Between physical and mental borders Tracing back the borderising migration trajectories and processes from Barcelona to Ceuta and Melilla by Jim van Moorsel Between physical and mental borders Tracing back the borderising migration trajectories and processes from Barcelona to Ceuta and Melilla Author: Jim van Moorsel Student number: 4020006 Contact: [email protected] MSc. Human Geography Globalisation, Migration and Development Nijmegen School of Management September 2016 Thesis supervision: prof. dr. Henk van Houtum – Radboud University Internship supervision: dr. Xavier Ferrer-Gallardo – Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Photos on cover and page ii: made by the author in Barcelona (2 May, 2015) and Melilla (6 and 8 May, 2015). i ii Executive summary Spain has a long history with migration. While its image as immigration country might be rather new, migrants have already been arriving for decades on its soil. It forms one of the main gates to Europe. This may in some cases be interpreted literal, and in other cases be seen as an epitome. The enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla physically border the so-called Global South, being located on the African continent. This particularity, along with ambiguous and vivid geopolitics, creates two very paradoxical places. Barcelona, on the other hand, is a metaphorical ‘gate to Europe’. Its cognitively constructed image shows a Europe of possibilities, a new life. However, before getting to Barcelona, as well as before being able to start such a new chapter, migrants encounter many borders. With borders, one should not only think about physical borders. Yet, the ultimate physical borders that separate two tiny pieces of Europe within Africa play a gigantic role. It is here where a big deal of the mediatised border spectacle happens. However, when having overcome this border, this does not mean one has reached his goal. The migration process is far longer, and involves administrative, mental and social borderising dynamics of different kinds, which create exclusion and immobility. While we live in an increasingly mobilised world, mobility possibilities are not equal for everyone. All fluidity that guarantees mobility arguably comes with dynamics and patterns, suppliers of immobility. This is manifested and performed at borders, making them highly uneven and even skewed, as is the case at the Spanish-Moroccan border. This physical border is officially impermeable for irregular migrants, forming part of an excluding ‘negative list’. Yet, they find their ways to succeed in entering. Then, the particularities of Ceuta and Melilla prove to be a playground for ‘migrant processing centres’. An administrative border is created that does not permit migrants to move either forward or backward – leaving them in a limbo. When rendered completely immobile, they become completely dependent of foreign powers, and just the fact they are humans is preserved. They are bare humans, placed in a state of exception. This state of exception, and therefore also ‘the migrant status’, is unpredictable and indefinite. All depends on the whims of the border, which in this case functions through dynamics of the nation-state. In the case of power division along the borders of Ceuta and Melilla, there are two involved entities – a national (Spain) and a supranational (the European Union) one. Then, Morocco might play the role of third power through outsourcing politics stimulated by the EU. Yet, for migrants, exiting the limbo of the enclaves seems rather a game of luck than strictly being dependent on policies and politics by those powers. This involves some decisions of which the consequences cannot be overseen. Is applying for asylum actually a good idea? Everything is turned towards the possibility to get transported towards the Peninsula. Often, this means in practice irregular migrants get transported to the mainland to be either detained and deported, or left in freedom. However, the concept ‘freedom’ seems to be undermined here, as a deportation order often stays valid and can be carried out later on. In Barcelona, this means in practice an irregular migrant has to live a discreet life, wandering between irregular circuits to be able to survive. How does one participate in society when being hindered by administrative and social borders? The notion ‘irregularity’, often iii mediatised as ‘illegal’, seems to play a ubiquitous role in this situation. On a social level, it carries negative connotations, further othering and excluding the migrant. When taking into account the administrative border, it becomes an impassable hurdle that separates the migrant from the rest of society, creating a citizen gap. Overcoming this gap may come together with surpassing a ‘tangle of borders’. While the concept of arraigo in Spain can successfully lead to regularisation, how does one come to that point with the possibilities and restricted mobilities of an irregular? Irregularity often means following routes, and moving and travelling around to be able to support oneself and survive. Yet, not sticking to one working and living place further diminishes the chances to regularise. Therefore, migration is a process. Arguably when one stays in one place, either voluntarily or rendered immobile, but remains excluded, that process is still on going. For a migrant to create a new home, and actually ‘feel at home’, travelling from A to B is not sufficient. Creative thinking, the occasional bit of luck, and perseverance seem to be needed to ‘transform’ from the Other, to forming part of society. In a pessimistic sense, it is possible this moment will never arrive for many. When not being able to participate, but at the same time being far from home, a migrant might enter in a vicious circle of irregularity. On ne parvient pas deux fois, Hannah Arendt (1996) stated. Is migration, although being a phenomenon of all times, an incompatible concept within today’s society, rendered around the patterns and dynamics of the nation-state? Such dynamics impose a borderising influence on the mobility and the inclusion of the migrant. Arguably, imposing borders leads to more borders and more exclusion. Irregularity finds itself manifolded with more irregularity. Arguably, the time has come to redevelop the debate around citizenship, and blend this in with the migration process. As of now, migrants will keep on arriving in Barcelona, a mental representation of Europe, hoping to pursue their dreams. By tracing back the route migrants take – from the external EU-level in Ceuta and Melilla to the city level of Barcelona – it becomes clear how all mechanisms and dynamics are intertwined and affect each other. iv Acknowledgements Now that I am writing this last part of my master thesis, I would like to take the opportunity to acknowledge the support I have had throughout the project. When I started the master degree (MSc.) in Human Geography, following the trajectory Migration, Globalisation and Development, I already had a vague idea about the to be carried out research for this master thesis. Yet, I could not foresee I would finish two years later, being enriched by so many new experiences, insights and knowledge. I am very thankful for all the new doors this master and the research have opened for me. First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor, prof. Henk van Houtum. His supervision, and above all, his seemingly unending input of good ideas, thoughts and references, has guided me through the process and have provided me with a new form a confidence within the research field. The open manner of conversations we had often led me to change my views, and triggered me to think creatively and out of the box, still letting me make my own decisions. ‘Go for it, it is your thesis!’, I heard, when expressing my doubts and concerns. This definitely helped me to go my own way, as I can now completely consider this thesis as a product of my own experiences and decisions. Thank you for your great creativity and your belief! Then, I need to thank dr. Xavier Ferrer-Gallardo, my internship supervisor at the UAB. Thank you, for immediately making me feel at home at the department and guiding me during my months of research in the field! I could always count on your response and feedback, as well as on practical references when I struggled to get into contact with organisations. I would also like to thank Mireia Garcia Gonzalez, for being a great colleague researcher and for offering the possibility to do interviews together. Thanks for your input and creative ideas, and the great times we had during the fieldwork! Of course, I am also thanking the entire Geography Department, for giving me this opportunity, providing me with a helping hand whenever needed, and letting me struggle a bit when all the talking went in Catalan. Also, I would like to thank Keina Espiñeira, for welcoming me in Tétouan and showing me around in this beautiful city, as well as providing me with great creative ideas. ¡Muchas gracias! / Moltes gràcies! Of course, I also want to thank all the organisations, representatives, and migrants I was able to talk to, interview, and hassle with my questions during my research. I have learned a lot and I am certainly very thankful for all the great and enriching experiences in Barcelona, Melilla, Ceuta and Lleida. I have realised how valuable personal stories and experiences are, compared to the events that are portrayed in the media. I am still wondered and very grateful for all the hospitality I received from everyone, including migrants in often in very vulnerable and precarious situations. Thank you! I am very thankful to my best friend Michelle, with whom I lived together in Barcelona for five months. I still feel quite a bit nostalgic when thinking about the stories and the ‘research life’ we shared, and of course also the spare time we had together in a beautiful city.