 1842 and 1850, appendix of this character in a note on the surface laid the foundations for the later work of Joseph geology of London. His revised and extended Lucas. Although his name is largely unknown to edition of the 1872 memoir had a separate volume modem hydrogeologists he was the first to plot of 352 pages devoted to lists of well sections, hydrogeological sections and recognized that it was Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

194 J. MATHER possible to estimate recharge from fluctuations in bring their names and their contributions to the water levels. He realized that groundwater abstrac- attention of modern geologists. tion would affect the flow of Chalk streams and predicted that overabstraction beneath London would result in saline intrusion. References His contemporary, Joseph Prestwich, is much better known and eventually became Professor of ABEL, E A. & ROWNEY, Z. H, 1849. Analysis of the water of the artesian wells, Trafalgar Square. Quarterly Geology at Oxford University. His map, published Journal of the Chemical Socieo,, 1, 97-103. in 1851, is probably the first to include AMOS, C. E. 1860. On the government waterworks in hydrogeological information. Arguments between Trafalgar Square. Proceedings of the Institution of engineers and scientists became quite acrimonious Civil Engineers, 19, 21-52. over the amount of water which the Chalk would ANON. 1925a. William Whitaker (obituary~. Geological yield. However, as pointed out by Bramwell (in Magazine, 62, 240. discussion of Lucas 1877a), 1925b. William Whitaker (obituary). Quarterly Journal of the Geological Socieo', 81,61--62. although ... there seemed to be among the 1926. Mr. Joseph Lucas (obituary). Nature, 117, philosophers a great discord as to what could and 730. what could not be done in the Chalk, the fact BAILEY, E. B. 1952. Geological Survey of Great Britain. was, that while scientific men, had been making Thomas Murby & Co., London. the discord, engineers ... had been quietly getting BARROW, G. & WILLS, L. J. 1913. Records of London the water and supplying the populations. That Wells. Memoir of the Geological Survey, HMSO, London. was a sufficient answer. BINNIE, G. M. 1981. Early Victorian Water Engineers. The result of such a policy was reduced yields Thomas Telford, London. and saline intrusion, exactly as predicted by BISWAS, A. K. 1970. History of Hydrology. North Holland Clutterbuck. Publishing Co., Amsterdam. BRAITrfWAITE, F. 1855. On the infiltration of salt-water Before 1871 the Geological Survey was not at into the springs of wells under London and the forefront of developments in hydrogeology, Liverpool. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil although Edward Hull was involved with water Engineers, 24, 507-523. supplies derived from the Permo-Triassic BRITISH ASSOCIATION 1878. 3rd report of the Committee Sandstones. However, the death of Murchison, the for investigating the circulation of the underground Director from 1855 to 1871, saw a blossoming of waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian activity. Joseph Lucas first used the term 'hydro- formations of England and the quantity and geological survey' and defined the new science of character of the waters supplied to various towns hydrogeology. He drew the first hydrogeological and districts from these formations. In: Report 47th Meeting, Plymouth, August 1877, John Murray, maps to show water table contours on the Chalk London, 56-81. and over a period of six years from 1874 to 1880 -- 1879.4th report of the Committee for investigating produced a wealth of innovative research, only to the circulation of the underground waters in the disappear from sight shortly after taking up practice Jurassic, New Red Sandstone and Permian as a water engineer. His colleague Charles de Rance formations of England and the quantity and prepared the first comprehensive overview of the character of the waters supplied to wtfious towns groundwater resources of England and Wales, and districts from these formations; with appendix including the first hydrogeological map dividing by Mr. Roberts on the filtration of water through the country's rocks on the basis of their perme- Triassic Sst. In: Report of 48th Meeting Dublin, August 1878, John Murray, London, 382-419. ability. 1894a. The circulation of underground waters. William Whitaker had a passion for collecting nineteenth Report of the Committee. In: Report of records of wells and temporary exposures and the 63rd Meeting, Nottingham, September 1893, produced the serried ranks of well records which 463-464.

adorned most of the geological memoirs covering -- 1894b. The circulation of underground waters. 20th southeastern England after 1871. He was the author Report of the Committee. In: Report of the 64th in 1899, along with Clement Reid, of the first Water Meeting, Oxford, August 1894, John Murray, Supply Memoir of the Geological Survey covering London, 283-302. the county of Sussex. -- 1895. The circulation of underground waters. 21st Report of the Committee, including as an appendix, Individuals such as Clutterbuck, Prestwich, 2nd list of works by W. Whitaker. In: Report of the Lucas and Whitaker laid the foundations of the 65th Meeting, Ipswich, September 1895, John subject of hydrogeology in the nineteenth century. Murray, London, 393-402. They developed the concepts and the scientific CLUTTERBUCK, J. C. 1842. Observations on the periodical principles on which the sophisticated models of drainage and replenishment of the subterraneous today are based. It is hoped that this paper will reservoir in the Chalk Basin of London. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

THE DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH HYDROGEOLOGY 195

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 2, Geological Principles to Effect the Solution of the 155-165. Problem of Supplying London with Pure Water. 1843. Observations on the periodical drainage Stanford, London.

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-- 1863. The perennial and flood waters of the Upper -- 1878a. The hydrogeology of Middlesex and part of Thames. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Hertfordshire, showing the original position of the Engineers, 22, 336-370. artesian plane and its present position over the CUNNINGHAM,MR 1847. On the geological conformation metropolitan area of depression, as lowered by of the neighbourhood of Liverpool, as respects the pumping. Transactions of the Institution of water supply. Proceedings of the Literary and Surveyors, 10, 279-316. Philosophical Socie~' of Liverpool, 3, 58-74. 1878b. Hydrogeological survey. Sheet 2 (North DE LA BECHE, H. T. 1839. Report on the Geology of London). Stanford, London. Cornwall, Devon and West Somerset. Longman, 1878c. Hydrogeological Survey, Explanation London. Accompanying Sheet I Second Edition and Sheet 2. DE RANCE, C. E. 1882. The Water Supply of England and Stanford, London. Wales. Stanford, London. 1879. Suggestions for dividing England into --. 1884. On a possible increase of underground water watershed districts. Journal of the Society of Arts, supply. Journal of the Society of Arts, 33, 27, 715-727.

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SMITH, W. 1827. On retaining water in rocks for summer -- 1895. Second chronological list of works referring use. Philosophical Magazine, 1, 415-417. to underground water, England and Wales. (In STEPHENSON, R. 1850. Report of Robert Stephenson, Civil British Association 1895, 394-402.) Engineer, on the Supply of Water to the Town -- 1908. The Water Supply of Kent with Records of of Liverpool, Liverpool Town Council, Liverpool, Sinkings and Borings. Memoir of the Geological UK. Survey. HMSO, London. STOW, J. 1603. A Survey of London, Written in the Year -- & REID, C. 1899. The Water Supply of Sussex from 1598. 2nd edn. 1994 edition ed. H. Morley. Alan Underground Sources. Memoir of the Geological Sutton Publishing, Stroud. Survey. HMSO, London. THRESH, J. C. 1912. The alkaline waters of the London WILSON, H. E. 1985. Down to Earth: One Hundled and Basin. The Chemical News, 105, 25-27 and 37-44. Fifty Years of the British Geological Survey. TOMKINS, M. 1969. Will 1969 be the year of the woe- Scottish Academic Press, Edinburgh. water? Herq:ordshire Countr3,side, 24, 42-44. WOODWARD, H. B. 1922. The Geology of the London WHITAKER, W. 1872. The Geology of the London Basin. District. 2nd edn, revised by C. E. N. Bromehead & Part 1 - The Chalk and the Eocene Beds of the C. P. Chatwin. Memoir of the Geological Survey. Southern and Western tracts. Memoir of the HMSO, London. Geological Survey, vol. 4. Longmans, London. YEATS, T. 1826. Section of a well sunk at Streatham --. 1886. On a recent legal decision of importance in Common, in the county of Surrey. In a letter connection with water supply from wells. addressed to - Brown Esq. secretary to the Geological Magazine, 3, 111-114. Westminster Fire-Office; and by him communicated 1888. Chronological list of works referring to to the Geological Society. Transactions of the underground water, England and Wales, Appendix Geological Socie~', ser. 2, 2, 135-136.