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Revelation, intellectual intuition and reason in the philosophy of Mulla Sadra: An analysis of theal-Hikmat al-‘arshtyyah

Moris, Zailan, Ph.D.

The American University, 1994

UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. REVELATION, INTELLECTUAL INTUITION AND REASON IN

THE PHILOSOPHY OF MULLA SADRA: AN ANALYSIS

OF THE AL-HIKMAT AL-* ARSHIYYAH.

by

Zailan Moris

submitted to the

Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences

in Partial Fulfillment of

the Requirements for the Degree

of

Doctor of Philosophy

in

Philosophy

Signatures of Committee:

•) . " 7 • q c IZ l ^

Dean of' the College

Date

1994

The American University

Washington, D.C. 20016

THE -AMERICAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. © COPYRIGHT

by

ZAILAN MORIS

1994

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. To Abdul Jamil and Nadia:

for their support and sacrifices

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. REVELATION, INTELLECTUAL INTUITION AND REASON IN

THE PHILOSOPHY OF MULLA SADRA:0 AN ANALYSIS

OF THE AL-HIKMAT AL-xARSHIYYAH

BY

ZAILAN MORIS

ABSTRACT

The objective of this dissertation is to examine

critically the legitimacy of a very important and widely held

claim made by Islamic philosophers and scholars of Islamic

Philosophy about Mulla Sadra's philosophy. The claim is that

Mulla Sadra's philosophy is a synthesis of the truth claims of

revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy. The task of

determining whether or not the claim is a legitimate one, is

divided into three parts or stages of examination. First, to

examine whether or not there exists a synthesis of the truth

claims of revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy in

Mulla Sadra's philosophy? Second, if there exists a synthesis

of the three truth claims in Mulla Sadra's philosophy, how

does he synthesize them? Third, to evaluate whether Mulla

Sadra's synthesis is a successful synthesis?

An examination of the fundamental principles of Mulla

Sadra's philosophy which consitute its foundation reveals that

ii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. there exists a synthesis of revelation, gnosis and discursive

philosophy in their formulations. Mulla Sadra's important and

synoptic philosophical text al-Hikmat al-^arshiyyah is chosen

as the basis of the analysis of his method synthesis. An

analysis of Mulla Sadra's manner of approach, method of

reasoning and philosophical vocabulary in the al-Hikmat al-

1arshiyyah demonstrates that Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the

three truth claims is based on his synthesis of the three

sources of knowledge: revelation, intellectual intuition and

discursive reasoning. The evaluation of the two syntheses

based on the criteria of their internal coherence, conformity

to Islamic teachings and the impact and influence of Mulla

Sadra's philosophy on subsequent Islamic philosophers after

him demonstrates that both syntheses are successful. Thus,

there exists sufficient evidences to support the claim that

Mulla Sadra's philosophy is a synthesis of the truth claims of

revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy and that this

synthesis is based on his synthesis of revelation,

intellectual intuition and reason.

iii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my profound gratitude to my

supervisor, Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr for introducing me

to the world of Hikmat Philosophy and the philosophy of Mulla

Sadra and his invaluable guidance and help throughout my

doctoral program, as well as in the writing of this

dissertation. I would like to thank Professor Charles White,

Chairman of the Department of Philosophy and Religion for his

kind support and help during my doctoral program at The

American University and Professor David Rodier for his helpful

suggestions and comments concerning my dissertation. I would

also like to thank the Government of Malaysia and University

Sains Malaysia for granting me a Fellowship to pursue a Ph.D.

in Philosophy at The American University. Finally, I would

like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my family for their

support and understanding throughout my doctoral program, to

Kathryn Waldo for making available to me, her English

translation of Henry Corbin's chapter on Mulla Sadra in En

Islam iranien and to Greg Marvin for helping me with the

illustrations.

iv

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT...... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... iv

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS...... vi

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION...... 1

2. KNOWLEDGE (1ILM) IN ISLAM: A GENERAL BACKGROUND FOR UNDERSTANDING MULLA SADRA'S EPISTEMOLOGICAL VIEWS...... ‘...... 22

The Fundamental Principles of Islam...... 24 The Emphasis on Knowledge in Islam...... 29 The Hierarchical Structure of Reality...... 35 The Traditional Islamic Educational (Madrasah) System...... 42

3. REVELATION, INTELLECTUAL INTUITION AND REASON IN THE QUR'AN AND HADITH AND IN SUBSEQUENT

ISLAMIC THOUGHT BEFORE MULLA SADRA• ...... 47

Revelation (wahy1 and Intellect (al-xaql1 in the Qur'an and Hadith...... 47 Revelation, Intellectual Intuition and Reason in the Mashsha'i (Peripatetic) and IshraqI (Illuminationist) Schools of Islamic Philosophy..55 Revelation, Intellectual Intuition and Reason in the Perspective of the Sufis...... 78

4. THE LIFE AND WORKS OF MULLA SADRA...... 96

The Life of Mulla Sadra\...... 100 The Works of Mulla Sadra...... 110

5. DOES THERE EXIST A SYNTHESIS OF THE TRUTH CLAIMS OF REVELATION, GNOSIS AND DISCURSIVE PHILOSOPHY IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF MULLA SADRA?...... 120

V

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The Transcendent Philosophy or al-Hikmat al-mutavaliwah of Mulla Sadra...’...... 120 The Ontological Primacy (asalah), Unity (wahdah) and Gradation (tashklk) of Being (wujud)...... 124 Transubstantial Motion (al-harakah al-iawharivvahl .138 The Unity (ittihajd) of the knower (Aagil) and the known (ma^gul)...... 145 The Catharsis f tairid) and Independence of the Imaginative Faculty (a 1 -mutakhavvi 1 ah ~l from the Body...... 154 Does There Exist a Synthesis of Revelation, Gnosis and__Discursive Philosophy in Mulla Sadra's Philosophy?...... 172

6. HOW DOES MULLA SADRA SYNTHESIZE THE TRUTH CLAIMS OF REVELATION, GNOSIS AND DISCURSIVE PHILOSOPHY IN HIS PHILOSOPHY?...... 198

Metaphysics...... 201 Eschatology...... 225 An Analysis of Mulla Sadra's Method of Synthesis of the Truth Claims of Revelation, Intellectual Intuition and Reason...... 240

7. IS MULLA SADRA SUCCESSFUL IN HIS SYNTHESIZING EFFORT? ^ ...... 249 An Evaluation of Mulla Sadra's Synthesis of the Three Sources of Knowledge...... 250 An Evaluation of Mulla Sadra's Synthesis of the Truth Claims of Revelation, Gnosis and Discursive Philosophy...... 267 The Impact and Influence of Mulla Sadra's Philosophy on Subsequent Islamic Philosophers After Him...... 283

8. CONCLUSION...... 298

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 306

vi

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. The 'Five Divine Presences': The Macrocosmic View...... 38

2. The 'Five Divine Presences': The Microcosmic View...... 39

vii

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INTRODUCTION

For a long time in the West and in many parts of the

Islamic world in which the Muslims learnt of their history

mainly through Western sources, the prevalent view on Islamic

Philosophy was that it began to weaken and disintegrate with

the theologian and Sufi, Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali's (d. 505

A.H./llll A.D.) critique of it and finally terminated with the

death of Ibn Rushd or Averroes (d. 595 A.H./1198 A.D.) the

reknowned commentator of Aristotle.1 Islamic Philosophy was

then erroneously referred to as 'Arabic Philosophy' after its

main language of discourse rather than to its essential and

defining feature of being profoundly and inextricably bound to

the Islamic revelation: the Qur'an and Hadith of Prophet

Muljammad. The Islamic philosophers were viewed basically as

transmitters and commentators of the philosophies of Plato,

Aristotle and the Neo-Platonists who did not contribute very

much to the philosophical tradition by way of their own

1 See for example, 0' Leary de Lacy, Arabic Thought and its Place in History (London: Kegan Paul, 1922); T.J. de Boer, The History of Philosophy in Islam (London: Luzac and Co., 1933) and Richard Walzer, Greek into Arabic (Oxford: Oxford university Press, 1962).

1

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. original thought.2 Fortunately, this long held view has

changed in the past fifty years or so due to the works of

certain European and Islamic scholars3 who have brought forth

the beginning of a recognition that Islamic Philosophy cannot

be called 'Arabic Philosophy' without misunderstanding certain

fundamental aspects of the tradition and definitely did not

die out in the twelfth century. Instead, it continued to

develop and flourish in the eastern lands of Islam, especially

in Persia and in certain parts of Iraq and India, but with a

different orientation and course of development than that

pursued in the West. It was a course of development which

resulted in the founding of several important philosophical

perspectives and schools which represent the articulate and

profound philosophical responses of its thinkers to the

combined demands of faith in the tenets of revelation, the

logical requirements of reason and the spiritual need for God

and the sanctified life.

Sadr al-Din ShlrazI (979 - 1050 A.H./1571-72 - 1640-41

A.D.) who is better known by the name of Mulla Sadra and whose

philosophical thought is the subject of my dissertation is

generally regarded as one of the most outstanding figures in

2 For example, "Arabic Philosophy has nothing to do with 'oriental wisdom7 — it is Greek Philosophy carried forward in an Arabic language setting". Nicholas Rescher, Studies in Arabic Philosophy (Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg Press, 1967), 148.

3 Among the Western scholars, the works of Henry Corbin are especially noteworthy and among the Islamic scholars, that of Seyyed Hossein Nasr.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. later Islamic Philosophy. Many Islamic philosophers and

scholars of Islamic Philosophy consider Mulla Sadra's

philosophical writings to represent the consummate expression

of Hikmat (Wisdom) Philosophy4 — the type of Islamic

Philosophy cultivated after the death of Ibn Rushd — and the

final and successful synthesis of the three important and

significant intellectual claims of revelation (wahy),

discursive philosophy (hikmah bathivyahl and gnosis (lirfan).5

Coming some nine centuries after the birth of Islam, Mulla

Sadra is considered by many philosophers within the Islamic

tradition to have achieved a successful synthesis of the three

truth claims of revelation (wahy), the rational demonstrations,

(burhan *aqli1 and discursive conclusions of the philosophers

and the illuminative knowledge (ma'rifah) of the Sufis.6 The

effort towards such an integration and synthesis was already

initiated by countless thinkers before Mulla Sadra, for

4 "Hikmat Philosophy is a special type of scholastic philosophy based on existential intuition of Reality, a result of philosophizing the gnostic ideas and visions obtained through intellectual contemplation." Toshihiko Izutsu, The Metaphysics of Sabzivari (New York: Caravan Books, 1977), 3. For a comprehensive account of some of the salient features of Hikmat philosophy, see 2-10 of this work.

5 See for example, Henry Corbin, History of Islamic Philosophy, trans. L. Sherrard (London: Kegan Paul, 1993), 342-45; Toshihiko Izutsu, Metaphysics of Sabzivari. 7-8 and Ayatullah M. Mutahhari, Fundamentals of Islamic Thought: God. Man and the Universe, trans. Richard Campbell (Berkeley: Mizan Press, 1985), 154-56.

6 For a sampling of the views of Islamic philosophers and scholars of Islamic Philosophy on Mulla Sadra's synthesizing effort, see Seyyed Hossein Nasr, ed., Mulla Sadra Commemoration Volume (Tehran: Tehran University, 1961).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. example, Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi (d. 587 A.H./1191 A.D.),

Afdal al-Din Kashanl (d. 610 A.H./1213 A.D.)/ Qutb al-Din al-

Shirazi (d. 710 A.H./1311 A.D.), Ibn Turkah Isfahani (d. 836

A.H./1432 A.D.) and especially among the Safavid sages such as

Mir Damad (d. 1040 A.H./1631 A.D.), in whose works, Mulla

Sadra's synthesis is immediately anticipated. Undoubtedly, the

works of these philosophers paved the way and provided the

necessary groundwork for Mulla Sadra's synthesizing effort.

However, Mulla Sadra's particular success and significance in

this development is in the creation of a new, articulate and

profound intellectual perspective in which revelation, reason

and intellectual intuition are accorded their respective

importance and roles in the human quest for true and certain

knowledge. In Mulla Sadra's perspective, revelation (wahyl.

discursive thought (fikr) and mystical 'unveiling' (kashf)

constitute three possible sources of knowledge and they can be

brought to bear upon each other without contradiction.

Revealed principles, rational arguments and intellectual

intuitions can be reconciled and unified to constitute an

integral philosophical perspective which is capable of

shedding light on such fundamental philosophical issues as the

nature and structure of reality, the nature of the human soul,

the nature of God, the purpose of creation, the meaning of

human existence on earth and death etc.

In this study, revelation (wahy 1 refers to: one, the

Divine Word fKalimat Allah') which was communicated to the

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Prophet Muhammad through the archangel Gabriel during the

twenty-three years of his mission as a prophet (nabi) and

messenger (rasul) of God on earth and which is embodied in the

Qur'an; two, the Hadith or sayings of Prophet Muhammad which

are transmitted outside the Qur'an through the chain of known

intermediaries (isnad)• The Hadith which the Muslims have

instituted as the authoritative and normative commentary of

the Qur'an, is an extension of the teachings contained in the

Holy Book. There are two kinds of hadiths: one, hadith quds 1

or 'sacred tradition' which is a direct revelation in which

God speaks in the first person by the mouth of the Prophet and

two, hadith nabawi or 'prophetic saying' which is a statement

made by the Prophet himself. Although the prophetic hadith or

saying is not considered as a direct revelation by God,

nevertheless, it is considered to be divinely inspired and

guided. In the tradition of twelve-Imam Shi'ism to which Mulla

Sadra belongs, the sayings of the Imams who were descendents

of the Prophet (ahl al-baytl and who are considered to

participate in the walayah or esoteric aspect of prophecy7,

7 JEn Shi'ite theology, the 'cycle of prophecy' (da'irat al-nubuwwahl which comes to an end with Prophet Muhammad who is the 'Seal of the prophets' fkhatim al-anbivaH is succeeded by the 'cycle of initiation' (da'irat al-walavah^. Walayah which means 'dominion', 'friendship' and 'protection' refers to the esoteric aspect of prophecy (batin al-nubuwwahl which is an eternal prophecy as contrasted with the legislative aspect of prophecy which comes to an end with Prophet Muhammad. Thus, in Shi'ite Islam, prophecy (nubuwwah ~l is succeeded by the Imamate (walayah); both the prophets and the Imams are the awliva' Allah or the 'Friends or Beloved j o f Allah' who are guided by God and protected from error (ma'suml in religious and spiritual matters. Their special position in

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. are also included in the collection of Hadith. The sayings of

the Imams are however, distinguished from that of the Prophet.

Thus, in this study, revelation refers principally to the

divine Word contained in the Qur'an and hadith qudsi and by

extension to the prophetic hadith and the sayings of the

twelve Imams of Shi'ite Islam.

By intellectual intuition is meant the immediate and

unitive experience or apprehension of the forms of the

intelligibles (ma^qulatl or the essences (malana) of the

spiritual realities or beings without the mediation of mental

conception, representation or validation whatsoever.8 In

intellectual intuition, the knowing subject is immediately

conscious or cognizant of the object of its experience or

apprehension. The known object is immediately present in the

knowing subject at the moment of its experience or

apprehension. The truth or objectivity of an intellectual

intuition is not something which is inferred mentally, rather

it is known immediately in the experience or apprehension

itself.9 Thus, in intellectual intuition, the knowing subject

and known object are not polarized but are united in the act

relation to God and their infallibility in religious and spritual matters qualify them for the function of guides for their communities. For a detailed treatment on the concept of walayah. see Henry Corbin, Islamic Philosophy. 25-30.

8 See Mehdi H. Yazdi, The Principles of Epistemoloqy in Islamic Philosophy (New York: State University of New York Press, 1992), 57-68.

9 Ibid., 44-47.

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of knowing. Gnosis fma'rifah) which is the immediate and

unitive knowledge of God and the spiritual realm is the

highest form of knowledge by intuition. In Islamic Philosophy,

intellectual intuition is often referred to as ta'aaqul

(intellection) and is considered to be the function of the

theoretical faculty (al-quwwat al-'alimah) of the human

'rational faculty' (a 1 -cruwwat al-natiaah).10 In Sufism,

intellectual intuition is often denoted by such terms as

'kashf' (unveiling), 'dhawa' (tasting) and 'shuhud'

(witnessing); and it is associated with the heart (galb), the

locus and center of human consciousness and the highest

faculty of knowing in man.

Reason is the instrument of discursive thought (fikr). It

is often associated with the reflective or deliberative

faculty (al-quwwat al-mufakkirah). Reason reflects upon all

human experiences whether they be sensual, imaginal or

spiritual and it draws from these experiences data which it

then "transforms from the order of being into a sort of

10 Here, it should be noted that the term 'rational faculty' which is often used to translate al-quwwat al-natiqah must not be equated with or reduced to discursive thought and ratiocination only. In Islamic Philosophy, al-nafs al-natiqah includes the intellect proper (intellectus or nous) witfi its power for contemplation, intellection and intuition of the intelligibles and transcendent truths. As such, in this study, al-nafs al-natiaah will be translated as the 'intellectual faculty' in order to denote a wider sense of knowing than merely rational thought which the term 'rational' may easily suggest or be associated with due to the prevalent meaning of this term as commonly used today.

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representation which is the order of mental conception".11

Thus, the known object is not immediately present in the

knowing subject but is represented in the mind as a concept.

There are various levels of conception (tasawwur1; the lowest

level is the concept of what a name signifies and the highest

is perfect definition fal-hadd al-tamm) which signifies the

essence of the thing defined.12 Since in discursive thought,

there is a polarity between the known object and the knowing

subject, assent (tasdial which is the belief that the judgment

made about the object is true, becomes necessary. Assent which

is a matter of belief admits of degrees of certainty; and by

means of proofs (dalil), the assent that is sought can be

obtained.13 There are several types of proofs, the highest is

the syllogism (giyas); and among syllogisms, the most certain

is the demonstrative which comprises premisses which are

necessarily true.14 For the philosophers (falasifah), only

demonstrative syllogisms are accepted. Therefore, in this

study, intellectual intuition or gnostic knowledge refers to

the form of knowledge in which the objectivity or truth of the

known object is ascertained immediately in the experience or

apprehension of the object without recourse to any form of

11 Mehdi Yazdi, Principles of Epistemoloav. 61.

12 Ibn Sina, al-Isharat wa'-l Tanbihat. trans. Shams C. Inati, Remarks and Admonitions. Part One; Logic (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1984), 49.

13 Ibid., 50.

14 Ibid., 148.

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mental activities or validations whatsoever. Reason or

discursive knowlege on the other hand, refers to the form of

knowledge which is obtained indirectly through the various

mental processes of conception and assent.

The purpose of this dissertation is not to undertake a

philosophical analysis of the truth claims of revelation,

discursive philosophy and gnosis respectively but to examine

critically whether Mulla Sadra did in fact successfully

synthesize the three truth claims in his philosophy, as is so

often claimed about him by many of the later Islamic

philosophers and scholars of Islamic Philosophy. In order to

determine whether or not Mulla Sadra achieved a synthesis of

these three truth claims in his philosophy, it is necessary to

examine several important questions related to it. First,

whether there exists a synthesis of the three truth claims of

revelation, discursive philosophy and gnosis in Mulla Sadra's

philosophy generally? Second, if there exists a synthesis of

these three truth claims in his philosophy, how does Mulla

Sadra work out his synthesis? Third, does Mulla Sadra succeed

in achieving a synthesis of these truth claims after all?

It appears that the first and third questions relate

to the same issue: Whether there is a synthesis of the three

truth claims in Mulla Sadra's philosophy? However, there is a

significant difference in their focus and emphasis. While the

first question is limited only to the issue of establishing

the existence of a synthesis in Mulla Sadra's philosophy, the

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focus of the third question is in analysing and evaluating the

logical coherence and soundness of the synthesis. In the case

of the first question, it is sufficient to demonstrate that

there exists a synthesis or a new formulation of the various

philosophical elements Mulla Sadra has drawn from the sources

of revelation, discursive philosophy and gnosis. In the case

of the third question, it is necessary to analyse Mulla

Sadra's synthesis in order to make a judgment as to whether

his synthesis is philosophically sound and therefore

successful. The evaluation of Mulla Sadra's synthesis is based

on the outcome of the second question, which is the

examination of Mulla Sadra's manner and method of synthesizing

the three truth claims in his philosophy.

My examination of Mulla Sadra's synthesizing effort in

the form of the above three questions will be based mainly,

although not exclusively, on his important but synoptic

philosophical text the al-Hikmat al-*arshiyyah or The Book of

Wisdom Descending from the Divine Throne. This later

philosophical text of Mulla Sadra like his other philosophical

works contains and reflects his particular approach to and

method of doing philosophy. The definitive source book of

Mulla Sadra's philosophical thought and method is of course

his magnum opus. the al-Hikmat al-muta'aliyyah fi*l asfar al-

'aaliyyat al-'arba'ah (henceforth, it will be referred to

simply as Asfar) or The Transcendent Theosophy Concerning the

Four Intellectual Journeys of the Soul.

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The Asfar which extends to over a thousand pages long in

Arabic, discusses in great detail and depth a fundamental

theme which runs throughout Mulla Sadra's philosophical

writings. It is the theme of the intellectual search and

journey of the human soul after true and certain knowledge; a

journey which begins from the station of ignorance, darkness

and imperfection to arrive at that of enlightenment,

illumination and perfection. Mulla Sadra's approach to and

method of doing philosophy is also clearly demonstrated and

expressed in the Asfar.

I have chosen the al-Hikmat al-'arshiyyah instead of the

Asfar to be the primary text of my study on Mulla Sadra due to

several reasons. Firstly, the Asfar is an immense piece of

work both in terms of its length, as well as the breadth and

depth with which it deals with every important philosophical

issue that has been debated among the various schools of

Islamic Theology (kalam), Philosophy (falsafah) and doctrinal

Sufism f'irfan’l. The Asfar is a compendium of several

centuries of Islamic learning generally and Islamic Philosophy

specifically. As such, the Asfar is too large and complex a

work to be dealt with adequately in a limited study such as

this, a study which cannot do ample justice to its magnitude

and profoundity.15 Secondly, the al-Hikmat al-'arshiyyah like

15 In the traditional Persian madrasah, the Asfar is considered as the most advanced work on Islamic Philosophy and is taught only to students who have mastered both the 'transmitted sciences' fal-'ulum al-naqliyyahl and the 'intellectual sciences' fal-'ulum al-'aqliyvaht. The study of

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all of Mulla Sadra's other philosophical works such as the al-

Shawahid al-rububiyyah (Divine Witnesses), Kitab al-masha'ir

(The Book of Metaphysical Penetrations'), al-Mabda' wa'l ma'ad

(The Book of Origin and Return1 reflects and contains Mulla

Sadra's fundamental philosophical views and method of doing

philosophy which are clearly and elaborately expounded in the

Asfar. His various philosophical works may be viewed as having

their sources in the Asfar.16 Thirdly, the al-'Arshiyyah

contains Mulla Sadra's essential thoughts on a fundamental

concern of his philosophy which is the soul's guest for true

and certain knowledge; and his basic views on two of the most

important subjects in Islamic Philosophy; Metaphysics

(ilahiyyat) and Eschatology f al-ma'ad). These two areas

constitute the subject matter of the al-1Arshivyah. Thus,

Mulla Sadra's primary philosophical concern, approach to and

method of doing philosophy as well as views on two principal

areas of philosophical discussion are represented in the al-

1Arshivyah.

The synoptic nature of the al-'Arshivvah renders it ideal

for my study on Mulla Sadra since it exemplifies all that is

fundamental and essential in Mulla Sadra's philosophical

thinking. Nevertheless, references to the Asfar and Mulla

the Asfar itself requires several years. See Seyyed Hossein Nasr, 'The Traditional Texts Used in the Persian Madrasah' in his Traditional Islam in the Modern World (New York: Kegan Paul, 1987), 175.

16 See Fazlur Rahman, The Philosophy of Mulla Sadra (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1975), 17.

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Sadra's other philosophical works will also be made in this

study. My examination of the al-'Arshiyvah is not exclusive of

Mulla Sadra's magnum o p u s and his other philosophical works.

Mulla Sadra himself in the Prologue of the al-'Arshivvah

reminds the reader to refer to his more detailed works for

"the establishment of proofs and demonstrations concerning

each of the topics and theories1117 contained in the al-

'Arshiyvah.

The al-'Arshivvah which extends to approximately eighty

pages long in Arabic has been translated into English

recently. The English translation is twice the length of the

Arabic. In his opening statement or Prologue to the al-

VArshiyyah, Mulla Sadra writes that the text is written for

"discerning travellers" (al-sullak al-nazirin^18 after the

realization of the Truth. It deals with the two most important

and "noblest of the true forms of knowledge" which man can

acquire and by which he can "become part of the host of angels

drawn near to God (Q.4:172)".19 These two forms of knowledge

are knowledge of God and knowledge of the Last Day or of the

Return to God and which are alluded to in many verses of the

Qur'an as "true faith in God and in the Last Day". These two

forms of knowledge which have a divine source as indicated by

17 Sadr al-Din Shirazi, al-Hikmat al-'arshivvah. trans. James Morris, The Wisdom of the Throne (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), 92.

18 Ibid., 91.

19 Ibid., 92.

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the term a1-1Arshiyyah 20 (from the Divine Throne, al^VArsh)

are necessary for those who desire to be illumined by the

Truth or to draw near to God who is the absolute Truth (al-

Haqq) •

As mentioned earlier, the main task of my dissertation is

to determine whether or not Mulla Sadra synthesized

successfully the three truth claims of revelation, discursive

philosophy and gnosis in his philosophical thought as

exemplified in the a1-xArshiyyah. This task consists of three

areas or stages of examination. First, an examination of

whether there exists a synthesis of the three truth claims in

Mulla Sadra's philosophy. Mulla Sadra's philosophy can be

considered to rest on four fundamental philosophical

principles which provide the basis and foundation of his

philosophical views and perspective.21 The four fundamental

principles not only mark Mulla Sadra's departure from earlier

philosophical perspectives but they also provide an overview

of his philosophy. The four major principles which are

operative in all of Mulla Sadra's philosophical writings are:

20 There are numerous works in Islamic Philosophy with the title al-xArshivyah. The first Islamic philosopher to use this Qura'nic term as a title of his work was Ibn Sina in his al- Risalat al-xarshivvah. In Islamic cosmology, the term al-xarsh which means the Divine Throne is used as a symbol which delineates the boundary between the created order and the divine order.

21 See for example Seyyed Hossein Nasr's comprehensive discussion of Mulla Sadra's philosophy in his article, "Sadr al-Din Shirazi (Mulla Sadra)," ed. Muhammad Sharif, A History of Muslim Philosophy. Vol.2 (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1966) .

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1. The ontological primacy (asalah), unity (wahdah) and

gradation (tashkik) of Being (wujud).

2. Transubstantial Motion (al-harakat al-iawhariyyahl.

3. The unity (ittihad) of the knower (al-'aqil') and the

known f al-ma'crul).

4. The catharsis (tajrid) and independence of the

imaginative faculty (a1-quwwat a1-mutakhayyilahl from

the body.

In this examination, the definition of synthesis plays a

very important role. 'Synthesis' is defined in the dictionary

as "the combination of various elements or parts from diverse

sources to constitute a new whole".22 I will examine the four

major philosophical principles individually and determine

whether in their formulations, Mulla Sadra has brought

together various elements from diverse sources into a new

whole. Here, it is necessary to define further the essential

features which constitute a synthesis: the 'various elements',

the 'diverse sources' and the 'new whole'. In this study,

'various elements' refer to philosophical ideas, doctrines,

theories, principles etc. and 'diverse sources' refer to

revelation, discursive philosophy and gnosis. The feature of

a 'new whole' in a synthesis will be determined by examining

whether the four principles constitute new formulations of the

various philosophical elements which Mulla Sadra has drawn

22 The Webster's New International Dictionary (Springfield: G.C. Mirriam Co., 1971), 213.

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from the three sources of knowledge.

The second area of examination is Mulla Sadra's method

and manner of working out his synthesis of the three truth

claims. This examination involves an analysis into three

things. Firstly, Mulla Sadra's views on the two principal

subjects discussed in the al-'Arshiyvah: Metaphysics and

Eschatology. Secondly, the arguments and method of reasoning

he uses to arrive at his views on the two subjects. Thirdly,

the philosophical vocabulary Mulla Sadra uses in his

discussion. The examination of Mulla Sadra's choice of

philosophical vocabulary will reveal much of both of his own

philosophical position and views, as well as the various

sources from which he has drawn his thoughts. The analysis of

Mulla Sadra's philosophical views and reasoning will

demonstrate clearly and concretely how he has reconciled and

synthesized the various philosophical ideas, doctrines and

principles which afe" drawn from revelation, discursive

philosophy and gnosis to establish his original philosophical

perspective and position.

The final area of examination in this study involves an

evaluation of Mulla Sadra's synthesizing effort. Does Mulla

Sadra succeed in achieving a synthesis of the three truth

claims in his philosophical thought as contained in and

exemplified by the al-'Arshivvah? This evaluation will be

based on three criteria: one, the internal coherence of Mulla

Sadra's synthesis, two, the conformity of his philosophical

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views and perspective to the Islamic teachings and three, the

impact and influence of Mulla Sadra's philosophical thought on

subsequent Islamic philosophers after him. The internal

coherence of Mulla Sadra's synthesis will be determined on the

basis of the logical soundness of the main arguments and views

put forth in the al-'Arshivvah and their coherence with each

other. This criterion will determine whether Mulla Sadra is

successful in his use of the various philosophical elements

drawn from the three sources of revelation, discursive

philosophy and gnosis to establish his original perspective

and position. Mulla Sadra's views and position on the two

principal subjects discussed in the al-'Arshivvah will also be

examined in the context of the traditional Islamic view of

them. The sources of the traditional view are the Qur'an,

hadith qudsi. Hadith of the Prophet of Islam and in Shi'ite

Islam — the tradition in which Mulla Sadra is operating —

the sayings of the twelve Shi'ite Imams are an additional

source. The conformity of Mulla Sadra's views and perspective

to the traditional Islamic view and position will demonstrate

whether Mulla Sadra is successful within the context of the

religious and intellectual tradition in which he is working.

Since Mulla Sadra is a philosopher working within the Islamic

philosophical tradition, his synthesis must be internally

coherent, as well as conformable to the tenets of the Islamic

revelation in order for it to be considered as a successful

synthesis. The two criteria of philosophical soundness and

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conformity to the traditional Islamic position, I contend,

provide a justifiable and sufficient basis for the evaluation

of Mulla Sadra's synthesizing effort. Finally, the impact and

influence of Mulla Sadra's philosophical thought on the

Islamic philosophers after him will also indicate the degree

of success of his synthesizing effort.

The primary objective of my dissertation is to determine

the legitimacy of a very important claim made by many Islamic

philosophers and scholars of Islamic Philosophy about Mulla

Sadra's philosophy. The claim is that Mulla Sadra's philosophy

is a synthesis of revelation, gnosis and discursive

philosophy. The synthesizing effort of Mulla Sadra is

considered one of his most important and enduring

contributions to Islamic Philosophy. In choosing to deal with

this important issue in. my dissertation, I hope to achieve

several objectives. First, to examine and analyse a

fundamental and significant aspect of Mulla Sadra's

philosophy. The examination of Mulla Sadra's particular views,

manner of reasoning and philosophical vocabulary will

demonstrate the approach to and method of doing philosophy of

a major figure of later Islamic Philosophy and founder of the

third school of Islamic Philsophy, al-Hikmat al-mutaxalivvah

(Transcendent Philosophy or Theosophy).23 Due to the

23 The first school of Islamic Philosophy is al-Hikmah al- mashsh'ivvah (Peripatetic Philosophy) of which Ibn Sina (d. 429 A.H./1037 A.D.) is its greatest exponent and the second school is al-Hikmah al-ishracriyvah (Illuminationist Theosophy) founded by Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi (d. 587 A.H./1191 A.D.).

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important role of Mulla Sadra in Islamic Philosophy, it is not

possible to understand or appreciate fully the development of

later Islamic Philosophy without an understanding and

appreciation of Mulla Sadra's philosophy. Since later Islamic

Philosophy is hardly known outside of its place of cultivation

in Persia and in certain parts of Iraq and India, this study

hopes to contribute in a small way to a better understanding

and appreciation of Mulla Sadra's philosophy specifically and

later Islamic Philosophy generally, especially in the English

speaking world. Furthermore, since the al-xArshiyyah has been

translated into English, it is also hoped that this study will

be a helpful complement to the translation. Second, the

question of reconciling and synthesizing the three sources of

knowledge — revelation, reason and intellectual intuition —

to create a coherent and articulate philosophical perspective

is of great import and significance not only in Islamic

Philosophy but also in the field of philosophical enquiry

generally, especially religious philosophy. Mulla Sadra's

synthesizing effort represents a particular approach to this

very important philosophical concern. His method of dealing

with these three major sources of knowledge available to man

will disclose some new insights, understanding and manner of

approaching them. Finally, Islamic Philosophy has rather

erroneously been viewed in the West to have terminated with

the death of Ibn Rushd in the twelfth century. This study

which deals with a major aspect of Mulla Sadra's thought will

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reveal not only the nature of Mulla Sadra's philosophy but

also certain important features of the form of Islamic

Philosophy pursued after the death of Ibn Rushd. Although both

Islamic Philosophy and Western Philosophy share a common

heritage in ancient Greek Philosophy, they have taken diverse

courses of development since the European Middle Ages. Their

divergent developments are due in part to the Islamic and

Western philosophers' radically different treatments of the

fundamental sources of knowledge available to man.

In the West, especially since the Renaissance generally

and particularly since Descartes, the founder of Modern

Western Philosophy in the seventeenth century, reason and

sense experience began to play an almost exclusive role in

man's guest after true and certain knowledge. In the Islamic

East however, reason became more and more alligned with

intellectual intuition and both were made subordinate to

revelation. In other words, while Western Philosophy became

more and more influenced and determined by Modern Science,

Islamic Philosophy on the other hand, became more integrated

with Islamic mysticism and esoterism or Sufism and esoteric

Shi'ism. The fundamental difference in the epistemological

emphasis and orientation of Islamic Philosophy and Western

Philosophy is a major factor in determining their divergent

courses of development. Through an examination of Mulla

Sadra's synthesizing effort of the three sources of knowledge,

I hope, the epistemological orientation of a major Islamic

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philosopher who was a contemporary of Descartes, will be

disclosed. This study may therefore, offer a possible basis

for the understanding of the diverse epistemological

perspectives of the Islamic and Western philosophers since Ibn

Rushd in the twelfth century.

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KNOWLEDGE (1ILM) IN ISLAM: A GENERAL BACKGROUND

FOR UNDERSTANDING MULLA SADRA#S

EPISTEMOLOGICAL VIEWS

In order to understand Islamic Philosophy, or for that

matter any body of knowledge (Ailm) or science cultivated

within the Islamic community, it is necessary to relate it to

the fundamental principles or tenets of the Islamic religion.

Islamic Philosophy and other various sciences and forms of

knowledge were developed by Muslim individuals and groups who

lived and functioned in an Islamic universe or world-view

which is founded on and sustained by the guidance (al-hidayaht

and Grace (al-barakaht of the Qur'an and the prophethood of

Muhammad ibn 'Abdullah. The various forms of knowledge

cultivated by the Muslim thinkers and scholars, represent

their intellectual responses to the tenets and principles of

the Islamic revelation.

The fundamental principles of Islam which are universal

and non-historical in character and which are drawn from the

Qur'an and Hadith, provide for the Islamic community, the

social, ethical and cutural guidelines, as well as the

intellectual parameters and spiritual inspiration for the

22

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cultivation of the various intellectual disciplines. What

makes the various disciplines Islamic in nature is the fact

that they are related to the Islamic revelation — the Qur'an

and Hadith — either directly or indirectly, in form and/or in

spirit. The different philosophies, sciences and forms of

knowledge can be viewed as the various applications of,

interpretations and commentaries on the fundamental principles

and tenets of Islam.

The Qur'an and Hadith contain many statements which

pertain to a wide range of matters of human interest and

concern such as that related to metaphysics, cosmology,

psychology, epistemology and eschatology etc. For example, the

Qur'an and Hadith speaks about the nature of God, the origin

and goal of creation, the nature of man and his position in

creation, human knowledge and divine knowledge and life after

death. All of these subjects expressed oftentimes in the

highly symbolic and poetic language of the Qur'an and Hadith.

provide the fecund material for human reflection. The various

interpretations of these fundamental matters of human concern

contained in the Qur'an and Hadith, constitute the basis for

the different philosophical, theological and spiritual

perspectives to be found in the Islamic community.

Although some of the forms of knowledge or intellectual

disciplines cultivated within the Islamic community were of

foreign origin and inspiration, such as the case with

philosophy (falsafah), the Muslim intellectuals had to

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integrate and make them conformable to the Islamic revelation.

The 'Islamization' of the various foreign ideas and doctrines

took numerous forms, ranging from simple modifications to

complex syntheses which in most cases, transformed them

greatly from their original conceptions and intellectual

significances.

The Fundamental Principles of Islam

As a divine revelation to humanity and a world religion,

Islam contains a message and a way of salvation which

encompasses all aspects of human nature and existence. The

heart of the Islamic revelation is the doctrine of the divine

Unity, al-tawhid. and by implication, the unity, inter­

relatedness and inter-dependence of all existent things.

According to the Qur'an, all things are brought into existence

by the divine Act or Speech;"Run fa ya kun!" ("Bel and it

is").1 In relation to man, the Islamic revelation provides

guidelines both for his thoughts and actions as well as a

definition of his essential and primordial nature (al-fitraht

and destiny as a creature of God.

A well-known hadith of the Prophet states that "Allah

created Adam upon His own form". Man is viewed as a

theomorphic being (tajaJLli) or the bearer or receptacle

(mazhart of the divine Names and Qualities fal-^asma' wa'l

1 "But His Command, when He intends a thing, is only that He says unto it: Be! and it is." (Q.36:82).

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sifat). The destiny and role of man is to realise consciously

the divine Names and Qualities which are entrusted to him and

to reflect and radiate them in the cosmos. The theomorphic

nature of man qualifies him for the sacred functions of being

both the servant of God f'abd Allah) and His vicegerent

fkhalifah -Allaht on earth. The high office of vicegerency is

founded upon the humble station of servanthood. The reasoning

being, only the humble servant who has submitted his will to

the divine Will2 and cultivated the virtues which are rooted

in the divine Attributes,3 is qualified to represent God on

earth and be given dominion over the rest of creation. The

individual who has realised within himself the perfections of

both stations, that of servanthood and vicegerency, is

considered the Universal or Perfect Man (al-insan al-kamilt.

In the Universal Man, the fullness of the human state which is

potential in every individual, is realised and he is the

highest and most comprehensive or unitive (mujmal) symbol of

2 The term 'islam' means 'submission'. It is derived from the verb aslama which means 'to submit', ie. to submit one's will to God's Will.

3 In Islamic spirituality, the human virtues (fada'il’i which are the qualities of primordial man or sanctified man, have their roots or celestial archetypes in the divine Qualities. For example, the virtue of generosity (karamah 1 has its root in the divine Mercy (Rahmah) and that of sincerity (ikhlas) in the divine Truth (al-Haqql. The true servant of God who is also the lover of God, draws near to Him by assuming (takhallug) the traits of the divine Names and Qualities. See for example, the Sufi Ibn al-'Arabi's views on this doctrine in William Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989), 283-86.

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Allah on earth.4 The station of the Universal Man is

exemplified by the prophets (anbiyS') and saints fawliya'1.

Prophet Muhammad is the prototypic model of the Universal Man

in Islam.

The central doctrine of divine Unity (al-tawhidl finds

its complement in the doctrine of the Universal Man (al-insan

al-kamlll. If creation is the manifestation of the One in the

world of multiplicity, then the Universal Man who is the

highest symbol of the One in creation, is the being in whom

multiplicity returns to Unity. The goal of creation — the

manifestation of the One in multiplicity and the return of

multiplicity to the One — is fully realised in the Universal

Man.

The essential teachings of the Islamic religion is

expressed by the Shahadahtain or 'Testimony of Faith':

La illaha ill Allah Muhammadun rasul Allah

'There is no god but Allah Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah'.

The Shahadahtain consisting of two statements contains and

expresses the two most important and essential principles or

doctrines of Islam. The first statement of the Shahadahtain

describes the nature of God: His oneness, absoluteness and

uniqueness; and the second statement expresses the true nature

and destiny of man which is symbolised by the Prophet

4 See 'Abd al-Karim al-Jili, al-Insan al-kamil. trans. Angela-Culme Seymour, The Universal Man (Gloucestershire: Beshara Publications, 1983).

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Muhammad. The first statement expresses in essence the

doctrine of the divine Unity or al-tawhid and the second

statement, the doctrine of the Universal Man or al-insan al-

kamil. If the first statement asserts unequivocally of the

perfection or absoluteness of Allah, the second statement

makes mention of the perfection of man as the servant and

vicegerent of Allah on earth. Both of these stations or

functions are fully realised and symbolized by the person of

Prophet Muhammad.

For the Islamic philosophers or hukama'. the pursuit of

philosophy (al-hikmahl is to attain certain knowledge of God

or of al-tawhid in all its consequent implications and

ramifications and to attain to the station of the Universal

Man. It is only the Universal Man who realises completely the

potential of the true nature and destiny of man and therefore

is the real witness (shahid) of the truth of al-tawhid. The

hukama' or falasifa (philosophers) view themselves as heirs to

the prophets and believe that "the utmost extremity reached by

philosophy is the point of departure for prophecy". 5 The

Islamic philosophers philosophize in a world which is

dominated by the reality and centrality of prophetic

revelation with its equation of faith with the proper use of

the human intellect and the tremendous emphasis on the

attainment of knowledge of the "signs" of God or avat Allah in

5 From Mir Findiriski's Risalah-vi sina'ivvah quoted in Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "The Meaning and Role of 'Philosophy' in Islam," Studia Islamica Vol.37 (1973): 67.

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the Qur'an, the cosmos and in the soul of man in order to

discover the Truth.6

In his monumental work, History of Islamic Philosophy,

Henry Corbin, the leading scholar of Islamic Philosophy in the

West in this century, observes:

Philosophical enquiry (tahqiq) in Islam was most 'at home' where the object of meditation was the fundamental fact of prophecy and of the prophetic Revelation, with the hermeneutical problems and situation that this fact implies. Thus, philosophy assumes the form of 'prophetic philosophy'.7

In the philosophical writings of Mulla Sadra, the

treatment of the doctrine of al-tawhid and the divine act of

creation is referred to as knowledge of the Origin f al-mabda'1

and the realisation of the true nature and destiny of man as

the Return (al-ma'adf. The discussion of the importance and

significance of the knowledge of the Origin and Return or of

metaphysics and eschatology pervades throughout Mulla Sadra's

works. For example, he wrote a philosophical text with the

title of al-Mabda' wa'1-ma'ad (The Origin and the Return} and

in the al-'Arshiyyah. Mulla Sadra examines in a very

comprehensive and synoptic way, knowledge of the Origin and of

the Return.

6 "We (God) shall show them (man) our signs (avat1 upon the horizons and within themselves, until it be manifest unto them that it is the Truth" (Q.41:53).

7 Henry Corbin, History of Islamic Philosophy (London: Kegan Paul, 1993), xv.

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The Emphasis on Knowledge f'ilm') in the Qur'an and Hadith

Essentially, Islam sees and presents itself as a way of

salvation through knowledge.8 At its most profound level of

interpretation, the first statement of the Shahadatain: "La

illaha ill Allah" ("There is no god but Allah") is regarded as

an assertion about the nature of reality. Metaphysically, it

asserts that there is no reality separate from or independent

of the divine Reality or, there is no being except for the

Being of God. Furthermore, God's revelation to man is embodied

in a book: al-Our'an. The 'Qur'an' which means a 'recitation'

also bears two other important titles. They are 'al-furqan'

and 'umm al-kitab'.9 'Al-furaan' means 'the discernment' and

'umm al-kitab'. 'the mother of books'. As 'al-furaan' or 'the

discernment', the Qur'an is the absolute criterion, the body

of certain knowledge which enables the Muslims to discern

truth from falsehood, reality from illusion, good from evil

etc. As 'the mother of books', the Qur'an is the source of all

knowledge. The Muslims believe that the Qur'an contains all

8 It should be noted that there are present among the different groups within Islam — the jurists f fuaaha'), theologians fmutaka11imun), philosophers (falasifah) and Sufis etc. — various definitions of the type or nature of knowledge that is regarded as necessary for salvation. This is demonstrated by the different viewpoints as to what constitutes fard 'ayn or the sufficient religious knowledge that is obligatory on every Muslim individual to acquire for the purposes of salvation. Nevertheless, they all share the common Islamic perspective, that it is knowledge (Vilm) founded upon faith (iman) and complemented by good actions ('amal salihf that secures man's salvation.

9 See for example verses 25:1, 3:4-7 and 43:3 of the Qur'an.

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the essential principles of knowledge concerning every level

or order of existence to be found in both the realms of the

'Visible World' f'alam al-shahadahl and the 'Unseen World'

f'alam al-ahavbl.10 The principles of knowledge may be

explicitly expressed, alluded by or implied from the verses of

the Qur'an. The two sciences of Qur'anic exegesis, that of

tafsir (exoteric or literal interpretation) and ta'wil

(esoteric or symbolic interpretation)11 are used to

comprehend and interpret the verses of the Qur'an in order to

draw the necessary and relevant principles to ground the

various aspects of human activities and fields of human

enquiry.

In the Qur'an, the word that is used to denote human

intelligence or intellect is al-'aql. One of the primary

meanings of this word is 'to bind' or 'to restrain'.12 The

Qur'an views the human intellect to be the highest faculty in

man and the principal means by which he is bound to God.

Significantly, it describes individuals who have gone astray

or rebel against God and religion as "those who cannot use

their intellect" ("la ya'qilun") or "those who do not

10 This basic distinction between the 'Visible World' and the 'Unseen World' is made in the Qur'an and it is an important principle operative in all Islamic cosmological doctrines.

11 Ta'wil is especially important among the Sufis and Shi'ites.

12 Edward Lane, Arabic-Enalish Lexicon. Vol.2 (London: Islamic Texts Society, 1984), 2113.

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understand" f"15 yafcrahun"t .13 Faith fal-imant is viewed as

the logical concomitant of knowledge ( 'ilml; and the loss of

faith is equated with the improper or incorrect use of the

human intellect or intelligence.

The Qur'an is replete with verses which exhort man to the

pursuit of knowledge; specifically, knowledge which makes man

conscious of the existence of God and His Nature (the divine

Names and Qualities), of himself as a creature of God who

bears the divine trust (al-amanahl14 and is therefore

accountable to Him, and of the cosmos as the handiwork of God

or the loci of divine manifestation. The fundamental source of

this knowledge according to the Qur'an, is the contemplation

of the "signs" or "ayat11 of God embodied in its verses,

natural phenomena and in the soul of man.15 The Qur'an

considers human intelligence as a divine gift (niMnah) capable

of comprehending, ascertaining and realising the verities of

13 See for example verses 7:184-85, 9:127, 10:25 and 39:9 of the Qur'an.

14 According_to the Qur'an, every individual person made a covenant (mithacj) with God in which he accepts the trust (amanah) of being an intelligent and free being. This is accounted in the Qur'anic verse: "When thy Lord took from the children of Adam, from their loins, their seed, and made them testify concerning themselves: 'Am I not your Lord?' They said, 'Yes, we testify'" (Q.7:172).

15 "We (God) shall show them (man) our signs (ayat) upon the horizons and within themselves, until it be manifest unto them that it is the Truth" (Q.41:53). There is a profound relation between the Qur'an, the cosmos and man. The basis of this relation is the fact that the Qur'an refers to its verses, natural phenomena and to the events occuring within the soul of man by the same term: ayat.

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the divine "signs". In this respect, the various intellectual

perspectives and disciplines cultivated within the Islamic

community, represent the variety of ways and modes of

understanding and interpreting the divine "signs". Knowledge

of the "signs" of God enables man not only to submit himself

totally to God and to live by His Will and Decree, but more

importantly, to share and to participate in the divine

knowledge of Itself. Creation as testified by a hadith qudsi

or 'sacred tradition7, is a manifestation of God7s knowledge

of Himself to Himself:

I (God) was a Hidden Treasure and I desired to be known; I created creation in order that I may be known.

The Hadith of the Prophet which is the normative

commentary on the teachings of the Qur7an, is also filled with

many sayings on the importance and indispensable value of the

pursuit of knowledge as prescribed in the Holy Book. From the

various hadiths of the Prophet, it is clear that he considered

knowledge as the main gateway to God which "guides to

Paradise"16 and therefore, made the pursuit of knowledge "an

obligatory duty (fard) incumbent on every Muslim man and

woman".17 The activity of seeking knowledge should be a

16 "That person who shall pursue the path of knowledge, God will direct him to the path of Paradise" — Hadith. Allamah Sir Abdullah al-Suhrawardy, ed. The Savinas of Muhammad (New York: Citadel Press, 1990), 94.

17 "The acquisition of knowledge _is a duty incumbent on every Muslim, male and female" — Hadith, Ibid. 0

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lifelong endeavour of the Muslin individual18 and he or she

should be willing to travel far and wide in search of it.19

The learned person occupies an exalted station as demonstrated

in a hadith which compares the knowledgable individual to the

lay Muslims to "a full moon over all the stars";20 and the

works of the scholar is regarded as more meritorious in the

eyes of God than martrydom in the defence of Islam.21

Thus, the Qur'an and Hadith through their emphasis on the

importance of knowledge in man's salvation and in the

cultivation of the intellect in the realisation of the

verities of God's revelation, have created an ambience which

strongly encourages the developments of the various forms of

knowledge and intellectual disciplines in the Islamic

community.22 All of the intellectual disciplines aim at the

18 "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" — Hadith. Ibid., 93.

19 "Go in quest of knowledge, even unto China" — Hadith. Ibid., 92. It should be noted that the term 'China' here, is used metaphorically rather than literally or rather geographically. It implies the willingness of the seeker after knowledge to travel to far away lands if it is necessary to do so.

20 "Verily! the superiority of a learned person over an ignorant worshipper is like that of the full moon over all the stars" — Hadith. Ibid., 94.

21 "The ink of_the scholar is more holy than the blood of the martyr" — Hadith. Ibid.

22 This factor offers one of the main reasons or motivations behind the enormous translation process of Greek, Sanskrit and Persian texts into Arabic during the Abbasid Caliphate, especially during the reign of the caliph, al- Ma'mun who in 217 A.H./832 A.D. founded the famous 'House of Wisdom' (Bavt al-hikmahl.

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understanding of the Qur'an, the cosmos and man; and

ultimately of confirming the Unity or Oneness of God and of

His creation. The various disciplines have as their object of

study some aspect of God's theophanies or manifestation or

self-determinations (taialliyatl. In this regard, knowledge is

considered as sacred and the various intellectual activities,

a form of worship (ibadat).

The doctrine of divine Unity, al-tawhid plays a major and

undeniable role in the cultivation of the various intellectual

disciplines. It is both the principal point of departure of

these disciplines as well as their goal and the source and

guide of their development and cultivation. The doctrine of

al-tawhid provides the essential and crucial unifying

perspective which enables the Muslims to see and establish the

necessary inter-relations between the various disciplines and

their objects of study or between knowledge and reality. To

the extent, every discipline has as its object of study an

aspect of reality — and reality in the Islamic perspective is

a unity since it is a creation or a self-determination of the

one God — all the various disciplines on the basis of their

objects of study are considered to constitute a unity. The

unity of existence is reflected in the unity of the various

intellectual disciplines or forms of knowledge, and which

ultimately is grounded in the unity of God. Since the objects

of knowledge and the faculty by which man knows have their

sources in God, therefore, knowledge too is related to God.

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The Hierarchical Structure of Reality

In the Islamic perspective, reality is a unity which

possesses multiple levels or grades of being (maratib al-

wuiudf arranged in a hierarchic order. Since Ibn al-'Arabi's

elaborate cosmological doctrine, it is customary to categorize

the multiple levels of being into five major levels or 'divine

Presences' (al-hadarat al-ilahiyyat al-khamsl,23 They are in

descending order:

1. Al-Hahut - the world of the Divine Essence (alHDhat) or

Ipseity (al-ahayb al-huwiyyahl or Beyond Being.

2. Al-Lahut - the world of the Divine Names and Qualities

fal-asma' wa'l sifatl or Universal Intellect (al-

'aal al-kullit or Pure Being.

3. Al-Jabarut - the world of the Spirits ('alam al-arwahf

or the intelligible world or the world of angelic

substances (al-ruhl.

4. Al-Malakut - the world of Imagination ('alam al-

khayal1 or Image-Exemplars (al-mithal1 or the world of

psychic substances (al-nafsl.

5. Al-Nasut - the world of bodies f'alam al-aisaml or of

corporeal manifestation or the sensory world ('alam

al-hissl .24

23 See William Chittick, "The Five Divine Presences: From al-Qunawi to al-Qaysari," Muslim World (April, 1982): 107-128.

24 To these five levels, a sixth level of being is often added, that of the Universal Man in whom is contained all the five levels of being, thus making him the most perfect and comprehensive or synthetic symbol of Allah on earth. See 'Abd

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Each level of being is the principle of that which stands

below it and the lower level manifests symbolically, the

reality of the levels above it.

There are several important Qur/anic verses and prophetic

hadiths which provide the basis for drawing certain

fundamental cosmological principles. For example, the Qur'anic

verse which proclaims : "He (God) is the First (al-Awwall and

the Last (al-Akhir1, the Outwardly Manifest (al-Zahirl and the

Inwardly Hidden (al-Batinf11 (Q.57:3). This verse provides the

metaphysical basis for the understanding of the two grand

cosmic principles of space and time, and the microcosmic and

macrcosmic cosmological schemes.25

The first pair of divine attributes — the First and the

Last — implies the dependence of the cosmos in time upon God.

God as the First indicates the cosmos has its origin in Him

and God as the Last, implies that the cosmos will return to

Him. Thus, the divine attributes of the First and the Last

signify both the divine origin and end of creation.

The second pair of divine attributes — the Outwardly

Manifest and the Inwardly Hidden — relates to space. God as

the Manifest is the reality which encompasses or contains the

cosmos and God as the Hidden, means that He is the innermost

al-Karim al-Jili, al-insan al-Kamil. trans. Angela-Culme Seymour, The Universal Man (London: Beshara Publications, 1983).

25 See Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam (Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Pustaka Fajar, 1984), 93-94.

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reality which is at the very heart of creation. This way of

viewing God and His relation to the created order, can be

represented graphically or rather symbolically by five

concentric circles with a common center, with each circle

representing a particular level of being from the five levels

of being mentioned earlier. (See Figures 1 and 2)

In figure 1, the lowest level of being — the world of

bodies or corporeal manifestation — is represented by the

innermost concentric circle and each ascending level of being

is represented by a subsequent circle, with the outermost

circle representing the world of the Divine Essence. In this

diagram, it can be seen that the outermost circle which

represents the Divine Essence, contains and embraces all the

other circles or levels of being. This scheme illustrates the

macrocosmic view in which the physical world or universe

constitutes a small portion of the entire cosmos and is

enveloped and contained by the higher levels of being and

ultimately, by the Divine Essence.

In figure 2, the order of the five levels of being are

represented in a reverse manner. The lowest level of being is

represented by the outermost circle and each ascending level

of being is represented by a subsequent circle with the

innermost circle representing the Divine Essence. In this

diagram, it can be seen that the physical world is the most

outwardly manifest and the Divine Essence, the most hidden and

inward. This scheme illustrates the microcosmic view which is

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The World of the Dvine Essence

The World of the Divine Names and Qualities

The World of the Spirits (‘a f u m Al'arw.'|i)

The World of Imagination

at-cA?\ X The World of Bodies^

THE 'FIVE DIVINE PRESENCES': THE MACROCOSMIC VIEW

FIGURE 1

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The World of Bodies

ol-f/llJollMt The World of Imagination (•3«. J-1.U.J)

The World of the Spirits

The World of the Divine Names and Qualities £

'he World of the Divii \ Essence /

THE FIVE DIVINE PRESENCES': THE MICROCOSMIC VIEW

FIGURE 2

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symbolic of man's nature. In man, the physical body is the

most outwardly manifest and his essence which is ultimately

divine in nature,26 is the most inward and hidden. These two

cosmological schemes — the macrocosmic and microcosmic — are

analogous to each other but in a reverse manner. The

correspondence between them is the basis for viewing the

cosmos as a 'great man' (al-insan al-kabirl and man as a

'small cosmos' (al-'alam al-saahir1.

In these diagrams, it can also be seen that passing

through the concentric circles are the radii. The radii

represent the relation of these circles to each other and to

the common center. The various circles representing the

different levels of being which are arranged in a hierachic

order are a unity in that they each reflect and project or

manifest the center at their own level or plane of reality or

being.

According to the Qur'an, there exists a profound relation

and correspondence between the cosmos and itself. Their

correspondence is signified by the fact that the Qur'an refers

to both its verses and natural phenomena as the "signs" or

"ayat" of God. The Qur'an is sometimes referred to by the

Muslims as'al-Our'an al-tadwini' or 'the composed Qur'an' and

the cosmos as 'al-Our'an al-takwini'. 'the ontological Qur'an'

or 'the Book of existence'. Both the Qur'an and the cosmos

26 "And when I (God) had unfolded his (man) form, and I had blown unto him of My Spirit" (Q.15:29). The Divine Spirit constitutes man's innermost reality or essence.

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contain similiar elements and structure which complement each

other in their function of displaying the divine "signs". The

doctrine of the correspondence between the Qur'an and the

cosmos is fully explicated and elaborated in the esoteric

sciences of the interpretation of the Qur'an such as that of

'ilm al-iafr or 'alphabetical symbolism' or 'the esoteric

science of the Arabic letters'.27 In the perspective of the

esoteric sciences of Quranic interpretation, the study of

nature and the cosmos is also a study of or a commentary on

the sacred text of the Qur'an.

The hierarchical nature of reality both in the microcosm

and macrocosm possesses tremendous significances and

implications for the spiritual and intellectual life of Islam.

This has to do with the symbolic function of the lower levels

of being in relation to the higher levels, and the re­

integrating possibility of the lower levels into the higher

levels of being. The fact that a lower level of being has its

principle in the higher level of being not only enables it to

symbolise the reality of the higher level but also to be re­

integrated into the latter. The re-integration of a lower

level of being into the higher level is achieved by the

subordination and conformity of the lower level to the higher

level which is its principle. When the lower level conforms to

27 See for example Suhrawardi's mystical narrative, "Arwaz-i Par-i Jibra'il" or "The Sound of Gabriel's Wing," trans. William Thackston, The Mystical and Visionary Treatises of Suhrawrdi (London: Octagon Press, 1982), 26-34.

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and is re-integrated into the higher level, the limitations of

the lower level of being are transcended. This principle will

be demonstrated more clearly in the discussion of man's

intellectual faculties and the possibility of the

subordination and re-integration of reason with the intellect

— the seat of direct knowledge of God and the spiritual world

— and in turn, of the subordination, illumination and

finally, union of the human intellect with the Active

Intellect (al-'acrl al-fa'all , the instrument of divine

revelation.

The Traditional Islamic Educational (Madrasah-) System

The traditional Islamic system of education which

nurtured the Islamic thinkers and scholars including Mulla

Sadra, makes a distinction between al-'ilm al-husuli or 9 m~ 'acquired knowledge' and al-'ilm al-huduri or 'presential

knowledge'. Al-'ilm al-husuli refers to all the forms of • 9 knowledge which man acquires in an indirect way through the

mediation of concepts and the various thought processes of

abstraction, analysis, speculation, demonstration, dialectics

etc.28 It is divided into two main categories or groups29 :

1. Al-'ulum al-naalivyah or the 'transmitted sciences'.

2. Al-'ulum al-'aalivvah or the 'intellectual sciences.

28 See for example, Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddimah. trans. Franz Rosenthal (New York: Bollingen Foundation, 1958), Ch. 6.

29 Ibid., Ch. 6, Sect. 12-17.

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The first category refers to all the religious sciences

which are taught through transmission from one generation to

the next such as the sciences of Qur'anic commentary (al-

tafsir), Traditions of the Prophet (Hadith) and Jurisprudence

(al-fiqhl. The 'intellectual sciences' on the other hand,

comprises the disciplines of logic f'ilm al-mantiql. physics

fal-'ilm al-tabT'il, mathematics (al-'ilm al-ta'alimf and

metaphysics (al-'ilm al-ilahil. The 'intellectual sciences'

are considered as natural to man in so far as he is a thinking

being, and they are not determined by or restricted to any

particular religious group. Their study and developments are

based solely on intellectual qualifications and capabilities

rather than religious affiliations.30

Both the 'transmitted' and 'intellectual' sciences, until

recently, were taught in the madrasah which was the most

important educational institution in the Islamic community.

Instruction in the 'transmitted sciences' preceded that of the

'intellectual sciences'; only after having acquired a good

grounding in the former sciences was a student allowed to

study the latter sciences. Although both of these sciences

were taught in the madrasah. the 'transmitted sciences'

dominated the curricula. After the fifteenth century, in most

parts of the Islamic world except for the madrasahs in Persia,

instruction in the 'intellectual sciences' began to diminish

and finally terminated in this century. In the Persian

30 Ibid., p. 111.

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madrasahs however, the full spectrum of both the 'transmitted'

and 'intellectual' sciences continued to be offered and

actively taught until they gradually diminished in recent

years.31

Al-'ilm al-huduri or 'presential knowledge' denotes a

form of knowledge which is attained in a direct and immediate

way without the mediation of any type of mental conceptions or

representations or processes whatsoever. It is a form of

knowledge in which the knowing subject is immediately

cognizant of the reality of the object of its experience or

apprehension without the aid and support of any form of mental

validations or inferences to confirm the objectivity of his

experience or apprehension.32 Sensual knowledge such as the

direct apprehension of pain or pleasure is the lowest form of

'presential knowledge' and gnosis, its highest and most

laudatory form. Gnosis or sapiential knowledge results from

the immediate experience of God and the spiritual world. In

Sufi epistemology, the immediate and unitive experience of God

and the spiritual realities which are regarded as essentially

noetic in character, are denoted by such terms as 'kashf' or

'unveiling', 'dhawq' or 'tasting' and 'mushahadah' or

'witnessing'. Interestingly, the term 'sapience' which is

derived from the Latin term 'sapere' means 'to taste'. The

31 E.J. Brill's First Encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. 5 (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1987), 361-62.

32 Mehdi H. Yazdi, The Principles of Epistemology. 67.

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immediacy and unitive nature of sapiential or gnostic

knowledge is often compared to that of sensual knowledge;

however, the object of sapiential knowledge is not of the

physical world but of the divine and spiritual world.

The possibility of attaining gnostic knowledge is

potential in every individual, provided the 'eye of the heart7

f'avn al-aalbl or of the intellect is sufficiently awakened

and operative to witness directly and immediately the objects

and realities of the spiritual world. In Islam, the 'eye of

the heart7 is awakened through the process of spiritual

purification provided by the initiatic rites of Sufism and

esoteric Shi7ism. In the case of sapiential knowledge, the

role of the spiritual teacher or guide (shaikh or murshid or

plr 1 is essential. The spiritual guide may be a living

individual such as a Sufi shaikh or master or the everliving

Prophet Khidr or the invisible twelfth Imam of Shi7ism. The

practice of the spiritual rites and method of purification are

only efficacious through initiation (bay'ah'I which links the

individual to the spiritual genealogy of Islam and finally

back to the Prophet Muhammad himself. Initiation makes

accessible the Muhammadan Grace (al-barakat al-Muhammadiyvahl

necessary for the transformtion of the soul of the spiritual

person in pursuit of union with God through love (al-mahabbahl

and realised knowledge (al-ma'rif ah’) of Him. Both the

doctrines and method of Sufism are taught and transmitted in

the Sufi hospices (zawiyah or khanagah) which are important

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centers of learning of the doctrinal aspects of Sufism as well

as the transmission and practice of the initiatic rites for

the realisation of the immediate and unitive knowledge of God

and the spiritual world. It should also be noted that since

al-Ghazzali's successful effort at making Sufism more

acceptable and respectable to the Muslim jurists (fuqaha' 1 and

theologians (mutakalimun) in the twelfth century, doctrinal

Sufism was taught openly as a subject in the madrasahs.

It is within the general religious, metaphysical and

epistemological contexts outlined above that one must consider

Mulla Sadra's understanding and treatment of knowledge and

modes of knowing, and his synthesis of the three truth claims

of revelation, discursive philosophy and gnosis in his

philosophy. The more specific context of understanding Mulla

Sadra's epistemological views and synthesis of the three truth

claims will be provided by the following discussion on

revelation, intellectual intuition and reason in the Qur'an

and Hadlth and in subseguent Islamic thought before Mulla

Sadra.

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REVELATION, INTELLECTUAL INTUITION AND REASON IN

THE QUR'AN AND HADITH AND IN SUBSEQUENT l ISLAMIC THOUGHT BEFORE MULLA SADRA.

Revelation fwahyl and Intellect fal-'aaT') in the Qur'an and Hadlth

Mention has been made of the use of the Arabic term al-

'aql in the Qur'an to denote human intelligence. In the

language of the Qur'an and subsequently, throughout Islamic

intellectual history, the term al-'acrl which is related to the

root meanings of 'to bind' and 'to restrain' denotes both

reason (ratio) and intellect (intellectus or nous1. This does

not imply that either the distinction between reason and

intellect is not recognised or there exists an ambiguity in

the denotation of the term al-'aal: rather reason and

intellect are regarded to constitute a unity, and the one must

not be separated from the other. The Qur'an itself makes

numerous references to the various modes or degrees of human

cognition or of knowing, which result both in the different

levels of comprehension, knowledge and certainty of the

"signs" or "ayat" of God; and the hierarchic classification of

47

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the believers and knowers in the sight of God.1 For example,

in the Qur'an there are present all the relevant Arabic roots

to denote the many different levels and shades of human

perception and modes of knowing such as, x-l-m ( J** ), A-r-f

( ), d-r-v ( trj-> ), f-q-h ( ) , f-h-m ( ) , f-k-r

( ) and b-y-n ( ^ ) etc.2 It also mentions the various

thought processes through which man acquires knowledge such as

shakk (doubt), zann (conjecture), huiiah (argument) and burhan

(proof) etc.3 In addition, the Qur'an makes an important

distinction between the three levels or degrees of certainty

fyaqinl; xilm al-yaqin (lore of certainty), xayn al-vaaxn

(vision of certainty) and haqq al-yaqin (truth of certainty).

These three degrees of certainty which are often compared to

hearing about the description of fire, seeing fire and being

consumed by fire, play a major role in Sufi epistemology which

is founded upon these distinctions.4

According to a prophetic hadith, "the first thing that

1 The Qur'an mentions that on the Day of Judgment, mankind will be divided into three main categories or classifications based on their spiritual and intellectual attainments. They are: one, those nearest to God (air muqarrabunlr two, the Companions of the Right Hand (ashab al- yamin) or the righteous and three, the Companions of the Left Hand (ashab al-shimalt or the sinful. See for example verse 56:7-10 of the Qur'an.

2 Franz Rosenthal, Knowledge Triumphant: The Concept of Knowledge in Medieval Islam (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1970), 31.

3 Ibid., 31.

4 Abu Bakr Siraj al-Din, The Book of Certainty: The Sufi Doctrines of Faith. Vision and Gnosis (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 1988), 12.

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God created was the Spirit (al-ruh)11. The Spirit, also

referred to as the Holy Spirit (al-ruh al-cruddus) is the

Universal Intellect fal-'acrl al-kulli). It binds or limits

Allah, the absolute and infinite Reality in the direction of

creation or manifestation. The Holy Spirit or the Universal

Intellect in its immutable essence is the 'Face of God' (wahj.

Allah1) turned towards creation.5

A Qura'nic verse states that the Holy or Universal Spirit

(al-ruh al-kulli) was created or existentiated by the divine

Command (al-amr1:

They (men) will question you (Prophet Muhammad) about the Spirit; say to them: the Spirit is from the Command of my Lord... (Q.17:84).

In Islamic thought, the Universal Spirit is sometimes

described as uncreated and at other times as created,

depending on the viewpoint that is emphasized. The Universal

Spirit is regarded as uncreated in its immutable essence since

it is directly related to the divine Nature itself; and it is

created in that it is the first cosmic entity or being to

proceed or emanate from the divine Command. The Universal

Spirit is the luminous pole of creation and the mediator oar

excellence between God and the created universe.6 In the

5 Titus Burckhardt, An Introduction to Sufi Doctrine (Wellingborough: The Aquarian Press, 1990), 71.

6 Ibn al-'Arabi, Kitab insha' al-dawair. trans. Paul Fenton & Maurice Gloton, "The Book of the Description of the Encompassing Circles" in Stephen Hirtenstein & Michael Tiernan, ed. Muhviddin Ibn 'Arabi: A Commemorative Volume (Rockport: Element Books, 1993), 25.

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Qur'an, it is referred to symbolically as the Supreme Pen (al­

ga lam al-'alat with which God inscribes the destinies of all

beings on the Guarded Tablet fal-lawh al-mahfuzl. A hadith

explains:

The first thing that God created is the Pen; He created the Tablet and said to the Pen: Write! And the Pen replied: And what shall I write? And God said to it: Write My knowledge of My creation until the Day of Resurrection. Then the Pen traced what had been ordained.7

The Holy Spirit or the Universal Intellect embraces and

contains all of God's knowledge concerning created beings. It

is regarded as the 'Truth of all truths' or the 'Reality of

all realities' fhaqiqat al-haqa'iql.8 Thus, the term al-'aql

which is etymologically related to the meanings of 'to tie' or

'to restrain' can be used to signify both that which binds man

to God, as well as that which binds God to creation. In man,

al-'aql denotes the human intellect (al-'aql al-iuz'il which

is his highest and noblest faculty and the principal means by

which he is bound to God or to the Truth (al-Haqql. in

relation to God, al-'aql denotes the Universal Intellect (al-

'aql al-kulli\ which is the first being created by God and the

most direct and immediate manifestation or self-determination

of Himself and the repository of God's knowledge of all

created beings.

The Universal Spirit is also identified with the supreme

7 Quoted in Titus Burckhardt, Sufi Doctrine. 71.

8 Stephen Hirtenstein & Michael Tiernan, ed. Muhviddin Ibn 'Arabi. 27.

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archangel Michael who is the highest angel and therefore, the

prototype of the angelic nature.9 Belief in the existence of

angels (mala'ikahl, the unseen beings of a luminous and

spiritual substance who belong to the 'Unseen world' (al-'alam

al-ahaybl and who act as mediators between God and the

'Visible World' (al-'alam al-shahadahl, is a fundamental

principle of the Islamic faith together with belief in God and

His prophets. Due to the central role angels play in creation,

revelation, the spiritual life, death and resurrection, it is

not possible to understand Islamic cosmology, prophecy,

spirituality and eschatology without reference to the angels.

Gabriel is one of the archangels in the chain or

hierarchy of archangels to proceed or emanate from the divine

Command. He performs several important functions in relation

to the terrestial world and in the soul of man, for example,

he is the illuminator of man's intellect and the instrument of

revelation or the transmitter of God's Word fkalimat All ah’) to

His prophets and to a lesser extent, to His saints (awlivl')

and gnostics furafa' 1.1

According to the teachings of the Qur'an, revelation

(wahy) is the Word of God fkalimat Allah) which finds its

objective embodiment in its verses and its subjective

actualization in the intellect or the spirit of the Prophet

9 Sachiko Murata, "The Angels," Seyyed Hossein Nasr, ed. Islamic Spirituality: Foundations (New York: Crossroad, 1987), 330-32.

10 Ibid. , 328-32.

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Muhammad.11 The Muhammadan Spirit (al-ruh a1-Muhammadi1 which

is manifested outwardly by the person of the Prophet is in

total conformity with the truths contained in the Qur'an and

therefore, ultimately to God Himself. Hence, the institution

of the sayings fhadith’) and practices (sunnah) of the Prophet

Muhammad as the normative commentary and interpretation of the

teachings of the Qur'an. The sayings and practices of the

Prophet, collectively referred to as his Hadith. provide for

the Muslims the second most important source of the doctrines

and practices of the Islamic religion.

Revelation is the reflection or manifestation of the

Universal Intellect on the cosmic plane or in the macrocosm.

The human intellect which finds its full actualization in the

prophetic intellect or the intellect of the Universal Man, is

the reflection or manifestation of the Universal Intellect on

the human plane or the microcosm.12 Thus, the fully

actualized human intellect which is the reflection of the

Universal Intellect in the microcosm is the complement or

subjective counterpart of revelation, the macrocosmic

reflection of the Universal Intellect. In other words, the

Universal Intellect which manifests God's knowledge directly

and immediately is reflected objectively in revelation and

11 Ibn al-'Arabi, Futuhat al-Makkivvah (Ch.317 & 3391 . trans. William Chittick, "Two Chapters from the Futuhat al- Makkivya" in Stephen Hirtenstein & Michael Tiernan, ed. Muhviddin Ibn xArabi. 104, 111.

12 Frithjof Schuon, Logic and Transcendence (London: Perennial Books, 1984), 33.

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subjectively in the actualized human intellect. The

complementary nature of revelation and the human intellect has

made certain esoteric commentators of the Qur'an, such as Ibn

al-'Arabi, to consider the human intellect as a particular

revelation fal-wahv al— iuz'i ) and objective revelation which

brings forth a new religion, as universal revelation (al-wahv

al-kulli) ,13

In the perspective of the Qur'an, revelation provides the

necessary and objective framework for the human intellect to

actualize fully its potential capabilities which are the

realization of the revealed truths embodied in its verses. The

human intellect is regarded to have complete access to and is

fully capable of realising the truths contained in revelation.

However, this is only possible on the condition that the human

intellect is in complete harmony or conformity with its

objective counterpart which is universal revelation. The

intellect that is completely conformable to revelation is

regarded as the wholesome and balanced intellect (al-'aql al-

salim) which is capable of receiving illuminations from the

archangel Gabriel as in the case of the prophets, saints and

gnostics.14 The prophets, saints and gnostics manifest the

degrees of actualization of the potential powers of the

wholesome and balanced human intellect. The perfected human

intellect or the intellect of the Universal Man is a total

13 William Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge, 403.

14 Ibid., 169.

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reflection of the Universal Intellect, the luminous pole of

creation. This explains the identification of the intellects

of the prophets who receive revelations and on the basis of

which new religions are founded, with the Logos or the divine

Word (al-Kalimahf .1S it is by the divine Word that creation

is existentiated from the Being of God and the various

religions have their ultimate source. Each prophet manifests

in his being the divine Word and each religion brought forth

by the various prophets is a formal manifestation of the

divine Word in space and time.

If the human intellect is the reflection of the Universal

Intellect on the spiritual plane (al-ruhf. then reason is the

reflection of the Universal Intellect on the plane of the

psyche (al-nafsl. The psychic plane is the level of reality or

being which is ontologically below the spirit and above the

body (al-iisml. It is the intermediate plane (al-barzakhl

15 According to Ibn al-'Arabi, the first gnostic f'arlf) to expound this doctrine in a profound and explicit manner in his reknown Fusus al-hikam (Bezels of Wisdomt, the individual nature of each' prophet is contained in the divine Word (al- kalimah) or Logos which is both the essential reality of the prophet concerned as well as a determination of the Word of God. Thus, Ibn al-'Arabi entitles each chapter of his Fusus as "The Setting or Bezel (fass) of Divine Wisdom in the Adamic Word", "The Bezel of the wisdom of Inspiration in the Word of Seth" etc. until the final chapter on "The Setting of the Word of Singularity in the Word of Muhammad". The active identification of the reality of each prophet with the divine Word makes him an immediate determination of the eternal Word of God. For an excellent explanation of some of the basic themes in Ibn al-'Arabi's Fusus. see Titus Burckhardt's 'Introduction' to the translatio’n of this work, The Wisdom of the Prophetsr trans. Angela Culme-Seymour (London: Beshara Publications, 1975).

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which relates the spiritual dimension to the physical.

Obviously or logically, one can from the reflection move to

the source, that is, from reason to the intellect and from the

intellect to the Universal Intellect and ultimately to God.

This movement from the reflection to the source or the ascent

from the lower level of being to the higher levels is

exemplified and symbolized by the nocturnal Ascension (mdjraj.)

of the Prophet Muhammad in which he journeyed through all the

various levels of being to the divine Presence or

microcosmically, through his soul and intellect to the divine

Self.16 In the Islamic worldview, the Ascension of the

Prophet serves as the prototype of all spiritual journeying to

God. The spiritual journey or re-integration of the lower

levels of being into the higher levels is only possible if the

lower level subordinates or conforms itself to the higher

level of being which is its principle. However, if the lower

level, for example, reason separates and alienates itself from

the higher levels — the intellect and revelation — then, the

ascent towards the Transcendent and Infinite or God is not

possible.

Revelation. Intellectual Intuition and Reason in the (Peripatetic 1 and Ishraal (Illuminationist') Schools of Islamic Philosophy

According to the Islamic philosophers (falasifah)

16 Suhrawardi has given a profound interpretation of the symbolic meanings of the mi'ra'i or nocturnal Ascension of Prophet Muhammad in his Mi^rai-Nameh.

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nafs al-nabatiyyaht and animal soul fal-nafs al-havawaniyyahf .

man possesses a rational soul fal-nafs al-natiaaht. The

rational soul which is constituted of the theoretical faculty

(al-guwwat al-*alimah1 and the practical faculty (al-auwwat

al-^amilahl is both the principle of knowledge and of action

or of intelligence (nutg) and will (iradah).17 Made of a

subtle (latif) substance, it is the perfection of the body. It

is self-conscious and immortal and is the unifying principle

or the substratum of all human experiences. 18

The function of the theoretical faculty is to receive the

universal and immaterial forms of the intelligibles

(inalgulat). It is the faculty which enables man to contemplate

and know of things or existents as they are in their fixed

essences and relations.19 The practical faculty which is

partly reflective (fikriyyahl and partly a matter of skill

(mihniyyaht, empowers man with the ability to act and to

deliberate over his actions, and to alter and effect changes

in things or nature. Its task is both to govern the body and

17 Ibn Sina, KitSb al-Naiat (Bk.2. Sect. 6 1 . trans. Fazlur Rahman, Avicenna's Psychology (Westport: Hyperion Press, 1981), Ch. 4, p. 32.

18 Ibn Sina, Kitab al-Naiat, Bk. 2, Sect. 6, Ch. 15, Ibid., 64-66.

19 Ibn Sina, Kitab al-naiat. Bk. 2, Sect. 6, Ch. 4, Ibid., 33-34. Also al-Farabi, Fusul al-madanl. trans. David Dunlop, Aphorisms of the Statesman (Cambridge: The University Press, 1961), 30.

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to serve the theoretical faculty.20 The goal of the

theoretical faculty is the attainment of objective or

disinterested knowledge of things, independent of man and his

actions, and the objective of the practical faculty is to know

and to act upon that which it knows and to effect changes in

nature. Together, the theoretical and practical faculties

enable man to attain objective knowledge of things or to

acquire the sciences (al-^ulumf, to deliberate over his

actions and to make moral judgments and to effect changes in

nature or to acquire the arts (sinalat).21

The theoretical and practical faculties relate the human

soul to two different planes or levels of reality. Through the

theoretical faculty the human soul is related to a level of

reality higher than itself which is the intelligible or

spiritual plane and through the practical faculty, the soul is

related to a level of reality lower than itself which is the

plane of the body.22 The theoretical faculty passively

receives and acquires the intelligibles; and the practical

faculty actively controls and manages the body. Thus, the soul

made of a single substance, possesses two dimensions or

"faces11. One face is turned towards the body on which it must

actively exert its power and influence and not allow itself to

20 Ibn Sina, Kitab al-naiat. Bk. 2, Sect. 6, Ch. 4, trans. Fazlur Rahman, Avicenna's Psychology. 32-33.

21 David Dunlop, Aphorisms. 30.

22 Ibn Sina, Kitab al-naiat. Bk. 2, Sect. 6, Ch. 4, trans. Fazlur Rahman, Avicenna's Psychology. 33.

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be determined by the appetites and needs of the bodily nature;

and the other face is turned towards the spiritual or

intellectual world from which it must passively receive and by

which it must be influenced.23

For the Islamic philosophers including Mulla Sadra, the

theoretical faculty or intellect is the faculty which is

capable of intellection (ta*aqaul) or intellectual intuition

(dhawg). The objects of its intellection are the forms of the

intelligibles (ma'aulat). The knowledge of the intelligibles

determines the degree of actualization of the theoretical

intellect from potentiality to actuality.

In the perspective of the outstanding representatives of

Mashsha'i or Peripatetic Philosophy such as al-Farabi and Ibn

Sina, there are distinct stages of development of the

theoretical intellect from absolute potentiality to perfect

actuality. The actualization of the theoretical intellect is

by means of its illumination by the Active Intellect.24 The

Active Intellect illumines the theoretical intellect by

enabling it to receive the forms of the intelligibles. When

23 Ibid.

24 Ibid., 68. "We say that the theoretical faculty in man also comes into actuality from potentiality through the illumination of a substance whose nature it is to produce light...This something is in itself a sufficient cause to bring other intellects from potentiality to actuality; it is termed, in relation to the potential intellects which pass into actuality, Active Intellect..," Abu Nasr al-Farabi, Mabadi/ ara ahl al-madlna al-fadila. trans. Richard Walzer, Al-Farabi on the Perfect State (New York; Oxford University Press, 1985), 201.

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the theoretical intellect receives the forms of the

intelligibles, it becomes actualized in relation to the

intelligible forms it has received. Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina

describe the relation between the Active Intellect and the

theoretical intellect by drawing an analogy to the relation of

the sun to the eye.25

As long as the eye is in darkness, it can see only

potentially. It is the sun in so far as it gives the eye

illumination which makes the eye see actually and visible

objects actually visible. In addition, the light of the sun

not only enables the eye to see objects but also the light of

the sun and the sun itself which is the source of the light.

In a similiar manner, the Active Intellect makes the potential

intellect an actual intellect, the potential intelligibles

actual intelligibles and enables the intellect to see itself

and its illuminator, the Active Intellect.

Ibn Sina distinguishes four stages of development of the

theoretical intellect from potentiality to actuality. The

first and lowest stage of the theoretical intellect is that of

the material intellect or al-^aal al-havulani which is present

in every human being. It is called material intellect because

it resembles primary matter in that although in itself it does

not possess any forms, it nevertheless is the substratum of

25 Ibn Sina, Kitab al-naiat. Bk. 2, Sect. 6, Ch. 16, trans. Fazlur Rahman, Avicenna's Psychology. 69. al-Farabi, al-Madlna al-fadlla. Sect. 4, Ch. 13, 2, trans. Richard Walzer, The Perfect State. 201-202.

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all forms.26 At this stage, the theoretical intellect has not

yet actualized any portion of its potential perfection. It is

the stage of absolute potentiality. The second stage is that

of the potential intellect or al-'aql bi'1-malakah. At this

level, a certain portion of the potentiality of the

theoretical intellect is being actualized. It has received the

forms of the primary intelligibles (al-ma'aulat al-'ulal which

are the source of the secondary intelligibles (al-maxaulat al-

thani).27 Primary intelligibles are the fundamental truths or

axioms which are necessarily true and whose truths are

immediately perceived, for example, every part of a thing is

smaller than the thing and every whole is greater than its

part. Since the primary intelligibles are necessary truths,

they are worthy to be used as the premisses of demonstrative

syllogisms. As such, they constitute the principles of the

philosophical sciences. The third stage of actualization of

the theoretical intellect is that of the actual intellect or

al-'aql bi'l-fi'l in which the potential intellect has become

actualized in relation to all the primary intelligibles and

the secondary intelligibles that are derived from them. At

this stage, the actual intellect begins to reflect upon itself

and its contents. The intellection of the actual intellect of

itself and its contents constitute the second degree or level

26 Ibn Sina, Kitab al-na~iat. Bk. 2, Sect. 6, Ch. 5, trans. Fazlur Rahman, Avicenna's Psychology. 34.

27 Ibid.

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of intellection. The first level of intellection is the

receiving of the primary intelligibles by the potential

intellect through the Active Intellect's illumination of it.

When the actual intellect contemplates on itself and its

contents or is self-intelligible and self-intellective, it

attains the stage of the acquired intellect or al-*aql al-

mustafad.28 The acquired intellect is the highest and most

developed form of the human intellect. It is the closest in

resemblance to the Active Intellect. The Active Intellect

which is the perfect repository of all the intelligible forms

is the model of intellectual perfection. Both the acquired

intellect and the Active Intellect being repositories of the

intelligibles abstract from matter are self-intelligible and

self-intellective. Although both of these intellects are

similiar in relation to their intellectual contents, they are

not of the same ontological status. The Active Intellect is

pure actuality and the acquired intellect represents a stage

of actuality of the potential intellect.

Both Ibn Sina and al-Farabi hold the view that at the

level of the acquired intellect, man is capable of

contemplating the Active Intellect itself.29 In its highest

perfection, the acquired intellect attains union with the

Active Intellect. By union is meant the acquired intellect's

28 Ibid.

29 Ibn Sina, Kitab al-naiatr Bk. 2, Sect. 6, Ch. 16, Ibid., 68-69. al-Farabi, al-Madina al-fadlla. Sect. 5, Ch. 15, 8-9, trans. Richard Walzer, The Perfect State. 243-45.

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participation in the reality of the Active Intellect without

it being essentially identified with the latter. There is a

part of the reality of the Active Intellect which is

transcendent and not accessible to participation by the human

intellect. Through union with the Active Intellect, the

acquired intellect becomes the prophetic intellect which is

the receptacle of divine knowledge or revelation.30

In the union of the acquired intellect of the Prophet

with the Active Intellect, the prophetic intellect receives

transcendent knowledge from the latter. This transcendent

knowledge is revelation (wahy 1. Revelation has two dimensions:

one, the theoretical dimension and two, the practical

dimension.31 The theoretical dimension comprises knowledge of

existents as they are in their essences and relations

independent of man and his actions. The highest form of

theoretical knowledge is the divine science of metaphysics

(al-'ilm al-ilahi’l which is defined as "the most excellent

knowledge of the most, excellent existents".32 The individual

who has received this dimension of knowledge has acquired all

30 "When this (ie. union with the Active Intellect) occurs in both parts of his rational faculty, namely the theoretical and the practical faculties, and also in his representative faculty, then this man receives Divine Revelation, and God Almighty grants him Revelation through the mediation of the Active Intellect," al-Farabi, al-Madma al-fadilaf Sect. 5, Ch. 15, 10, trans. Richard Walzer, The Perfect State. 245.

31 al-Farabi, al-Madlna al-fadila. Sect. 5, Ch.15, 10- 11, Ibid., 245-47.

32 al-Farabi, Fusul al-madani. Sect. 48, trans. David Dunlop, Aphorisms, 481

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the sciences (al-'uluml and gnosis (ma'rif a h ') or theoretical

wisdom (al-hikmahl. The practical dimension of revelation

comprises knowledge of the voluntary intelligibles (air.

ma^aulat al-iradiyyah') which are necessary for the attainment

of human happiness or the virtuous life. This second dimension

of revelation is called practical wisdom and it provides man

with knowledge of what constitutes human happiness and how to

attain it. These two dimensions of revelation which are

eguated with theoretical and practical wisdom corresponds to

two fundamental functions of the prophet. The theoretical

dimension relates to the function of the prophet as sage and

philosopher (al-hakimt and the practical dimension, the

prophetic function of legislator and ruler.33

In the perspective of the Peripatetic philosophers such

as al-Farabi and Ibn Sina, revelation which is the prophet's

immediate and unitive knowledge of the intelligibles is of the

same nature as the intellectual intuition of the philosophers

and gnostic experiences of the Sufis. Revelation however is

superior to intellection in a number of ways. Firstly,

revelation is intellection at the universal or macrocosmic

plane and the intellectual intuition of the philosopher or

sufi is intellection at the individual or microcosmic level.

Secondly, the prophet has no human teacher or guide and he

receives revelation not due to prior learning but due to the

33 al-Farabi, al-Madina al-fadila. Sect. 5, Ch. 15, 10- 11, trans. Richard Walzer, The Perfect State. 245-47.

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fact that he has been chosen by God and is endowed with a

superior or perfect soul which is capable of being the perfect

substratum or receipient of revelation. The perfect

receptivity of the soul of the prophet in relation to

revelation is signified in the Qur'an by the "unlettered"

(ummi) nature of the Prophet. Thirdly, revelation in its

totality is experienced by the prophet not only intellectually

and spiritually but also through his imaginative and sensitive

faculties.34 This explains for the various levels and modes

of expressions of revelation ranging from metaphysical

assertions to images, symbols and similitudes which all aim at

accomodating and fulfilling the different levels of

intellectual and spiritual needs of the members of the

religious collectivity.

According to the Peripatetic philosophers, the function

of reason is to conduct a rational or syllogistic discourse

(mukhatabah) based on the indemonstrable premisses or

necessary truths (darurivvat1 which are obtained from

intellection and revelation. The aim of the discourse is to

enable the indemonstrable premisses derived from intellectual

intuition to be apprehended rationally by those who have not

had such intellections and to lead them by means of discursive

34 al-Farabi, al-Madina al-fadila. Sect. 4, Ch. 14, 9, trans. Richard Walzer. The Perfect State. 225.

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reasoning to an understanding of these necessary truths.35

The good or perfect philosopher is one who not only is capable

of intellection or intellectual intuition of the axioms of

truth which are the foundation of all demonstrative knowledge

but also possesses the ability to conduct a rational discourse

concerning these truths for the benefit of others. In this

respect, reason becomes an instrument or support for the

understanding of the transcendent and certain truths of

revelation and intellectual intuition.

The ideal of the perfect combination of discursive

reasoning and the intellectual intuition of revealed truths in

the person of the philosopher (al -hakim') finds further

development and formalization in the Illuminationist (Ishraqi)

philosophy of Suhrawardi. Ishraqi Philosophy or wisdom is

based on both discursive reasoning and intellectual intuition;

on formal learning which aims at the cultivation of the

intellect and purification of the soul which prepares it to be

the recepient of illuminations. This is made clearly evident

by Suhrawardi's hierarchic classification of the seekers after

true and certain knowledge, his definition of the true

philosopher and the contents and structure of the al-Hikmat

al-ishraq fThe Theosophy of the Orient of Light1 which is the

doctrinal testament of Ishraqi Philosophy. The al-Hikmat al-

35 al-Farabi, Kitab al-iam/ bain ra*yai al-hakmain Aflatun al-iiahi wa Aristutalis. trans. Muhsin Mahdi, Al-Farabi's Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1969), 43.

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ishraq which was written in a few months under the direct

inspiration of the Holy Spirit or the archangel Gabriel,

departs from the conventional structure and division of

subject matter of the Peripatetic works such as the Shifa' of

Ibn Sina. Unlike the Peripatetic works which are divided into

four main categories: logic, mathematics, physics and

metaphysics; the al-Hikmat al-ishraq consists of a prologue

and two major sections. The first section contains a

discussion on logic and a critical analysis of certain

fundamental principles of Peripatetic philosophy; the second

section deals with light, ontology, angelology, physics,

psychology, eschatology and spiritual union. Thus, the al-

Hikmat al-ishraq which begins with a discussion on logical

matters, ends with spiritual union.

In the al-Hikmat al-ishraa. Suhrawardi presents a

hierarchic classification of the seekers after true and

certain knowledge based on the development and perfection of

the theoretical and practical faculties of the human soul.36

The lowest level is that of the student (tallbl or seeker of

knowledge who, conscious of his ignorance, experiences the

thirst and need for knowledge and therefore, embarks upon the

path of its pursuit. The second level is the individual who

has acquired formal knowledge and knows discursive philosophy

(al-hikmah al-bathiyvahl well but has not attained gnostic

36 Henry Corbin, ed. Opera Metaphysica et Mystica. Vol.2 (Tehran: Institut Franco-Iranien, 1952), 10-11.

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knowledge. Suhrawardi places the Peripatetic philosophers such

as al-Farabi in this category. The third level is the

individual who has purified his soul and attained intellectual

intuition or illumination but is ignorant of the discursive

modes of knowledge. The Sufis such as al-Hallaj and al-Bastami

are examples of this category. The fourth level is that of the

true philosopher or theosopher, al-haklm al-illahi or al-hakim

al-muta'allih who has acquired or perfected discursive

philosophy as well as attained illumination or gnosis. Prime

examples of the hakim muta'allih given by Suhrawardi are

Pythagoras, Plato and himself. Above these four categories are

the heirarchy of invisible, spiritual beings or angels who aid

man in his search for certain and illuminative knowledge and

who provide for the intermediate means for the union with

archangel Gabriel, the guardian angel of humanity and through

him to God Himself.37 In Ishraqi Philosophy, the angels which

constitute a vast hierarchy of lights function as a luminous

bridge between this world of shadows and God, the Supreme

Light fnur al-a'garni. The angel is the sustainer and governor

of this world, the instrument or agent of knowledge, the

archetypes of the beings that exist in this world or in

Suhrawardi's terms, 'the lords of the species' (arbab al-

anwa') and man's 'other half' or 'celestial self' which he

seeks to find and be re-united with in order to be whole and

37 Ibid.

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happy once again as he originally was.38

According to Suhrawardi, all of reality is nothing but

light (nur) which possesses various degrees of intensity. It

is the nature of light to be "self-manifesting and to bring

others into manifestation".39 Light is the most evident and

clear of things and it makes other things become evident. The

self-evident nature of light does not require it to be defined

by something other than itself, instead everything else can be

defined with reference to it. In Suhrawardi's philosophy, God

is equated with or symbolized by light. God is the Supreme

Light (nur al-a'zamf or the Light of lights (nur al-anwar1.40

The use of light as a symbol of God is not original with

Suhrawardi, the Qur'an itself has made references to it in the

famous Verse of Light (Q.24:35) and al-Ghazzali in his

celebrated esoteric commentary on the Light Verse, the Mishkat

al-anwar has expounded some of the most important metaphysical

implications of this verse. However, the choice of light as

the supreme fundamental ontological principle upon which the

metaphysical and epistemological teachings of Islamic

philosopy are founded, is original with Suhrawardi.

In Suhrawardi's perspective, the Supreme Light is the

38 See for example Suhrawardi's al-Oissat al-aurbat al- qharbivyah. trans. William Thackston, "A Tale of the Occidental Exile," in his The Mystical and Visionary Treatises of Suhrawardi (London: Octagon Press, 1982), 100-108.

39 Henry Corbin, Opera Metaphysica. Vol.2. 106.

40 Ibid.

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source of all existence: the whole universe or all of creation

is degrees of irradiation or effusion of the Supreme Light

which shines everywhere while it itself remains immutable. The

nature and ontological status of all beings in the hierarchy

of existence is determined on two bases: one, the ontological

basis of their proximity to the Supreme Light or the degree of

light or illumination they receive from the Supreme Light; and

two, the epistemological basis which is the degree of

comprehension and self-consciousness a being possesses.41

However, since self-consciouness and knowledge in Suhrawardi's

view, is the function of the degree of light a being

possesses, ultimately, all beings are distinguished from each

other by the degree of light or darkness that is present in

them. Thus, in Suhrawardi's perspective, the determinant of

being is light and that of knowledge is illumination.

Illumination is denoted in Arabic by the word 'ishrag'.

It is derived from the root word sharq which means 'the rising

of the sun7. The East or Orient in which the sun rises is

denoted by the term 'mashrig'.42 In Arabic, the terms

'mushriaiyyah' meaning 'illuminative' and the term

'mashriqiyyah' which means 'oriental' are written in the same

way: ( ). The natural identification of the Orient

with light and the rising sun which is reflected in the Arabic

language, is ingeniously employed by the ishraqi philosophers

41 Ibid., 108.

42 Henry Corbin, Islamic Philosophy. 209.

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to denote their form of philosophy or wisdom which is both

illuminative and 'Oriental' in nature. It should be noted here

that the term 'Oriental' does not refer to the physical or

geographical East or Orient but to the symbolic East or sacred

Orient which in the perspective of Ishraqi Philosophy, is the

land of light, of immediate and unitive knowledge and of

illumination.43

The identification of the Orient with illuminative

knowledge was already present in Ibn Sina's esoteric writings

such as the three visionary recitals: Hayy ibn Yaqzan (The

Living Son of The Awake1, Risalat al-tair (Treatise on the

Bird) and Salaman wa Abs51 (Salaman and Absal). In these

works, Ibn Sina expounds his 'Oriental Philosophy' (al-hikmah

a1-mashrlaiyvah1 whose central theme or motif is the journey

of the human soul from the Occident to the Orient. The

Occident, the land in which the sun sets is the land of

shadows and darkness, and of limited and separative knowledge.

The Orient on the other hand, is the land of the rising sun,

of light and illumination, and of unitive and sapiential

43 "Thus, just as in the sensible world the term (ishrag) signifies the splendour of the morning, the first radiance of the star, in the intelligible Heaven of the soul it signifies the epiphanic moment of knowledge. Consequently, by 'Oriental' Philosophy or theosophy we must understand a doctrine founded on the Presence of the philosopher at the matutinal appearance of the intelligible Lights, at the outpouring of their dawn on the souls who are in a state of estrangement from their bodies. What is in question therefore is a philosophy which postulates inner vision and mystical experience, a knowledge which, because it originates in the Orient of the pure Intelligences, is an 'Oriental' knowledge. Ibid.

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knowledge. The Occident of darkness is also the world of

matter which is the prison into which man's soul has fallen

and from which he must escape. The Orient of lights is

identified with the world of archangels which is above the

visible cosmos and which is the original home of man's soul.

His 'Oriental Philosophy' is considered by Ibn Sina as not

suitable for the common people unlike his Peripatetic works,

and is intended instead for the erudition of the spiritual and

intellectual elite (al-khawassl who seek for an immediate and

certain knowledge of the Truth through the purification and

transformation of the soul.4*

Suhrawardi, the master of Ishraqi Philosophy, has taken

certain essential features of Ibn Sina's 'Oriental Philosophy'

such as the symbolic identification of the Orient with light

and illumination and the Occident with darkness and discursive

knowledge, the journey of the seeker after true and certain

knowledge from the Occident to the Orient and the division of

the cosmos into the Occident, the intermediate Occident, the

intermediate Orient and the Orient and incoporated them into

his writings. Thus, in this respect, Ishraai Philosophy is

anticipated in the esoteric teachings of Ibn Sina, the

greatest exponent of Peripatetic Philosophy in Islam.45

Suhrawardi's indebtedness to Ibn Sina is clearly demonstrated

44 See Henry Corbin, Avicenna and the Visionary Recitals (Princeton: The University Press, 1988), 290.

45 Ibid., 6-7.

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for example, in his treatise, al-Oissat al-qhurbat al-

aharbiyyah (The Tale of the Occidental Exile 1 in which

Suhrawardi describes in symbolic terms, the spiritual journey

of the seeker after true and certain knowledge from the

Occidental world of matter and darkness into which he has

fallen and is imprisoned to the Oriental world of Lights and

illumination which is also the original home of the soul of

the seeker. In this symbolic tale, as is the case with all of

his other symbolic writings, Suhrawardi depicts the cosmos as

a vast tapestry of symbols or crypt through which the seeker

after the Truth must traverse in order to attain illuminative

knowledge and undergo the transformation of being that

accompanies it, to culminate in the union of the individual

soul with the archangel Gabriel who is the guardian angel of

humanity.

According to Suhrawardi, each human soul had a previous

existence in the angelic domain or in the Orient, before

descending to the realm of the body. Upon entering the body,

the innermost center of the human soul which is immortal and

angelic in nature and which is identified by Suhrawardi with

the 'lordly light' or nur ispahbad; divided into two parts.46

One part remains in the spiritual or angelic realm and the

other, descended into the prison of the body. This explains

the unhappiness or dissatisfaction that man experiences in

46 Suhrawardi, al-Ghurbat al-aharbiyyah. trans. William Thackston, Visionary Treatises of Suhrawardi. 103.

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this world. The unhappiness or dissatisfaction that man

experiences are due to his search for his 'other half7 or

'self7 which is his celestial and primordial self; and man

will not be happy and content until he has found his angelic

half and becomes re-united with it and returns to his original

home. Man7s task in this world is therefore, to regain his

angelic self and be re-united with it in order to be whole and

happy once again. In order to achieve this end, man has to

traverse through the Occident, the intermediate Occident, the

intermediate Orient and finally to the Orient itself which is

above and beyond the cosmos.47 The journey through the cosmos

is also the journey of the soul through its various faculties

and limitations to its innermost center which is immortal and

which ultimately is related to God, the Supreme Light. The

"lordly light" fal-nur al-ispahbadil which is at the center of

man7s soul is an emanation of the Supreme Light.

As mentioned earlier, for Suhrawardi and for all the

Ishraqi philosophers, there exists a reciprocal relation

between logical thinking or discursive philosophy and

purification of the soul and illuminative experience. This

relation which is present in all of his Ishraqi writings

especially the symbolic narratives, is perhaps best

illustrated by his reknowned mystical narrative, Arwaz-i Par-i

Jibra7il (The Chant of the Wing of Gabrieli. In this

narrative, Suhrawardi demonstrates among other things, the

47 Ibid., 102-108.

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necessity of both theoretical understanding and comprehension

of the principles of Ishraqr Philosophy, and spiritual

purification and transformation in order to attain the

illuminative experience which yields the certain and unitive

knowledge of the revealed Word of God.

This mystical narrative is divided into two main parts.

The first part describes the seeker's encounter with a sage

who symbolizes the Active Intellect which in Ishraqi

Philosophy is also the guardian angel of humanity who will

guide him on the journey to the realization of the Truth. The

disciple asks the guide several important questions such as

from where he has come from and the nature of the journey that

has to be undertaken in order to reach his original home.48

This section thus, depicts the doctrinal introduction to or

familiarity with Ishracri wisdom. The second part of the

narrative describes the seeker requesting the sage or guide to

teach and initiate him into the divine mysteries such as the

science of al-iafr or the esoteric meanings of the letters, in

order that he may come to know of the Word of God.49 The

guide instructs and initiates the seeker into the esoteric

meanings of the letters or the science of the Word of God. He

learns that man like the angels and revelation is a Word of

God. It is by the divine Word that man and the rest of

48 Suhrawardi, "Arwaz-i Par-i Jibra'il" trans. William Thackston, "The Sound of Gabriel's Wing," Visionary Treatises of Suhrawardi. 27-30.

49 Ibid., 30-31.

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creation is existentiated and therefore, it is also by the

divine Word — the invocation (dhikr) of the Suprem Name (al-

ism al-mufradl: Allah — that man returns to God. In the

narrative, the divine Word is symbolised by the "chant" or

"sound" of Gabriel's wings which spread from the Orient, the

World of lights to the Occident, the world of darkness.50

In Ishraqi Philosophy, formal learning and discursive

knowledge is a necessary condition for illumination and inner

purification and the spiritual journey or transformation of

the soul, a sufficient condition for illumination.51 It is

not possible to undertake the spiritual journey without a

theoretical comprehension of the doctrinal aspects of Ishraqi

Philosophy; at the same time, the experience of illumination

which yields certain and illuminative knowledge is not

attainable without the participation of the being of the

seeker in the spiritual journey. The journey itself is only

possible under the direction of a guide who is identified with

archangel Gabriel who guided Prophet Muhammad in his journey

or mi'rai (nocturnal Ascension) from the Occident to the

Orient to the immediate presence of the Supreme Light. The

spiritual journey through the various cosmic regions or

heirarchy of being, symbolizes the various stages of knowledge

the seeker attains as he progresses in the journey. Therefore,

there can be discerned, two distinct but inter-related aspects

50 Ibid., 31-32.

51 Henry Corbin, Islamic Philosophy. 216-17.

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to Ishraqi Philosophy: one, the doctrinal or theoretical

aspect and two, the spiritual or existential aspect. The

spiritual aspect is based on the illuminative experience or

intellectual intuition of Reality and the theoretical

dimension is founded upon the philosopizing of the

metaphysical vision that is obtained in the illuminative

experience.52 Although formal learning precedes illumination,

the illuminative experience is not the result of discursive

thought or reasoning; rather it is the fruit of the

purification of the soul and initiation into the esoteric

sciences and practices under the guidance of the Holy Spirit.

The illuminative experience however, is not an illusion or a

hallucination but an illumination or a vision of the nature of

Reality or of Being.53 The experience is essentially noetic

in nature and its contents are objectively true. The

objectivity of the experience allows it to be analysed and

delineated in intellectual terms and be presented and

expressed in a coherent and logical manner.54 In other words,

the illuminative experience is capable of being intellectually

or rationally demonstrated. Therefore, in Ishraqi Philosophy,

reason or discursive thought enables for the comprehension of

52 Toshihiko Izutsu, The Metaphysics of Sabzavari (Delmar: Caravan Books, 1977), 3.

53 Ibid., 7.

54 See Mehdi Yazdi, Principles of Epistemoloav in Islamic Philosophy. Ch. 10: 11 The Language of Mysticism and Metamysticism11.

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the theoretical aspects of its philosophy. The spiritual

practices on the other hand, prepares the soul for the

illuminative experience. The illuminative experience provides

for the certain and unitive knowledge of the Truth which are

also the contents of Ishraqi doctrines. The doctrinal

teachings of Ishraol philosophy is expressed both in a

rational mode and in a symbolic manner. In the writings of the

Shaykh al-ishracr. the rational formulations of Ishracri wisdom

are represented by his philosophical works and the symbolic

expressions are contained in his mystical narratives. As

indicated earlier, while the doctrinal teachings and

formulations of Ishraqi Philosophy are indebted to a

considerable extent to the philosophical thought and writings

of Ibn Sina, especially his 'Oriental Philosophy7; the

spiritual dimension on the other hand, is based on the

initiatic rites, practices and esoteric doctrines of Sufism

which in turn are founded upon the spiritual teachings,

practices and experiences of Prophet Muhammad, particularly

his mi'rlh or nocturnal Ascension to the divine Presence which

is the prototype of all spiritual journeys and realization in

Islam. Thus, Ishraqi Philosophy is a combination of discursive

thought and gnostic experience within the traditional cadre of

the Islamic religion. The reciprocal relation between

discursive thought and illuminative experience or their

necessity and inter-relation in the realization of the Truth

or the Word of God — both in the forms of revelation (wahy)

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and manifestation or creation — is expressed by Suhrawardi in

his Kitab al-Mutarahat (The Book of Conversations') by

unequivocally stating that it is a grave mistake indeed to

consider:

one could become a philosopher (hakim) by means of studying books only, without treading the path of sanctity and without having the immediate experience of the spiritual lights. Just as a traveller of the spiritual path who lacks the power of analytic thinking is but an imperfect mystic, so is a researcher of the Truth lacking the immediate experience of the divine mysteries but an imperfect and insignificant philosopher.55

This view is echoed and developed further by Mulla Sadra

who considers all philosophizing which does not lead to the

highest spiritual realization a vain and useless pastime, and

all mystical experience which is not backed by a rigorous

conceptual training in philosophy a way to illusions and

abberations.56

Revelation. Intellectual Intuition and Reason in the Perspective of the Sufis

According to the Sufis, there are three principal ways

through which man can acquire knowledge. They are: reflection

(fikr), 'unveiling' (kashf) and revelation (wahy).57 When the

55 Quoted from Suhrawardi, Kitab al-Mutarahat in Toshihiko Izutsu, Metaphysics of Sabzavari. 5.

56 Ibid., 7.

57 Ibn al-'Arabi, Futuhat al-makkiyvah (Cairo, 1911), Vol. 2, p. 305, trans. William Chittick in his The Sufi Path of Knowledge (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989), p. 159.

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human soul knows through reflection, its mode of knowing is

referred to by the Sufis as 'acrl or 'reason'; and when it

knows through 'unveiling', it is referred to as 'aalb' or the

'heart'.58 For the Sufis, to know through reson is to know in

a limited and restrictive way. They interpret 'aql with its

root meanings of 'to bind' and 'to restrain' to signify the

limiting nature of reason. Reason acquires knowledge through

conception (tasawwurl and the highest conception is definition

(hadd). By its nature, definition implies delimitation;

therefore, knowledge through reason is limited and

restrictive. The 'qalb' or 'heart' on the other hand means

'fluctuation'. The constant fluctuations or transformative

states of the heart makes it a more suitable mode of knowing

the infinite self-disclosures of God than reason. In

accordance with the Qur'anic identification of the human heart

with understanding and intelligence, the Sufis consider the

heart as a locus of knowledge. On the basis of the hadith

qudsi; "My (God) earth and My heaven embraces me not but the

heart of My faithful servant does embrace Me", Ibn al-'Arabi

explains that the "embracing" (sa'a) of God by the human heart

is through knowledge.59 For Ibn al-'Arabi, the direct

relation of the human heart with the All-Merciful (al-Rahmanl

as testified by the hadith; "The hearts of all the children of

Adam are like a single heart between two fingers of the All-

58 Ibid.

59 Ibid., 107.

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Merciful", implies the tremendous capacity (wus') of the heart

to attain knowledge of God.60 The Qur'an states that it is

God's Mercy and Knowledge which "embrace all things". Ibn al-

'Arabi has interpreted creation as the manifestation of God's

knowledge of Himself to Himself and its existentiation with

the 'Breath of the Compassionate' (nafas al-Rahmanl.

Ibn al-'Arabi, the emminent Sufi saint and gnostic

('arif) considers reason or the rational faculty (al-cruwwat

al-natiqahl as one of the fundamental powers of the human

soul. Reason acquires knowledge in two ways: one, through an

inherent (dhati) perception (idrak) and two, through a non-

inherent perception or through the support or assistance of

its six instruments ('alal. The six instruments of reson are

the five senses of sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste and

the power of refection or the reflective faculty (al-quwwat

al-mufakkiral ,61

Reflection is the power of thought or cogitation which

enables the human soul to put together the data gathered by

sense perception or acquired from imagination in order to

reach rational conclusions. Reflection considers (nazara),

investigates and analyses the data provided to it, as well as

thought processes to enable reason to formulate rational or

logical conclusions. According to Ibn al-'Arabi, reflection is

a faculty or cognitive power which is unique to man not found

60 Ibid.

61 Ibid., 162.

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either in animals or angels. Angels possess knowledge through

the divine effusion fal-fayd al-illahil and the animals

through an innate knowledge fbi-1 fitrah).62 Like the

animals, man possesses a form of knowledge which is innate in

nature and similiar to the angels, man too is capable of

receiving knowledge through divine effusion or bestowal

(wahb). However, in addition to these two forms of knowledge,

man possesses a third form which is uniquely his own or

specifically human. It is knowledge acquired through the

reflective faculty.63 Through the reflective faculty man

gains a form of knowledge which is not innate to him and

separate from divine effusion. The reflective faculty enables

man to arrive at conclusions or judgments which are based

completely on his own formulated criteria of acceptability or

rules of adequate evidence.

According to Ibn al-'Arabi, if man reflects on the form

of knowledge which he acquires through reason, he observes

that reason delimits, defines and reduces everything that it

knows to its mental categories and principles of logical

reasoning.64 Consequently, reason cannot know with certainty

of things or realities which are beyond delimitation or

definition such as the spirits and God. This is clearly

demonstrated by the fact that reason can argue with comparable

62 Ibid., 160.

63 Ibid.

64 Ibid., 163.

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force and conviction on opposite sides of matters related to

God and the 'World of the Unseen'. The antinomies or

contradictions into which reason can fall prey to when it

tries to ascertain matters beyond sensible experience,

evidence reason's incapacity to acquire definite knowledge

about God and the spiritual realm.

In Islamic thought, the most eloquent demonstration of

the limitations of reason to ascertain matters beyond

delimitation and definition is contained in the Sufi and

'Asha'rite theologian, al-Ghazzali's influential work the

Tahafut al-falasifah (The Incoherence of the Philosophers').

The Tahafut which is a critique of some of the most important

philosophical views advocated by the Mashsha'i philosophers

aims at demonstrating the inability of the rational faculty to

comprehend the total truth or to acquire complete knowledge on

matters related to the divine and spiritual realms.

Consequently, al-Ghazzali argues, reason and the 'people of

reflection' (ahl al-fikrl or the rational thinkers (al-'ucralaf

do not have a legitimate basis or authority to assert their

partial views and comprehension of spiritual and divine

matters on the Islamic community at large.

Al-Ghazzali's successful critique of Peripatetic

Philosophy and demonstration of the limitations of the

rational faculty, resulted in the curtailment of the growing

power of reason in the Islamic philosophical tradition from

the twelfth century onwards; and the beginning of the emphasis

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on illumination and intellectual intuition for the attainment

of certain knowledge of the spiritual and divine orders. Al-

Ghazzali's polemics against the Mashsha'i philosophers was

mainly in his capacity as a Sufi who subscribed to the view of

the superiority of intellectual intuition (dhawg) to

demonstrative reasoning and intellectual speculation in

acquiring knowledge of God and the 'World of the Unseen'. Both

al-Ghazzali's attacks against discursive philosophy and his

successful effort at making Sufism more acceptable and

respectable to the community of 'ulama' especially among the

fuqaha' (jurists) and mutakallimun (theologians) resulted in

the diminishing influence of discursive philosophy in the

Islamic world, particularly in the Sunni world, and which in

turn prepared the ground for the spread of the ishraqi

doctrines of Suhrawardi and the gnostic teachings ('irfanl of

Ibn al-'Arabi.65

According to Ibn al-'Arabi, another major impediment

which reason faces in acquiring certain knowledge of God is

its susceptibility to the power and influence of the passions

(shahwa).66 The Qur'an defines shahwa or passion as any

desire which has an object which is not sanctioned by it and

65 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Three Muslim Sages (Delmar: Caravan Books, 1976), 54-55.

66 Ibn al-'Arabi, Futuhat al-makkivvah. Vol.2, p. 190, trans. William Chittick in his The Sufi Path of Knowledge r 160.

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which will lead man astray from its teachings.67 One of the

chief purposes God placed reason in the human soul is to

enable man to regulate, control and dominate over his

passions. Man can dominate over his passions only if he makes

passion conform to the Scale of the Law or the moral and

religious injunctions of the Qur'an and practices of the

Prophet promulgated in the Shari'ah. The Shari'ah provides man

with the divine criterion for human actions and behaviour.

Without the regulating power of reason to excercise control

over the passions, man will turn away from the religious

commandments which are designed to protect him from the

destructive excesses of the passions. When the passions

dominate over reason, man is unable to make objective

judgments about himself, his actions and the reality which

surrounds him. In Ibn al-'Arabi's view as it is the case with

the Sufis generally, the fact that reason can err in its

judgment, makes it an unsuitable faculty for man to rely on

completely to acquire true and certain knowledge of God and

the 'World of the Unseen'.68 Moreover, the passions veil and

separate reason and the human soul from the light or the

influence of the Intellect or the Spirit. For the Sufis, it is

only the Intellect or the Spirit which is able to gain direct

and certain knowledge of God and the 'World of the Unseen'.

67 See for example verses 38:26 and 25:43 of the Qur'an.

68 Ibn al-'Arabi, Futuhat-al-makkivyah. Vol.l, p. 125, trans. William Chittick in his Sufi Path of Knowledge, 163.

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On the basis of certain verses of the Qur'an, the Sufis

assert that definite knowledge about God and the spiritual

world can only be attained by God bestowing it upon man either

through revelation (wahvl or 'unveiling' (kashf). The

following Qur'anic verses are often quoted to justify their

view:

They encompass nothing of His (God's) knowledge? save such as He wills (Q.2:255).

He (God) gives wisdom to whoever He wills. He who has been given wisdom, has been given much (Q.2:269).

Be Godfearing and God will teach you (Q.2:282).

Both revelation and 'unveiling' are forms of God's revelation

or self-disclosures to man; revelation is a universal form of

self-disclosure and 'unveiling', a particular one.

In the Futuhat al-Makkivvah (The Meccan Revelations) , one

of Ibn al-'Arabi's most important works and the encyclopedia

of Islamic esoteric sciences, he states that through

'unveiling' (kashf) man attains incontrovertible knowledge of

God. The incotrovertibility is due to the fact that knowledge

through 'unveiling' is free of all obfuscations (shubha). In

'unveiling' Ibn 'Arabi states, "God opens the gates of the

heart" of the individual and "actualizes a divine self­

disclosure (taialli)" which he describes as "a light which God

throws into the heart of the individual without the latter

being able to repel it".69 Through the divine self-disclosure

69 Ibid., 170.

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or sudden illumination of the heart in the spirtitual state

(hal) of 'unveiling', the individual attains an immediate and

certain knowledge of God which is beyond the capabilities of

the human rational faculties to perceive on their own, and

which accords to the reports and statements which revelation,

the messengers and people of God have made about God;

therefore confirming and verifying (tahaicr) for the individual

those statements which he previously attributed to God on the

basis of his faith and acceptance of religious authority

(taglld) only.70 'Unveiling' therefore renders to the

individual of faith, knowledge of God which confirms and

verifies for him the truth of the statements made about God in

revelation, by revealing to him the inner meanings and

implications of the revealed statements. The knowledge he

previously had about God based on faith and acceptance of

religious authority is transformed by the experience of

'unveiling' to an immediate and verified knowledge of God. In

Sufi terminology, the individual is said to have moved or

progressed from the stage of " i l m al-yaain' or 'lore of

certainty' in which he knows about God through hearing and

accepting reliable reports about Him, to the level of " a y n

al-yaqin' or 'vision of certainty' in which he possesses a

direct knowledge of God borne of his 'vision' or experience of

the presence of a divine self-disclosure in his heart. Thus,

for the Sufis, knowledge through 'unveiling' or gnosis is the

70 Ibid., 168.

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highest and most certain form of verification (tahqlql of the

knowledge and truth revealed in the Qur'an and Hadith. They

consider revelation as the ultimate source of knowledge and

gnosis (ma^rifah), the most certain and reliable form of

comprehending and verifying that knowledge. Since both

revelation and gnosis have their sources in the divine

authority, the Sufis regard themselves as the true followers

of the authority of God who alone is the real Knower (al-

'Aliml and therefore, the true possessor of knowledge

(lilm) .71

Although knowledge by 'unveiling' is a function of faith

and divine Grace — God chooses whomsoever He wills among His

servants to actualize His divine self-disclosure

'unveiling' can only take place if the human heart, the locus

of God's self-disclosure in man or the microcosm, is free of

all other considerations or pre-occupations except God. In

other words, God's self-disclosure is usually given to those

whose hearts are completely and totally directed to and

focussed on Him. There is a reciprocity between the divine

'irradiation' or self-disclosure and the receptivity

(qabiliyyahl of the human heart.72 This reciprocal relation

is expressed by the famous maxim of the Sufi saint, al-Junayd

of Baghdad: "The color of water takes on the color of the

vessel containing it". To the extent God is the Formless

71 Ibid., 166-67.

72 Ibid., 108.

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Reality beyond all definitions and qualifications, the

particular character of the divine self-disclosure actualized

in 'unveiling' is an attribute of the pre-disposition of the

heart which receives it. However, since the pre-disposition of

the heart is only pure potentiality, it is the divine self-

disclosure or 'irradiation' which actualizes the pre­

disposition or receptivity of the heart to give it or the

spiritual state (hal) its intelligible quality. The

intelligible or noetic quality of 'unveiling' relates to

either an 'Aspect' or a Quality or a Name of God.73

All the rites and spiritual practices of Sufism and

esoteric Shi'ism, especially the invocation (dhikr) of the

Supreme Name, Allah, have as their objective, the remebrance

of God and the attainment of the exclusive and enduring

attention or absorption in God to culminate in union with Him.

The state of total and complete absorption in God is denoted

by the term fana'. Fana' is the condition of the total

absorption of the individual human consciousness in the

Presence of God or of the assimilation of the individual human

attributes in the Attributes of God.74 In his book, An

Introduction to Sufi Doctrine. Titus Burckhardt who translated

Ibn al-'Arabi's Fusus al-hikam into French, explains that in • • • Ibn al-'Arabi's view, union with God is a mutual inter­

penetration of divinity and man. In the state of union or

73 Ibid.

74 Ibid., 176.

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unitary consciousness which is a characteristic feature of

mystical apprehension, "the divine Nature (al-Lahutt becomes

the content of human nature (al-nasutl... God is mysteriously

present in man and man is totally obliterated in God".75 Such

a condition or state of being is described by a hadith qudsi

in the following manner:

My (God) servant ceases not to draw nigh unto Me by works of devotion, until I love him. When I love a servant, I the Lord, am his ear so that he hears by Me, I am his eye, so that he sees by Me, and I am his tongue, so that he speaks by Me, and I am his hand, so that he takes by me.76

On the basis of the above hadith qudsi. the Sufi, Dhu'1-Nun

al-Misri offers the following explanation on gnosis or

malrifah:

The gnostics see without knowledge, without sight, without information received, and without observation, without description, without veiling and without veil. They are not themselves, but in so far as they exist at all they exist in God. Their movements are caused by God, and their words are the words of God which are uttered by their tongues, and their sight is the sight of God, which has entered their eyes.77

For the Sufis, the presence of God in man and the

absorption of man in God are possible due to the nature of the

divine act of creation. On the basis of the hadith qudsi: "I

(God) was a Hidden Treasure and I desired to be known; so I

created creation in order that I may be known" Ibn al-'Arabi

75 Titus Burckhardt, An Introduction to Sufi Doctrine, 79.

76 Quoted in Annemarie Schimmel, The Mystical Dimensions of Islam (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1975), 43.

77 Ibid.

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explains that creation is the manifestation of God's knowledge

to Himself, and it is by the 'Breath of the Compassionate'

that creation is existentiated. Creation is caused by God

breathing upon the immutable archetypal realities (al-a'yan

al-thabitah). The being of the cosmos is identified with the

divine 'Breath of the Compassionate' (nafas a1-Rahman1 and the

archetypal realities which are the self-manifesting forms of

the divine Names and Qualities represent the ontological

possibilities or perfections of God, the absolute and infinite

Reality, within Himself.78 For Ibn al-'Arabi, the constant

inhalation and exhalation of the human act of breathing is a

symbol of the constant cosmogonic process of expansion (bast)

and contraction (crabd). The cosmos is annihilated and renewed

or re-created at every instant (taidid al-khala) by the

'Breath of the Compassionate'. The presence of God in creation

through the hierarchy of His self-disclosures (taialllyat)

from the divine Names and Qualities to the archangelic,

angelic, psychic and physical realms constitute the cosmogonic

arc of descent (aaws al-nuzuli) and man's conscious and active

participation in the divine knowledge through his return

(ruiu') journey to God by ascending through the various levels

of being within himself, represents the arc of ascent (aaws

al-su'ud),79 If the arc of descent represents the process of

78 Toshihiko Izutsu, Sufism and Taoism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 152.

79 Ibid., 206.

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creation or God's manifestation of Himself to Himself through

the hierarchy of grades of being extending from the immutable,

archetypal realities (al-a'yan al-thabitaht to the engendered

existents (al-a'yan al-mawiuddahl; then, the arc of ascent or

man's spiritual journey of realization through the various

levels of being contained in him, retraces and recapitulates

the divine act of creation. Spiritual realization or the re­

integration of the various levels of being in man in the

spiritual journey to God, complements and completes the divine

act of creation.80 The consciousness or knowledge of the

ontological comprehensiveness of the being of man is merely

potential in individual man and is only actual in the

Universal Man. The Universal Man is one who is fully conscious

and cognizant of the true nature of man and his central

position in creation. The station of Universal Man is only

attained after all traces of separative existence or of

'otherness' borne of the experiences and consciousness of the

individual human ego or nafs. are removed or divested from

man's being.81 The Universal Man who lives in God and through

God knows by God and through God C'arif bi'Llahl. The station

of the Universal Man is equated by the Sufis with the

attainment of the highest level of knowledge for man which is

the stage of 'haqq al-vaain' or 'truth of certainty'. It is

the stage of knowing the Truth by being burned or consumed by

80 Ibid.

81 Abu Bakr Siraj al-Din, The Book of Certainty, p. 13.

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it. 82

Although for Ibn al-'Arabi, reason cannot acquire

definite or positive knowledge of God, it can through logical

reasoning arrive at a knowledge of what God is not. For

example, through his reflective faculty, man can understand

and come to know of God's incomparability or Transcendence

(tanzih).83 However, as demonstrated above, in order to

attain positive or affirmative knowledge of God or Who God is,

man must rely on revelation for such a form of knowledge, and

on the experience of 'unveiling' to understand fully and

verify beyond doubts, the meanings and implications of the

revealed statements about the Nature of God.

Furthermore, Ibn al-'Arabi believes that reason can play

a very important supportive role in relation to mystical

knowledge or 'knowledge of the Unseen' f'ilm al-asrart.

Although reason cannot know in a direct manner of God and the

'World of the Unseen', reason however, can reflect upon the

experience of 'unveiling' and introspect and re-formulate the

non-rational or supra-rational contents of the experience of

'unveiling' and conceptualizes it within the language and

framework of ordinary, phenomenal experience and knowledge.84

In other words, reason can re-construct and translate the

82 Ibid.

83 Futuhat al-makkivvah. Vol.2, p. 305, trans. William Chittick in his Sufi Path of Knowledge. 163.

84 Mehdi Yazdi, Principles of Epistemoloav. 174.

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mystical apprehension into the language and concepts of

ordinary, phenomenal knowledge. Consequently, the highly

spiritual and personal experience of 'unveiling' can be

expressed and communicated in a meaningful and coherent manner

to the Islamic community at large. In this respect, the

science of 'irfan is a disclosure and a re-presentation of the

verified knowledge of the 'World of the Unseen' (al-'alam al-

ghayb) which is attained in the experience of 'unveiling', in

the language and intellectual formulations of knowledge of the

phenomenal world or the 'Visible World' fal-'alam al-

shahadah).85 It is possible to express knowledge of the

Unseen in the language of the phenomenal world because for Ibn

al-'Arabi, both the Visible World and the World of the Unseen

represent or symbolise the two major stages or forms of the

self-manifestation of the Absolute. The 'Visible World' is the

'sensuous self-manifestation' (taialli shuhudi1 of the

Absolute and the 'World of the Unseen', Its 'essential self­

manifestation' (ta-jallx dhatil.86 The 'Visible World' is also

the 'Visible Theophany' or the concrete manifestation of the

realities (haqalig) of the 'Unseen Theophany' or the World of

the Unseen. The self-manifestation of the Absolute Reality

(al-wuiud al-mutlaal is both a transtemporal and

transhistorical phenomenon as well as a temporal event. The

self-manifestation of the Absolute in the 'World of the

85 Ibid.

86 Toshihiko Izutsu, Sufism and Taoism. 155.

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Unseen' is beyond space and time and Its self-manifestation in

the 'Visible World' is within the limitations of the spatio-

temporal order.

Ibn al-'Arabi is the first Sufi saint and gnostic to

express and formulate the esoteric doctrines of Sufism borne

of the experience of the spiritual journey and realization to

God, in an an explicit and elaborate manner. The elaborate and

extensive formulations of Sufi doctrines and experiences by

Ibn al-'Arabi in his numerous works especially the Futuhat al-

makkiyyah and the Fusus al-hikam renders his works as the

definitive resource material for the esoteric sciences of

Sufism and which earned Ibn al-'Arabi the honorific title

of'al-Shaykh al-akbar' or 'The Greatest Master'. The writings

of Ibn al-'Arabi on the doctrines and pracitices of Sufism

made the verified knowledge of God and the 'World of the

Unseen' more accessible to the Islamic community which

subsequently exerted a tremendous influence on its

intellectual and spiritual developments. Mulla Sadra is one of

the major intellectual and spiritual figures of Islam after

Ibn al-'Arabi, whose thought bears the indelible mark and

unmistakable influence of the'Shaykh a1-akbar'.

The intention of the above discussion on the treatments

of revelation, intellectual intuition and reason in the Qur'an

and Hadith, and in the Mashsha'i and Ishraqi schools of

Islamic Philosophy as well as in doctrinal Sufism, is to

provide the specific context in which to understand and

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appreciate better Mulla Sadra's views on the three sources of

knowledge and his attempt at synthesizing them in his

philosophy. The assumption here is, no thinker or philosopher,

no matter how original his views may be, operates in an

intellectual and cultural vaccuum. The intellectual and

cultural contexts of Mulla Sadra is the Islamic revelation and

its inevitable intellectual and spiritual elaborations in the

various schools of Islamic Philosophy, Theology and doctrinal

Sufism. Furthermore, in the case of Mulla Sadra, it is

necessary to know the basic epistemological perspectives of

the various schools of Mashsha' i. Ishracri and x Irfan since his

synthesis of revelation, discursive philosophy and gnosis is

considered by many Islamic philosophers after him and the

important scholars of Islamic Philosophy, as the synthesis of

the epistemological perspectives and teachings of these major

schools.

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THE LIFE AND WORKS OF MULLA SADRA

Mulla Sadra lived during the remarkable rule of the

Safavid Dynasty (905-1133 A.H./1499-1720 a .D.) in Persia which

marked some of the high points in Islamic artistic,

intellectual, spiritual and political life.1 The Safavid

rulers who traced their lineage to the great Sufi saint,

Shaikh Safi al-Din Ardabili (d. 735 A.H./1334 A.D.) and their

historical origins to a Sufi brotherhood, ruled over Persia

for a period of over two centuries. The Safavids were also the

first political force to conquer and re-unite Persia since its

disintegration after the fall of the Sassanid Empire in the

seventh century. The capital of Safavid Persia was Isfahan,

although cities such as Shiraz, Kashan, Qazwin and Tabriz

continued to retain their importance. Under Safavid rule,

Twelve Imam Shi'ism which was previously a minority creed in

the region became the state religion. This event had

tremendous important and significant implications for the

cultural, intellectual and spiritual life of Persia. There

1 For a detailed treatment of the achievements of the Safavid period in Persia in the various aspects of life, see Peter Jackson & Lawrence Lockhart, eds. The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol.6 : The Timurid and Safavid Period (Cambridge: The University Press, 1986).

96

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came to be established in Persia, a distinct Shi'ite culture

with its particular devotion and acceptance of the walayah or

the spiritual authority and leadership of 'Ali who is the

first Imam in the 'cycle of initiation7 fdai7rat al-wilayahl;

and of the subsequent eleven Imams who were his descendents.

The Imam who is regarded by the Shi7ites to carry within

himself the 'Muhammadan Light7 (a1-nur a1-MuhammadI1 is the

representative of the Prophet on earth and he performs three

essential functions in the community.2 They are: one, to rule

over the community, two, to interpret the Divine Word and Law,

especially their inner meanings and esoteric content according

to the particular conditions and needs of the times and three,

to give guidance and initiation into the inner or spiritual

life. Thus, through the walayah of the Imams and their

infallibility ('ismahl on religious and spiritual matters, the

continuation and preservation of the Islamic revelation in the

community are ensured.

Under Safavid rule, Shi7ite fiqh or jurisprudence became

highly developed as it encountered and grappled with new and

challenging social and political issues and situations. As for

Sufism, the major Sufi orders (turug) in the region such as

the Ni'matallahi, Nurbakshi, Kubrawiyyah and the Safawiyyah

were very active and had numerous followers. It was also

during the Safavid period that such orders as the Ni'matallhi

2 See Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabataba7i, Shi7ite Islam (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1977), 10.

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and Safawiyyah which were initially Sunni became completely

Shi'ite in character.3 In the field of doctrinal Sufism, the

gnostic teachings ('irfanl of Ibn al-'Arabi continued to be

influential and widespread. The works of Shi'i gnostics such

as the Jami' al-asrair (The Sum of Divine Mysteries 1 of Sayyid

Haydar Amuli and Kitab al-Muili (The Book of the Source of

Illuminationl of Ibn Jumhur Ahsa'i in which the gnostic

doctrines of Ibn al-'Arabi are integrated and absorped into

the intellectual perspective of Shi'ite Islam, exerted a

tremendous influence on the hukama' or philosophers of the

Safavid period.'1

Intellectually, there was a general revival of the

various sciences and disciplines. Both the religious and

intellectual sciences flourished and achieved new heights. In

relation to Hikmat Philosophy specifically, the Safavid period

was one of great activity and development. The generally more

esoteric tendency of the Shi'ite perspective with its emphasis

on ta'wil or hermeneutic interpretation of the Qur'an and

Hadith r together with the fact that the 'intellectual

sciences', especially philosophy, were very much a part of the

curricula of the Persian madrasah were particularly conducive

for the further development of Hikmat Philosophy in Shi'ite

Persia. In fact, after the twelfth century when philosophy

3 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Spiritual Movements, Philosophy and Theology in the Safavid Period," Peter Jackson & Lawrence Lockhart, eds. History of Iran. 657.

4 Ibid., 334-35.

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ceased to be taught as a subject in the madrasahs in the Sunni

world, the center of philosophy and the other 'intellectual

sciences' shifted from the western lands of Islam to the East,

specifically Persia.

The Safavid period also witnessed a greater rapproachment

between the four major schools of Islamic thought.5 In the

centuries following the Mongol invasion in the thirteenth

century, the four major- schools of Islamic thought — Kalam.

Mashsha'i Philosophy, Ishraqi Philosophy and 'Irfan — began

to approach and influence each other greatly. This process of

rapproachment between the four schools which resulted in a

variety of synthesizing trends and possibilities as

demonstrated by the works of Afdal al-Din Kashani (d. 612

A.H./1213 A.D.), Dablran Katibi Qazwini (d. 675 A.H./1276

A.D.), Qutb al-Din Shirazi (d. 710 A.H./1311 A.D.) and Ibn

Turkah Isfahani (d. 836 A.H./1432 A.D.) became more

accentuated and widespread during the Safavid period. The

outstanding intellectual figures of Safavid Persia were often

philosophers, theologians and gnostics at the same time, as

was the case for example with Shaikh Baha' al-Din 'Amili (d.

1030 A.H./1621 A.D.), Mir Damad (d. 1041 A.H./1630 A.D.) and

Mir Findiriski (d. 1050 A.H./1640 A.D.). Mulla Sadra's effort

at synthesizing revelation, discursive philosophy and gnosis

are immediately anticipated by these latter thinkers who are

associated with what is often called 'The School of Isfahan'.

5 Ibid., 658.

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The initial groundwork of such a synthesis was prepared by the

scholars between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.

Thus, the Safavid period witnessed a renaissance of the

arts, sciences and spiritual life of Islam in Persia since the

Mongol invasion in the thirteenth century. It was in this

exceedingly rich and intellectually and spiritually vibrant

period of Islamic history in Persia that Mulla Sadra lived and

wrote his philosophical works.

The Life of Mulla Sadra

Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Yahya Qawanit Shirazi who is

better known by the name of Mulla Sadra was born between the

years 979 A.H./1571-72 A.D.6 into an influential and

aristocratic family in Shiraz.7 Mulla Sadra was the only son

6 Mulla Sadra's year of birth was discovered by the emminent philosopher and scholar of Iran, Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i when he noticed in the margin of a manuscript copied in 1197 A.H./1703 A.D. which was based on another manuscript autographed by Mulla Sadra and with certain marginal notes made by the latter; the following sentence: "I received this inspiration (concerning the unity (ittihad'l of the subject who knows (al-*aqil1 and the object that is known (al-maxqul'11 at the time of sunrise of Friday, 7th. Jumadi al­ ula of the year 1037 A.H. when already 58 lunar years had passed from the life of the author". Since it is not possible to deduce exactly from Mulla Sadra's notation whether 58 complete years or a period between 57 and 58 years have elapsed, the exact date of his birth cannot be determined except to set it between the years 979 A.H./1571 A.D. and 980 A.H./1572 A.D. See Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Sadr al-Din Shirazi and his Transcendent Theosophy (Tehran: Imperial Iranian Academy of Philosophy, 1978), 31; also Henry Corbin, En Islam Iranien. Tome IV (Paris: Editions Gallimard, 1972), 54-55.

7 There are available several sources for an account of Mulla Sadra's life. There are the traditional Islamic sources such as Muhammad Khwansari, Rawdat al-iannat. Vol.2 (Tehran,

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and his birth was a long awaited and prayed for event. As

such, Mulla Sadra was raised with great care by his family and

was provided with the best education available in Shiraz. From

a very early age, Mulla Sadra displayed a deeply religious

nature and an exceptionally keen intellect. He completed his

early education in Shiraz under the close supervision of his

father. His early education consisted of the traditional

Islamic learning of the religious and intellectual sciences,

the Qur'an and Hadith and a sound knowledge of both the Arabic

and Persian languages.

Before the rise of the Safavid Dynasty in the fifteenth

century, Shiraz had been an important center of Islamic

Philosophy. However, during the time of Mulla Sadra, the

leading intellectual center of Persia and possibly the whole

of the eastern lands of Islam was Isfahan, the capital city of

the Safavid King, Shah Abbas.8 Mulla Sadra who was then

extremely interested in Metaphysics (al-'ilm al-ilahi'l and the

other 'intellectual sciences' fal-'ulum al-'aaliyvahl. set

1306 A.H.) 331-32 and Mirza Muhammad Tunikabuni, Oisas al- 'ulama' (Tehran, 1313 A.H. (solar)), 329-33. Also available are accounts of Mulla Sadra's life by Iranian scholars of Islamic Philosophy of this century such as Sayyid Jalal al-Din Ashtiyani, Sharh-i hal wa ara-i falsafa-yi Mulla Sadra (Meshed, 1381 A.H.) arid Seyyed Hossein Nasr, ed. Mulla s'adra Commemoration Volume. For accounts in European languages, see Henry Corbin, Le Livre des penetrations metaphysiques (Tehran- Paris, 1964), "Introduction” , Edward Browne, A Literary History of Persia. Vol.4 (Cambridge: The University Press, 1964) 429-32 and Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Transcendent Theosophyf 31-39.

8 Edward Browne, Literary History of Persia. 4.

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forth for the city of Isfahan to further his education. At

Isfahan, he studied under two of the most outstanding and

famous intellectual and spiritual figures of the time. They

were Mir Damad and Shaikh Baha' al-Din 'Amili.

Mir Damad was a philosopher, mystic and poet who taught

the Peripatetic philosophy of Ibn Sina with an ishraqi

interpretation. Due to his great and varied learning, as well

as the authority and respect he wielded among the fucraha'

(jurists) and mutakallimun (theologians) of his time and the

King himself, Mir Damad was able to revive the intellectual

sciences, especially Hikmat philosophy. In fact, Mir Damad was

the leading hakim at Isfahan at the time. It was he who

established the classification of the traditional sciences of

Islam in the new cultural and intellectual setting of Shi'ite

Persia.9 This extremely important and significant contribution

of Mir Damad earned him the title of Mu'allim-i thalith or

the 'Third Teacher'; the first being Aristotle and the second,

al-Farabi. Mir Damad was particularly interested in the

question of time and creation or the eternal (gadim) and the

created (huduth); an issue which had long occupied the

attention of the philosophers and theologians of Islam. Mir

Damad's greatest contribution to Hikmat philosophy is his

harmonization of Avicennan cosmology and Shi'ite Imamology.

Through his philosophical works such as the Oabasat

9 Peter Jackson & Lawrence Lockhart, eds. History of Iran, 670.

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(Firebands) and the Jadhawat) fBurning Billets') . Mir Damad

transformed the "abstract metaphysical system of Ibn Sina into

a concrete spiritual reality which becomes the object of

spiritual vision and realization".10 Thus, Mir Damad

continued further Suhrawardi's conception of philosophy as the

perfect combination of discursive thought and spiritual

illumination and brought together a greater rapproachment

between the Mashsha' i school of Ibn Sina and the Ishraai

school of Suhrawardi. The combination of Avicennan and Ishraai

elements so characteristic of Mir Damad 's writings are clearly

present in the works of his student Mulla Sadra. Mir Damad was

Mulla Sadra's foremost teacher and mentor in the 'intellectual

sciences' generally and in Hikmat philosophy specifically.

With Shaikh Baha' al-Din 'Amili, Mulla Sadra studied the

'transmitted sciences'. Shaikh-i Baha'i as he is known among

the Persians was a close friend of Mir Damad. Shaikh-i Baha'i

who was a theologian, jurisprudent, mathematician, architect,

Sufi and poet was one of the most powerful Shi'ite authority

and scholar during the reign of Shah Abbas.11 He was a man of

varied learning and abilities. He wrote juridical and

theological treatises as well as drawing architectural plans

for buildings such as the Shah mosque in Isfahan. Shaikh-i

Baha'i also wrote Sufi poetry in Persian; his Tuti-nama is

10 Ibid., 672.

11 Edward Browne, A Literary History of Persia. 426.

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among the finest and popular form of Persian Sufi poetry.12

One of Shaikh-i Baha'i's main concern and contribution in the

field of Sufism is in establishing the harmony between the

Shari'a and the Tariqah or between the Law and the spiritual

path. It has been suggested that Mulla Sadra was possibly

initiated into Sufism by Shaikh-i Baha'i; although Mulla

Sadra's specific spiritual affliations cannot be determined

with certainty since there are no records about it.

Within a few years in Isfahan, Mulla Sadra mastered the

various sciences of his day and became the foremost student

there. Among his peers were Sayyid Ahmad 'Alawi (d. 1060

A.H./1650 A.D.) and Aqa Husayn Khwansari (d. 1098 A.H./1687

A.D.) who later became well known masters of Islamic

Philosophy themselves. As a student, Mulla Sadra showed clear

signs of the potential to surpass his own teachers such as

the case in relation to Mir Damad who sadly predicted that

Mulla Sadra's clear and lucid manner of philosophical writing

will eventually eclipse his own abstruse and difficult

style.13 Had Mulla Sadra stayed on in Isfahan after

completing his education and obtaining the iiazah or highest

12 Peter Jackson & Lawrence Lockhart, History of Iran. 668.

13 "It is said in fact that before going on one of his journeys, Mir Damad asked his students to write a treatise in his absence. When he returned and read what Mulla Sadra had written he wept, saying that he was both joyous to have such a student and sad in that he knew that Mulla Sadra's writings would one day overshadow and replace his own," Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Transcendent Theosophy. 33.

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religious certificate and the permission to pass his own

independent judgements (ijtihad) on religious matters; he

would have been a master in his own right, attracting a circle

of students of his own. However, he was dissatisfied with

merely formal learning and sought to develop the spiritual

side of his person which he considered to be necessary in the

total development of the seeker after true and certain

knowledge. Consequently, Mulla Sadra left Isfahan for the

idyllic town of Kahak near the holy city of Qum where he is

considered to have stayed on for eleven to fifteen years,

devoting himself to ascetic and spiritual practices which

aimed at purifying his soul.14 It was Mulla Sadra's belief as

it is with many other Muslim philosophers and sages that only

the purified soul can hope to gain knowledge of things divine

and be given direct vision of the spiritual realities which

are beyond the ability of the senses to perceive and the ken

of reason to conceive and comprehend. Mulla Sadra claims in

the 'Introduction' of his magnum o p u s . the Asfar, which he

began writing towards the end of his stay in Kahak, to have

been bestowed by the Grace of God with visionary experiences

which enabled him to attain to a true knowledge of the divine

or al-hikmat al-ilahiyyah that he had previously only known

theoretically.15

14 Henry Corbin, En Islam Iranien. Tome IV. 59-60.

15 Sadr al-Din Shirazi, Al-Asfar al-'arba'ah. ed. M. Rida al-Muzaffar (Tehran, 1378 A.H./1958 A.D.), Vol. 1, p. 8.

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Although Mulla Sadra's decision to move to Kahak was

essentially motivated by spiritual reasons and purposes, it

was partially influenced by a need to isolate himself from the

distressing social pressures he experienced at Isfahan. In the

'Introduction' of the Asfar. his letters to his teacher Mir

Damad and the Sih Asl which is a kind of a spiritual

autobiography, Mulla Sadra disclosed of his general

unhappiness and distress with the exoteric 'ulama' and

theologians' (mutakallimunl misunderstanding of his

philosophical teachings and views. He was accused of

infidelity to the Islamic faith and thus earned the hostility

and persecutions of the 'ulama' of his day.

Upon the invitation of Shah Abbas II and after having

realized a high degree of spiritual maturity and intellectual

illuminations of the divine wisdom, Mulla Sadra returned once

again to the world and served as the head of the Khan School

or madrasah which was built specially for him by the Governor

of Shiraz, Allahwirdi Khan. Mulla Sadra taught and trained

many students and made the Khan School the major seat of

learning for the intellectual sciences, notably philosophy in

Persia. His intellectual and spiritual presence attracted many

students from near and far. Thomas Herbert, an European

traveller who visited Persia during Mulla Sadra's lifetime,

mentioned in his travelogue the Khan school and its fame as

the center for the instruction of the 'intellectual sciences'

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of Philosophy, Astrology, Physics and Mathematics.16 Most of

Mulla Sadra's works were written during this phase of his

life. It was also Mulla Sadra's practice, amidst teaching and

writing to make pilgrimmages on foot to Mecca. In fact it was

on his return journry from the seventh pilgrimmage to the holy

city, Mulla Sadra fell ill and died in Basra in 1640.

From the account of Mulla Sadra's life, there can be

discerned three main periods or phases: one, the period of

formal education and training in Shiraz and Isfahan, two, the

period of asceticism and self-purification in Kahak in which

he devoted himself completely to the spiritual life and three,

the period of return to public life in which he taught and

trained numerous students and wrote most of his philosophical

works. The third period is the product of the preceding two

periods in his life.

Thus, in his own life, Mulla Sadra sets the example of

the true sage or man of learning or hakim as one who combines

both intellectual discipline and spiritual realization. Such

a person who combines the perfection of intellectual learning

and spiritual insights is called the hakim muta'allih and not

surprisingly, Mulla Sadra whose life and teachings testify to

this philosophical ideal was given the honorific title, 'Sadr

al-Muta'allihin' or 'The Foremost Among The Sages or

Theosophers'.17

16 Henry Corbin, En Islam Iranien. 62.

17 Ibid., 54.

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1 0 8

Mulla Sadra taught and trained many students. Among the

numerous students of Mulla Sadra, the foremost are his two

sons-in-law, Mulla Muhsin Fayd Kashani (d. 1091 A.H./1680

A.D.) and 'Abd al-Razzaq Lahljl (d. 1072 A.H./1662 A.H.) who

became important philosophers of the Safavid period.18 The

other less known students of Mulla Sadra are Shaikh Husain

Tunikabuni (d. 1104 A.H./1692 A.D.) , Mulla Muhammad Irwani,

Mirza Muhammad Sadiq KashanI and Mulla Sadra's own two sons,

Mirza Ibrahim and Qawam al-Dfn Ahmad. Mulla Sadra's students

proved to be able transmitters and commentators of his

teachings since his philosophy is very much alive and vibrant

in present day Iran, in certain parts of Iraq, Pakistan and

India19. Although the years following Mulla Sadra's death,

the religious climate in Persia did not particularly favor the

teachings of Hikmat Philosophy, Mulla Sadra's philosophy

continued to be taught and propagated by his immediate

disciples, though in a more cautious and restricted manner. It

was only during the Qajar period that Mulla Sadra's teachings

came to the fore in Persia. Mulla 'Ali ibn Jamshid Nuri (d.

1246 A.H./1830—31 A.D.) taught Mulla Sadra's philosophy openly

in Isfahan.20 Mulla 'Ali Nuri, a philosopher and highly

18 Henry Corbin, Islamic Philosophy. 344-45.

19 Mulla Sadra's techings spread quite rapidly to India through the works of his disciples, especially through Mirza Muhammad Sadiq Kashani who travelled to India to propagate his master's teachings. Peter Jackson & Lawrence Lockhart eds. History of Iran. 687.

20 Ibid., 190.

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respected religious scholar ('aliml taught the Asfar and other

works of Mulla Sadra for almost fifty years. He also wrote

numerous commentaries on the works of Mulla Sadra such as that

on the Asfar. Kitab al-Masha'ir and Sharh usul al-kafi.21 By

the time of Mulla 'Ali Nuri's death in 1246 A.H./1830-31 A.D.,

he has trained a new generation of capable philosophers

belonging to the school of al-hikmat al-muta'alivvah of Mulla

Sadra. Among the students whom Mulla 'Ali Nuri trained and who

continued to propagate Mulla Sadra's teachings are Mulla

Muhammad Isma'il IsfahanI (d. 1277 A.H./1860-61 A.D.), Mulla

'Abdallah Zunuzi (d. 1257 A.H./1841-42 A.D.) and Mulla

Muhammad Ja'afar Langarudi. Through these figures and other

immediate disciples, the leading philosophers of the Qajar

period such as Mulla HadI Sabziwari (d. 1295 A.H./1878 A.D.),

Mulla 'Ali Zunuzi (d. 1307 A.H./1889-90 A.D.) and Aqa Muhammad

Rida Qumsha'I (d. 1306 A.H./1888-89 A.D.) were trained. Among

the latter group, Mulla Hadi Sabziwari is the most important

and influential and several of his works on the philosophy of

Mulla Sadra such as the Sharh al-mabda' wa'l ma'ad (Commentary

on the Book of Origin and Return1, Sharh al-shawahid al-

rububivvah {Commentary on the Divine Witnessesf and Asrar al-

hikam (Secrets of Philosophy) not only made Mulla Sadra's

teachings more accessible but also became important and

popular text books on Hikmat Philosophy in the madrasahs.22

21 Ibid.

22 Ibid. 191.

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Through the Qajar philosophers such as Mulla Hadi Sabziwari,

Mulla 'Ali Zunuzi and Aqa Muhammad Rida Qumsha'I, the

philosophers of the Pahlavi period were trained. Included

among the Pahlavi philosophers are Mirza Tahir Tunakabuni,

Mirza Mahdi Ashtiyani, Sayyid Husayn Bakubihi and more

recently, Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i, Sayyid 'Abu'l

Hasan Qazwini and Sayyid Kazim 'Assar.23 Thus, the chain of

transmission of Mulla Sadra's philosophy is preserved to the

present time; and today, in the madrasahs of Iran, it is still

a great honor and prestige to be a teacher or mudarris of

Mulla Sadra's philosophy, especially of his major work the

Asfar which is an advanced text of Hikmat Philosophy. «

The Works of Mulla Sadra

Almost all of Mulla Sadra's works were written in Arabic

with the exception of the Sih Asl (Treatise on Three

Principles) and a few poems and letters which were written in

Persian. He wrote in elegant and lucid Arabic. Mulla Sadra's

manner of writing represents one of the most precise and lucid

style of philosophical Arabic in the tradition of Islamic

Philosophy since its inception with al-Kindi and al-Farabi in

the ninth century. Mulla Sadra's writings range in extent from

the immense Asfar which extends beyond a thousand pages to

short treatises of a few pages. Most of Mulla Sadra's writings

were lithographed in Tehran during the Qajar period and re­

23 Henry Corbin, Islamic Philosophy. 351.

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published in modern editions during the Pahlavi period.24

There are available several accurate bibliographies of Mulla

Sadra's works prepared by recent scholars of Islamic

Philosophy.25 Based on the bibliographical research of these

scholars about fifty works can be attributed to Mulla Sadra.

The following is a list of all of the titles of works

attributed to Mulla Sadra:

1. al-Hikmat al-muta'alivvah fi'l-asfar al-'aqliyyat al-

arba'ah (The Transcendent Theosophy Concerning the

Four Intellectual Journeys of The Soul).

2. al-Shawahid al-rububiyyah fi'l-manahii al-sulukivyah

(Divine Witnesses Concerning the Paths of Spiritual

Realization1.

3. Kitab al-mabda' wa'1-ma'ad (The Book of the Origin

and Return').

4 Kitab al-masha'ir (The Book of Metaphysical

Penetrations1.

24 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Transcendent Theosophy. 39.

25 There is first and foremost the bibliography prepared by 'Allamah Sayyid Husayn Tabataba'i, see Seyyed Hossein Nasr, ed. Mulla Sadra Commemoration Volume. 107-20. Sayyid Jalal al- Din Ashtiyani who is responsible for the numerous recent editions of Mulla Sadra's texts has provided a bibliography in his prolegomena to the Sih Asl (Meshed, 1392 A.H./1973 A.D.). There is also the bibliography prepared by M.T. Danechepazhuh, see his 'Introduction' to Mulla Sadra's Kasr al-asnam al- iahilivvah (Tehran, 1340 A.H.). Available to the reader in European languages are the bibliographies prepared by Henry Corbin, see his 'Introduction' to the French translation of Mulla Sadra's Kitab al-Masha'ir. Le livre des penetrations metaphysiaues. 27-41; and that of Seyyed Hossein Nasr in Transcendent Theosophy. 40-50.

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5. Kitab al-hikmat al-*arshivyah (The Book of Theosophy

Descending from the Divine Throne).

6. Ta*liqat xala ilahiyyat kitab al-shifa* (Glosses upon

the Metaphysics of the Book of Remedy of Ibn Sina'I.

7. Ta*liqat *ala sharh hikmat al-ishraq (Glosses upon

the Commentary of the Theosophy of the Orient of

Light of Suhrawardi ~l.

8. Sharh al-hidayat al-athirivvah (Commentary on the

Book of Guidance of Athir al-Din Abharil.

9. al-Waridat al-qalbiyyah fi maxrifat al-rububivvah

(The Inspirations of the Heart Concerning Knowledge

of the Divinity1.

10. Iksir al-'arifin fi ma*rifah tarXq al-haqq wa/l-yaqin

(The Elixir of Gnostics Concerning the Knowledge of

the Path of Truth and Certainty).

11. al-Lamaxat al-mashriqivvah fi'l-funun al-mantiqiyyah

(Illuminationist Gleaminqs in the Art of Logic).

12. al-Mazahir al-ilahiyyah fi asrar al-xulum al-

karoaliyyah (Book of Divine Theoohanies Concerning the

Secrets of the Sciences that Lead to Perfection’!.

13. al-Masa/il al-qudsiyyah fi/l-hikmat al-muta^aliyyah

(Spiritual Questions Concerning the Transcendent

Theosophy^.

14. Sarayan nur wuiud al-haqq fi/l-xnawiudat (The

Penetration of the Light of the Divine Truth in

Creatures) .

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15. Risalah fi ittihad al-*aqil wa'l maxaul (Treatise on

the Unity of the Intellect and the Intelligible^.

16. Risalah fi ittisaf al-mahivyah bi/l-wu~iud (Treatise

on the Doctrine that Existence is. a Predicate of

Quiddity1.

17. Risalah fi khalq al-*amal (Treatise on the Creation

of Human Actions'!.

18. Risalah fi huduth al-'alam (Treatise on the Temporal

Genesis of the World1.

19. Risalah al-Wuiud (Treatise on Beinq^.

20. Risalah fi al-mizai (Treatise on Temperament1.

21. Maaalah fi limmiyyah ikhtisas al-mintaqah bi-mawdix • * * muxavvan fi'1-falak (Treatise on Why the Zodiac is

Located in a Determined Position of the Sphered.

22. Risalah fi mas/alah al-qada' wa/l-aadar fi af'al « al-bashar (Treatise on the Problem of Divine Decree

and Destiny Concerning the Actions of Man).

23. al-Risalah al-audsryyah fi asrar al-nuatat al-

hissiyat al-mushirah (The Sacred Treatise on the

Mysteries of the Sensible Point which Alludes to the

Mysteries of Divine Identity!.

24. Risalah fi al-tasawwur wa/l-tasdia (Treatise on • * Concept and Judgments.

25. Risalah fi al-tashakhkhus (Treatise on Individuation1

26. Risalah fi al-hashr (Treatise on Resurrection^.

27. Zad al-musafir (Provisions of the Traveller^.

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28. Aiwibat al-masa'il (Answers to some Questions).

29. Aiwibat al-masa7il al-naslriyah (Answers to the

Nasirean Questions'!.

30. Aiwibah al-masa'il Shams al-Din Muhammad Gilani

(Answers to the Questions of Shams al-Din Gilanil.

31. Dibacha-vi 'arsh al-tacrdis (Introduction to the

Throne of Divinity of Mir Damadl.

33. Asrar a1-avat wa anwar al-bavvinat (Secrets of the

Verses of the Our/an and Lights of Evident Truths').

34. Mafatih al-ahayb (Keys to the Invisible World1.

35. Mutashabihat al-qur'an (On the Metaphorical Verses of

the Our7an1.

36. al-Tafsir (Commentary upon the Our'an1. It contains

commentaries on the following verses or sections of

the Qur'an:

(i). al-Fatihah ('The Opening7).

(ii). Surah al-baqarah : 1-61 ('The Cow7: 1-61).

(iii). 'Ayat al-kursi ('The Throne Verse7).

(iv)..'Ayat al-nur ('The Light Verse7).

(v). Surah al-naml : 88 ('The Ant7: 88).

(vi). Surah al-saidah ('The Prostration7).

(vii). Surah vasin ('Yasin7).

(viii). Surah al-waqi'ah ('The Event7).

(ix). Surah al-hadid ('The Iron7).

(x). Surah al-iumu'ah ('The Congregation7).

(xi). Surah al-talaiq ('The Divorce7).

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(xii). Surah al-tariq ('The Morning Star').

(xiii). Surah al-'ala ('The Most High').

(xiv). Surah al-duha ('The Morning Hours').

(xv). Surah al-zilzal ('The Earthquake').

37. Tafsir al-hadith (Commentary on the hadith.'Man is

asleep and when he dies he awakens').

38. Sharh Usui al-kafi (Commentary on the Usui al-kafi1.

39. Risalah fi'l imamah (Treatise on the Imamatel.

40. Risalah-yi sih asl (Treatise on the Three

Principles').

41. Kasr al-asnam al-iahilivvah fi dhamm al-mutasawwifin

(Demolition of the Idols of Ignorance in Blaming

those who Pretend to Sufisml.

42. Risala-vi farsi mansub bi-Mulla Sadra (Persian

Treatise Attributed to Mulla Sadra).

43. Nama-yi Sadra bi-ustad-i khud Savvid Mir Damad

(A Letter of Sadr al-Din to his Teacher Mir Damad).

44. Nama-yi Sadra bi ustad-i khud Savyid Mir Damad

(A Second Letter of Sadr al-Din to his Teacher Mir

(Damad).

45. Nama-yi Sadra bi ustad-i khud Sayvid Mir Damad

(A Third Letter of Sadr al-Din to his Teacher Mir

Damad).

46. Nama-yi Sadra bi ustad-i khud Savvid Mir Damad

(A Fourth Letter of Sadr al-Din to his Teacher Mir

Damad').

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4 7 . D iw a n

Characteristic of the wide and varied learning of the

hakim. Mulla Sadra wrote books and treatises on several

important subjects, both in the 'transmitted sciences' and the

'intellectual sciences'. Mulla Sadra's works can be divided

into five main categories. First and foremost are his works on

Hikmat Philosophy. The most important work in this category is

his maanum opus. the al-Asfar al-'arba'ah. The other shorter

but no less important philosophical works are the al-Shawahid

al-rububiyyah (Divine Witnesses') . Kitab al-Masha'ir (Book of

Metaphysical Penetrations'!, Kitab al-mabda' wa'l ma'ad (Book

on the Origin and the Return) and a 1-Hikmat al-'arshivvah (The

Book of Wisdom from the Divine Throne1. These shorter

philosophical works of Mulla Sadra are to a large extent

summaries of subjects dealt with more extensively in the

Asfar.

The second category of books are Mulla Sadra's

commentaries on some of the most important works of Islamic

Philosophy such as that on Ibn Sina's al-Shifa' (The Healing'),

Suhrawardi's Hikmat al-Ishraq (The Theosophy of the Orient of

Light) and Athir al-Din Abhari's Kitab al-hidavat (The Book of

Guidance). These commentaries of Mulla Sadra which were

monumental works themselves were very well known and

influential.

The third category are works which deal specifically with

religious texts such as his commentaries (tafsir) on various

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verses of the Qur'an, the two most important being the Asrar

a 1-ayat (Secrets of the Verses of the Our'an*1 and Mafatih al-

qhayb (Keys to the Invisible World1; and also commentaries on

certain Hadith. as well as his invaluable commentary on the

Usui al-kafi of Kulaini which is the most important source

book of Shi'ite Hadith. Included in this category are also

short treatises on particular religious topics such as al-

Oada' wa'l qadar fi af*al al-bashar (Treatise on the Problem

of Divine Decree and Destiny Concerning the Actions of Manl,

Risalah fi al-hashr (Treatise on Resurrection) and Risalah fi

al-imamah (Treatise on the Imamatet.

The fourth category are writings of a somewhat personal

nature in which Mulla Sadra defended his philosophical views

and position specifically and gnosis (%irfan^ generally,

against the criticisms of the jurisprudents and religious

scholars of his time. Prime examples of these works are the

Sih Asl (The Three Principlesf which is a kind of spiritual

autobiography and the Kasr al-asnam al-iahiliyvah fi dhamm al-

mutasawwifin (Demolition of the Idols of Ignorance in Blaming

those who Pretend to Sufism') which criticizes the excesses of

some of those who pretend to follow the Sufi path. Included in

this category are Mulla Sadra's letters to his teacher and

mentor Mir Damad. These letters written in Persian reveal both

Mulla Sadra's reverence and devotion to his teacher and some

of the problems and frustrations he experienced with the

xulama' of his time.

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Finally, there is the Diwan of Mulla Sadra which is a

collection of his poetry written in Persian. Mulla Sadra's

poetry however, is not as well known and influential as his

other philosophical and religious writings.

As mentioned earlier, Mulla Sadra's greatest work is the

Asfar which he wrote towards the end of the ascetic period of

his life. The Asfar uses the imagery or symbol of wayfaring to

outline and discuss in detail the stages of the intellectual

journeys of the human soul in search of true and certain

knowledge. It is the definitive philosophical work of Mulla

Sadra which demonstrates his particular perspective and style

and manner of philosophizing. In the Asfar are contained

discussions of almost every important problem dealt with and

debated among the schools of Kalam. Mashsa'i Philosophy,

Ishraqi Philosophy and * Irfan. thus the length of the work.

Mulla Sadra's style of dealing with any major issue of

philosophical import is first to define it, then to discuss it

in light of the various views and positions of the earlier

major thinkers and schools of thought and finally to conclude

with his own resolution to the problem. His resolutions are

often expressed in the form of logical arguments and

demonstrations, interwoven with direct quotations from the

Qur'an and Hadith and the sayings of the Shi'ite Imams, with

the feature of frequently breaking off into inspirational

remarks borne of his illuminative knowledge of the issue

concerned. Therefore, in terms of style of writing and

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expression, as well as method of approach, Mulla Sadra's

philosophical works demonstrate a combination of the logical

arguments and demonstrations of the philosopher, the intuitive

insights of the divinely inspired gnostic and the faith of a

believer in the Word of God and His Prophet and Imams. Upon a

cursory reading of Mulla Sadra's philosophical works, whether

it is the voluminious Asfar or the shorter but no less

important philosophical works such as the comprehensive al-

Rububiyyah and the synoptic al-*Arshiyyah. Mulla Sadra's

'synthetic' style of writing and approach to philosophy is

clearly apparent. Whether his works demonstrate a successful

synthesis of revelation, discursive philosophy and gnosis or

not requires further analysis and close examination of his

philosophical writings.

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DOES THERE EXIST A SYNTHESIS OF THE TRUTH CLAIMS OF

REVELATION, INTELLECTUAL INTUITION AND REASON

IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF MULLA SADRA?

The Transcendent Philosophy or al-Hikmat al-muta'aliyyah of Mulla Sadra

Mulla Sadra7s philosophy is referred to as al-Hikmat al-

mutaxalivvah by his disciples and students to distinguish it

as a new philosophical perspective and school. One of Mulla

Sadra7s most important disciples, 'Abd al-Razzak al-Lahiji (d.

1072 A.H./1662 A.D.) for example, refers to Mulla Sadra7s

philosophy by this term.1 Mulla Sadra himself however, did not

refer to his philosophy directly and specifically by this

term; although the term ^al-hikmat al-mutaxalivvah7 was used

by him in the title of two of his works: one, the Asfar itself

and two, al-Masa7il al-ctudsivyah fi7l hikmat al-mutaxaliyyah

(Spiritual Questions Concerning the Transcendent Theosophy or

Philosophy! which was written about a year before his death.

It should be noted that Mulla Sadra did not create this term;

earlier Sufis such as Da7ud al-Qaysarl (d. 751 A.H./1350 A.D.)

and philosophers such as Qutb al-Din Shirazi (d. 710 A.H./1311

1 See Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Transcendent Theosophy. 86.

120

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A.D.) had used this term before.2 *Al-Hikmat al-muta'alivvah'

then was used as a general term to refer to divine wisdom or

theosophy or knowledge of the divine mysteries which was a

major concern of the 'urafa' (gnostics) and hukama'

(philosophers) alike. 'Al-Hikmat a1-muta'aliyyah' then did not

refer to a specific school of thought or methodology.

The term 'al-Hikmat a1-muta' a 1 i y y ah' consists of two

important words: 'al-hikmah' and 'al-muta'alivyah'. In Arabic,

'al-hikmah' generally means 'wisdom'. It is a term found in

the Qur'an. One of the Names of God is 'al-Haklm'. 'The Wise'

and it is He who is the source and ultimate possessor of

wisdom. In the world-view of the Qur'an, wisdom is a divine

attribute. The word 'a1-muta'a1iyyah' means 'exalted' and

'transcendent'. It too is a divine Name. The Qur'an mentions

Allah as 'al-Muta'ali' or 'The Supremely Exalted or

Transcendent' who is above and beyond all the ascriptions and

attributes of created beings. Therefore, the term 'al-Hikmat

a1-muta'iliyyah' means an exalted or transcendent form of

wisdom. Both the subject matter and source of this wisdom are

directly related to God. Al-Hikmat al-muta'alivvah is

concerned with God and 'The World of the Unseen' f'alam al-

ghayb) or the divine Mysteries as well as 'The Visible World'

('alam al-shahadahl. 'The Visible World' symbolizes 'The World

of the Unseen' and together they manifest the divine Names and

2 Da'ud Qaysari used this term in his commentary on Ibn al-'Arabi's Fusus al-hikam and Qutb al-Din Shirazi in his Durrat al-tai r 'ibid., 57, 85.

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Qualities which reveal the infinite ontological possibilities

of God.

As a general rule, the teachings of a particular school

of thought or a philosopher can be reduced to several

fundamental principles which constitute its foundation and

from which all its secondary principles and ideas can be

derived or are implied. In this study, I have chosen to focus

on four fundamental principles of Mulla Sadra's philosophy

which not only mark his departure from earlier philosophical

perspectives but also provide the foundation of his

philosophy.3 Knowledge of the four fundamental principles

provides one with a general overview of his philosophy. The

four fundamental principles of Mulla Sadra's philosophy are:

1. The unity (wahdah), ontological primacy (asalah) and

gradation (tashkikf of Being (wujud).

2. Transubstantial Motion (al-harakat al-iawhariyyahl.

3. The union (al-ittihadl of the knower (al-xaailf and

the known (al-maxqul1.

4. The catharsis (tajrid) and independence of the

imaginative faculty (al-mutakhayyilahl from the body.

These four principles which are treated by Mulla Sadra in

great depth and detail in the Asfar are also discussed in his

3 In his article on Mulla Sadra, Seyyed Hossein Nasr considers the four fundamental principles to "form the principles of Mulla Sadra's whole intellectual vision". See his "Sadr al-Din Shirazi (Mulla Sadra)," Muhammad Sharif, A History of Muslim Philosophy. Vol.2 (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1966), 942.

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other shorter philosophical works such as the Shawahid al-

rubbubivvah (Divine Witnesses), al-Masha'ir (The Book of

Metaphysical Penetrations'!, al-Mabda7 wa7l- ma'ad (The Book of

the Origin and Return1 and the al-Hikmat al-'arshivvah (The

Book of Wisdom from the Divine Throne). The extent of the

treatment of the individual principles in these works depends

on the specific focus and emphasis of the particular text. For

example, in the al-Masha/ir which focuses on ontology, Mulla

Sadra discusses the first principle on being (wuiudt in great

depth and detail and although, the other three principles are

also discussed, their treatments are more brief and less

extensive; and in the Mabda7 wa'l ma'ad which focuses on the

question of the origin and end of things, Mulla Sadra

discusses in a detailed manner, the first and fourth

principles on being and on the carthasis and independence of

the imaginative faculty from the body respectively. In the al-

'Arshiyyah which is the main text of analysis in this study,

Mulla Sadra discusses the three principles concerning Being,

transubstantial motion and the unity of the knower and the

known in the first part of the book in 'The First Place of

Illumination (mashrial7 which deals with the knowledge of God,

His Attributes, His Names and His Signs. The fourth principle

on the carthasis and independence of the imaginative faculty

from the body is discussed in the second part of the book in

'The Second Place of Illumination7 which deals with knowledge

of the Return.

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The task of this chapter is to examine whether there

actually exists a synthesis of the truth claims of revelation,

gnosis and discursive philosophy in Mulla Sadra's philosophy

generally. In order to demonstrate the existence of a

synthesis of the three truth claims in Mulla Sadra's

philosophy, two things are required. First, an exposition of

the main ideas contained in the four fundamental principles

which provide the foundation of Mulla Sadra's philosophy.

Second, an examination of the various religious, philosophical

and gnostic doctrines and ideas which Mulla Sadra has taken

from the three sources of revelation, gnostic teachings and

discursive philosophy to formulate his own philosophical

principles.

The ontological primacy fasalahl. unity fwahdahl and gradation ftashkik^i of Being fwuiucH

In Mulla Sadra's perspective, the heart of Hikmat

Philosophy is metaphysics fal-'ilm al-ilahi or ilahivvatt and

the proper subject matter of metaphysics is wuiud. The Arabic

term *wuiud' is translated as either 'being' or 'existence'.

It is derived from the root w-i-d ( ) which carries the

basic meanings of 'to find', 'to discover', and 'to know

about' something.4 In the Asfar in which Mulla Sadra describes

the four major intellectual journeys of the human soul in

pursuit of divine wisdom or al-hikmah al-ilahivvah or

4 Edward Lane, Arabic-Enalish Lexicon. Vol.2, 2924.

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theosophy, the first three stages (marahil) of the first

journey (safar) deal exclusively with the subject of wuiud.

And the very first chapter of the Asfar discusses on the

question of wuiud as the proper subject matter of metaphysics.

In all of Mulla Sadra's philosophical writings, the discussion

on wuiud occurs at the very beginning of the text, thus

demonstrating its primary importance and significance in his

philosophical perspective.

The Mashsha'i or Peripatetic philosophers such as al-

Farabi and Ibn Sina accepted Aristotle's definition of

metaphysics as the science or study of 'existent qua

existent'.5 The Arabic term for existent is mawiud. Mawiud

refers to 'that which is' (Latin ens). The metaphysics of al-

Farabi and Ibn Sina were chiefly concerned with existents.

However, in Mulla Sadra's perspective, the proper subject

matter or concern of metaphysics is not mawiud or existent but

wuiud or 'the act of existing'. Wuiud is 'existence' or

'being' (Latin esse).6 In his book The Fundamental Structure

of Sabzawari's Metaphysics which deals in an in-depth manner

the concept and reality of existence in Hikmat Philosophy

generally and in Sabzawari's philosophy specifically;

5 See for example, Ibn Sina, Danish Nama-i 'ala'i. trans. Parvis Morewedge, The Metaphysica of Avicenna (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1973), Ch. 2; al-Farabi, Mabadi' ara' ahl al-madina al-fadila. trans. Richard Walzer, The Perfect State, Ch. 1.

6 See the very first chapter of the first journey (safari of the Asfar.

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Toshihiko Izutsu states that mawiud ('that which is7) is the

participial form of Being and wuiud ('to be' or 'existence1)

is the verbal form of Being.7 The shift in the focus of

metaphysics from existent to existence made by Mulla Sadra was

extremely significant in Islamic Philosophy.8 After Mulla

Sadra, almost all of the Islamic philosophers focussed their

attention on 'the act of existence1 or 'the act of being1

which causes things to be existentiated rather than with

concrete existents. They were interested in possessing

knowledge of Being or God and His creative and at the same

time mysterious act of existentiating existents instead of

with the existents themselves.

Having asserted that the proper subject matter of

metaphysics is wuiud or 'the act of existence1, Mulla Sadra

makes a distinction between the notion or concept (mafhum) of

existence and the reality (hacricrah) of existence.9 In Mulla

Sadra1s view there are two levels of reference in relation to

wuiud: one, the conceptual level and two, the level of

external reality. There should not be a confusion between the

level of thinking and talking about existence and that of

7 Toshihiko Izutsu, The Fundamental Structure of Sabzawari1s Metaphysics (Tokyo: Keio University, 1971), 21.

8 Henry Corbin considers the emphasis on wujud or 'the act of existing1 made by Mulla Sadra brought about a "revolution" in Islamic metaphysical thought, see his Le livre des penetrations metaphysiques. 62.

9 Sadr al-Din Shirazi, Kitab al-Masha'ir. trans. Parvis Morewedge, The Metaphysics of Mulla Sadra (New York: SSIPS, 1992), 6.

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experiencing the reality of existence. According to Mulla

Sadra, the notion of existence or wuiud is self-evident

f badihi) . 10 The notion of existence or the understanding of

the verb 'is' or 'exists7 is something that occurs to the

human intelligence naturally and spontaneously. Every human

being knows what it means for something to exist or not to

exist. In Mulla Sadra's view, there is no other notion which

is more naturally or immediately self-evident to the human

mind than that of existence.11 The concept of existence is

the most universally known and it is not reducible to any

other concepts; instead all other human concepts are reduced

to it. Without this primary and a priori concept of existence,

man cannot understand anything else.

In contradistinction, the reality of existence is the

most difficult thing to grasp or understand or define.12 Man

does not know what is 'existence as-such7 or 'is-ness7 when it

does not relate to any thing or existent whatsoever. Being

which is independent of all objects, entities or existents is

beyond the ken of human understanding. Thus, for Mulla Sadra

and almost all of the later Islamic philosophers, if on the

one hand, the notion or concept of existence is the most self-

evident to man; the reality of existence on the other hand, is

10 Ibid.

11 Ibid.

12 Asfar (ed.) Muhammad Rida al-Muzaffar (Tehran; Shirkah Dar al-Ma'arif al-Islamiyyah, 1378 A.H./1958 A.D.), Vol.I, Pt.l, p. 60.

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the most hidden or unknown. This idea is expressed by Mulla

Hadi Sabzawari, one of the most important commentators of

Mulla Sadra's philosophy, in the following manner:

The notion of existence (wuiud1 is one of the best known things But its reality (kunh) is in the extremity of hiddenness.13

One of the most basic and fundamental distinctions made

in Islamic metaphysical thought is that between existence

(wuiud1 and essence or quiddity f mahiyyah1,14 This

distinction goes back to al-Farabi and Ibn Sina. In man's

experience of the external world, he encounters things or

existents. When an individual analyzes his experience or

perception of a thing or existent, he realises that there are

two possible fundamental questions he can raise about it: one,

Is it? (hal huwa?1 or does it exist? two, What is it? (ma

huwa?).15 The first question pertains to the existence or

non-existence of the thing or object and the second question

concerns the quiddity of the thing. Thus, each thing or

13 From Sabzawari, Sharh-i Manzumah. quoted in Toshihiko Izutsu, The Fundamental Structure of Sabzawari's Metaphysics. 29.

14 In Islamic Philosophy, the term mahiyyah can be understood in two different senses: one, in the particular sense fbi-1 ma'na al-akhassf and two, in the general sense fbi-1 ma'na al-a^amml. In the particular sense, mahiyyah refers to quiddity or the answer to the question 'What is it?'. In the general sense, mahivyah refers to essence or that by which a thing is what it is. Ibid., 73.

15 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Existence (wuiud') and Quiddity (mahiyyah) in Islamic Philosophy," Iabal Review. (Oct 1989- April 1990) 30-31:164.

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existent that is perceived can be analyzed in terms of its

existence f wuiud-) and its quiddity (mahiyyah1. To the human

mind, every existent (mawiud 1 is a composite or combination of

quiddity (mahiyyah1 and existence (wuiud-). However, in man's

experience of existents, quiddity and existence are not

separate from each other. He does not experience for example,

the quiddity of a horse without its existence or independent

of an existent horse. In the external world, quiddity and

existence are one and are not separate or independent of each

other but in the mind, quiddity and existence can be separated

and made independent of each other.16 The distinction made by

the human intelligence between quiddity and existence provides

man with one of the most fundamental keys to an understanding

of the structure of reality.

The consequent issue that arises from the analysis of an

existent to its quiddity and existence is: Between quiddity

and existence, which is real or ontologically fundamental

(asil-)? Is existence real and quiddity merely a mental

construct (iltibari) or is quiddity real and existence an

accident? From the viewpoint of human language, it appears as

though the quiddity of a thing which distingushes it from all

other existents, is more real or ontologically fundamental

than its existence. The existence of a thing appears to be an

accident f *arad1 which is added to its quiddity. The view that

in relation to quiddity, existence is an accident was first

16 Asfar. Vol.I, Pt.l, p. 54.

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made by Ibn Sina. Ibn Sina's view on existence as an accident

posed a tremendous problem to many philosophers both in the

Islamic East and Medieval West.17 The problems arose as a

result of regarding existence as an ordinary accident like

'whiteness' for example, inhering in a substratum instead of

as a unique accident which does not require an existent

substratum in order to exist. In the al-Masha'ir. Mulla Sadra

quotes from Ibn Sina's Ta'lioat to make explicit that by

accident, Ibn Sina did not mean an ordinary accident but a

unique accident such that if other accidents require an

existent substratum in order to exist, "the existence of the

'accident', 'existence' (wuiud) in a substratum is the very

existence of that substratum".18

In Mulla Sadra's view, although human language gives the

impression that it is quiddity that is real or ontologically

fundamental and existence is an accident which is added to

quiddity; in reality, it is existence which is fundamental or

real. According to Mulla Sadra, existence or wuiud makes a

quiddity existent or it is by the act of existence that a

quiddity becomes real or is actualised.19 Thus, existence is

ontologically fundamental (asil). Quiddity is nothing more

than the ontological limitation or modality of Being which the

17 See Toshihiko Izutsu, Fundamental Structure of Sabzawari's Metaphysics. Ch. 6.

18 al-Masha'ir, trans. Parvis Morewedge, The Metaphysics of Mulla Sadra. 42-43.

19 Ibid., 8. Asfar. Vol.I, Pt.l, p. 63.

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human mind abstracts and separates from the being of an

existent.20 Quiddity without existence does not exist in the

external or objective world. Quiddities particularise

existents but it is existence which makes quiddities become

existents.

The question of whether the reality of an existent is due

to its being or existence (wuiud) or quiddity (mahivvah) is

central to Islamic metaphysical thought. The Islamic

philosophers can be divided into those who subscribed to the

view of the ontological primacy of existence (asalat al-wuiud)

and those who advocated for the ontological primacy of

quiddity (asalat al-mahiyyah). Mulla Sadra upholds the view

that it is existence which is real or ontologically

fundamental and quiddity is merely a mental construct.

Although it appears to man that things exist or quiddities are

real, in actuality, it is Being or Universal Existence which

assumes the accidentality of things by determining Itself in

accordance with Its own nature or attributes at various levels

of cosmic reality. The limitations or determinations of Being

constitute the quiddities (mahiyvat) of things which man

abstracts from the beings of things.21 All the various

existents which man perceives are the self-determinations or

manifestations of Being. For Mulla Sadra, it is being which is

20 Ibid., 87.

21 Ibid. al-Masha*ir trans. Parvis Morewedge, The Metaphysics of Mulla Sadra. 9-10.

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objectively real and which constitutes the reality of the

cosmos and the quiddities are the determinations or

ontological limitations of Being which are abstracted by the

human mind.

In his discussion on being, Mulla Sadra makes a

distinction between three degrees fmaratib) of being: the

Absolute Being, the Extended Being and relative being.22 The

Absolute Being which is completely undetermined and unlimited

is the 'Hidden Ipseity7 or al-huwiyyat al-qhaybiyyah or the

'Essence of Unity7 (al-dhat al-ahadiyyaht which transcends all

limitations and determinations and which is absolutely

unknowable. The Extended Being or the 'Absolute Existence in

its deployment7 (al-wuiud al-munbasit al-mutlaal is the first

determination or manifestation of the Absolute. It is the

creative Principle which causes all things to come into

existence. The relative beings refer to all the existents

existentiated by the Extended Being by determining Itself in

various degrees and grades in accordance with Its nature and

attributes.

The Absolute is one and simple and from It is issued the

Extended Being which is also referred to as the 'First

Determination7 (al-ta'ayyun al-7awwalt. the 'First Intellect7

(al-'aql al-7awwal') . the 'Sacred Effusion7 (favd al-muaaddasl

or the 'Truth of truths7 (haaioat al-haaa7iq1,23 The Extended

22 Asfar. Vol.I, Pt.l, p. 191-93.

23 Ibid., 191.

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Being is one in Its essence but It possesses infinite

ontological determinations. The various grades and degrees of

beings which issue from It, arise from the different modes of

Its determinations. All the ontological differentiations which

are manifested in the cosmos issue from the single Extended

Being. According to Mulla Sadra, Being is a unity but the

existents are multiple. The multiplicity of existents are due

to the infinite modes of the self-determinations of Being. The

infinite modalities of Being which constitute the quiddities

of existents render the multiplicity that man evidently

perceives in the world around him. However, as mentioned

earlier, these modalities of Being or ontological limitations

of Being which are perceived as the quiddities of existents do

not possess objective reality independent of or separate from

Being. Quiddities are mental abstractions (i^tibari') which do

not possess objective existences of their own.24 Thus,

although man experiences multiplicity due to the variegated

nature of existence which surrounds him, it is unity which is

objectively real and multiplicity is only an appearance.

There is only one reality: Being (wujud).25 The various

and distinct existents which man perceives and which gives an

impression of multiplicity to him are merely the infinite

self-determinations of Being. These self-determinations do not

possess their own independent existences but have their

24 Ibid., 86.

25 Ibid., 46.

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ontological roots in 'Extended Being' and the 'Extended Being'

which is the 'Absolute Being in Its Deployment' has its

ontological root in the 'Essence of Unity'. The term 'wuiud'

in Mulla Sadra's metaphysics thus embraces the Absolute (al-

wuiud al-mutlaql which transcends all limitations and which is

the supreme Principle, the 'Extended Being' fal-wuiud al-

munbasit al-mutlaqt which is the first determination of the

Absolute and which is the 'Reality of the realities' (haalqat

al-haaa'iat and finally, the relative beings which constitute

the cosmos.

The self-determination of Being into the various grades

and degrees of being at the different levels of cosmic reality

is referred to by Mulla Sadra as the analogical gradation of

Being (tashkik al-wuiudl,26 Creation is the expansive process

of the gradation of Being stretching from the First

Determination to Prime Matter.

The term tashkik or analogical gradation means when a

single universal is predicable of its particulars in varying

grades or degrees or alternatively, when one single reality

actualizes itself in a number of things in varying degrees.27

The example that is usually given to illustrate the principle

of tashkik is light. Light is a single universal which is

predicable in many different degrees and grades of its

26 Ibid., 35.

27 Toshihiko Izutsu, The Fundamental Structure of Sabzawari's Metaphysicsf 134.

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particulars such as the 'light of the sun', the 'light of the

lamp', the 'light of the candle' etc. In each of these

examples or instances, the one single thing that is involved

is light but it is light in its various degrees of intensity.

Mulla Sadra distinguishes between two kinds of tashkik or

analogical gradation: one, particular gradation (tashkik al-

khass) and two, general gradation (tashkik al-'amml.28

Particular gradation is one in which that which causes the

difference in various degrees of something partaking of

gradation is the same as that which these degrees or grades

share in common. In the example on light, what differentiates

the 'light of the sun' from the 'light of the lamp' and from

the 'light of the candle' is light and that which all three

share in common is also light. General gradation is one in

which that which the various grades share in common is not

that which separates them from each other. For example, the

gradation of animals in the chain of being.

According to Mulla Sadra, the analogical gradation of the

concept of existence belongs to the general type and the

analogical gradation of the reality of existence to the

particular kind.29 A concept can only be a principle of

identity and agreement and cannot act as the differentiating

28 Asfar. Vol. 1, Pt. 1, p. 433.

29 Ibid.

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principle of the objects to which it is applied.30 The

concept of existence brings together all the different things

in the world into one class; however, it is incapable of

differentiating them from one another. The reality of

existence on the contrary, not only acts as the principle of

identity and unity of all existents but it is at the same time

the very principle by which they differ from each other in

terms of intensity and weakness, perfection and deficiency and

priority and posteriority.31 All these differences are

nothing other than the intrinsic modalities of the same

reality: Being.

In Mulla Sadra's perspective, it is the intensity of

Being which determines the grade and level of existence of an

existent.32 The more intense the degree of being actualised

in an existent, the higher is its grade and position in the

hierarchy of beings. Every determination of Being is in

accordance with Its nature and the degree of intensity of

Being determines the extent of the manifestation of Its

attributes. In cases where the degree of intensity is greater,

more of the attributes of Being are made manifest and less are

non-manifest or hidden; and in cases where the degree of

intensity is less, less of the attributes of Being are

30 Toshihiko Izutsu, Fundamental Structure of Sabzawari's Metaphysics. 136.

31 Asfar. Vol.I, Pt.l, p. 433.

32 Ibid.

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manifested and more are concealed. Thus, in Mulla Sadra's view

it is the intensity of being which determines the extent of

the manifestation of the attributes of Being in existents and

which in turn determines the level of existence of a

particular being in Being's hierarchy of self-determinations

or manifestations.

Following Suhrawardi, Mulla Sadra holds the view that

Being determines Itself in two fundamental ways or

'directions'. By manifesting Itself in a longitudinal (tuli)

way, Being determines Itself into the various orders or levels

of existence extending in a hierarchical manner from the

archetypal (ma'n^wll and spiritual (ruhanl) to the subtle

(mithali.) and corporeal (hissi). By manifesting Itself

latitudinally f'ardi1. Being determines Itself into the

archetypal or primordial reality of the various species. Each

specie has its own master (rabb al-naw') or archetype in the

archetypal world which governs the characteristics of its

particulars in the various levels of being.33 Although the

archetype which is the universal quiddity of a relative being

is one with its particular manifestations in the various

levels of being; the particulars differ from the archetype in

accordance with the nature of the level of being to which they

belong. The nature of the substance or matter of each level of

being gives rise to different characteristics of the one

single archetypal reality or universal quiddity of a specie.

33 Asfar. Vol.I, Pt.2, p. 53.

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Transubstantial Motion (al-harakat al-iawhariyyahl.

Following Ibn Sina, Mulla Sadra considers contingent

beings (mumkin al-wuiudl to be divided into two kinds: one,

substance (jawhar) and two, accident ('aradl,34 Substance is

defined as that which subsists by itself and an accident is

that which subsists by other than itself. The existence of

substance is not dependent on another being and it is not part

of or an aspect of another existent. An accident in contrast,

is part of or an aspect or a quality of another being.

Accidents can be of a sensible or a non-sensible nature.

In agreement with Aristotle, the Mashsha'i philosophers

such as al-Farabi and Ibn Sina define motion (harakah) as the

gradual coming into actuality of that which is potential. And

motion is limited to the four categories of accidents:

quantity fkaml. quality (kaifa), position (wadi) and place

(laina).35 The Mashsha' i philosophers limited motion to

accidents only. Since the quiddity of a thing depends on its

substance they reject motion or change in substance. They

argue, if substance changes, then there will not be an

identifiable subject which moves.

According to Mulla Sadra, since an accident depends upon

the existence of substance and does not possess its own

independent existence, its strength and weakness or perfection

34 Ibn Sina, Danish Nama-i xala'i. trans. Parviz Morewedge, The Metanhvsica of Avicenna. 15.

35 Ibid.

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and deficiency is dependent on the strength and weakness or

perfection and deficiency of the substance in which it inheres

or is a part of. If accidents have need of substance for the

support of their being and properties then, every change which

takes place in the accidents of a thing must be due to a

change in the substance.36 Therefore, motion in substance is

the cause of motion in accident which is its effect.

Like the Sufis, Mulla Sadra considers all the beings in

the universe to be seeking for perfection and are therefore in

the constant process of becoming and change in order that they

may overcome their imperfections.37 At any given moment,

there is continuous regeneration and re-creation (tajaddud) of

the world. The matter of every being is constantly involved in

the process of being united to a new form. In Mulla Sadra's

view, every being in the Visible World (*alam al-shahadahl

consists of matter and two forms.38 The two forms are: one,

the form of the body which gives matter dimensions and the

possibility of accepting other forms and two, the form of the

species (surah naux ivah1 which determines the species and

identity of the body. Both of these forms change at every

moment and matter also continues to assume new forms at every

moment. At each stage of change, the two forms and matter

which constitute a being undergo change.

36 As far. Vol.I, Pt.3, p. 61.

37 Ibid., 80.

38 Ibid.

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Mulla Sadra defines motion as the gradual movement of a

thing from potentiality to actuality or from imperfection to

perfection in duration.39 Since the accidents of a particular

being are dependent upon its substance for their support,

changes in accidents are accompanied by changes in substance.

Take for example, the case of an apple. If there is a change

in its quality such as its color, this change in color is due

to a change in the substantial nature of the apple. The

substantial nature of the apple is gradually moving towards

its own essential perfection of which the change in color is

an effect of this substantial change.40 In other words,

change in the accidents of a thing is due to a change in the

substance of that thing and it is because there is motion in

substance that there occurs motion in accidents. Mulla Sadra

argues that just as accidents reach their perfection through

motion and do not remain in one condition for a moment, so

does substance move through its limits by motion and does not

rest in any particular condition.41

As already mentioned, the Mashsha'i philosophers such as

Ibn Sina reject the idea of transubstantial motion in order to

preserve the identity of the subject. They argue that since

the quiddity of a thing depends upon its substance, if that

39 Ibid., 22

40 Sayyid Abu'l Hasan Qazwini, "The Life of Sadr al- Muta'allihin and a Discussion of Motion in the Category of Substance," Mulla Sadra Commemoration Volume. 14-17.

41 As far. Vol. I, Pt.3, p. 65.

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substance changes, then its quiddity will also change and

consequently, lose its identity. To this argument Mulla Sadra

replies that in transubstantial motion, an object moves from

one limit of substantiality to another limit and does not

become transformed from substance to something which is not

substance, so that it is not necessary for the particular

thing to leave its quiddity and become something else. In

other words, just as motion in accident is within the limits

of that particular accident, so is motion in substance

limited to the limits of its substantiality or substantial

form of the specie (surah nauxivah^ which it participates in,

thus preserving the essential identity of itself through the

various stages of its motion.42

According to Mulla Sadra, motion is limited to the

corporeal (hissi) and subtle (mithalil domains or levels of

reality or existence only.43 Both the spiritual and

archetypal worlds are changeless since there are no matter —

gross or subtle — present in these levels of existence. Thus,

while the corporeal and subtle domains are constantly in

motion, the world of the spirits or pure intelligences and the

archetypes which are separated from matter and potentiality

are immutably fixed and unchanging. Therefore, every form

possesses two aspects: a permanent and an ever-changing

aspect. The forms in the world of the archetypes are

42 Ibid., 63.

43 Ibid., 62.

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unchanging and the forms in the corporeal and subtle domains

are continously in motion. Hence, every existent in the

universe which is in a constant state of becoming is related

through the immutable archetypes to God who is above and

beyond change. The immutable archetypes which are identified

as God's knowledge of His self-determinations or creation,

relate or link the everchanging world of the particulars to

its creator who is above and beyond change.

For Mulla Sadra, God or the Necessary Being is not only

the source and cause of everything that exists but He is also

the goal and end of creation.'"1 The existentiation of

existents or relative beings from Being constitute the

descending arc (al-oaws al-nuzuli^ of creation and the return

of relative beings to their source constitute the ascending

arc f al-qaws al-su'udi1.45 The descending arc.represents the

gradation of Being from a more perfect and intense mode or

grade of being to a less perfect and intense state of being in

the direction of nothingness ('adaml or darkness? and the

ascending arc, the transformation of being from the less

perfect or intense condition of being to a more perfect and

intense degree of being in the direction of Pure Being. If the

gradation of Being in the descending arc is by means of

tashkik or analogical gradation then, the transformation of

44 This is in conformity with the teachings of the Qur'an, for example the frequently quoted verse, "Verily! We belong to Allah and to Him is our return".

45 al-xArshiyyah. 273.

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being in the ascending arc is through the process of

transubstantial motion. In both processes it is being (wujud)

that is actively involved.46

Prime Matter which is the extreme limits of the self-

determination or gradation of Being in the descending arc is

pure potentiality. Since matter is pure potentiality, it has

a need for form in order to actualise itself. Every natural

body (jism) is composed of matter which is its potential

aspect and form which is its actualising factor. At any given

moment, both the matter and the two forms of a body are

continuously in motion. With each successive moment, a new

being is created. The rapidity with which these new beings are

generated makes the changes or transformation that occur in

the body imperceptible to man.47 The matter and two forms of

a body in a given moment provides the 'matter' for change in

the successive moment.

The successive stages of the diminishing intensity of

being in manifestation in the descending arc results in the

existentiation of the various levels of reality fmaratib al-

wujud): the archetypal, the spiritual, the psychic and the

corporeal. As being becomes further removed from its source,

it becomes successively more limited, determined and

coagulated. The most limited and coagulated determination of

being is the body (.jism) followed in an ascending manner by

46 Asfar. Vol.I, Pt.3, p. 84.

47 Ibid., 64.

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soul (nafs) and spirit (ruhl. Alternatively, the successive

stages of the diminishing intensity of being, can be viewed as

the successive stages of the decrease in actuality (fill). God

is Pure Act and Prime Matter is pure potentiality (quwwah1,48

Like the Sufis, Mulla Sadra views the two processes

involved in creation: the descent of Being in successive

stages of intensity or perfection and the ascent of being from

the weakest or least perfect to the most intense and perfect

to complement each other. The descent and ascent of being in

cosmic existence are often represented by the form of a

circle. The descending arc is represented by one side of the

circle and the ascending arc by the corresponding side. The

terminal point of the descending arc is the beginning point of

the ascending arc. In the two processes of descent and ascent

of being in cosmic existence, man plays a central role. This

is due to the fact of his creation as the qualitative

synthesis of the various levels of cosmic reality.49 The

human being is a microcosm which contains the spiritual,

psychic and corporeal levels of reality. Man is constituted of

an intellect, a soul and a body. Thus, all the possibilities

of cosmic existence are contained in a synthetic manner in his

being. It is through his unitive and ontologically synthetic

being that the ascent of the lower level of being, namely

48 Asfar. Vol.Ill, Pt.l, p. 19.

49 Sadr al-Din Shirazi, al-Shawahid al-rububiyyah. ed. Sayyid Jalal al-Din Ashtiyani (Meshed: The University Press, 1967/1346 A.H.), 223.

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matter, can ascend to the higher levels of being: soul and

spirit to return to God. In Mulla Sadra's perspective, it is

by the process of transubstantial motion that the human soul

can achieve separation and complete independence (tajrld) from

matter. Through the being of man, material creation which is

the lowest deployment or the most limited and weakest

determination of Being can ascend or return (maxadl to its

origin. Man is the crowning achievement of material creation

and his being marks the beginning as well as the end of the

process of ascent or return to Being.

The unity fittihadt of the knower f^aqilf and the known fma'qull

In Mulla Sadra's perspective, the numerous views on and

definitions of knowledge put forth both by the Greek and

Islamic philosophers before him are mostly unsatisfactory

since they do not explain in an adequate manner, many of the

epistemological issues involved in knowledge and the human act

of knowing. In the Asfar before expounding his own definition

and views on knowledge, Mulla Sadra examines in a critical

manner the various existing definitions of knowledge, such as

the Aristotelian definition of knowledge as an abstraction of

forms from matter and the definition provided by certain

Islamic thinkers such as Fakr al-Din Razi that knowledge is a

relation (idafa) between the subject who knows and the object

that is known.

In the Asfar Mulla Sadra states that "knowledge is

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neither a privation like abstraction from matter nor a

relation but a being or a mode of existence (wuiudl.1150 In

Mulla Sadra's view, the act of knowing involves a

transformation of the being of the soul of the knower when it

comes into contact with a mode of existence. Knowledge of

something is the creation of the intelligible form (surah

ilmivvah^ of that thing by the knower. The soul as a cognizing

element cannot receive a form that is not of a similiar nature

or mode of existence as itself.51 Mulla Sadra uses the

example of sense perception to demonstrate his contention.

In sense perception, the object of knowledge is not the

quality which comes to inhere in the sense organ through the

external object to produce a qualitative change in the sense

organ that perceives it.52 If this were the case, then the

quality that comes to inhere in the sense organ could be

observed or experienced by another perceiver. For Mulla Sadra,

perceptible forms are not externally existent forms but are

emanations or creations of the human soul. Objective, material

objects cannot be presented to the mind as they are and

therefore become known by the perceiver. The human soul has to

create a form which is of a similiar nature to itself and

which corresponds to the perceived object. Perception is only

a prepatory stage which provides the occasion for the soul to

50 Asfar. Vol.I, Pt.3, p. 297.

51 Ibid., 300.

52 Ibid. , 282.

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create a form of the perceptible object. For Mulla Sadra, all

intelligible forms are produced by the soul in this way. If in

the case of sense perception the senses mediate between the

external object and the act of perception, in relation to

imagination and intellection, there are no sense organs that

are employed in the creation of their intelligible forms.

Since the nature of the soul is existence, the knowledge it

receives or acquires must also be existence (al-'ilm nahw min

al-wuiudl. The knower and the known must be identical and

knowledge must arise from self-identity or direct

intuition.53

In his article on 'The Unity of 'Acril (the knower) and

Ma'crul (the known)', Ayatullah Abu al-Hasan Qazwini, an

important philosopher and commentator of Mulla Sadra's

philosophy in this century, explains that in order for the

rational soul to know and cognize realities which are external

to itself, the soul requires or needs forms (suwar) and images

(muthul) of the realities concerned which correspond to their

quiddities but are different from their existences.54 In

other words, in order for a subject to know an object, it must

possess the intelligible form of the object concerned which

corresponds to the quiddity of the object but the existence of

the form must belong to the same mode of existence as the

53 Ibid., 294.

54 Ayatullah Abu al-Hasan Qazwini, "The Unity of 'Aqil and Ma'qul,11 Al-Tawhid (Tehran) Vol.9, No.l: 87.

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soul. The form of the known object is transformed from the

level of material or external existence to that of mental

existence (al-wuiud al-dhihni) by the soul of the knower.

Therefore, the soul must create a form which not only

corresponds to the quiddity of the known object but also to

its own mode of existence. The external object cannot be known

directly by the soul but the intelligible form (surah

ilmiyyahl of the object which is of a mental existence can be

known directly by the subject. The rational soul cannot be

united with external objects but it can be united with the

intelligible forms which are incorporeal and insensible and

like itself are independent of matter.55

When the soul creates an intelligible form within itself,

that which is known (ma'qull becomes transformed from the

state of potentiality (guwwah) to actuality (fill) and the

soul too becomes transformed from a knower (lagil) in

potentiality to a knower in actuality.56 Correspondingly,

knowledge has emerged from potentiality to actuality. It is

through the intellected form that the knower in potentiality

becomes a knower in actuality. The intellected form becomes

the 'eye7 of the soul by which it sees the object of its

knowledge, as well as the image of that which it sees.57

Thus, the perceiving subject or the knower and the perceived

55 Ibid.

56 Ibid., 88.

57 Ibid., 89.

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object or the known are identical.

Mulla Sadra's view that knowledge requires a new status

of being for the known object raises the question of the

existence of 'mental existence' (al-wuiud al-dhihni1 and its

relation to the known object.58 Mulla Sadra proves the

existence of 'mental existence' by demonstrating that in sense

perception, the external material objects cannot be presented

to the rational soul as external existents and become known;

instead the soul has to create a corresponding form of its own

nature or mode of existence. The relation of the intelligible

forms created by the soul and which exist in it must not be

conceived of as inhering in the soul as the form of a horse

for example, is imprinted or engraved on a piece of wax. The

forms are related to the soul as acts are related to the actor

or as creation to the creator.59 Mulla Sadra emphasizes that

the soul should not be viewed as a container in which the

forms inhere or are present but as a faculty which possesses

a set of properties or powers which it is able to apply to the

external world. The rational soul looks at the world and

operates upon it with notions, concepts and quiddities

(ma'ani f mafahim and mahivyatl.6° It is through them that the

soul knows existents and acquires knowledge.

According to Mulla Sadra there are concepts which do not

58 Fazlur Rahman, The Philosophy of Mulla Sadra. 215.

59 Asfar. Vol.I, Pt.3, p. 287.

60 Fazlur Rahman, Philosophy of Mulla Sadra. 217.

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correspond to external reality and there are some notions or

concepts which do not exist at all or are non-existent. An

example of the latter is the concept of the square-circle.

However, as notions or concepts they exist since they possess

connotations and meanings. Mulla Sadra makes a distinction

between a notion or concept that is real in the sense of

possessing mental existence and a real quiddity which

corresponds to an external existent.61 The area of the

conceivable is larger than that of the real and the possible.

Not all that is logically impossible is absurd in the sense

that it is without meaning or connotations. The impossible has

no instance in reality; therefore, it is not a determination

or mode of being. The real however, has both a quiddity and an

instance in reality. The non-existent such as the mythical

bird (lanqa) has no existence but can be logically conceived

and therefore it possesses a quiddity or a mental mode of

existence. The logically impossible which do not have real

instances and therefore also do not possess quiddities are

nevertheless conceivable by the mind and exist as concepts or

notions.62

The Necessary Being (waiib al-wuiud) which is the

philosophical term for God is defined as one whose Essence

(mahiyyahl is inseperable from or identical with its Being

61 Asfar. Vol.I, Pt.l, p. 312.

62 Ibid. See also Fazlur Rahman, Philosophy of Mulla Sadra. 217-218.

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(wujud). The Being of God is conceived of as identical to Its

Essence and Its Essence is identified with Its Being.63 Thus,

to conceive of the Necessary Being is also to postulate Its

being. The Necessary Being or God is considered to be self-

subsistent and metaphysically necessary and all the possible

beings of the universe are regarded as metaphysically

contingent upon It.64

According to Mulla Sadra, God or the Necessary Being

knows of His Essence and since He is the Necessary Being whose

Essence is identical with His Being; knowledge in God implies

a unity between the Subject who knows, the Object that is

known and the Act of knowing.65 In other words, God is at

once the Knower (al-'alimf, the Known (al-maxlumf and

Knowledge (al-x ilnO .

Creation or the existentiation of existents by the

Necessary Being is the result of God/s contemplation of His

Essence. It is God's contemplation (ta'aqqul) or knowledge

(Vilm) of His own Essence that brings forth all things into

existence. Since being and knowledge are identical in God,

God's knowledge existentiates beings or existents. In God, to

know of a thing is also to existentiate or confer existence to

that thing which is known by Him. Therefore, the beings of

63 Al-Mashaxirf trans. Parvis Morewedge, The Metaphysics of Mulla Sadra. p. 57.

64 Ibid.

65 Asfar. Vol.I, Pt.3, p. 277.

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things are identified as God's very knowledge of them66 and

God's knowledge constitutes the substance of cosmic

manifestation. God's knowledge of the essence or form of a

thing leads to the objective existence (al-wuiud al-^avnif of

that particular form. God's contemplation of His Essence is

infinite and the manifestation of the universe constitutes

God's eternal knowledge of Himself.

As mentioned earlier, Mulla Sadra considers man as a

microcosm who is composed of all the various degrees or levels

of cosmic existence. A prophetic hadith states that, "Adam

(man) is created in the image of God". For Mulla Sadra, man

like God knows of things through the contemplation or

intellection (ta'aqqul1 of the intelligible forms (surat

ilmivvahl of things in his soul. If God's knowledge or

contemplation of the form of a thing leads to its objective

existence, man's knowledge or intellection of the form of a

thing leads to its mental existence (al-wuiud al-dhihni). When

man knows of the form of a thing, that form is present or

existentiated in his soul. When God knows of the form of a

thing that form is given existence or presence in the external

world. Therefore, God's knowledge of the forms of things

existentiate them in the external world and they are bestowed

with objective existence and man's knowledge of the forms of

things existentiate them in his soul and are given mental

66 Sadr al-Din Shirazi, al-Hikmat al-*arshivvah. trans. James Morris, The Wisdom of the Throne. 105.

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existence. Both God and man possess the creative power of

existentiating forms; however, since God is Pure Being, His

existentiation involves real existence and since man is a

contingent being he can only existentiate forms within the

limits of the reality or intensity of his being. Therefore for

Mulla Sadra the relation of the intelligible forms to the

human soul is analogous to the relation of the contingent

beings to the Necessary Being.67 Human knowledge and man's

act of knowing are founded on the divine model.

The principle of the unity of the knower and the known is

one of the most important principles underlying Mulla Sadra's

philosophy. It is upon this principle that he bases his view

of the possibility of knowledge transforming the being of the

knower and conversely of the being of the knower determining

his knowledge. In Mulla Sadra's perspective, an individual is

what he knows and what the individual knows is determined by

or dependent on his being. Thus there is a profound relation

between knowledge and being. The unity between knowledge and

being provides the metaphysical foundation of his views on

spiritual development or transformation of being through

knowledge and the eschatological doctrine of the possibility

of the human soul to existentiate beautiful and unpleasant

forms in conformity with its condition of being and

consequently, to experience paradise and hell respectively.

67 Asfar, Vol.I, Pt.l, 290.

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The catharsis (tairidl and independence of the imaginative faculty (al-mutakhayyilah’) from the body

In Mulla Sadra's thought, the soul (al-nafst is a single

reality with various faculties and functions. The soul first

appears as the body (jism) then through the process of

transubstantial motion fharakah iawharivyah’i becomes the

vegetative soul (al-nafs al-nabatiyyahl, the animal soul (air.

nafs al-havawanivvah') and finally the human soul (al-nafs al-

insanniyyah),68 These various degrees or stages of

development are considered to occur from within the substance

of the original 'body'.

In Mulla Sadra's view, the human sperm is a mineral

object but potentially a plant. When it develops in the womb,

the sperm becomes actually a plant and potentially an animal.

At birth the human infant is actually an animal and

potentially a human being. As the infant matures and becomes

an adult, he is actually a human being and potentially either

an angel or a follower of the devil.69

According to Mulla Sadra, all the various stages of the

devlopment of the soul are latent or potential within the

original substance of the human sperm. Through the process of

transubstantial motion, the soul traverses through the various

levels or degrees of being until it finally attains complete

independence of all matter and potentiality and is capable of

68 Shawahid al-rububiyyah. 229. Also al-Hikmat al- 'arshiyyah trans. James Morris, 132.

69 Ibid., 146.

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enjoying immortal life. Thus, for Mulla Sadra although, the

human soul is brought into being with the body, it possesses

the spiritual subsistence which through the process of

transubstantial motion enables it to attain a level of being

which is completely independent of the body.70

At each stage of its journey of becoming or ascent from

a lower and less intense mode of being to a higher and more

intense mode of being, the soul acquires a new set of

faculties commensurable to its particular level or mode of

being.71 To illustrate, as a mineral, it has the faculty of

preserving its form and as a plant, it possesses the faculties

of breeding, growth and the transformation of foreign

substances into its own form. Then, as an animal, it develops

the faculties of motion and various forms of desire and the

external senses. As a higher animal, the inner faculties of

memory and imagination are added to its present set of

faculties. Finally, as a human being, the five inner faculties

are developed. These are the faculties of the perception of

forms (hiss al-mushtarik’l, the apprehension (wahm) which

perceives meanings, fantasy (khayal) which preserves forms,

memory (dhakirah) which preserves meanings and the faculties

of imagination (mutakhavvilah1 and thought (mutafakkirahl,72

Mulla Sadra asserts that throughout these various stages of

70 Ibid., 137, 139.

71 Shawahid al-rububiyyah. 193.

72 Ibid., 193-94.

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faculties are not things added to the soul, rather they are

the potential aspects of the soul becoming actualised.

If the human body is the crowning achievement of material

creation since it synthesizes the three kingdoms — the

mineral, vegetative and animal — then, the human soul

occupies an extraordinary or special position in the whole of

the created order.73 Although the human soul is of a lowly

birth contaminated with matter and potentiality, it is capable

of entering into all levels of cosmic existence without losing

its individuality. Created with the body, the soul however is

immortal with a transcendental orientation. In the al-Shawahid

al-rububivyah. Mulla Sadra states that although the human soul

is of a humble beginnings, it is pregnant with unlimited

possibilities. It is a divine mystery, a rare mixture of

divinity and dust, a meeting point where the creature and

creator converge and a link between the finite and

Infinite.74

Death means a disintegration of the body but for the

immaterial and immortal human soul, it implies an entry into

eternal life and a freedom from the bondages of matter and

potentiality.75 If the Muslim Peripatetics such as Ibn Rushd

consider only the intellectual part of the human soul to be

73 al-Hikmat al-arshiyyah. trans. James Morris, 148.

74 Shawahid al-rububivyah. 196.

75 Ibid., 213.

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immortal, Mulla Sadra in agreement with certain Sufis,

considers the faculty of imagination (mutakhaliyyah) to be

immortal too and capable of being independent of the body.76

Upon the death of the body, the imaginative faculty, like the

intellectual part of the soul, will enjoy an independent form

of life of its own.

Mulla Sadra likens the situation or condition of man in

this world to that of an embryo in a womb.77 While the child

is in the mother's womb, he is actually in this world but he

is separated from it by the walls of the womb and does not

know of its real existence in the world. Similiarly, while man

is in this world, he is actually in the next world but the

'walls' of this world or the limited consciousness of the true

condition of his own being confines him to this world only.

According to Mulla Sadra, on leaving this world or at the

moment of death, the soul carries with it its imaginal or

subtle body (iism mithalil. The imaginal body is that which

the individual has acquired or created from all its modes of

being, thinking and acting in this world.78 It is the

imaginal body that must grow to maturity in the posthumous

state. The resurrection of the subtle or acquired body by the

soul constitutes the lesser resurrection (qiyamat suqhral. The

greater resurrection (criyamat kubra 1 involves the passage of

76 al-Hikmat al-arshivvah. trans. James Morris, 158-59.

77 Ibid., 187.

78 Ibid., 146, 160.

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the subtle body (upon its eventual growth to maturity) from

the imaginal world ('alam mithal) to the spiritual world.79

For Mulla Sadra, bodily resurrection or al-ma*ad al-al-

iasmani mentioned in the Qur'an and Hadith does not mean the

resurrection of the physical body which is of gross matter,

rather it is the resurrection of the body acquired (jism

muktasab) by the soul through all its modes of thinking,

acting and being while on earth. The acquired body is the

imaginal body (iism mithali ) which possesses the form of the

human body but is of a subtle substance or matter. The

principle of human identity and individuality is the soul and

not the body.80 It is the soul which individualizes the body

and not the reverse. Mulla Sadra makes use of the fact that

man's physical body changes in the course of his earthly life,

from infancy to adulthood and finally to old age, without

these changes in any way destroying the unity or identity of

the individual man, to support his view that it is the soul

which is the principle of human identity and individuality and

not the body.

Death is the passage of the soul from the sensible world

to the imaginal world (xalam mithal). The imaginal world is an

isthmus (barzakh) between the sensible world and the spiritual

world. A barzakh is defined as a separation between two

neighbouring objects in which neither object predominates over

79 Henry Corbin, En Islam Iranien. 110.

80 al-Hikmat al-arshivyah. trans. James Morris, 161.

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the other and in which the virtualities of both objects are

present and which enables it to link the two objects while at

the same time separating them.81 The example that is often

given to illustrate the idea of a barzakh is the line that

divides shadow from sunlight. This line which is neither

shadow nor sunlight is intermediate between the two and exists

by virtue of the two realities that it separates.

The imaginal world is a world which is intermediate

between the World of the Spirits fxalam al-arwahl and the

World of Bodies (xalam al-aisaml. Unlike the World of the

Spirits which is constituted of simple and luminuous beings

which are separate from matter and the World of Bodies which

is constituted of compound and tenebrous beings which are

immersed in matter; the imaginal world is constituted of

xsuspended' forms or images (al-muthul al-muxallaaah1.8a The

forms or images of the imaginal world are often compared to

the image reflected in a mirror.83 Like the image reflected

in a mirror, the imaginal forms are viewed as both real and

unreal, existent and non-existent. The ambiguous nature of the

imaginal forms is due to its intermediate position between the

pure spirits and the material bodies. In Mulla Sadra's view,

although the imaginal forms are suspended between the World of

81 See Henry Corbin, En Islam Iranien. 108.

82 Henry Corbin, Spiritual Body and Celestial Earth (Princeton: The University Press, 1977), 127.

83 Ibid.

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Spirits and the World of Bodies, it is a grade or level of

being, existing both macrocosmically and microcosmically.84

Dreams testify to the existence of the imaginal world and it

is in this world that the visions of prophets and saints occur

and certain eschatological events take place. Since the

imaginal world is intermediate between the World of the

Spirits and the World of the Bodies, for anything to descend

from the spiritual world to the material world or from the

material world to ascend to the spiritual world, it must first

traverse or pass through the imaginal world or be imaginalized

or assume an imaginal form. For example, before prophetic

revelation is given a sensory form, it is first given an

imaginal form.

By making use of the principle of 'the possibility of

that which is superior7 (imkan al-ashraf). Mulla Sadra asserts

that nothing can exist at the lowest level of being unless it

has passed through the upper levels or grades of being and

likewise, nothing moves to a higher grade of being without

passing through the intermediate levels of being. In other

words, that which exists at a lower level of being,

necessarily exists at a higher grade of being and the

existence of a being at a lower level of cosmic reality is

evidence of the existence of that being at a higher level. For

example, the being of man in this corporeal world,

necessitates the being of man in the intermediary world of

84 Ibid., 164-65.

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souls and the latter, necessitates the being of man in the

spiritual world.85 Thus, every existent in this world or

every quiddity that is given existence in the corporeal world

also has an existence or is given a form or manifestation in

the imaginal "world and in the spiritual world respectively.

Every existent quiddity has a triple existence or

manifestation or form: a corporeal existence or form, an

imaginal and a spiritual or intelligible form or existence.

As mentioned earlier, the three cosmic levels of being:

the spiritual (iabarut1, imaginal (malakuf) and corporeal

(mulk), exist in man in a unitive and synthetic manner. Man is

constituted of a spirit (ruh 1. a soul (nafs) and a body

(jism). Since nothing can exist at the lowest level of being

unless it has passed through the higher levels of being and

conversely, nothing moves to a higher level of being without

having passed through the intermediary level; all processes of

descent and ascent of being, necessarily involves traversing

the imaginal world. Thus, in man's return journey (al-ma'adl

to God, he has to traverse the imaginal world before he can be

born into or enter the spiritual world. The human soul

experiences three births: the birth into the sensible world,

the imaginal world and the spiritual world respectively.86 In

each world, his soul will project a 'body' for itself,

commensurable with its own condition of being and the world to

85 al-Hikmat al-arshivyah. trans. James Morris, 142-43.

86 See Henry Corbin, En Islam Iranien. 118.

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which it belongs. The relation between the soul and the 'body'

which it projects, is similiar to the relation between an

object and its shadow or between an antecedent and its

consequent.87 Neither the shadow nor the consequent possesses

an independent existence of its own; the existence of the

shadow is dependent on the object and the consequent, on the

antecedent. Likewise, the body is dependent on the soul for

its existence. At every stage, the individuality or unity of

the subject is preserved since it is the soul which is the

principle of human indentity and individuality and not the

body.88

According to Mulla Sadra, man possesses the appropriate

faculties which are capable of perceiving and experiencing the

three different levels of being. His external senses enable

him to experience the corporeal world, his imaginative

faculty, the imaginal world and his intellect, the spiritual

world. The imaginative faculty (al-mutakhayvilah1 enables man

to perceive the forms or images of the imaginal world while

still living in this sensible world, provided that it is

relatively independent of the influences of the body and the

senses such as the case for example with prophets and saints.

However, in the posthumous state when souls are in the

barzakh of the imaginal world, every soul will possess the

power to create external forms consistent with their natures

87 Ibid.,

88 al-Hikmat al-arshiyyah. trans. James Morris, 171.

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and states of being. Each soul can create the pleasures it

receives from within itself or its being without the need of

the external organs or material instruments. The experiences

of paradise and hell are the results of the soul creating the

forms that are within its power.89 For example, the pure

souls have the creative power to bring into being all the

beautiful and pleasant forms and the impure souls, the power

to bring into being, ugly and unpleasant forms. And these

souls either experience felicity or pain as a result of the

forms which they create. However, paradise and hell must not

be regarded as merely the subjective experiences of the

individual soul. Paradise and hell exist objectively in the

imaginal world.90

If in the sensible world, the imaginative faculty

requires a material instrument or receptacle to create or

produce forms or images; in the imaginal world, the

imaginative faculty has no need for a material instrument or

receptacle to produce forms and images. The imaginal forms and

images can be produced on the power or strength of the

imaginative faculty alone since they do not require a material

substratum in order to exist.91 In the sensible world, the

perceived or imagined form is qualitatively different from the

existent thing that is perceived or created. In the imaginal

89 Ibid., 164.

90 Ibid., 150.

91 Ibid., 138.

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world however, there does not exist a disparity between the

objective existence of an imaginal form and the form that is

perceived or imagined. The objective existence of an imaginal

form is identical to its represented or perceived form by the

soul.92 Thus, the experiences of pleasant imaginal forms are

more delightful than that of the experience of sensible forms

and equally the experience of unpleasant imaginal forms more

painful than their sensible counterparts. The difference in

degree of joy and suffering is due to the more intense and

simple level of being of the imaginal world relative to the

less intense and more dispersed level of being of the sensible

world.

To summarise the above discussion of the four fundamental

principles of Mulla Sadra's philosophy (al-hikmat al-

muta'aliyyah-), it can be observed that the doctrine of the

ontological primacy of being or existence (asalat al-wuiudl is

central to his thought. All of Mulla Sadra's other ideas can

be reagarded as derivations from or implications of this

central doctrine.

Existence for Mulla Sadra can only be experienced or

intuited and not conceived. As soon as existence is conceived,

it becomes a mental conception or a quiddity (mahiyyahl and no

longer an existence (wujud). The very nature of existence

defies conceptualisation. In Mulla Sadra's view, the notion or

concept of existence which is the most self-evident and

92 Ibid., 163.

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universally known concepts and upon which all other concepts

are founded, is however, disparate from the reality of

existence. Thus, he makes the important distinction between

the concept of existence fmafhum al-wuiud) and the reality of

existence (haqicrat al-wuiud1.

If existence or wuiud is the sole reality, then quiddity

or mahivyah is the limitation of Being which the human

intellect abstracts from the individual existent. Quiddities

do not have independent existences apart or separate from

existence. As mental abstractions or conceptions, quiddities

are static and universal in nature. Existence in contrast, is

dynamic and individual. Being or more specifically the

'Extended Being' (al-wuiud al-mutlaq al-munbasit) which is the

First Determination of the Absolute Being manifests Itself in

varying levels of intensity. The systemmatic gradation of the

intensity of Being is manifested both by the various levels of

cosmic reality fmaratib al-wuiud1 and the multiplicity of

existents which constitute the cosmos.

By making use of the principle of 'the possibility of

that which is superior' (imkan al-ashraft, Mulla Sadra states

that every quiddity has a triple existence or form: one, a

spiritual existence, two, an imaginal existence and three, a

corporeal or sensible existence. The distinctions between the

three instances of existence of a quiddity are due to the

differences in the level of the intensity of Being. It is the

intensity of Being which determines the degree of

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manifestation of Its attributes. The more intense the degree

of Being, more of the attributes of Being are manifested and

less are concealed and conversely, the weaker, the intensity

of Being, less attributes of Being are manifested and more are

concealed.

According to Mulla Sadra, creation is in a constant

process of motion. Every existent is constantly in a process

of becoming and change in order to overcome its imperfections.

At every moment, both the body and two forms of an existent

are constantly changing. The rapidity of the motion or change

makes it imperceptible to man. In Mulla Sadra's view, motion

does not only occur in the accidents of things but in their

substances too. Motion in substance is the cause of motion in

the accidents. Transubstantial motion enables a particular

existent to overcome its imperfections and to ascend to

perfection. Since motion in substance occurs within the limits

of the substantial form (surah nau'ivah1 of the particular

being, the identity of the particular existent is always

preserved. The substantial form of the particular existent is

constantly in motion to approximate its archetype or 'lord of

the specie' (rabb al-naw').

If creation or the manifestation of the attributes of

Being in a diminishing intensity in the direction of

nothingness is by the process of analogical gradation or

tashkik, then the return of beings to their source is through

the process of transubstantial motion f al-harakah al-

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iawharivvaht. In both dynamic processes it is being (wuiudl

which is actively involved. Both the processes of

manifestation or creation and return of creation to its source

are motivated by love f *ishq or eros) . It is love which causes

Being to manifest or radiate Itself in various levels of

cosmic reality and in each mode of being; and it is love too

which impels relative beings to desire and seek the perfection

of their source or origin. Thus, the processes of analogical

gradation or tashklk and transubstantial motion or al-harakah

al-iawhariyyah are complementary. The former determines the

descent of Being from a more intense mode of being to a less

intense mode of being and the latter governs the ascent of

being from a less intense mode of being to a more intense mode

of being. The more intense the mode of being, the less limited

or determined it is and the less intense the mode of being,

the more determined or limited is its being. In Mulla Sadra's

view, the simpler the being, the less determined or limited

it is. Therefore, the higher and simpler modes of being

contain and transcend the principles of the lower and more

determined modes of being. God is the absolutely simple being

which contains and transcends all other beings. This principle

is referred to by Mulla Sadra as 'basit al-haqicrah kull al- • • 'ashya'' or 'the simple reality is everything'.93 Mulla Sadra

is regarded as the original formulator of this important

philosophical principle.

93 al-'Arshivyah. trans. James Morris, 98-99.

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In Mulla Sadra's perspective, knowledge and being are

closely related. Consistent with the prophetic hadith which

states that 'Adam (man) is created in the image of God', human

knowledge in Mulla Sadra's view, is founded on the model of

God's knowledge. Since man is only a contingent being and not

an absolute being, he can only existentiate the mental forms

(al-wuiud al-dhihni) of things. The mental or intelligible

form of an existent is created by the human soul on the

occasion of encountering an objective mode of existence. The

intelligible form of the object that is known is not

abstracted from the object but created by the soul itself. In

this respect there is a unity between the knower and the

known. Since objective existence and mental existence

represents two ontologically different modes of existence or

orders of being, Mulla Sadra does not view that one can be a

part of the other. Thus, there must be a creation of the

intelligible form of the object known which is in agreement

with the quiddity of the object but is of a mode of existence

which is similiar to the soul. Thus, every form of knowledge

in Mulla sadra's view, whether it be sensible, imaginal or

intelligible involves a unity of the subject which knows and

the object that is known or 'ittihad al-'Sail wa ma'qul'. The

relation between the intelligible forms and the human soul is

analogous to the relation of contingent beings and God.

The close inter-relation between knowledge and being have

profound implications for man's becoming and destiny. If in

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this sensible world, man requires a material instrument and

substratum to create the forms or images that he conceives; in

the posthumous state when souls are in the intermediate world

of Image-Exemplars (xalam al-mithal1, he does not require

material instruments and substratum to create forms. Imaginal

forms can be objectively existent without a material

substratum. Whatever forms the human soul creates whether they

be beautiful or ugly, can be immediately objectified. There no

longer exists an ontological disparity between that which is

perceived or imagined and the existent thing itself. The

nature and quality of the forms created by the soul are

determined by the nature or knowledge of the individual soul.

The good and pure souls will create beautiful forms consistent

with the nature of their souls and the bad and wicked souls

will create the ugly forms in agreement with the knowledge

possessed by their souls. The condition of being of the

individual soul in the posthumous state is the cumalative

result of the acts of being of the individual soul in this

world. At the moment of death when the immortal and immaterial

soul is disintegrated from the corporeal body; the soul will

project an imaginal body for itself. The imaginal body is the

body which is acquired by the individual soul on the basis of

all its modes of being in this world. The principle of human

identity and individuality is determined by the soul and not

the body. Thus, in Mulla Sadra's view, the body that is

resurrected in the posthumous state is the subtle or imaginal

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body. It is the imaginal body that must grow to maturity in

the posthumous state and eventually experience another death

which is also a birth. It is the death to the intermediate

imaginal world and a birth into the spiritual or intelligible

world. The creation of the imaginal body by the soul

constitutes the lesser resurrection (qiyamat suahra) and the

creation of the spiritual body, the greater resurrection

(aivamat kubral. Therefore, the human soul experiences three

births and three modes of existences.

The goal of creation is to return to its source or God.

Every created being manifests the attributes of God relative

to the degree of intensity of Being present in it. The

immutable archetypes which are the self-manifesting forms of

the divine attributes are also the models of perfection of the

individual species. The return of creation or of an existent

to God is the return of the particular individual to its

archetype or 'lord of the specie'.

In the case of man, the return to God is by means of his

conscious knowledge of the attributes of God and the

deliberate cultivation and loving assimilation of the

character traits of God's attributes (al-takhallua bi'l-sifat

al-ilahiyyahl in his being. When the individual human being

identifies himself with God's attributes through realized

knowledge, he becomes the self-conscious form or image or

theophany which reflects God's attributes. Since man is an

ontologically unitive and synthetic being, his manifestation

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of God's attributes is also unitive and synthetic in nature.

However, it is only the Universal Man (al-insan al-kamill who

actualises the potentiality of being a total theophany of

God's attributes since it is only in him that all of God's

attributes are manifested fully and in a unitive or

ontologically comprehensive (iamv) manner. Consequently, for

Mulla Sadra, every Universal Man is a specie or an archetype

by himself.94 With the actualisation of the Universal Man,

the goal of creation which arises from God's love and

knowledge of Himself is fulfilled. The Universal Man is a

self-conscious and self-reflective, and ontologically

comprehensive theophany of God. Every individual Universal Man

represents a definite and unique possibility of the infinite

ontological possibilities of God's manifestation.

In conclusion, it can be observed that in Mulla Sadra's

philosophy, ontology, psychology, epistemology and eschatology

are closely inter-related. Their inter-relations arise from

his central doctrine of the sole reality of Being. From the

fundamental metaphysical doctrine that being or existence is

the sole reality, Mulla Sadra is able to postulate the

principle of the analogical gradation of being and the

consequent process of transubstantial motion. All the various

modes of existence in the sensible and imaginal worlds

participate in the constant process of transubstantial motion

in order to overcome their imperfections and achieve catharsis

94 See Fazlur Rahman, Philosophy of Mulla Sadra. 249.

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from matter and potentiality, to return to their transcendent

and immutable Source. Mulla Sadra's epistemological principle

of the unity of the knower and the known is based on his

definition of knowledge as a mode or form of existence. This

radical definition of knowledge is a logical corollary of his

metaphysical thesis that being or existence is the sole

reality.

Does there exist a synthesis of the truth claims of revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy in Mulla Sadra's philosophy?

Mulla Sadra's works especially his magnum opus. the As far

bear evidence to his exceptional knowledge and familiarity

with the teachings of the Qur'an and Hadith and the writings

of earlier thinkers and scholars in the various fields of

Islamic learning. His remarkable scholarship and knowledge of

the Islamic intellectual tradition to which he is heir, has

made the Asfar to be an indispensable resource material of

nine centuries of Islamic thought generally and of the history

of Islamic Philosophy specifically. The evidences of the

presence of the teachings of earlier thinkers and schools of

thought in the fields of philosophy (falsafah or hikmahl,

theology (kalam) and doctrinal Sufism ( Virfan) and the Qur'an

and Hadith in Mulla Sadra's writings, are clearly abundant.

Mulla Sadra himself often names the sources from which he has

drawn and quoted either in agreement with or for the purposes

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of refutation.96 The presence of a tremendous amount of

materials and teachings drawn from the Qur'an, Hadith and

earlier schools of thought and intellectual figures, have even

led certain critics of Mulla Sadra to allege that there is

nothing original in Mulla Sadra's thinking but only excessive

borrowings of ideas from earlier sources.96 That there is a

clear presence of ideas, principles, doctrines and teachings

drawn from the Qur'an, Hadith and the various schools of

thought in Islamic philosophy, theology and doctrinal Sufism

in Mulla Sadra's writings is thus a well-known fact. However,

whether the presence of diverse sources of knowledge in Mulla

Sadra's works also indicate the existence of a synthesis of

these various sources of knowledge, is a question that has to

be determined.

The task of this section is to determine the presence or

lack thereof of a synthesis of the truth claims of revelation,

gnosis and discursive philosophy in Mulla Sadra's philosophy.

Consequently, it will deal with the four fundamental

principles of Mulla Sadra's philosophy and examine whether in

their formulations, Mulla Sadra has made use of various ideas

and doctrines from revelation, gnosis and discursive

philosophy respectively. Since a synthesis is not merely an

96 See for example Mulla_ Sadra's discussion on the relation between existence (wujud) and essence (mahiyyah) in the Asfar. Vol.l, Pt.l, 247-49.

96 See for example Danechepazhuh's introduction to Mulla Sadra's Kasr al-asnam al-iahiliyyah (Tehran, 1340 A.H.).

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aggregate or ecclectic collection of borrowed ideas and

doctrines from diverse sources, an examination of what is new

and/or original in Mulla Sadra's formulation of the four

fundamental principles will also be made.

In his discussion on Being (wuiud). Mulla Sadra,

like all Islamic philosophers, begins with the fundamental

distinction between wuiud or existence and mahiyyah or

quiddity made by Ibn Sina. As a result of the Avicennan

distinction between existence and quiddity, there developed in

the history of Islamic Philosophy, a debate on the issue of

the ontological primacy of existence (asalat al-wuiud) and the

ontological primacy of quiddity (asalat al-mahivvah). Mulla

Sadra, as can be seen from the above discussion on Being,

subscribes to the view of the ontological primacy of

existence. Although, Mulla Sadra provides detailed arguments

for his view on the ontological primacy of existence as

opposed to the ontological primacy of quiddity; it is

extremely important to note that ealier in his life, Mulla

Sadra had advocated for the ontological primacy of quiddity

and the change in his position on this matter came about as

the result of an illumination or a divine inspiration. In his

Kitab al-masha'1 ir (The Book of Metaphysical Penetrations'),

Mulla Sadra desribes his position in the following manner:

In earlier days I used to be a passionate defender of the thesis that the quiddities are ontologically fundamental (asil) and existence is a mental abstraction f ixtibaril, until God gave me guidance and let me witness His demonstration. All of a sudden my spiritual

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eyes were opened and I saw with utmost clarity that the truth was just the contrary...Praise be to God who by means of the light of illumination guided me out of the darkness of the baseless idea (of the ontological primacy of quiddity) and firmly established me upon the thesis (of the ontological primacy of existence) which would never change in this world or the next. As a result (of this experience), I now hold that the existences (wujudat) are primary realities and the quiddities are the permanent archetypes fal-axyan al-thabithahf which have never smelt the fragrance of existence. The existences are nothing but rays of light, radiated by the true Light which is absolutely self-subsistent Being, except that existence is characterised by a number of essential properties and intelligible qualities. It is these latter aspects which are known as quiddities.97

If in all of his philosophical writings, Mulla Sadra's

discussions of being are carried out in the language and

intellectual categories of discursive philosophy, especially

that of the Mashsha1 i school; his conviction or source of

belief of the nature of existence and its ontological primacy

is however, derived from a divine inspiration or a spiritual

experience. Thus, while Mulla Sadra's discussion of being is

expressed in the language and intellectual categories of

discursive philosophy and the method of rational demonstration

(burhan Aagli) of the philosophers, the source of his

philosophical belief or view of the nature of existence is

based on direct vision (kashf) and is divinely inspired.

However, it is important to note that Mulla Sadra does not

argue for the ontological primacy of existence merely or

exclusively on the basis of his own spiritual experience.

97 See al-Masha* ir . 43.

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Rather as clearly demonstrated in the Asfar and Kitab al-

Masha'ir for example, Mulla Sadra provides the reader with

detailed arguments and a rational justification for his view.

His notation on his spiritual experience is not in lieu of

logical arguments on the matter but as an indication to the

reader of the inspired source of his view. Therefore, it is

not necessary for one to accept Mulla Sadra's intellectual

illumination on this matter in order to accept his view of the

ontological primacy of existence. It suffices to accept or

reject Mulla Sadra's view of the nature of existence on the

basis of his discussion and reasoning alone.

In contrast to Ibn Sina and Mulla Sadra, Suhrawardi the

founder of the Ishraai (Illuminationist) School, advocated for

the ontological primacy of quiddity. In Suhrawardi's view, it

is quiddity which is ontologically fundamental and existence

is a mental 'notion' or a 'secondary intelligible' (al-

ma'crulat al-thanil,98 Quiddities are capable of being "more

perfect and less perfect". It is the differences in the "more

or less perfect" condition of individual quiddities that

distinguishes existents and sets them apart from each other.

In more symbolic terms, Suhrawardi describes reality to be a

single continuum of light punctuated only by distinctions of

"more or less" light or "grades" of light. These "grades" of

light which are arranged in a hierarchic order extends from

98 See Opera Metanhysica et Mystica. Vol.I, ed. Henry Corbin, 22.

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the Absolute Light or the Light of lights (God) downwards to

darkness. All of creation is constituted of the various

"grades" of the one single light. Mulla Sadra refutes

Suhrawardi's view that existence is only a mental notion or a

secondary intelligible and asserts instead that existence is

the sole reality. However, Mulla Sadra has taken over

Suhrawardi's notion of "grades" or "more or less" intensity of

light and applies it instead to existence. Thus, it is not

quiddity but existence which is capable of varying grades of

intensity." For Mulla Sadra, quiddities are mental

abstractions which do not have independent existences of their

own. As mental abstractions, quiddities are fixed and static

and therefore incapable of degrees of intensity or perfection.

It is existence which is real and dynamic and which can

partake of grades of intensity or tashkik. Although Mulla

Sadra refutes Suhrawardi's view on the ontological primacy of

quiddity, he takes over Suhrawardi1s doctrine of tashkik or

analogical gradation and applies it to his concept of

existence. Like Suhrawardi's conception of reality as a single

reality of light which extends from the Supreme or Absolute

Light in the direction of darkness, Mulla Sadra's conception

of reality is a gradation of being which extends from Pure

Being to Prime Matter. Thus, on the question of tashkik al-

wuiud or analogical gradation of Being, Mulla Sadra's source

of inspiration is Suhrawardi's view of reality as a single

99 Asfar. Vol.I, Pt.l, 433.

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continuum of light punctuated by various degrees or grades of

light. Mulla Sadra's conception of Suhrawardi's view of

reality as a single continuuum is however, more comprehensive.

If in Suhrawardi's view of reality as a continuum of light,

bodies and their accidents are left out; in Mulla Sadra's

conception, all of reality is included, even Prime Matter

which is only pure potentiality.100

On the question of the unity of Being, Mulla Sadra's

indebtedness to Ibn al-'Arabi is most evident. Ibn al-'Arabi's

doctrine of the transcendent unity of Being fwahdat al-wuiud1

provides Mulla Sadra with the foundation of his discussion on

this subject. As mentioned earlier, the subject of unity of

Being or of the divine Principle is central to Islamic

metaphysics since the Islamic religion is based on the

essential doctrine of al-tawhid or the Unity or Oneness of

Allah.

The influence of Ibn al-'Arabi's interpretation of the

Shahadah : La illaha ill Allah ('There is no god but Allah) as

the transcendent unity of Being fwahdat al-wuiud1 is

unmistakable in Mulla Sadra's metaphysical thought. Ibn al-

'Arabi interprets the Shahadah to assert that nothing exists

except Allah fla mawiud ill Allah1. Since Allah is the sole

Reality, all that appears to exist are nothing but the self-

determinations ftaialiyyatl of His Being. Thus, the Unity of

God or the divine Principle logically implies the unity or

100 See Fazlur Rahman, Philosophy of Mulla Sadra. 11.

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unicity of creation or existents.

In the thirteenth chapter of the first safar or journey

of the Asfar in which Mulla Sadra discusses the unity of

Being, he states that the existence of multiplicity in

creation is an undeniable fact which cannot simply be negated

in order to uphold the view of the unity of Being. On the

contrary, multiplicity has to be accepted and explained in

terms of and in relation to unity. According to Mulla Sadra,

Being is the sole reality and every being or existent is a

self-determination or mode of Being. The self-determination of

Being varies in degrees of intensity. Therefore, that which

makes every mode of being an existent is being and that which

distinguishes one mode of being from another is also being or

more specifically the degree of intensity of Being present in

that particular mode. In this respect, being is both the

principle of unity and of differentiation among relative

beings.101

Mulla Sadra/s comprehensive treatment of being or wuiud.

encompassing the Absolute Being which is beyond all limitation

and conception including the human concept of absoluteness,

the Extended Being or the First Determination of the Absolute

Being, and the multitude of relative beings which constitute

the cosmos is derived from a synthesis of both the

philosophical and Sufi views of Being. To illustrate, Mulla

Sadra's view of the Absolute Being as unconditioned or non-

101 Asfar. Vol.I, Pt.l, 35.

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conditioned fla bi-shart) which transcends even the concept of

determination itself can be traced to that of Nasir al-Din

Tusi7s exposition.102 In his Tairid. al-Tusi, the leading

Shi'ite theologian and reviver of Ibn sina7s philosophy in the

thirteenth century, distinguishes between quiddity as 'non­

conditioned7 (la bi-shart). 'negatively conditioned7 (bi-shart

la.) and 'conditioned by something7 (bi-shart al-shay7). In

Mulla Sadra7s metaphysics, this is applied to wuiud. The first

notion, la bi-shart or 'non-conditioned7 refers to the

Absolute Being (al-wuiud al-mutlacr) which is beyond all

determination and therefore of manifestation too. The second

notion, bi-shart la or 'negatively conditioned7 refers to the

Extended Being (al-wuiud al-munbasit1 which is the First

Determination of the Absolute and the creative Principle, and

the third notion of bi-shart al-shav7 or 'conditioned by

something7 refers to all relative beings which are the

determinations of Being.103 Thus, the vocabulary and logical

distinctions used by Mulla Sadra in his discussion of Being is

heavily drawn from the philosophers, particularly the

Mashsha7i philosophers but his doctrine of the Unity of Being

and the consequent principle of the unicity of beings is

largely influenced by Ibn al-'Arabi7s doctrine of wahdat al-

wuiud or transcendent unity of Being. Finally, as noted

102 See Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Mulla Sadra and the Unity of Being," in his Islamic Life and Thought. 179-180.

103 Ibid.

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earlier, Mulla Sadra's view of relative or contingent beings

as varying degrees of the intensity of Being is of Ishraqi

inspiration. Underlying all of these strands which Mulla Sadra

has brought together in his discussion of Being is of course

the belief in the experience of Being as the certain and

indubitable source of all metapysical discussions of it. The

certainty of the possibility of the experience of Being is

borne of faith in the existence of God and the truth of the

Islamic revelation and the efficacy of its rites and spiritual

discipline, which provide both the basis and method for

gaining a vision or an intellectual insight into the unity of

all beings and their transcendent Origin and the experience of

Being itself.

In his discussion on motion, it is quite evident that

Mulla Sadra makes use of several fundamental concepts drawn

from Peripatetic Philosophy. For example, his division of

being into necessary, contingent and imposible and the further

division of contingent being into substance and accident.

Mulla Sadra also makes use of the Aristotelian definition of

motion as the becoming actual of that which is potential.

However, unlike the Peripatetic philosophers who accept both

sudden and gradual change, Mulla Sadra accepts only gradual

change. Furthermore, as can be seen from the above discussion

on transubstantial motion, Mulla Sadra rejects the Peripatetic

view that motion is confined to the four categories of

accidents of quantity, quality, position and place; and

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instead considers motion to take place in the very substance

of things.

Although Mulla Sadra accepts certain fundamental

Peripatetic concepts regarding motion, he does not limit

himself to the Peripatetic view only. Mulla Sadra also

incorporates the Sufi view of change and becoming in his

conception of motion. An important aspect of the Sufi view of

motion which Mulla Sadra accepts is that of perpetual renewal

of creation at every moment. Jalal al-Din Rumi and Ibn al-

'Arabi, both emminent Sufis and expositors of Sufi doctrines,

consider the whole universe to be in constant motion or

process of becoming in order to overcome its

imperfections.104 Since God is infinite, creation or

manifestation never repeats itself and God creates new

theophanies at every moment to remove imperfections and to

bring new perfections to things. Mulla Sadra has incorporated

both the Sufi doctrine of perpetual change and becoming, and

the overcoming of imperfections into his conception of motion.

Mulla Sadra's principle of transubstantial motion includes not

only the notion of perpetual change but also that change is

104 For example in his Mathnawi, Rumi states: Every moment the world is being renewed, and we unaware of its perpetual change. Life is ever pouring in afresh, though in the body it has the semblance of continuity. See Reynold A. Nicholson, Rumi: Poet and Mystic (London: Allen & Unwin, 1950), 117. In his Futuhat al-makiyvah. Ibn 'Arabi asserts, "The cosmos is never fixed in a single state for a moment, since God is Ever-creating constantly". William Chittick, Sufi Path of Knowledge. 98.

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directed towards the attainment of perfection.

Hence, Mulla Sadra's dismissal of the Peripatetic view

that motion is limited to the four categories of accidents

mentioned earlier, and asserts instead that motion involves

both the accidents and substance of a thing. In Mulla Sadra's

view it is only by postulating motion in substance that each

being is able to overcome its imperfections to approximate its

archetype or 'lord of the specie' or primordial reality. It is

by means of transubstantial motion that existents can achieve

catharsis (tajrid) and independence from matter and

potentiality and return to their immutable archetypes. It is

interesting to note here that although, Mulla Sadra's view of

being and creation is dynamic, it differs from the modern

evolutionary theory in that Mulla Sadra regards the individual

specie as unchanging and permanent. Each individual specie is

governed by its 'lord' or archetype which is permanent and

unchanging. The 'lords of the species' or archetypal realities

which exist eternally through God's knowledge of them are

immutable and they constitute the unchanging and permanent

aspect of the reality of individual existents created by Him.

In contrast to the Peripatetic philosophers who confine

matter only to the corporeal domain, Mulla Sadra extends

matter to the imaginal realm too. In this respect, motion is

not limited only to the sublunary region but also includes the

intermediate world of subtle beings. The inclusion of motion

in the intermediate imaginal world is important for Mulla

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Sadra since in his view of reality, between the spiritual

world and the sensible world, there exists the intermediate

world of Imaginal Forms. Morever, as noted earlier, in Mulla

Sadra's perspective, any movement or ascent of being from the

lower World of Bodies to the higher World of Spirits is

impossible except by traversing the intermediate World of

Imaginal Forms.

Mulla Sadra also makes use of certain verses from the

Qur'an to ground and draw support for his view on

transubstantial motion. For example, he guotes the Qur'anic

verse "And thou shalt see the mountains, that thou supposed

fixed, passing by like clouds"105 to support his view that

the rapidity of change although imperceptible to man, is

nonetheless real. Mulla Sadra also invokes the Qur'anic verse

which states "0 Man! Thou art labouring unto thy Lord

laboriously, and thou shalt encounter Him"106 to support his

view that man's return to God is by means of the

transubstantial motion of his soul. It is only through

transubstantial motion that the potential aspects of the human

soul can become actualised and it is able to ascend the

various levels of being and return to God.

Although Mulla Sadra's conception of transubstantial

motion is original in the history of Islamic Philosophy, it

nevertheless is founded on the basis of several important

105 Q.28:88. Quoted in al-xArshiyyah. 120.

106 Q.84:6.

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doctrines drawn from the Peripatetic school as well as the

Sufis. However, by bringing together diverse ideas concerning

motion, Mulla Sadra is able to formulate his own original view

of motion which goes beyond their teachings. Thus, Mulla Sadra

is able to expound a theory of motion in the Peripatetic

categories of substance and accidents, potentiality and

actuality, matter and form; and which includes at the same

time the Sufi doctrine of perpetual motion and renewal of

creation which aims at the attainment of perfection of

individual beings. If the Sufis view the renewal of creation

in every moment to involve the creation of a new form in place

of the existing one, Mulla Sadra however, considers the newly

created form to be added onto the existing one very much in

the manner a new coat is worn over an existing one. Thus, the

existing form is not discarded but is integrated into the new

form. Furthermore, in Mulla Sadra's consideration, the

synthesis of these various elements in his theory of motion is

consistent with the Qur'anic view of change and becoming and

the inevitable return of creation to God. Through the twin

principles of analogical gradation (tashkik al-wuiud1 and

transubstantial motion (al-harakah al-iawhariyyahl. Mulla

Sadra is able to explain in philosophical terms the meaning of

the very famous verse of the Qur'an: "Verily! We belong to

Allah and to Him we return".107

On the margin of a manuscript of the Asfar, copied in

107 Q. 2:156.

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1197 A.H./1703 A.D. which is based on a copy autographed by

Mulla Sadra and in the section devoted to the question of the

unity of the knower and the known; there is a handwritten note

by Mulla Sadra which reads as follows:

I received this inspiration (on the unity of the knower and the known) at the time of sunrise of Friday, the seventh of Juroadi al-ula of the year 1037 A.H. (ie. January 14, 1628) when already fifty-eight lunar years had passed from the life of the author.108

From the above notation, it is clear that the source of Mulla

Sadra's view of the unity of the knower and the known is

divine inspiration and not merely philosophical speculation.

Although the source of Mulla Sadra's epistemological view of

the unity of the knower and the known is divine inspiration,

his exposition of the principle is philosophical. In the

Asfar, Mulla Sadra argues for the unity of the knower and the

known in the act of knowing by systemmatically refuting the

various definitions of knowledge prevalent among the Islamic

philosophers or hukama' and providing a rational justification

of his position.

Although Mulla Sadra's view of the principle of the unity

of the knower and the known is divinely inspired, it should be

noted that Mulla Sadra is not the first to formulate or

expound this principle. This principle had been expounded by

the neo-Platonists and Mulla Sadra himself is aware of this

fact. In the al-1Arshiyyah for example, Mulla Sadra not only

108 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Transcendent Theosophy. 31.

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acknowledges his indebtedness to the "ancient philosophers" of

whom he names specifically Porphyry for expounding the

principle of the unity of the knower and the known; but he

also believes that his method of reasoning on this matter is

in agreement with theirs.109 However, Mulla Sadra considers

himself to be the first Islamic philosopher to systemmatically

expound this principle and to provide a satisfactory

philosophical justification of it.110 Mulla Sadra's original

contribution to the discussion of the principle of the unity

of the knower and the known is his demonstration of it.

In Islamic Philosophy, the neo-Platonic principle of the

unity of the knower and the known was rejected by Ibn Sina and

many other Mashsha' i philosophers in favor of the Aristotelian

view of knowledge as the abstraction of the form of the object

from its material properties and the union of the abstracted

form with the human intellect. Mulla Sadra is able to re­

instate the neo-Platonic principle of the unity of the knower

and the known and to defend it against the opposition of the

Peripatetic philosophers by postulating his radical definition

of knowledge as a form or mode of existence. Mulla Sadra's

definition of knowledge as a mode of existence is a logical

corollary of his metaphysical view that being or existence is

the sole reality.

Mulla Sadra refutes the Aristotelian definition of

109 al-'Arshivvah. 115.

110 Asfar, Vol.I, Pt.3, 277.

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knowledge as the abstraction of the form of an object and its

unity with the human soul by asserting that mental forms and

material forms are fundamentally different and therefore,

cannot become a part of each other. Mulla Sadra also rejects

Ibn Sina's view that in the act of knowing, change only occurs

in the perceived object and not in the human soul. According

to Mulla Sadra, in the act of knowing, change does not only

occur in the known object or intelligible but also in the soul

of the knower. In every act of knowing, the human soul attains

a new level of being. The principle that knowledge involves

the attainment of a new level of being of the soul is the

basis for Mulla Sadra's view of knowledge transforming the

being of the knower and conversely, the being of the knower

determining his knowledge. By postulating this principle Mulla

Sadra is able to provide a philosophical explanation of the

Qur'anic view of the profound inter-relation between faith and

knowledge, the necessity of knowledge for the salvation of the

human soul, as well as the hierarchic classification of human

beings in the hereafter, based on their knowledge.111

In expounding the epistemological principle of the unity

of the knower and the known, Mulla Sadra demonstrates his

acceptance of the neo-’Platonic view of knowledge and his

disagreement with and departure from the Peripatetic

philosophers' theory of knowledge, especially that of Ibn

Sina, whose views Mulla Sadra often criticizes and openly

111 Ibid., 197-99.

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refutes. Although Mulla Sadra has fundamental disagreements

with the Mashsha7i philosophers7 view of knowledge, their

discussion on knowledge provides him with the necessary

philosophical context, language and background to espouse his

own theory of knowledge. In this respect, Mulla Sadra7s theory

of knowledge is still influenced and conditioned by Mashshg~7 i

epistemolgy but in a negative way.

If on the issue of human knowledge Mulla Sadra accepts

the neo-Platonic principle of the unity of the knower and the

known, in his treatment of God7s knowledge, Mulla Sadra has

adopted certain Sufi doctrines on the subject. For example,

Mulla Sadra makes use of the Sufi doctrine of God7s

contemplation of the forms of things or archetypes fal-axyan

al-thabitahl to explain His knowledge of existents and their

creation. In the Sufi perspective, specifically Ibn al-

'Arabi7s, it is through God7s contemplation of the forms of

things or the archetypal realities upon the mirror of His

Essence, that all things are brought into existence. God7s

knowledge of things constitute their beings and the beings of

things are God7s very knowledge of them.112 This view is

based on the metaphysical principle that in God, knowledge and

being are identical. Thus, when God knows of a thing, that

thing is given existence by virtue of Him knowing it. By

adopting this Sufi ' doctrine of God7s knowledge and

existentiation of existents, Mulla Sadra is not only able to

112 Ibid., 105.

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postulate the metaphysical view of the inter-relation between

knowledge and being, but also to avoid the long standing

philosophical problem of God's knowledge of particulars. Mulla

Sadra's acceptance of Ibn al-'Arabi's view of God/s knowledge

provides him with both a legitimate and satisfactory

explanation of the subject, as well as a suitable basis to

ground his view of human knowledge. Human knowledge, according

to Mulla Sadra is founded on the model of God's knowledge.

Although Mulla Sadra's view of God's knowledge is taken from

Ibn al-'Arabi and his view of human knowledge is neo-Platonic

in nature, Mulla Sadra is able to combine these two

perspectives into his own comprehensive theory of knowledge

which encompasses both the divine and human dimensions. Mulla

Sadra is able to achieve this synthesis based on his

metaphysical view that being or existence is the sole reality

and knowledge is a mode of existence.

In his treatment of the human soul and its

transubstantial motion to achieve catharsis (tairld) and

independence of matter and potentiality in order to return to

God, Mulla Sadra has drawn numerous principles and doctrines

from the Qur'an and Hadith. the Mashsha'i and Ishraqi schools

of philosophy and Sufism. In Mulla Sadra's perspective,

through the process of transubstantial motion, the soul which

first appears as the body, becomes the vegetative soul, the

animal soul and finally, the human soul. The soul continues to

undergo transubstantial motion in its journey of ascent of the

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various levels of being which is also an increase in the

intensity of its being until it is able to disengage itself

completely from all matter, both gross and subtle, and return

to Pure Being as an archetype or unique specie unto itself,

reflecting all the attributes of Being in full intensity and

clarity.

Although Mulla Sadra's description of the journey and the

process involved is peculiar to his perspective and

philosophical views, he has drawn many ideas, principles and

doctrines from diverse sources to substantiate his doctrines

of psychology and eschatology. For example, Mulla Sadra's

discussions of the vegetative, animal and human soul and their

various faculties and stages of developments, are drawn from

the Aristotelian and Mashsha'i views of the subject. Like the

Peripatetic philosophers, Mulla Sadra considers the vegetative

soul to constitute the nutritive, growth and reproductive

faculties; the animal soul, the motive and perceptive

faculties and the human soul, the practical and theoretical

faculties.

However, Mulla Sadra differs from the Peripatetic view on

the question of the relation of the soul and the body. The

Mashsha#i philosophers consider the immaterial and immortal

soul as the entelechy or form of the natural body and the

immanent principle which organizes the latter. The relation

between the soul and the body is likened to that between a

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pilot and his ship.113 In Mulla Sadra's perspective, the soul

first appears with the body and through the process of

transubstantial motion attains catharsis (tajrld) and

independence from the body. It is the soul which

individualises the body and the relation between the body and

the soul is analogous to the relation between an object and

the shadow it projects. Although Mulla Sadra agrees with the

Peripatetic view that the soul is the entelechy of the body,

since body in Mulla Sadra's philosophy is not limited to the

corporeal or natural realm only but extends to the imaginal

and spiritual, the soul is not the entelechy or form of the

natural body only but of all subsequent bodies which it

projects. In this respect, the soul is independent and

transcendent of the natural body.

Another major difference between the Peripatetic view of

the soul and Mulla Sadra's view concerns the imaginative

faculty. If the Peripatetics consider only the intellectual

aspect of the human soul to be immortal and to survive

physical death, Mulla Sadra regards the imaginative faculty

also to be independent of the body and to have its own form of

life upon its separation from the body. The doctrine of the

independence of the imaginative faculty from the body is

central to Mulla Sadra's eschatological views. This doctrine

is not original with Mulla Sadra. The Sufis, notably Ibn al-

'Arabi have expounded at length the doctrine of the

113 Fazlur Rahman, Avicenna's Psychology. 6-7.

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independence of the imaginative faculty from the body and its

essential role in the posthumous state, specifically in the

intermediate world of Image-Exemplars ('alam al-mithal).

According to Ibn al-'Arabi, in the imaginal world, the

imaginative faculty takes the place of sense perception and it

is through the imaginative faculty that the individual

experiences the eshatological events described in the Qur'an

and Hadith.114 The imaginative faculty has the creative power

(hamm) to existentiate imaginal forms both pleasant and

unpleasant, and experiences happiness or misery relative to

the forms it existentiates. As already mentioned, the

experience of Paradise and Hell are partly due to the creative

power of the imaginative faculty to existentiate its own

imaginal forms. However, Paradise and Hell are not merely

subjective since they exist objectively and independently of

the individual souls. This situation is similiar to our

experience in the sensible, empirical world. We live in an

objective world of external realities and at the same time in

a private world of our own creation or determination which is

the outcome of our individual subjectivities.

Following Suhrawardi, Mulla Sadra views the imaginal

forms to be of two types: one, the imaginal forms

existentiated by the individual soul and two, the objective

imaginal forms existing in the imaginal world. The former

114 See William Chittick, "Death and the World of Imagination: Ibn al-'Arabi's Eschatology," Muslim World (Jan. 1988): 51-82.

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constitutes the lesser imaginal world and the latter the

greater imaginal world. It should be noted here, that

Suhrawardi is the first to postulate explicitly the existence

of the imaginal realm which is intermediate between the

spiritual world and the sensible world.115 In Suhrawardi's

perspective it is in the imaginal realm that the resurrection

of the body takes place and the various eschatological events

described in the Qur'an and Hadith. However, it is Ibn al-

'Arabi who expounded in an elaborate and definitive manner,

the independence and creative power of the imaginative faculty

and its consequent role in the imaginal world.116

Mulla Sadra accepted both Suhrawardi's doctrine of the

intermediate world and Ibn al-'Arabi's doctrine of the

imaginative faculty and incorporated them into his

psychological and eschatological views. In addition, Mulla

Sadra developed further the logical implications of their

respective doctrines to work out a more comprehensive

perspective. For example, if for Suhrawardi, 'the principle of

higher possibility' fimkan al-ashraf> means that the

multiplicity which exists in the lower sensible world must

first exist in the higher spiritual world, in Mulla Sadra this

principle is further refined and made to denote that nothing

can exist at the lowest level unless it has passed through the

115 Henry Corbin, Spiritual Body and Celestial Earthr 78- 80.

116 Fazlur Rahman, "Dream, Imagination and 'Alam al- Mithal," Islamic Studies. Vol.3, No.2, (June 1964): 171.

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upper levels of being and conversely, nothing moves to a

higher grade of being without passing through the intermediate

level.117 With this, Mulla Sadra is not only able to

establish a clear and definite inter-relation between the

three levels of being but also to postulate the doctrine that

every quiddity has a triple existence.

By integrating the Peripatetic view of the various kinds

of souls and their faculties with Suhrawardi's doctrine of the

existence of an intermediate imaginal world and Ibn al-

'Arabi 's gnostic teachings of the creative power of the

imaginative faculty to existentiate imaginal forms in the

posthumous state, Mulla Sadra is able to expound a

comprehensive theory of the human soul and its stages of

developments and actualisation in its return journey to God.

The synthesis of these various views of the human soul both

philosophical and gnostic is made by Mulla Sadra within the

parameters of the teachings of the Qur'an and Hadith. Infact,

it is in order to fully comprehend certain statements in the

Qur'an and Hadith about the human soul which has descended

from the World of the Divine Command (Amr) and of which very

little knowledge is divulged to man,118 and the certainty and

inevitability of its return to God119 that Mulla Sadra has

drawn ideas from diverse sources. To illustrate, it is in

117 Ibid., 175.

118 Q. 17:85.

119 Q.21:117.

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order to explain the Qur'anic descriptions of Paradise and

Hell which are expressed often-times in the language of

sensible experiences that Mulla Sadra accepted and synthesized

Suhrawardi's and Ibn al-'Arabi's doctrines of the intermediate

imaginal world and the creative power and role of the

imaginative faculty in the posthumous state.

Mulla Sadra's synthesis of various teachings is not

merely speculative but is also the outcome of his own

intellectual insights and illuminations of the matter.120

Like Suhrawardi and Ibn al-'Arabi, Mulla Sadra claims personal

experiences of the imaginal realm. Therefore, their respective

views and Mulla Sadra's synthesis are fundamentally based on

experiences of the imaginal realm and illuminative insights of

the nature of the human soul. Furthermore, Mulla Sadra

constantly verifies his view of the human soul and eschatology

with the Qur'anic statements of them. Therefore, the Qur'an

and Hadith provide both the premisses of his doctrines on the

soul and eschatology, as well as the verification and

confirmation of the legitimacy of his interpretations or

understanding of the subject.

From the above discussion on the sources of some of the

most important ideas contained in the four fundamental

principles of Mulla Sadra's transcendent philosophy (al-hikmah

120 In the al-'Arshiyyah. Mulla Sadra states explicitly that "knowledge of the soul can only be acquired through illumination from the Lamp-niche of Prophecy fmishkat al- nubuwwah1 and through following the lights of Revelation and Prophethood...", p . 131.

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al-mutax aliyyah1 and how he has adopted and incoporated these

ideas which are drawn from diverse sources to expound his own

original philosophical views and position, it can be concluded

that there is sufficient basis to assert that there exists a

synthesis of the truth claims of revelation, gnosis and

discursive philosophy in Mulla Sadra's philosophy. Having

established the existence of a synthesis of revelation, gnosis

and discursive philosophy in Mulla Sadra's philosophy, the

next task of this study is to examine how Mulla Sadra

synthesized them. Consequently, an analysis of the method or

manner in which Mulla Sadra works out his synthesis will be

undertaken. As mentioned in the introductory chapter, the text

that has been chosen to demonstrate Mulla Sadra's method and

manner of synthesizing the various ideas and doctrines drawn

from revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy is his

synoptic text, al-Hikmat al-xarshiyyah or Wisdom of the Throne

which, written after the Asfar, is one of Mulla Sadra's most

important later philosophical texts.

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HOW DOES MULLA SADRA SYNTHESIZE THE TRUTH CLAIMS

OF REVELATION, INTELLECTUAL INTUITION

AND REASON IN HIS PHILOSOPHY?

Mulla Sadra wrote several comprehensive philosophical

texts which are to a large extent, abridgements and summaries

of his major work, the Asfar. Although these comprehensive

texts have different emphases depending on their individual

foci, they each provide the reader with an overview of Mulla

Sadra's philosophy.1 Mulla Sadra's philosophy which can be

considered to be founded on the four fundamental principles

discussed in the previous chapter, deals essentially with

knowledge of the Origin (al-mabda'1 and of the Return (al­

ma1 ad) or knowledge of Being and Becoming and knowledge of the

soul and its ultimate destiny. In addition, these

comprehensive philosophical texts like the Asfar. share the

same intention of guiding the reader to the highest

understanding of metaphysics and eschatology.

Al-Hikmat al-xarshiyyah is one of the comprehensive

philosophical texts of Mulla Sadra. In the Prologue of the al-

1 See James Morris's introduction to his translation of the al-^rshiyyah. Wisdom of the Throne. 54.

198 .

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199-201

University Microfilms International

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work, the Asfar which is a testament of his transcendent

philosophy or al-hikmah al-mutaxalivvah. and they share a

common concern; Mulla Sadra's method of synthesizing the three

sources of knowledge in the al-'Arshivvah can be regarded as

an exemplification of his synthesizing method.

In conformity with Mulla Sadra's division of the al-

*Arshivvah. the following analysis of his method of synthesis

will be divided into two parts. The first part deals with the

Origin (al-mabda'1 or metaphysics (ilahivvat) and the second

with the Return or eschatology (al-maxadf. In order to

demonstrate Mulla Sadra's method of synthesis clearly and

concretely, his treatment of specific principles, particularly

the four fundamental principles, will be analysed. Excerpts of

his discussion of specific principles in the al-xArshiyyah

will be taken to illustrate his manner of approach of a

particular subject or principle, method of reasoning and mode

of expression.

Metaphysics

Similiar to the Asfar. Mulla Sadra begins the al-

xArshivyah with a discussion of Being (al-wuiudl. For Mulla

Sadra, Being or al-wu~iud is the proper subject matter of

metaphysics fal-xilm al-ilahT’). Metaphysics which is the

highest form of knowledge constitutes the heart of hikmah or

philosophy. Mulla Sadra's metaphysics as discussed earlier,

has as its source, the immediate experience (dhawg) or

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intellectual intuition of Being. However, his intellectual

intuition or immediate experience of Being is expressed in a

rational mode, employing the intellectual categories of

discursive philosophy, particularly that of the Mashsha'i

school as developed by Ibn Sina. Both the intellectual

illuminations and the philosophical exposition of these

illuminations are carried out within the intellectual and

spiritual parameters of the Islamic revelation: the Qur'an and

Hadith. The Qur'an and Hadith provide the basis of much of the

doctrinal content of Mulla Sadra's philosophy, as well as the

method of spiritual and intellectual realization related to

it.3

As indicated by its title, the first part or

"illumination" (al-mashricr al-'awwall of the al-Hikmat al-

xarshivvah proposes to deal with the knowledge (lilm) of God

or Allah, His Attributes (sifat1. His Names (asma'1 and His

Signs (ayat). In order to give a philosophical exposition of

these topics, Mulla Sadra has divided the "first illumination"

into sixteen principles or gawa'id. Each principle discusses

in a very compact manner, a specific matter related to the

main subject or topic. It is pertinent to note that Mulla

Sadra also specifies the source of some of these principles.

For example, he stipulates that the very first principle on

the division of existent C taasim al-mawiudl and the

3 See for example the concluding testament of the al- * Arshiyyah.

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al-wuiudl is derived from proximity to God (ladun Allah), thus

it is a "aa'idah laduniyyah" or a principle deriving from the

proximity to God.4 The second principle on the simplicity of

Being fbasit al-haaiaah) is derived from the divine Throne

(al-*arsh) and it is referred to by Mulla Sadra as a "qa^idah

'arshiyyah" or principle deriving from the divine Throne.5

Therefore, the source of some of the principles in the al-

*Arshiyyah together with its division into two "places of

illumination" (mashriq). indicate in a very explicit manner

the gnostic character of Mulla Sadra's philosophy which is

profoundly related to both the Islamic revelation as

demonstrated for example, by the use of the Quranic terms

%ladun Allah' and ^al-^arsh' . as well as to Ibn Sina's

Oriental Philosophy (al-hikmah al-mashriqivyah) and

Suhrawardi's Illuminationist Theosophy (al-hikmah al-

ishraqiyyah) by Mulla Sadra's usage of the key term 'mashrig'

or illumination. However, the formulation of these

illuminations into principles (qawa'id) and consequences

derived from them demonstrate Mulla Sadra's philosophical

method.

In addition, it should be noted that Mulla Sadra's choice

and arrangement of topics of the "first illumination" into

knowledge of God, His Attributes, Names and Signs adheres very

4 a1-*Arshiyyahr 219; Wisdom of the Throne. 94.

5 a1-*Arshivyah. 221; Wisdom of the Throne. 98.

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closely to the classic theological framework and order of

exposition of the subject. The hierarchic division of God's

Essence (al-dhatl, Names and Attributes fasma' wa sifat) and

Signs f avat) which was first formulated by the theologians

(mutakal 1 imun'l, is widely used and accepted by all Islamic

thinkers and scholars whether they belong to the school of

Islamic Theology (kalam), Philosophy (falsafah) or doctrinal

Sufism. The terms al-dhat for the divine Essence, asm!' wa

sifat for God's Names and Attributes and ayat 6 for His Signs

are all Qu'ranic in origin.

"The first place of illumination" is a philosophical

examination of some of the most important issues or principles

involved in the discussion of knowledge of God, His Names and

Attributes, and His Signs. Mulla Sadra begins his

philosophical investigation with the following statements:

That which exists (inna al-mawiudl is either the reality of Being fhaqlqah al-wuiudl or something else. By the reality of Being we mean That which is not mixed with anything but Being, whether a generality ('umuml or a particularity (khusus), a limit (haddl or a bound (nihavahl, a quiddity (mahiyyahj, an imperfection (naqs), or non-existence (ladam) — and this is what is called the "Necessary Being" fwaiib al-wuiudl. Therefore, we say that if the reality of Being did not exist, then nothing at all would exist. But the consequence (of this conditional statement) is self-evidently false; therefore its premise is likewise false.7

6 Here Mulla Sadra uses the word ayat meaning God's Signs as equivalent to the term af*al which means God's Acts. The avat or signs are the result of God's Acts.

7 al-^Arshiyyah. 219; James Morris, Wisdom of the Throne. 94-95.

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From the above quotation, it can be observed very

clearly, that Mulla Sadra's approach to the subject and mode

of expression is philosophical. He begins his discussion on

the knowledge of God by formulating it as a philosophical

investigation into the nature and reality of Being and he

makes use of the relevant philosophical terms to express his

ideas. For example, he uses the term waiib al-wujud or

Necessary Being which is the philosophical term for God. The

term and concept of the Necessary Being was first formulated

by Ibn Sina based on his fundamental distinctions of necessity

(wuiubl and contingency (imkan); and being fwuiud) and

quiddity (mahiyyah).

The terms nags for imperfection, vadam for non-existence,

umum for generality, khusus for particularity, hadd for limit,

nihayah for boundary and mahiyyah for quiddity are all

philosophical terms.8 The term nags which means imperfection

is always juxtaposed to kamal or perfection. Metaphysically,

perfection or kamal belongs only to God and nags or

imperfection is characteristic of all created beings.

Perfection is a function of God's absoluteness and all

contingent beings are imperfect to one degree or another. The

term *adam which means non-existence or nothingness is always

juxtaposed to wuiud or being or existence. In the above

8 Here, I would like to note that much of my understanding and appreciation of the vocabulary and material of the al-Hikmat al-xArshiyyah is derived from a reading course on this text with Dr. Seyyed Hossein Nasr.

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quotation, Mulla Sadra states that Being is not mixed with

'adam or non-existence. In other words, Being is pure Being or

absolute Being. Furthermore, Mulla Sadra argues, Being is not

mixed with mahiyyah or quiddity. Quiddity, as discussed in

the previous chapter, is a limitation or a mode of being which

is abstracted by the human mind. Since Being has no limit

(hadd) or boundary fnihavahl therefore, Being has no quiddity

or mahiyyah. Limitation fhaddt, imperfection (nags) and non­

existence (ladam) pertain to mahiyvah or quiddity and not to

Being or wuiud.

Having asserted that Being is nothing but Itself or Pure

Being, Mulla Sadra argues for the reality of Being or more

specifically the Necessary Being. Mulla Sadra does this by

making use of the conditional statement and the logical

relation between the antecedent and consequent. Mulla Sadra

argues: If Being does not exist, then no beings exist.

However, since the consequent is false because beings do

exist, then the antecedent: Being does not exist, is also

false. Implicit in this argument is the metaphysical premise

or principle that all existents derive their existence from

Being.9 The principle of the ontological dependency of all

existents on Being is reminiscent of Ibn al-'Arabi's doctrine

9 In the second principle of the "first illumination" Mulla Sadra demonstrates the veracity of this metaphysical premise.

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of wahdat al-wuiud or the transcendent unity of being.10 t Since the reality of Being fhaqiqah al-wuiud) is beyond

limitation (hadd) and boundary (nihavvah), it cannot be m defined. To define something is precisely to determine its

limits and boundaries. In the al-xArshivvah. Mulla Sadra

states:

...the Source of existence of everything that exists is this Pure Reality of Being, unmixed with anything other than Being. This Reality is not restricted by any definition, limitation, imperfection, contingent potentiality or quiddity; nor is It mixed with any generality, whether of genus, species or differentia, nor with any accident whether specific or general. For Being is prior to all these descriptions that apply to quiddities, and That which has no quiddity other than Being is not bound by any generality or specificity. It has no specific difference and no particularity apart from Its own Essence; It has no form, nor has It any agent or end.11

Here, in order to demonstrate the undefinable nature of

Being, Mulla Sadra enumerates specifically all the various

philosophical categories which are used to define something,

such as the famous Aristotelian categories of genus (jins),

specie (nawx1 and specific difference (fasl). According to

Mulla Sadra, none of these categories pertain to Being, they

relate only to quiddity. In addition, the reality of Being is

beyond substance (jawhar) and accident (arad), both general

10 Although both Ibn al_-'Arabi and Mulla Sadra uphold the doctrine of wahdat al-wuiud. there are certain fundamental differences in their understanding of it based on their respective views on the relation between Being and existents. This issue will be discussed in the following chapter.

11 al-xArshiyyah. 220; Wisdom of the Throne. 96.

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farad al-'amml and specific (arad al-khass); beyond form

(surah) and the four Aristotelian causes.

Having argued at length in a philosophical manner for the

undefinable nature of the reality of Being, Mulla Sadra

concludes his discussion of the issue with the following

statements:

No one can define (inalruf) Him (God or the Necessary Being) or reveal (ashfa) Him but He Himself, and there is no demonstration (burhan) of Him except His own Essence (al-Dhat). Therefore, He gave witness (shahada) through His Self to Himself and to the Unity (wahdanivyah) of His Self when He said: "God (Allah) gives witness that there is no god but He" (Q.3:18).12

Unlike, the previous quotations which demonstrate

Mulla Sadra's philosophical approach and mode of expression,

the above quotation reveals the gnostic character of his

philosophy and more poetic form of expression. His language is

heavily drawn from and influenced by the Qur'an. Since God is

the sole and absolute reality, only He can bear witness or

testifies to His Existence. No other existent can bear witness

to God's existence since all existents are ontologically

dependent on God. Here, it is clear that Mulla Sadra shares

the gnostic view that all philosophical proofs of the

existence of God are fundamentally inadequate and ultimately,

only God is His own proof.13 It is only God who can truly

12 Ibid.

13 "God is not proven by any proof nor conceived of by any rational faculties. Rational faculties reach Him not with their reflective powers..." From Ibn al-'Arabi's Futuhat al- makiyyah quoted in William Chittick, Sufi Path of Knowledge.

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bear witness to Himself as testified eloquently by the

Qur'anic verse quoted by Mulla Sadra.

Immediately following the gnostic statements and verse of

the Qur'an that God is His own proof, Mulla Sadra gives a

philosophical explanation of the central Islamic doctrine of

God's Unity which is the subject of much debate and meditation

through out Islamic history. Mulla Sadra asserts:

For His (God's) Unity (wahdah) is not the particular (shakhsiyvahl unity that is found in an individual (fard) of a (particular) nature; nor is It the generic (-iinsiyyahl or specific (nawx ivvahl unity that is found in any general notion (malana) or any quiddity (mahiyyah). Neither is It the conjunctive (iima'iyyahl unity that is found when a number of things become assembled or unified into a ^single thing; nor is It the unity of contiguity (itisaliwahl found in quantities and measurable things. Nor, as you will learn, is It any of the other relative (nisbivvah) unities, such as unity of resemblance (tamathul), homogeneity (tajanus), analogy (tashabih), correspondence (tatabuq), reduplication (tadayuf1 — although (certain) philosophers have allowed that — congruence, or any of the other kinds of unity that are not the True Unity. Rather, His Unity is other (than these relative ones), unknowable (majhulah) in Its innermost root (kunh), like His essence — May He be exalted! — except that His Unity is the Source (asl 1 of all (these other) unities (wahdat) just as His ‘Being is the Source of all (particular) beings. Hence "He has no second (Q. 112:4) .14

Mulla Sadra's philosophical examination of the concept of

the Unity of God is quite remarkable. He puts forth all the

various concepts of unity that man has and removes them from

the concept of God's Unity. According to Mulla Sadra none of

these concepts of unity pertain to God. God's unity is not the

381.

14 al-*Arshiyyah. 221; Wisdom of the Throne. 96-97.

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unity of the individual (shakhsiyvahl or the unity of the

genus (jins) or of the specie (nawl) or of a general concept

(malana) or of a quiddity (mahiyyah). Furthermore, neither the

logical concepts of conjunctive (i~itimax lvvah’) unity nor

contiguous (ittisaliyvahl unity nor the various kinds of unity

which are based on the relations (nisbivvahl of resemblance

(tamathul1 or homogeneity (tajanus) or analogy (tashabih) or

correspondence (tatabuq) apply to God/s Unity. In Mulla

Sadra's perspective, since none of the human concepts of unity

apply to God's Unity, His Unity like His Essence, is

ultimately unknowable. Although the Unity of God eludes human

comprehension, it is however, the source of all forms of unity

which man can conceive and perceive. No unity will exist if

God's Unity does not exist. It is the Unity of God (wahdah al-

dhatt which makes all forms of unity (wahadat) possible.

Mulla Sadra's treatment of the concept of God's Unity is

similiar to the mode of reasoning of the Shahadah or the

Testimony of Faith: "La illaha ill Allah11 ("There is no god

but Allah"). Like the Shahadah which consists of two parts:

one, the negation (al-nafyl and two, the affirmation (al-

ithbat); Mulla Sadra begins by negating all the various

concepts of unity that man has from the understanding of God's

unity, in order to affirm the uniqueness of His Unity which

bears no relation or resemblance to these various forms of

unity. All the various concepts of unity that man possesses

relate to the world of relativity and consequently, they do

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not pertain to the Absolute. The Absolute as asserted by the

Qur'an "has no second". The doctrine of al-tawhid is

ultimately unfathomable and only God knows His own Essence and

can bear witness to His Self and His Unity.

In the discussion of the reality of Being, mention has

been made of the metaphysical principle of the ontological

dependency of all beings on the Absolute Being. In the second

principle of the "first place of illumination", Mulla Sadra

gives a philosophical demonstration of the above metaphysical

principle. He begins his demonstration of this principle with

the following assertion:

All that which is Simple in Its essential Reality (basit al-haglaah') is, by virtue of Its (absolute) Unity, all things fkull ashiya'). It is deprived of none of those things, except what is in the order of imperfections \naqisl, privations (ladam) and contingencies (makanat1.15

The above assertion made by Mulla Sadra formulates in a

very succint manner of what has become one of the most

important metaphysical principles in later Islamic Philosophy.

There are two important aspects to Mulla Sadra's assertion:

one, the Supreme Unity which he identifies with the divine

Essence is absolutely simple in Its reality and two, the

absolutely Simple Being contains all things or existents.

In the world of multiplicity, there is no single being

which can encompass everything. Every being to the extent it

is a composite (murakkab) of existence (wujud) and quiddity

15 al-*Arshiyvah. 221; Wisdom of the Throne. 98.

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(mahiyyah) is limited and therefore, cannot be all things.

However, the absolutely Simple Being which is without

composition and is pure Being or pure wuiud. encompasses all

beings. All existents to the extent they exist, issue from

Being. The Absolute Being by virtue of Its simplicity contains

all beings.

In order to demonstrate the cogency of his assertion that

the Simple Being contains all things, Mulla Sadra provides the

following argument:

Take any particular being "A", suppose you say "A is not B": now if that with respect to which A is (itself A) were exactly the same as that with respect to which A is not-B, so that A in itself would of its very essence be the criterion for this negation — (if this were so), then the very essence of A would be something privative, such that everyone who intellected A would also intellect "not-B". But this consequence is obviously false and its antecedent is also false. Thus, it is established that (in any particular being "A") the substrate of "A-ness" (mawdul) is something essentially compound (of being and a particular quiddity). And even according to the mind, the notion of "A-ness" is a compound composed of the notion of something having being, by which A exists, and the notion of the privation of something, by which A is not B nor any of the other things that are negated of it.16

Here, Mulla Sadra wishes to demonstrate that all things

are a compound of existence and quiddity and are therefore not

simple (basit) in their nature. Take anything, for example, a

horse ("A"). A horse is not a tiger ("not-B"). A horse

although is not a tiger ("A is not-B") is not equivalent to or

identical with not being a tiger ("A is not equal to not-B").

16 al-1Arshiyyah. 221; Wisdom of the Throne. 98-99.

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If this were the case, then everytime one perceives or

conceives of a horse one will also perceive or conceive it as

not being a tiger. This is obviously false therefore, "A"

which is also "not-B" is not equal to "not-B". Therefore,

every thing both at the level of external reality and mental

conception is a composite of itself or being ("A") and a

privation or a quiddity ("not-B"). With this, Mulla Sadra

concludes:

Thus it is known that everything of which something that has being may be negated is not absolutely Simple in its essential reality. And the converse is likewise true: all That which is Simple in Its essential Reality can have nothing that has being negated of It. Otherwise, It would not be Simple in Its essential Reality, but rather composed of two aspects: an aspect by which it is such (such as "A") and an aspect by which it is some other way (that is, "not-B", "not-C" and so on). So now it has been established that the Simple Being is all existent things (mawjudat) with respect to their being (wujud) and perfection (tammam), but not with respect to their privations (nagis) and imperfections (2adam).17

Mulla Sadra states that anything or any being from which

one can negate something from it is not simple or basit. Every

existent to the extent it is itself ("A") and not something

else ("not-B") is not simple since one can always negate

something from it. Only the absolutely Simple Being cannot

have anything or any being negated from it. If something can

be negated from the Simple Being then, It is no longer simple

but a composite, ie. a composite of being Itself ("A") and

something else ("not-B", "not-C" etc.). Thus, the Simple Being

17 al-*Arshiyyah. 221; Wisdom of the Throne. 99.

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contains or encompasses all things (basit al-haqlqah kull al-

al-ashiya' ^.

Although the Simple Being is everything, It is only so

with respect to their being (wujud) and their perfections

(tamam) but not in relation to their privations (naqisl and

non-existence (ladam). This assertion of Mulla Sadra which is

another formulation of the doctrine of the transcendent unity

of being or wahdat al-wuiud can only be understood in relation

to the principle of the analogical gradation of Being or

tashkik al-wuiud. As discussed earlier, according to Mulla

Sadra, creation is a gradation of Being which extends from

Pure Being to Prime Matter. Every existent (mawjud) to the

extent it exists is a mode of Being (anha/ al-wuiud). As an

existent every being participates in Being which is simple and

perfect, however, as a particular existent or a mode of Being,

an existent is limited and imperfect. The perfection of an

existent is due to its being (wuiudl and its imperfection or

privation is caused by its limitation as a particular existent

and comes from its quiddity (mahiyyah).

From the above discussion of the first two principles of

the al-1Arshivvah. it can be observed that Mulla Sadra's

discussion of the knowledge of God involves an exposition and

demonstration of several important metaphysical ideas such as

that of the undefinable nature of the reality of Being, the

Unity and Simplicity of Being and the analogical gradation of

Being. All of these ideas are summarized in the first

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fundamental principle of Mulla sadra's philosophy treated in

the previous chapter as the ontological primacy (asalahl,

unity (wahdah) and analogical gradation (tashklk) of Being

(al-wuiud). These three primary aspects of Being delineated by

Mulla Sadra became not only a fundamental principle in his

school of philosophy but was to dominate nearly all subsequent

discussions of Being by Islamic philosophers after him.

One of the principles which Mulla Sadra examines in the

"first place of illumination" in his discussion of the divine

Names and Qualities is that of the unity of the knower and the

known (ittihad al-xacril wa'l-ma^ul). The fact that Mulla

Sadra discusses this principle in the "first place of

illumination" indicates that there exists a close relation

between his epistemology and his metaphysics. Mulla Sadra's

epistemological principle of the unity of the knower and the

known as pointed out earlier, is a logical corollary of his

metaphysical view of the ontological primacy of existence

fasalah al-wuiud1.

In the al-xArshiyyah. Mulla Sadra specifies that the

source of this fundamental epistemological principle is divine

inspiration or illumination and it is among the several

principles which are derived from the divine Throne (gaVidah

xarshiyyah),18 which are the highest forms of intellectual

intuition.

The principle of the unity of the knower and the known

18 al-xArshiyyah. 227; Wisdom of the Throne. 113.

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has a long history in Islamic philosophical thought. This

principle which came to be known to the Islamic philosophers

through Porphyry, a student of Plotinus, was rejected by the

early Islamic philosophers, notably Ibn Sina and by many

philosophers after him. In the al-*Arshiyyah, Mulla Sadra

asserts that those who criticized and rejected this principle

did not grasp it properly because they failed to understand

the root of the matter.19 Mulla Sadra's re-instatement of

this important epistemological principle in Islamic Philosophy

thus involves a demonstration (burhan1 of the truth of this

principle. In the al-1 Arshiyyah he begins his demonstration by

asserting:

Everything that^ is intelligible in its being fma'qul al-wuiud1 is also actively intelligizing (or intellecting) (xaailf. Indeed, every form in perception f surah idrhkivyah) — whether it be intelligible (ma'qulaf) or sensible (mahsusat) — is unified fmutahidatu t in its being (al-wuiud1 with that which perceives (mudrik) it.20

There are two main assertions made by Mulla Sadra: one,

every intelligible being (ma^qul al-wuiud1 is also actively

intellecting (al-xaqill and two, every form in perception

(surah idrakivvahl, intelligible (malgulat) or sensible

(mahsusat^, is unified in its being (al-wuiud) with that which

perceives (mudrik) it. In the first assertion, Mulla Sadra is

stating that it is in the very nature of an intelligible being

to also know. This is because to assert that a being is

19 al-1Arshivvah. 228; Wisdom of the Throne. 115.

20 al-1Arshiyyah. 227; Wisdom of the Throne. 113.

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intelligible in its nature is also to state that it is an

intelligible substance (iawhar * aqll).21 An intelligible

substance is not only passively intelligible but is also

actively intelligizing or intellecting. In the second

assertion, Mulla Sadra states that at the moment of

perception, the form of that which is perceived is united to

the intellectual faculty of the perceiver.

Mulla Sadra substantiates the above two assertions which

relate to the principle of the unity of the knower and the

known with the following arguments:

The proof (burhan) of this, emanating from God's Presence (*ind Allah1, is that every form in perception (surah idrakivvahf — even if it is sensible, for example — has some sort of separation (tajrid) from matter (maddah), so that its being in itself and its being sensible (mahsusah) are really only one thing and do not differ at all. Thus, one cannot suppose that the specific form might have a mode of being with respect to which it would not be sensible, because its very being is a being in sensation — quite different from the being of the heavens or earth or anything else which is in external material being. For the being of those (material) things is not in sensation, and they are grasped by sense or by intellect only in an accidental manner and in consequence of a form in sensation corresponding to them.

At the moment of knowledge or of perception, it is the

form of the perceived object that is intellected or known and

not the object itself. The form of the object which is

separate from its matter and which corresponds to the object,

is that which is perceived by the intellect and not the object

21 Islamic Philosophy like Greek Philosophy, distinguishes between three different substances: corporeal (iism). psychic (nafs) and intelligible or spiritual (*aql) substances.

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itself. The intellect cannot be united with or contain the

object but it can be united with the form of the perceived

object which is separate from matter.

Now if this is so, then we can say of that form in sensation, whose being is precisely the same as its being sensed, that its being could not possibly be separate from the being of the substance which senses it. For if it had its being and the substance sensing it had another (different) being, and they only subsequently became connected in the relation of that which senses and that which is sensed, then this would be like the case of a father and son, each with his own essence and being independent of their relationship — yet who could be intellected in no way other than through (their relationship of) fatherhood and sonship. But something like this is impossible in the case we are considering.22

For Mulla Sadra, it is in the very nature of the

perceived form that it be perceived. A perceived form (surah

idrakiyyahf is precisely a form which is perceived (mudrak)

and perception (idrak) presupposes a perceiver (mudrik).

Therefore, the perceived form cannot be separated from the

perceiver. The form in perception which is separate from

matter and the perceiver are necessarily related. Mulla Sadra

compares the necessity of the relation between the perceiver

and the perceived form to that of a father and his son and the

son to his father. It is not possible for a man to be a father

and another to be the son independent or outside of the

relationship of father and son. Similiarly, it is not possible

for a perceived form and the perceiver to be independent of

each other. Thus, in the act of knowledge (al-*ilm). there is

22 al-xArshiyyah. 228; Wisdom of the Throne. 114.

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a unity between the subject who knows (al-xalim) and the

object that is known (al-ma'lum1).

Furthermore, in Mulla Sadra's perspective the principle

of the unity of the knower and the known applies to knowledge

of all levels of reality whether it be corporeal, imaginal or

spiritual. At every moment of knowledge of a form — sensible

or imaginal or spiritual — the intellect of the knower is

united with the form that is known. In the al-xArshiyyah Mulla

Sadra states:

...one of the terms of the relation (between that which senses and that which is sensed), in so far as it is part of the relation, cannot be separated from its partner in their being, at any levels of (intensity of) that being. And the same rule holds for the status of the form in imagination or intellection with respect to its being identical with that which imagines or intelligizes.23

The inter-relations between the subject who knows or

intellects, the intellect and the object that is known or is

intellected are expressed in Arabic by three terms which have

the same root, xa-q-l: al-xaoil. al-xacrl and al-maxaul

respectively. For the Islamic thinkers who advocate the

doctrine of the transcendent unity of Being such as the case

with Ibn al-'Arabi and Mulla Sadra, the inter-relations

between the subject who intellects, the intellect and the

object that is intellected or al-xaail. al-xaal and al-maxqul

respectively, are a unity and their unity is derived from the

unity of Being or the unity of the divine Names and Qualities

23 al-xArshiyyah. 228; Wisdom of the Throne. 114-115.

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(tawhid al-asma' wa'1-sifatl. God is the Knower (al-'aliml, • • Knowledge (al-'ilm! and the Known (al-ma'lum!. Thus, the unity

of the knower and the known has its metaphysical basis on the

Unity of Being and the Unity of the divine Names and

Qualities. This explains Mulla Sadra's discussion of the

principle of the unity of the knower and the known in his

discussion of God's Names and Attributes.

An important topic treated by Mulla Sadra in his

discussion of God's Acts or Signs is the long standing issue

debated among Islamic theologians (mutakallimunl, philosophers

(falasifah or hukama') and Sufis, which is as to whether the

world (al-'alamt is created (hadith) in time (zaman) or is

eternal (gadim) or uncreated? In the al-'Arshiyyah, Mulla

Sadra takes up a discussion of this issue in the thirteenth

principle of the "first place of illumination" which is

entitled "concerning the continuous origination of the world"

fhuduth al-valam1 and which is derived from the "source of

illumination" fqa* idah mashriqiyyah1.24

Generally, the Islamic philosophers advocate the view

that the world is not created in time and the theologians the

contrary view that the world is created in time. The

philosophers believe that time is a condition of the created

order and therefore, the world cannot be created in time. The

theologians on the other hand, believe that God created the

24 al-'Arshiyyah. 230? Wisdom of the Throne. 119.

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world in time from nothingness or ex nihilo.28 The

theologians consider the philosophers' view to be against

Islamic teachings since to state that the world is not created

in time is also to assert that the world is co-eternal with

God. A classic demonstration of the debate between the

philosophers and theologians on this issue is contained for

example, in al-Ghazzali's Tahafut al-falasifah (The

Incoherence of the Philosophers) in which he took the

Peripatetic philosophers to task, particularly Ibn Sina.

In the al-*Arshiyyah. Mulla Sadra's discussion of the

issue of whether the world is eternal or created in time is

carried out within the context of its long standing debate in

Islamic intellectual history. This is made evident by Mulla

Sadra's vocabulary as well as his references and allusions to

certain views concerning this issue. Mulla Sadra begins his

very comprehensive treatment of the issue by asserting

immediately and explicitly, his perspective:

The whole world (al-*alam) originates (hadithl in time (zaman), since everything in it is ’preceded in its being by nonexistence fmasbug al-wuiud bi-xadam1 in time. And everything in it is constantly renewed (tajaddud) (in its being), in the sense that there is absolutely no ipseity (huwlyyah) or individual — be it celestial (falaki) or elemental (unsuri), simple (basi£) or composite (murakkabl, substance (iawhar1 or accident (xarad1 — but that its nonexistence precedes its being in time, and its being likewise precedes its nonexistence in time. In general, every body (jism) and every bodily thing whose being is in any way connected with matter (maddahl is constantly renewed in its ipseity and

25 See for example, George Hourani, "The Dialogue Between al-Ghazzali and the Philosophers on the Origin of the World," Muslim World 48(1958): 308-14.

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impermanent in its being and its individuality.26

Mulla Sadra asserts that the world is created in time and

thus appears to be in agreement with the theologians and

opposed to the philosophers. However, Mulla Sadra's reasoning

differs fundamentally from that of the theologians and is

closer instead to the Sufi view of the perpetual renewal of

creation in every moment. According to Mulla Sadra, the world

is created in time because every being in the world is

preceded in its being by nonexistence in time. At every

instant, the world or every being in the world is created or

renewed (tajaddud). Since at every moment the being of the

world is being created or renewed, its being can therefore, be

regarded to be preceded by its non-being in the previous

moment. For Mulla Sadra, every being which is connected to

matter (maddah), both gross and subtle, is constantly renewed

or created at every moment.

Mulla Sadra's view of the continuous renewal or creation

of the world at every moment is based on divine illumination

which is the result of meditation upon certain Qur'anic verses

on the renewal of creation by God. In the al-xArshiyyah. Mulla

Sadra states:

It is penetrated into us (Mulla Sadra) (la__halana) from God (min inda Allah') as result of meditation of certain verses of His Exalted Book, such as His Saying: "Verily they are in confusion concerning a renewed creation fkhalq iadldl (Q.50:15); and His Saying: "And We are not to be forestalled, in that We will exchange your likenesses and re-create you

26 al-*Arshivvah. 230; Wisdom of the Throne. 119-120.

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in what you will not know" (Q.56:60-61); and His Saying: "And you see the mountains, considering them solid, but they are passing by like the floating of clouds" (Q.28:88). These and other verses allude to the ceaseless renewal and passing away of this material world (dunya'I and indicate its transience (zawal) and infinitude finqita'). as in His saying: "Everyone who is on it is passing away, but there remains the Face of your Lord, He of Majesty and Glory" (Q.55:26- 27) ,27

Having mentioned that the source of his view of the

continuous renewal of the world at every moment is

intellectual illumination, Mulla Sadra proceeds to give a

philosophical demonstration (burhan1 of it. Mulla Sadra's

demonstration is based on the principle of transubstantial

motion (al-harakah al-iawhariyyaht:

This demonstration (burhan) is taken from the proof (ithbat) of the continuous renewal (taiaddudl of 'Nature' (tabi'ah1. which is a substantial form (surah iawharivvahi pervading (sari) every body (jism) and is the immediate principle of its motion (harakah) and rest (sukun1. There is no body that does not have this substantial formal (Nature) pervading the entirety of its parts. It is the immediate principle of (each body's natural) inclination (mail) (towards a particular motion), whether that be in potency (guwwah) or in actuality (fjj_il), circular (mustadir) or straight (mustagim), and (if straight), toward or away from the center of the earth. It is forever changing and transforming and flowing (into particular forms) according to the substance of its essence. Its essential motion of being (by giving being to all substances) is the source of all motions in the accidents of place and position and all changes of condition and of quantity and quality.28

27 al-'Arshiyyah. 230; Wisdom of the Throne. 120.

28 al-'Arshiyyah. 230; Wisdom of the Throne. 121.

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In Mulla Sadra's view, tabi'ah29 or Nature is a

substantial form (surah iawhariyyah) which pervades and

permeates (sari) every body (iism) and its parts, and is the

immediate principle of its motion and rest. Tabi *ah or Nature

is the principle of each body's natural inclination (mail) for

all kinds of motion fharakah) whether it is from potentiality

(quwwah) to actuality (fiVk!), circular or linear. The whole

world and every body in it is pervaded and permeated by the

substantial form of Nature which is perpetually in motion and

renewing itself. In Mulla Sadra's perspective, the very being

of the world of Nature is in constant motion and it is this

all-pervading motion which is the source of motion in the

individual body. Thus, motion is not limited to the accidents

of things but to the very substance of things. This world

which is dominated by Nature or tab! * ah is in constant

transubstantial motion fal-harakah al-iawhariyyah).

Furthermore, the cause of the perpetual transubstantial motion

of the world of Nature is not caused by any agent or cause

outside of itself but by its own essential nature which has

been given to it by God. In the al-xArshiyyah. Mulla Sadra

states:

...the ipseity of this Nature is such that It is ceaselessly being renewed and passing away, originating and ending. There is no cause (other than God) for Its continual origination and renewal, since what is essential in something is not caused by anything but

29 Mulla Sadra like many Islamic thinkers before him use the word tabi * ah to mean the world of Nature or of bodies, the nature of something as well as Nature as a force or a power.

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its own essence. And the Maker, when He made (the essence of Nature) made Its essence to be continually renewed. This continual renewal is not made or acted upon or influenced by anything (other than God).30

Eschatoloav

Mulla Sadra begins his discussion of eschatology (al­

mav ad 1 which constitutes the second part of the al-xArshiyyah

or the "second place of illumination" with a discussion of the

knowledge of the soul fmaxrifat al-nafs). Here it is important

to note that Mulla Sadra uses the term maxrifah which means

inner or esoteric knowledge which is obtained through

intellectual illumination and intuition, instead of xilm which

means knowledge in general and which when juxtaposed to

maxrifah denotes a form of knowledge which is acquired through

formal learning and discursive thought. The early Islamic

philosophers such as al-Farabi and Ibn Sina used the term xilm

al-nafs for the science of the soul and they treated it as a

part of Natural Philosophy.31 The term maxrifat al-nafs for

the science of the soul came to be used in the later history

of Islamic Philosophy to distinguish between a presential

knowledge fal-xilm al-huduril of the soul and an acquired

knowledge fal-xilm al-husuli^ of it. Unlike the early

philosophers, Mulla Sadra treats the science of the soul as a

30 al-xArshiyyah. 230; Wisdom of the Throne. 121-22.

31 For example in his Kitab al-naiat. Ibn Sina's discussion of the soul forms the sixth section of the second book devoted to Natural Philosophy (tabixah').

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part of eschatology (al-ma*adt because it is the soul which

will experience the Return and the various eschatological

events described in the Qur'an and Hadith. The differences in w the terms used for the science of the soul therefore, has to

do with the different sources of knowledge of the soul and

that of their treatments, with the different perspectives of

the subject.

In the first principle of the "first illumination"

(ishraq al-'awwall on "the inner knowledge of the soul", Mulla

Sadra states the necessity for illumination to attain esoteric

knowledge of the soul. He considers esoteric knowledge of the

soul as "one of the exteremely difficult fields of knowledge"

and which cannot be attained merely by discursive thought and

philosophical investigations alone. In the al-*Arshiyyah.

Mulla Sadra states:

Know that the inner knowledge of the soul is one of those extremely difficult (fields of) knowledge in which the philosophers were exceedingly neglectful, despite the length of their investigations, the power of their thought and the frequency of their endeavours in this field. For this knowledge can only be acquired from illuminations drawn (iqtibas) from the "lamp-niche of Prophecy (mishkat al-nubuwwahl and through following the lights of Revelation fanwar al-wahi1 and Prophethood (al-risalahf and the lanterns of the Book fmasabih al- kitab) and the Tradition (al^sunnah) that has come down to us in the Path of our Imams, masters of guidance (hidayah) and infallibility, from their ancestor the Seal of the prophets...32

By the use of the terms mishkat (lamp-niche) and masabih

(lanterns), Mulla Sadra is making explicit references to the

32 al-*Arshivvah. 234; Wisdom of the Throne. 131.

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famous Light Verse of the Qur'an.33 For Mulla Sadra, the

prophet or prophecy is the "lamp-niche" (mishkat) which is •

illuminated by the "lantern" or "lamp" (misbah) which is the

Qur'an. The Prophet by receiving revelation is illuminated

with knowledge. Similiarly those who accept and have faith in

the veracity and guidance of the Qur'an and the prophethood of

Muhammad and the infallibility of the Imams on religious

matters can also attain true and certain knowledge, such as

that concerning the nature of the soul, and be illuminated.

Having asserted the necessity of accepting revelation and

prophecy for attaining esoteric knowledge of the soul, Mulla

Sadra then gives a philosophical exposition of the nature of

the soul. According to Mulla Sadra, the soul from its

origination to the end of its goal has many levels (darajat)

and stations (maqamat). In the beginning, the soul is

connected with the body and is a corporeal substance (iawhar

iismani), however, through the process of transubstantial

motion (al-harakat al-iawharivyah) the soul becomes gradually

intensified (ishtidad) and its mode (tawr) of existence or

being is likewise transformed until it attains independence

(tajrid) from the body and finally subsists as spirit and

33 "Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The similitude of His Light is as a niche (mishkat) wherein is a lamp (misbah). The lamp is in a glass. The glass is as it were a shining star. (This lamp is) kindled from a blessed tree, an olive neither of the East nor of the West, whose oil would almost glow forth (of itself) though no fire touched it. Light upon light, Allah guideth unto His light whom He will. And Allah speaketh to mankind in allegories, for Allah is Knower of all things" (Q.24:35).

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"returns to its Lord" (Q.89:27). The soul as summarized by

Mulla Sadra, originates as body but subsists as spirit:

"iismanivvat al-huduth ruhaniyvat al-bacra'" .34

Mulla Sadra delineates the various stages of the

development of the human soul from the vegetative soul (al-

nafs al-nabativvah) to the animal soul (al-nafs al-

haiwanivvaht and to the rational soul (al-nafs al-natiaahl

with its practical intellect fal-xaal al-'amalit and

theoretical intellect (al-nafs al-nazaril and to the

subsequent stages of the development of the theoretical

intellect from the intellect in potentiality (al-xaql bi'l-

cmwwah) to the intellect in actuality (al-'aql bi#l-fi4il1

which finally attains union with the Active Intellect (al-xaal

al-fa4alf,35 Mulla Sadra's delineation of the various stages

of developments and faculties of the soul are similiar to that

of Ibn Sina. Mulla Sadra identifies the Active Intellect with

the Holy Spirit (al-ruh a 1-cuds’) or archangel Gabriel who is

the Angel of Revelation in Islam. Contrary to the Mashsha'i

philosophers but in agreement with the Sufis, Mulla Sadra

considers human effort and labor alone are insufficient to

attain this highest station of unity with the Active

Intellect. There is a need for divine aid and grace for the

attainment of intellectual perfection as testified by a

prophetic Hadith quoted by Mulla Sadra: "A single attraction

34 al-3Arshivvah. 230; Wisdom of the Throne. 132.

35 Ibid.

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(jadhb) from God (al-Haaal outbalances all the efforts of men * and jinn".36

In the al-xArshivvah Mulla Sadra states that human souls

which have become fully actualized are very few in number. The

vast majority of individual souls are imperfect and have not

attained the rank of the intellect in actuality which is

united to the Active Intellect. However, the fact that these

human souls have not attained the highest state of

intellectual perfection does not entail that they will perish

or are annihilated after death as supposed by Aristotle and

his neo-Platonic commentator Alexander Aphrodisias whose works

were well-known among the Muslims.37

Unlike Ibn Rushd who agreed with Aristotle and Alexander

Aphrodisias and considered only the intellect in man to be

immortal and therefore only that part of the human soul which

has become actualized in the intelligible world to survive

death, Mulla Sadra in agreement with Ibn Sina considers the

individual human soul to be immortal. In Mulla Sadra's

perspective, a denial of the immortality of the individual

human soul is contrary to Islamic eschatological belief which

36 al-xArshiyyah. 230; Wisdom of the Throne. 132.

37 Many of the works of Alexander Aphrodisias or al- Iskandar al-Afrudisi as he is known among the Muslims were translated into Arabic and they made a tremendous impact on the Muslim philosophers. His commentary on Aristotle's de Anima fKitab al-nafs1 for example, was greatly debated. See Richard Walzer, "On the legacy of the classics in the Islamic world," in his Greek into Arabic (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962).

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states explicitly that every soul will be justly requited with

what it has earned in this world.

According to Mulla Sadra, Alexander Aphrodisias's view is

based on the supposition that there exists only two kinds of

worlds: the world of material bodies and the world of

intellects. Consequently, in this cosmological scheme of

things, there is no place for imperfect souls which have not

become fully actualized. In the al-'Arshiyyah Mulla Sadra

asserts that there is an imaginal world which is intermediate

between the spiritual and sensible worlds. All the souls which

have not attained perfection or unity with the Active

Intellect which is also the station of the Universal Man fal-

ins~an al-kamiH will be placed in the intermediate world. It

is in this intermediate world that the souls will experience

certain eschatological events described in the Qur'an and

Hadith. In the al-'Arshiyyah Mulla Sadra explains:

But it is not like that (Mulla Sadra is referring to Alexander Aphrodisias's view). Instead, there is another world of being, alive and sensible (mahsusah) by essence, unlike this (physical) world — a world that is perceived by these true (inner) senses (al-hawas haaiaaht, not by these transient external ones *(al-hawas al-zahirah datharahl. That world is divided into a sensible Paradise (al-Hannah mahsusah^ containing the felicities of the blessed (na'im al- su'ada') f including food, drink, marriage, sensual desire and all that could delight the soul and give pleasure to the eyes; and a sensible Hell (nar mahsusah) containing the punishments of the wretched ('adhab al- ashaiya'). including hellfire, torments, serpents and scorpions. If this imaginal world did not exist what Alexander mentioned would be undeniably_true and that would mean that the Sacred Laws f sharaya') and divine Books (al-kutub al-ilahivyahl were lying when they maintained the resurrection (ba'atht for

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everyone.38

It is significant to note that Mulla Sadra refers to the

Scared Law (shari * ah') and the divine Book (al-kitab al­

ii ahlvvahl in the plural, thus indicating that the rejection

of the immortality of the individual human soul is not only

contrary to Islamic teachings but also to the other religions.

Mulla Sadra is obviously aware of similiar debates of this

issue among the Christian and Jewish philosophers.

Elsewhere in the al-11 Arshiyyah. Mulla Sadra describes the

remarkable nature of the human soul and its incredible

potentiality in the following manner:

...the human soul is "the conclusion of the world of sensible things fnihayah al-*alam al-mahsusatl and the beginning of the spiritual world (badayat al- *alam al-ruahaniyyatf. It is the greatest gateway to God (bab Allah al-^azimt, through which one can be brought to the Highest Kingdom (al-malakut al-ulal; but it also has "a certain portion of all the gates of Hell" (Q.25:44). It is the dyke standing between this world and the other world because it is the form (surah) of every potency (quwwah) in this world and the matter (maddah) for every form in another world.

According to Mulla Sadra, the human soul is the

conjunction of the terminal point of the sensible world and

the initial point of the spiritual world or using a Qur'anic

description: "the junction of the two seas" (Q. 18:59).39 It

has the capability of having dominion over the physical world

and the possiblity of entering into all of the higher levels

of reality.

38 al-*Arshiyyah. 243-44; Wisdom of the Throne. 150.

39 al-*Arshiyyah. 242; Wisdom of the Throne. 148.

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One of the most important doctrines discussed by Mulla

Sadra on the human soul is the immortality of the imaginative

faculty (auwwah khayaliyyahl. In the al-1Arshiyyah. Mulla

Sadra states:

In man, the imaginal power is a substance which is independent of this world (iawhar muiarradl, that is, the world of physical beings (al-akwan al-tabi * ivvah1 and the motions (harakah) and transformations of material things...But this power is not (totally) independent of generated being (al-kawnainf, since in that case it would have to be (pure) intellect (x aql1 and object of intellection (malgul).40

By stating that the imaginal power in man is a substance

which is independent of the sensible world (iawhar muiarradl,

Mulla Sadra is asserting that the imaginative faculty is

immaterial and immortal and it does not die when the body

dies. Although the imaginative faculty is of a substance which

is independent of the material world, it is not without

connection or relation to it. The imaginative faculty

according to Mulla Sadra is not totally independent of the two

worlds of generated being (al-kawnainl which are this world

and the next world. If the imaginative faculty were to be

totally independent of both worlds, then it would be pure

intellect (xaal’l or spirit.

For Mulla Sadra the imaginative faculty belongs to or is

a part of the imaginal world fal-suwwar al-khivalivahl. The

imaginal world is a world which corresponds to or is similiar

to the material world but is very much richer than the

40 al-xArshivvah. 238; Wisdom of the Throne. 137.

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material world. In the al-1Arshiyyah Mulla Sadra explains:

...Its being (ie. imaginative faculty) is in another world, one that corresponds to this (physical) world in that it comprises heavens, elements, different species of plants, animals, and so on — only multiplied many times over (the things of) this world. Everything that man perceives and sees directly by means of his imaginative faculty (quwwah khivalivvah) and his interior sense fhissi al-batin) does not at all inhere in the stuff (-firm) of the' brain or in some power inhering in that area (as maintained by Ibn Sina); nor is it located in the bodies of the heavenly spheres or in a world separated from the soul as some followers of the Illuminationist (philosophers) have maintained. Instead, it subsists in the soul — not like something inhering in something else, but rather like an act subsisting through its agent.41

Mulla Sadra does not consider the imaginative faculty to

be located either in the material stuff of the brain or in

some area of the brain which is associated with its function

as thought of by Ibn Sina or in a world which is separate and

independent of the human soul as believed by Suhrawardi.42

The imaginative faculty has its locus in the human soul. The

relation between the imaginative faculty and the soul is not

in the manner of something inhering in another thing but in

the way an act is related to its agent.

In the al-1Arshivvah Mulla Sadra states:

These forms present in the world of the soul may differ in manifestness (zuhur) and hiddenness (khifa/),

41 al-1Arshiyyah. 238; Wisdom of the Throne. 138.

42 Although Suhrawardi is the first Islamic thinker to state in an explicit manner of the existence of the imaginal world which is intermediate between the material and spiritual worlds, he however, does not assert that there is a corresponding level of being in man. See Fazlur Rahman, "Dream, Imagination and xAlam al-mithal." Islamic Studies. Vol.3, No.2 (June 1964): 169, 175.

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in intensity (shadda) and weakness (da'if). The stronger and more substantial the power of this imaginal soul — (which is to say), the more it returns to its own essence and the less it is preoccupied with the distractions of the body and the use of the bodily powers of motion — the more manifestly will these forms appear in the soul and the stronger will be their being. For when these forms have become strengthened and intensified, there is no proportion between them and the things existing in this world so far as the intensity of their being, actualization and certainty of effect. It is not true, as is popularly supposed that these forms are mere phantom images without regular effects of real being as is the case with most dreams.43

According to Mulla Sadra, the degree of manifestation

(zuhur) or hiddenness (khifai) and intensity (shadda) or

weakness (da'if) of the imaginal forms which are perceived by

the imaginative faculty is dependent on the strength of the

imaginative faculty itself. The greater the strength of the

imaginative faculty, the more manifest and intense are the

imaginal forms which are perceived by it. The soul's

preoccupations with the body affects directly the strength of

the imaginative faculty. This explains why for most

individuals imaginal forms are only perceived in the dream

state when the body is asleep and the soul is less preoccupied

with the body. The imaginal forms are not mere phantom images

without objective existence or reality. The imaginal forms are

objectively existent and they belong to a level of being which

is higher and more intense than that of the sensible world.

For the majority of the people, the imaginal forms are hidden

from them and if manifested in the dream state are often weak

43 al-'Arshiyyah. 238; Wisdom of the Throne. 138.

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due to their souls' immense attachment with the body. The

complete manifestation of the imaginal forms and the power of

the imaginative faculty will only be experienced fully after

death when the soul is separated from the body. In the

posthumous state, the individual will perceive the full

manifestation and intensity of the imaginal forms and come to

realise that the sensible forms of the material world are

weaker and less real, relative to the imaginal forms. This is

a reverse of the situation in this world in which the imaginal

forms which are perceived for the most part in the dream state

appear less real compared to the vivid sensible forms of the

world. In the al-xArshiyyah Mulla Sadra states:

The complete manifestation of these forms and the perfection of these forms and the perfection of the power of their being occurs only after death. (This is true) to such a degree that compared to the forms man will see after death, the forms he sees in this world are like dreams. This is why the Commander of the truly faithful (Imam Ali) said: "Mankind are sleeping; when they die, they awaken." Then the Unseen becomes immediate vision. In this is the secret of the Return...44

In Mulla Sadra's perspective, the imaginative faculty is

the end of this world's modality of being (akhir hadhihi al-

nasha' al-'ulaf and the beginning of the other world's

modality of being (awwal al-nasha' al-akhirahf45. When the

soul is separated from the body it carries along with itself

the perceiving form (al-surat al-mudrikahf which enables it to

44 al-xArshiyyah. 238; Wisdom of the Throne. 138.

45 al-xArshiyyah. 258; Wisdom of the Throne. 178.

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perceive sensible things through its inner sense (hissi al-

batinl,46 Thus, although at death the soul is separated from

the body and the external senses, the soul continues to

perceive forms through its inner senses. In addition, the

imaginative faculty when it is separated from the body can

create or originate (ibda/) imaginal forms by its own volition

(al-iradahl. In the al-*Arshiyyah Mulla Sadra explains the

creative power of the soul to originate imaginal forms in the

following manner:

Extended forms and shapes and structures can occur through the activity of a maker because of the preparedness of certain materials and in association with certain receptive conditions. Buth those forms may likewise occur by immediate creation (ibda'1, simply through the conceptions and formative directions of the maker, without any association with a (material) receptacle and its location and preparedness. The being of the planets and heavenly spheres is like that, through God's immediate conception of their principles and formative directions and through His knowledge...Another example of this sort (of creation) is the origination by mere volition (al-iradahl of the imaginal forms (air. suwwar al-khivalivyahl subsisting in no place, through the imaginal power (al-cmwwah al-khiyaliyyahl which is independent from this world (muiarradat).. .Those forms do not subsist in the corporeal substance (iirml of the brain, nor in the heavenly bodies as some people have maintained, nor in a world of phantasmal images subsisting apart from the soul. Rather they subsist through the soul and exist in the domain of the soul.47

Forms which have extension and shapes can be created by

an individual when there are present the appropriate or

correct materials and conditions at his disposal. However

forms can also be created (ibda/.) simply by the conception and

46 Ibid.

47 al-*Arshiyyah. 247; Wisdom of the Throne. 157.

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formative directions of an agent without the presence of the

necessary materials and conditions. Here Mulla Sadra gives the

example of God's creation of the planets and heavenly bodies

as an illustration of such a creation.

According to Mulla Sadra, God created the heavenly bodies

from nothing or without any preceding matter. God's act of

creating or originating the heavens from nothing is denoted by

the term ibda'.4B It is one of the terms used in the Qur'an

along with others such as khalq and takwin to desribe God's

creative activities. The term ibda' means to create or

originate something from nothing. One of the Names of God is

al-Mubdi' or 'He who creates from nothing'.

Mulla Sadra like Ibn al-'Arabi believes that the soul is

endowed by God with a similiar power to originate forms from

nothing. In the al-'Arshiyyah Mulla Sadra quotes Ibn al-'Arabi

on this point:

Some of the "people of realization" (al-muhaqqiqun~) (ie. Ibn al-'Arabi) said: "Every man creates with his imagination things which have no being outside the place of his intention...Yet his intention continues to preserve them without this act of preservation at all tiring him; whenever neglect overtakes him, though, that which he created disappears."49

The imaginal forms which are originated fom nothing by the

human soul exist in the soul. For Mulla Sadra, these imaginal

48 The term ibda' is used by Islamic philosophers before Mulla Sadra to denote God's timeless and unmediated creation of the separate intelligences and the heavenly spheres. See James Morris's notation of this in Wisdom of the Throne. 157.

49 al-'Arshiyyah. 247-248; Wisdom of the Throne. 158.

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forms which are originated by the soul and which exist in it

are "more substantial, more firmly established and permanent

in their reality than material forms which are constantly

changing and being regenerated".50 Using a Qur'anic analogy,

Mulla Sadra states that the material forms when compared to

the imaginal forms are "like a mirage in the desert which the

thirsty man thinks to be water" (Q.24:39).51

In the posthumous state, everything that an individual

conceives of or desires or longs for is immediately present to

him. The mere conception of a thing is the very same as its

presence. In the al-1Arshiyyah Mulla Sadra asserts that all

that a man attains and is requited with in the after-life

whether it be the blessings (naVLm) of Paradise (jannah) such

as houris Churl. palaces Cqusur). gardens (jannat), trees

(shajarat) and streams fnahar)52 or the opposite sorts of

pains (ladhab) that are in Hell C iahannam) such as fire (nar),

chains (salasil), scorpions Caqarib) and serpents ftha'abint 53

are "in the essence of his soul Cdhat al-nafs): in his

intentions (nlyyat), meditations C ta'amulatl, beliefs

(Vitiqadat) and character C akhlaq)" .5“ Therefore in the

after-life, the ambience of the soul is nothing other than the

50 al-'Arshiyvah. 250; Wisdom of the Throne. 163.

51 al-'Arshiyyah. 256; Wisdom of the Throne. 173.

52 al-'Arshiyyah. 250; Wisdom of the Throne. 162.

53 al-'Arshiyyah. 252; Wisdom of the Throne. 166.

54 al-'Arshiyyah. 251; Wisdom of the Throne. 164.

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projections of its inner being. An individual's intentions,

meditations, beliefs and character will determine whether he

will experience the felicity of Paradise or the suffering of

Hell. Every human being whether he is among the blessed

f suxada') of Paradise or the wretched (ashqiya' 'I of Hell will

have his own complete and independent world which is more

immense than this world.

In his account of Paradise and Hell, Mulla Sadra has

made use of the vocabulary of the Qur'an as well as its

descriptions about them. Following the Qur'an Mulla Sadra uses

the word iannah for Paradise, iahannam for Hell, na*im for the

blessings of Paradise, 'adtiab for the suffering of Hell,

suxada' for the blessed of Paradise and ashaiya' for the

wretched in Hell. The specific items mentioned by Mulla Sadra

in relation to Paradise and Hell respectively such as iannat

(gardens), nahar (streams), hur (houris), and nar (fire),

snakes (thalabin) and scorpions (agarib) are also taken from

the Qur'an. The Qur'an describes Paradise and Hell in very

vivid and sensuous imageries drawn from the things of this

world. In the "third illumination" concerning the states that

occur in the other world, Mulla Sadra discusses in a detailed

manner the symbolic meanings and significance of the sensual

imageries used to describe Paradise and Hell and the various

eschatological events which human souls will experience in the

after-life. Mulla Sadra's interpretation of the symbolic

descriptions of the after-life contained in the Qur'an can be

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regarded as a philosophical exegesis of the revealed verses.

It is by positing the existence of an imaginal world

intermediate between the spiritual and sensible worlds and the

immortality of the individual soul and the creative power of

the imaginative faculty to originate forms without requiring

material instruments and receptacles that Mulla Sadra is able

to uphold and explain the Islamic view of eschatology as

contained in the Qur'an and Hadith.

An analysis of Mulla Sadra's method of synthesis of the truth claims of revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy

From the above discussion of Mulla Sadra's approach to

and treatment of the fundamental principles of his philosophy

in the al-*Arshiyyah. there can be observed and discerned

certain general patterns and characteristic features of Mulla

Sadra's method of synthesizing the truth claims of revelation,

gnosis and discursive philosophy. The following is a

discussion of the salient features of Mulla Sadra's method of

synthesis.

In his exposition of each of the four fundamental

princples, Mulla Sadra states explicitly that the source of

his knowledge of these principles are intellectual

illuminations derived either from proximity with God (erax idah

laduniyyahl or the divine Throne fqa'idah xarshivvah1 or the

place of illumination (qax idah mashriqiyyah^. These

illuminations which are bestowals from God are the result of

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having faith in Him, the Qur'an, the Prophet and the Imams. In

the Prologue of the al-xArshiyyah. Mulla Sadra states that he

wrote the text in order to disclose "some of the divine

(rububivvah1 matters and sacred fqudsivvahl insights" with

which God has illuminated his heart "from the world of Mercy

and Light".55 According to Mulla Sadra, these illuminative

insights are beyond the understanding of the multitude and are

not to be found in the works of the rationalistic philosophers

or to be acquired by formal learning and discursive

thought.56 He asserts that these insights are "like glowing

embers lit at the Lamp-niche of Prophecy and Sainthood

fmishkat al-nubuwwah wa'l- walayahl drawn forth from the

sources of the Qur'an and Prophetic Tradition".57

Mulla Sadra's choice of the title of Kitab al-hikmat al-

xarshivyah for his text which literally means The Book of

Wisdom Descending from the Divine Throne also indicates in an

explicit manner that it deals with a form of knowledge or

wisdom which is attained from the highest form of intellectual

illuminations. The term al-xarsh is a Qur'anic term and it

means the Throne of God. In Islamic cosmology, the Throne of

God symbolizes the boundary between the created order and the

divine order. Thus the term 'al-*arshivvah' in the title,

indicates that the text deals with Mulla Sadra's illuminative

55 al-*Arshiyyah. 218, Wisdom of the Throne. 90.

56 Ibid.

57 Ibid.

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knowledge (al-'ilm al-laduril) about God and the Last Day which

is derived from sacred inspirations received from the Divine

Throne. In Mulla Sadra's consideration, these two forms of

knowledge are the most essential to the attainment of divine

wisdom and intellectual perfection58 and are therefore

fundamental to his transcendent philosophy.

Although the primary objective of the al-*Arshiyyah is to

communicate some of Mulla Sadra's illuminative insights about

God and the Last Day or metaphysics and eschatology for the

purpose of guiding "ardent and noble souls" who desire to

attain divine wisdom and certain knowledge,59 these insights

as demonstrated in the preceding discussion of the al-

2Arshiyyah, are not expressed and communicated independent of

or in isolation of either revelation or discursive thought or

philosophy. The illuminative insights of Mulla Sadra are

formulated as philosophical principles (qawa1 id) and are

expressed in the technical vocabulary (istilah) of the Islamic

philosophical tradition and whenever relevant, that of kalam

(theology) and xirfan (doctrinal Sufism). Mulla Sadra

demonstrates the veracity and cogency of the illuminative

principles by employing logical reasoning and arguments. To

illustrate, in his discussion of the illuminative principle of

the unity of the knower and the known, Mulla Sadra makes use

of the logical relation between the perceiver (mudrik), the

58 al-^Arshivvah. 219; Wisdom of the Throne. 92.

59 Ibid.

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perceived (mudrak) and perception (idrak) to demonstrate their

unity. Their logical relations with each other provide Mulla

Sadra with a legitimate basis for establishing their unity.

Although Mulla Sadra makes use of logical reasoning and

arguments to demonstrate the cogency of his illuminative

principles, he also often pushes discursive thought to its

limits in order to prepare the occasion for intellectual

intuition. For example, in his discussion of the unity of

Being, Mulla Sadra examines all the various concepts of unity

that man can conceive of and denies that any one of them

pertains to God's Unity. Mulla Sadra's purpose of negating all

human concepts of unity from the understanding of God's Unity

is to demonstrate that God's Unity transcends all the logical

categories of human reasoning and therefore cannot be known

discursively. God's unity can only be known through immediate

experience (dhawql and intellectual 'unveiling' (kashf).

In addition, Mulla Sadra discusses his illuminative

principles in the context of the various views, perspectives

and debates of them in the different schools of thought in

Islamic intellectual history. For example, Mulla Sadra's

discussion of the illuminative principle of the renewal of

creation at every moment is made in the context of the views

of the philosophers, theologians and Sufis about it and the

debates between them. Thus, Mulla Sadra's intellectual

illuminations are not expounded or expressed in an

intellectual vaccum. Rather, they are formulated as cogent

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philosophical principles which are expressed in the precise

technical vocabulary relevant to their treatments and

expounded in their necessary and vital intellectual background

and contexts. If on the one hand, Mulla Sadra's intellectual

illuminations are personal and particular to him, on the other

hand, the discussion and demonstration of his illuminations in

the language and context of Islamic philosophical thought

makes them intellectually comprehensible and accessible.

Mulla Sadra frequently makes references to and quotes

from the Qur'an, Hadith of the Prophet and sayings of the

Imams. Mulla Sadra quotes from these sources in order to

demonstrate the conformity of his views to them and to

explicate the profound metaphysical meanings and significances

which are contained in or implied by them. Mulla Sadra's

quotations of the relevant verses of the Qur'an, hadiths of

the Prophet and sayings of the Imams not only demonstrate the

orthodoxy of his views but more importantly, his particular

understanding and interpretations of them. Not only does Mulla

Sadra demonstrate the coherence of his illuminative insights

by the use of logical reasoning, but he also demonstrates

their orthodoxy by confirming them with the relevant verses of

the Qur'an, Hadith and sayings of the Imams. For example, in

his exposition of the principle of transubstantial motion,

Mulla Sadra not only provides the reader with a philosophical

justification of it but also quotes certain verses from the

Qur'an to demonstrate that the principle of transubstantial

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motion is consistent with its teachings.

From the above discussion of the salient features of

Mulla Sadra's method of synthesis of the truth claims of

revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy, two important

observations can be made. First, Mulla Sadra's recognition and

acceptance of the three principal sources of knowledge

available to man: revelation, intellectual intuition and

reason. Second, there exists a synthesis of the three sources

of knowledge in Mulla Sadra's formulation of the fundamental

principles of his philosophy.

On the basis of the preceding discussion of the al-

VArshiyyah, it is evident that Mulla Sadra considers the

Qur'an, Hadith of the Prophet and sayings of the Imams as

certain and ultimate sources of knowledge. The truth of these

sources of knowledge can be accepted on the basis of faith

(iman) and obedience to religious authority (taglid) as is the

case with the majority of Muslims. However, according to Mulla

Sadra, the truth of the Qur'an, prophetic hadith and sayings

of the Imams can also be verified and known with certainty

(yaqin).

Like all philosophers concerned with the pursuit of

certain knowledge, the issue of verification (tahgiq) is of

profound importance for Mulla Sadra. The truth (al-haqiqahf in

order to be ascertained has to be verified. There are various

ways to verify the truth of something. The truth of an

empirical statement, for example, can be verified by

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observation of the facts which relate to it and the truth of

a logical statement by the rules of sound reasoning. According

to Mulla Sadra, the truth of revelation can be verified by

intellectual illumination or 'unveiling' (kashf) or direct

witnessing (mushahadah1. Through intellectual illumination,

the true meaning of the verses of the Qur'an can be known with

certainty. In the concluding statement of the al-'Arshiyyah.

Mulla Sadra states:

Know that to attain the true inner divine knowledge one must follow a proof (burhan) or 'unveiling' by immediate vision, just as He — May He be exalted! — said: "Say: Bring your proof, if you are among those who speak truthfully!" (Q.2:ll);— This proof is a Light that God casts on the heart of the man of true faith, a Light that illuminates his inner vision so that he "sees things as they really are," as it was stated in the prayer of the Prophet.. .so

If the truth of revelation is verified by intellectual

illumination, then the subsequent logical question that can be

raised is: How can the truth of an intellectual illumination

be verified? From Mulla Sadra's writings it appears that there

are two ways to verify the truth or authenticity of an

intellectual illumination. They are: one, by referring and

confirming it with the ultimate and certain source of

knowledge which is revelation and two, by checking its

coherence and cogency with the rules of logical reasoning.

Although an illuminative experience is particular and

personal to the individual to whom it has been bestowed on by

God, the cognitive content of an illuminative experience can

60 al-'Arshiyyah. 286; Wisdom of the Throne. 253.

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be expressed and communicated in the language of phenomenal

experience. Characteristic of a hakim. Mulla Sadra expresses

and discloses the noetic content of his illuminations in the

language and categories of the Islamic philosophical

tradition. Mulla Sadra confirms the truth or legitimacy of his

intellectual illuminations which are expounded in the form of

philosophical principles by demonstrating their consistency

and conformity with revelation and their intellectual

coherence and cogency with the rules of logical reasoning.

Thus, there exists a synthesis of the three sources of

knowledge in Mulla Sadra's philosophy. In Mulla Sadra's

perspective, the three principal sources of knowledge are not

only necessary and vital in the pursuit of certain knowledge

and intellectual perfection, but they can also be synthesized

or brought together in a harmonious way in the realization of

the Truth. This perspective of his is clearly demonstrated in

his philosophical writings. As the preceding analysis of the

al-*Arshiyyah reveals, Mulla Sadra's philosophy which contains

a synthesis of the truth claims of revelation, gnosis and

discursive philosophy is based on his synthesis of the three

sources of knowledge. It is by synthesizing the three sources

of knowledge that Mulla Sadra synthesizes the truth claims of

revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy in his

transcendent philosophy.

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IS MULLA SADRA SUCCESSFUL IN HIS SYNTHESIZING EFFORT?

Having established that there exists a synthesis of the

truth claims of revelation, intellectual intuition and reason

in Mulla Sadra's philosophy and also demonstrated how he

synthesizes them, this chapter will examine whether or not

Mulla Sadra is successful in his synthesizing effort. Since

Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the truth claims of revelation,

gnosis and discursive philosophy is based on his synthesis of

the three sources of knowledge, both syntheses will be

evaluated in order to make a judgment as to whether or not

Mulla Sadra is successful in his synthesizing effort. As

mentioned in the introductory chapter, three criteria will be

used to evaluate Mulla Sadra's syntheses. They are: one, their

internal coherence, two, their conformity to the Islamic

religion and three, the impact and influence of Mulla Sadra's

philosophical thought on the Islamic philosophers after him.

These three ciriteria will provide a sufficient basis to

evaluate the success or failure of Mulla Sadra's syntheses.

Since Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the truth claims of

revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy is based on the

synthesis of the three sources of knowledge: revelation,

249

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intellectual intuition and reason, the latter and more primary

synthesis will be examined first.

An evaluation of Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the three sources of knowledge

As demonstrated in the previous chapter, Mulla Sadra

considers revelation, intellectual intuition and reason to aid

man in his pursuit of true and certain knowledge and

intellectual perfection. The three sources of knowledge are

not viewed by Mulla Sadra as mutually exclusive of each other;

rather they can be combined and brought to bear upon each

other without contradiction in the quest of the Truth or

certain knowledge. The following evaluation seeks to ascertain

whether or not Mulla Sadra succeeds in synthesizing or

bringing together the three sources of knowledge in the

attainment of certain knowledge.

As a Muslim, Mulla Sadra accepts and believes that the

Qur'an is the embodiment of the Word of God and hence to

contain the absolute Truth (al-haaiaahl and is the ultimate

and certain source as well as criterion of true knowledge. The

question of the veracity of revelation or the certitude of its

knowledge is not a philosophical issue for him. Rather, his

chief concern is with the comprehension and verification of

the true meaning of revelation. Mulla Sadra's philosophy can

be considered to be founded and defined by this fundamental

concern.

Mulla Sadra is not alone in making the concern for the

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comprehension and verification of the true meaning of

revelation as the basis and point of departure of his

philosophizing. All the Islamic philosophers before him from

al-Kindi and al-Farabi to Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd to Suhrawardi

and Mir Damad can be viewed to one degree or another as

sharing the same concern and aspiring to a similiar objective.

Furthermore, the central interest and concern with the true

meaning of revelation is not peculiar to the Islamic

philosophers but also extend to all philosophers who function

in a world-view or religious collectivity which is founded on

a sacred Book. As Henry Corbin rightly observes:

the phenomenon of the 'revealed sacred Book' entails a particular anthropology, even a certain definite spiritual culture, and that it postulates, at the same time as it stimulates and orientates a certain type of philosophy.1

In agreement with Corbin, Islamic Philosophy can be

viewed as a philosophy which is postulated, stimulated and

oriented by the Qur'an, specifically the hermeneutics of the

Qur'an.2 Throughout its history, the first and last task of

Islamic Philosophy is the comprehension and verification of

the true meaning of the Qur'an and by extension that of the

prophetic Hadith. In Shi'ite Islam in which Islamic Philosophy

1 Henry Corbin, History of Islamic Philosophy. 2.

2 Although both the Qur'an and Graeco-Alexandrian wisdom play extremely important roles in the genesis of Islamic Philosophy, the Qur'anic revelation can be viewed as the most important internal cause or factor and Graeco-Alexandrian learning as the most important external cause or impetus to the birth and development of the Islamic philosophical tradition.

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continues to flourish since the thirteenth century, the

sayings of the Imams are also included.

The Qur'an is not a philosophical text although it deals

with a vast array of philosophical issues, especially those of

a metaphysical nature. The verses of the Qur'an are not easily

comprehended and they do not contain only one level of

meaning. The Qur'anic verses are divided into the decisive

verses (muhkamat ~l and the multivalent verses (mutashabihht)

and its meaning into the literal or outward (zahir) meaning

and the symbolic or inward fbatinl meaning.3 There developed

from these divisions the two principal sciences of Qur'anic

exegeses: exoteric exegesis (tafsir) and esoteric exegesis

(ta/wll). Furthermore, the Qur'an explicitly states that "none

knows its (the Qur'an) interpretation (talwil), save only God,

and those firmly rooted in knowledge".4 The problem of

determining who are qualified to be considered as "those

firmly rooted in knowledge" is of course a matter of great

dispute in Islamic history.

From the al-'Arshiyyah as well as Mulla Sadra's other

works, it is clear that he considers intellectual illumination

or 'unveiling' as the most reliable and certain method of

comprehending and verifying the esoteric or true meaning of

3 A hadith of the Prophet states: "The Qur'an possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning. So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings", ibid., 7.

4 (Q.3:7)

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the verses of the Qur'an and the people of 'unveiling' as

"those who are firmly rooted in knowledge". In his Kitab al-

masha'ir for example, Mulla Sadra explicitly identifies "those

who are firmly rooted in knowledge" ("al-rasikhun fi'l-'ilm"’)

with the gnostics or the 'urafa' .5 The basis of Mulla Sadra's

view is his own illuminative experiences as well as the

preponderence of literature of the gnostics concerning their

illuminative insights of the revealed verities. However,

Mulla Sadra does not leave his claim unsubstantiated. Instead,

he demonstrates with great rigour that the truth claims made

on the basis of intellectual illuminations are not only

consistent with revelation but also intellectually

comprehensible and philosophically defensible.

Since revelation deals to a large extent with

supernatural realities and transcendent truths, it cannot be

totally or completely understood and grasped by human reason

and discursive thought alone. Reason's cognition is mediate

and inferential and its logical categories are limited to the

spatio-temporal order. Consequently, reason is not a suitable

faculty to comprehend realities which transcend its categories

which are spatially and temporally conditioned. In addition,

since reason knows in a mediated way, through concepts and

mental representations, it is susceptible to doubts concerning

its cognitions. The existence of the subject-object polarity

in discursive knowledge requires reason to make a judgment

5 al-Masha'irf 9.

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concerning that which it knows in an indirect and inferential

way.

In contrast to reason's indirect and inferential mode of

knowing, knowledge by intuition or 'unveiling' is direct and

immediate. Through intellectual intuition, man can know of the

spiritual realities immediately and directly by his experience

of them. In intuitive or illuminative knowledge, the subject

who knows and the object that is known are not polarized since

that which is known is immediately experienced and apprehended

by the intellect without mediation of mental concepts and

inferences. The immediacy and directness of intuitive

knowledge renders it as a form of certain knowledge. If sense

perception enables man to perceive and experience the sensible

realities that surround him in the 'Visible World' ('alam al-

shahadah), then intellectual intuition provides him with the

appropriate and reliable mode of knowing the spiritual

realities in the intelligible world or the 'World of the

Unseen' ('alam al-ahaybt which are mentioned in revelation.

There exists a wide chasm between the transcendent truths

contained in revelation and reason's spatially and temporally

conditioned and mediated mode of knowing. Mulla Sadra

postulates that the gap between divine revelation and human

reason can be effectively bridged by intellectual intuition or

'unveiling'. According to Mulla Sadra, intellectual

'unveiling' occurs as a result of the intellect being

illuminated by the Active Intellect or the Holy Spirit which

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is identified with the archangel Gabriel who is the instrument

of revelation.6 Thus, there is an important and necessary

relation between revelation and intellectual illumination or

'unveiling7. It is through revelation that the human intellect

is able to actualize itself. Intellectual illumination is not

separate and independent of revelation. Intellectual

illumination which enables for a direct apprehension or

immediate experience of the truth or verities of revelation is

made possible through the Grace (barakah) which issues from

revelation and which becomes efficacious through man's faith

in the Word of God. It is the supernatural or divine light of

revelation that illuminates the intellect in the experience of

'unveiling7 and enables it to witness or apprehend or intuit

directly the transcendent truth that is contained in it. Thus,

intellectual illumination is able to know the verities of

revelation with immediacy and certainty. That which is known

by intellectual illumination is not contrary to revelation or

independent of it. Intellectual 'unveiling7 comprehends and

verifies the claims and assertions of revelation through

immediate experience. To illustrate, there are numerous verses

in the Qur'an which speak of the renewal of creation (khalq

iadldf by God and the transient nature of the material world

(dunya1:

Verily! They are injsonfusion concerning a renewed creation (khalq ~iadidt. (Q.50:15)

6 Wisdom of the Throne. 116.

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And We are not to be forestalled, in that We will exchange your likenesses and re-create you in what you will not know. (Q.56:60-61)

And you see the mountains, considering them solid, but they are passing by like the floating of clouds. (Q.28:88)

Every one who is on it (the world) is passing away, but there remains the Face of your Lord, He of Majesty and Glory. (Q.55:26-27)

According to Mulla Sadra, discursive and speculative

thought cannot comprehend fully or know with certainty, the

meanings of the above Qur'anic verses. Only intellectual

'unveiling' can render the meanings and significance of these

verses in an immediate and certain manner. Through

intellectual 'unveiling' or illumination which has the same

source as prophecy, the intellect of man is able to understand

correctly and certainly, the true meanings of these verses. In

the al-'Arshiyvah for example, Mulla Sadra states explicitly

that his doctrine of transubstantial motion which explains the

Qur'anic assertions concerning the renewal of creation and its

transient nature is derived from his illuminative knowledge of

the meanings of the above verses. In intellectual 'unveiling',

the meanings of these Qur'nic verses are disclosed to Mulla

Sadra by God, in an immediate and "penetrating" manner.7 Thus,

7 "It is penetrated unto us (la halanal from God (min inda Allah1 as a result of meditation of certain verses of His Exalted Book, such as His Saying: "Verily they are in confusion concerning a renewed creation (Q.50:15); and His Saying: "And We are not to be forestalled, in that We will exchange your likenesses and re-create you in what you will not know" (Q.56:60-61)..." See al-'Arshiyvah. 230 and Wisdom of the Throne. 120.

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in Mulla Sadra's view, illuminative knowledge is not contrary

to revelation; rather it provides man with a certain and

experientially verifiable basis for the understanding of the

revealed Word of God.

By maintaining that it is revelation which provides man

with the basic means for the attainment of the truth and that

it is also revelation which illuminates the human intellect

and enables it to intuit the revealed verities, Mulla Sadra

not only subordinates intellectual 'unveiling' and mystical

apprehension to the light and grace of revelation but also

establishes a definite and necessary relationship between the

two sources of knowledge. Guided and conditioned by

revelation, the human intellect is able to penetrate into and

comprehend the inward and hidden meanings of the Word of God.

Thus, intellectual intuition or illumination provides man with

a mode of knowing the revealed truth and certain knowledge

contained in revelation.

Since the immediate and certain knowledge that is

attained through intellectual illumination is not distinct

from the truth that is disclosed in revelation, the claims

made on the basis of intellectual intuition can be verified by

referring it back to its source which is revelation. Although

illuminative knowledge or gnosis is not contrary to

revelation, it however can be expressed and formulated in a

manner separate and distinct from revelation. The gnostics

have expressed their illuminative knowledge in various forms

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ranging from poetry to pithy statements to metaphysical

discourse. Underlying all of these various modes and forms of

expression is the indubitable and immediate experience of the

revealed truth.

In Mulla Sadra's perspective, the intuitions or "sacred

insights" which are obtained in the experience of 'unveiling7

can be reflected upon by reason and formulated in its logical

categories. Although reason due to its limited nature and mode

of knowing cannot know directly the transcendent truth

contained in revelation, it can through conception, comprehend

and analyse the cognitive contents of intellectual

illumination. The cognitive contents of illuminative

experience can be known by reason through its analytical power

of conception and inference.

For Mulla Sadra the most articulate and accurate form of

expressing and formulating the sacred insights attained

through illumination which is distilled by reason is the

philosophical discourse with its logical categories and

arguments and demonstration. By subjecting illuminative

knowledge to the rigours of discursive thought and

philosophical demonstration, the assertions and claims of

intellectual 'unveiling7 can be analysed and scrutinized. The

extravagances and excesses which sometimes accompany

ecstatatic experiences can be checked by the rational

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process.8 In addition, through rational demonstration, the

illuminative principles which are intuitively known can be

comprehended by those who do not have immediate knowledge of

them. Thus, reason has an important and supportive role to

play in relation to intellectual intuition.

For Mulla Sadra, in the human quest for true and certain

knowledge and total apprehension of the Truth, revelation,

intellectual intuition and reason do not represent three

contending sources of knowledge which exclude each other;

rather they are three complementary sources of knowledge which

can aid man to attain certain knowledge and know the Truth,

both at the level of immediate experience or apprehension as

well as at the conceptual and discursive plane. Each of the

three sources of knowledge has a vital and indispensable role

to play in man's pursuit of the Truth.

If reason, unaided by the illuminated intellect is

incapable of scaling the heights of knowledge and penetrating

into the transcendental realm of the verities of revelation,

then the intellect without the guiding light and grace of

revelation, is incapable of intuiting or apprehending directly

the spiritual realities and transcendent truths contained in

revelation. The principle of reason and discursive thought is

8 For Mulla Sadra, all illuminative or mystical experiences which are not backed by a rigorous conceptual training in philosophy are a way to illusion and aberation and similiarly, all philosophizing which does not lead to the highest spiritual realization is a vain and useless pastime. See Toshihiko Izutsu, Metaphysics of Sabzavari. 7.

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the intellect and the principle of the intellect is

revelation. Revelation helps the intellect to actualise its

potentiality for the direct and immediate apprehension of the

Truth and intellectual intuition provides reason with

indubitable transcendental principles which are verifiable by

immediate experience. Through its power of conception,

analysis and inference, reason is able to formulate and draw

the necessary and logical implications and consequences of the

illuminative principles and through intuition, the intellect

is able to penetrate into the innermost recesses of

revelation. Thus, there exists both a unity of the three

sources of knowledge in the human quest for the Truth, as well

as a hierarchic order of their authority and infallibility.

The higher, more sublime and comprehensive source of knowledge

guides the lower and more limited source of knowledge.

Therefore, the limitations and inadequacies of the lower

source of knowledge is overcome and transcended by the higher

and more comprehensive and adequate source of knowledge. To

illustrate, in his discussion of the Unity (wahdah) of God,

Mulla Sadra states that none of the concepts of unity which

man conceives, apply to the Unity of God. All of man's

concepts of unity are conditioned by his experience of the

spatio-temporal order. Thus, human reason cannot understand

the true meaning of God's Unity since God is the Absolute and

He transcends all limitations and conditions. Although man

cannot know the Unity of God discursively, he can experience

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His Reality in an immediate and certain way through

intellectual 'unveiling' or illumination. In the previous

chapter, it is observed that the reason Mulla Sadra pushes

discursive thought to its limits by negating the relevance of

all concepts of unity to the understanding of the Unity of

God, is in order to demonstrate that God's Unity can only be

intuited or apprehended in the immediate experience of

intellectual illumination or 'unveiling'. Through intellectual

illumination, man gains insights into the nature of God's

Unity and the meaning of such Qur'anic verses as "God has no

second" (Q.112:4) and the Shahadah which is incumbent on every

Muslim to believe. The limitations of discursive thought to

comprehend the meaning of God's Unity is overcome by

illuminative insights or knowledge. However, in the al-

'Arshiyyah. Mulla Sadra also states that ultimately, it is

only God who possesses perfect knowledge of His Unity and can

truly bear witness to Himself and His Unity. Man bears witness

to the truth of the Shahadah or God's Unity in accordance with

his knowledge of it.

Thus, in his discussion of God's Unity in the al-

'Arshiyyah. Mulla Sadra demonstrates in a concrete manner how

revelation, intellectual intuition and discursive thought

complement each other and are able to aid man in his

understanding of al-tawhid which is the most central doctrine

and essential truth of the Islamic religion. From the

preceding evaluation, Mulla Sadra can therefore be regarded to

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have successfuly synthesized the three sources of knowledge in

the common pursuit of the Truth, in a coherent and

philosophically defensible manner. The next issue which has to

be determined is whether or not Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the

three sources of knowledge is consistent with Islamic

teachings.

By making the concern for the comprehension and

verification of the true meaning of the Qur'an as the basis

and point of departure of his philosophical activities, Mulla

Sadra demonstrates his acceptance of and faith in the absolute

truth of the Word of God and the subordination of the human

intellect (al-*aq!1 and knowledge, specifically philosophical

knowledge, to the light of revelation. In Mulla Sadra's view,

revealed truth is not only superior to philosophical truth but

is also the basis and foundation of the latter. Thus, for him,

there does not arise the question of philosophical truth being

in contention or in conflict with revealed truth. Revealed

truth and philosophical truth do not represent two different

species of truth but a single truth. Philosophical truth is a

rational formulation and demonstration of revealed truth to

the extent that is humanly possible to express and contain the

inexhaustible meanings of the Word of God in the logical

categories of discursive thought. Philosophy in this

perspective, is a type of commentary upon the revealed Word of

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God.9

However, the philosophical commentary or exegesis of the

verses of the Qur'an is not based on speculative thought but

on experiential or sapiential knowledge of the transcendental

realm. The limited and spatially and temporally conditioned

categories of discursive thought are not directly applied to

the revealed verses but to the cognitive contents of

intellectual illuminations. By maintaining that it is only

intellectual 'unveiling' which can apprehend the true meaning

of the verses of the Qur'an, Mulla Sadra safeguards the

illimitable truth of the divine Word from being reduced to the

limited categories of human reason. The true meaning of the

revealed verses exceed the powers of discursive thought and it

is only the supernatural light of faith and revelation which

can unveil their truth. Thus, consistent with Islamic

orthodoxy, Mulla Sadra maintains that it is revelation and not

rational thought which is the determinant and criterion of the

Truth.

Mulla Sadra's belief that the human intellect is capable

of apprehending the truth contained in revelation is

consistent with the Qur'anic view that the intellect of man

(al-'aql) possesses the potentiality to know God and His

9 The extremely close and profound inter-relation between philosophy (hikmajh) and Qur'anic exegesis (ta'wil1) is one of the main reasons which enables Islamic Philosophy to maintain and renew its vigour in Shi'ite Islam, in contrast to its dormancy in the Sunni world since the thirteenth century. See Henry Corbin, Islamic Philosophy. 342.

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"signs" fayat1 with certitude. The Qur'anic invitation and

insistence that man reflect and contemplate its verses and

natural phenomena in order that he may discern the Truth is

based on the doctrine of the adequacy of the human intellect

to know the revealed Truth in a total manner. The human

intellect becomes an adequate instrument of knowledge when its

potential powers are actualized by the guiding light of

revelation or is united with the Active Intellect. By

identifying the Active Intellect with the archangel Gabriel

who is the angel of revelation, Mulla Sadra demonstrates his

conformity to the Islamic view of prophecy and his acceptance

of the necessity of faith in the attainment of knowledge of

revelation.

In Mulla Sadra's view, the intellect in man and

revelation are complementary in nature. Both revelation and

the actualized human intellect have their principles in the

Universal Intellect which is related to the Divine Intellect.

Revelation is the manifestation of the Universal Intellect

(al-*aql al-kullit at the cosmic plane and the human

intellect, the reflection of the Universal Intellect at the

human level. The actualized or perfected human intellect is a

particular revelation fal-wahi al-iuz'if and objective

revelation such as the Qur'an which brings forth a new

religion, a universal revelation (al-wahi al-kulli).

Mulla Sadra's view of the unity and hierarchy of modes of

knowing is also consistent with the Qur'anic view. As

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discussed in chapter three of this dissertation, the Qur'an

distinguishes between the various modes of knowing ranging

from conjecture (zann) to argument (huiiah) to proof (burhan)

which result in the various degrees of knowledge and certainty

of the "signs" (a vat) of God displayed "upon the horizons and

in the soul of man".10 The Qur'an considers proof or

demonstration (burhan) as the most certain form of verifying

a truth claim: "Bring your proof fburhan), if you are among

those who speak truthfully".11 In Mulla Sadra's perspective,

the proof or demonstration of the truth claim of revelation is

attained in intellectual illumination. Through intellectual

illumination, the intellect apprehends or "sees things as they

really are"12 or in God. Thus, knowledge of the inner

meanings of the Qur'an apprehended in the immediate experience

of intellectual 'unveiling' is of a higher order than

knowledge obtained through discursive reasoning of the

revealed verses. The latter represents an abstract and

conceptual knowledge fal-'ilm al-husulil of revelation and the

former, an immediate and experiential knowledge (al-'ilm al-

huduri1 of revelation. For Mulla Sadra, the immediate, certain

and verified nature of illuminative knowledge is far superior

10 (Q.41:53).

11 (Q.2:111).

12 "0 Go_di cause us to see things as they really are" is a famous hadith of the Prophet. In the concluding testament of the al-'Arshiyyah. Mulla Sadra considers this prophetic prayer as the prayer of the philosopher and the goal of philosophy, al-'Arshiyvah. 286; Wisdom of the Throne. 253.

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to the mediated, inferential and speculative nature of

discursive knowledge of the Qur'an.

The Qur'an also classifies human beings in a hierachic

order based on their knowledge and realization of the Truth.

Since in the perspective of the Qur'an, there is a unity

between knowledge and being, the hierarchic order of knowledge

is fundamentally ontological. Mulla Sadra considers the

"people of 'unveiling'" fahl al-kashff as those whom the

Qur'an describes as "firmly rooted in knowledge". They possess

certain knowledge of the revealed truth and are therefore

gualified to interpret the verses of the Qur'an for the

understanding and benefit of the Islamic community. Since the

"people of unveiling" receive their knowledge of the meanings

of the verses of the Qur'an from the same source as prophecy,

Mulla Sadra considers them as the true heirs to the Prophet

and Imams and "those nearest to God (al-muqarrabun)".13

From the above discussion, it can be concluded that Mulla

Sadra's views of the three sources of knowledge and their

synthesis are consistent and conformable to the teachings of

the Qur'an. Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the three sources of

knowledge in pursuit of the Truth or certain knowledge and

intellectual perfection are not only internally coherent and

logical but also in line with Islamic teachings. On the basis

of the two criteria of internal coherence and conformity to

Islamic teachings, Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the three

13 al-Arshiyyah. 287; Wisdom of the Throne. 256.

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sources of knowledge can be considered as a successful

synthesis.

An evaluation of Mulla Sadra7s synthesis of the truth claims of revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy

In order to determine whether or not Mulla Sadra is

successful in his synthesis of the truth claims of revelation,

gnosis and discursive philosophy, the four fundamental

principles of his philosophy will be examined for their

internal coherence as well as their mutual consistency to

yield a unified philosophical perspective. For Mulla Sadra7s

synthesis to be regarded as successful, the four fundamental

principles upon which his philosophy is founded should be both

coherent and consistent with each other. Since the four

fundamental principles have been discussed and expounded in a

rather extensive manner in the preceding two chapters, the

following evaluation will not repeat the ideas contained in

the principles but will make brief references to them as a

basis for demonstrating the coherence or lack thereof in Mulla

Sadra7s formulations of them.

As mentioned in the previous chapter, in his formulation

of the principle of the ontological primacy (asalahl, unity

(wahdah1 and gradation (tashkikl of Being, Mulla Sadra has

managed to delineate three fundamental aspects of the

discussion and understanding of Being. Although various

Islamic thinkers before Mulla Sadra had written extensively on

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Being, such as Ibn Sina on the fundamental distinctions

between existence (wujud) and quiddity (mahivvah1, Ibn al-

'Arabi on the transcendent unity of Being (wahdat al-wuiud'l

and Suhrawardi on the analogical gradation (taskikl of

quiddity, Mulla Sadra is the first Islamic philosopher to

bring together the various profound doctrines on Being and to

formulate them into a single, fundamental metaphysical

principle. In doing so, Mulla Sadra not only synthesizes the

various important views on Being expounded in Islamic

metaphysical thought before him but also defines the three

essential and fundamental aspects to its discussion.

On the basis of his metaphysical intuition of the

ontological primacy of existence or asalat al-wuiud. Mulla

Sadra formulates his doctrine of the transcendent unity of

Being fwahdat al-wuiud1 and the analogical gradation of Being

(tashkik al-wuiud1. According to Mulla Sadra, Being is the

sole reality. All the existents which constitute the cosmos

are the self-determinations of Being. Since every existent is

a self-determination of Being or a mode of Being, it is being

which is real or ontologically fundamental relative to its

quiddity which is the limitation of Being which the human mind

abstracts from the being of an existent. Furthermore, since

every existent is a mode of Being, an existent possesses

reality at its own level of being, although its reality is not

separate from or independent of Being.

Although Mulla Sadra's view of the transcendent unity of

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Being is reminscent of Ibn al-'Arabi's doctrine of wahdah al-

wuiud. there are certain important differences between them

based on their individual understanding of the relation

between Being and existents. In Ibn al-'Arabi's view, only

Being is the truly Real (al-Hagcrf and the multiplicity of

existents which are nothing more than the self-manifestations

ftaialliyatl of Being cannot be regarded to possess any

reality of their own. In contrast, by asserting that Being

manifests itself in various degrees and grades of intensity,

Mulla Sadra is able to maintain both the ontological primacy

of existence in a mode of Being, as well as its reality as a

particular grade of Being. Thus, in Mulla Sadra's metaphysics,

the principle of the transcendent unity of Being involves the

assertion of both the sole reality of Being, as well as the

reality of existents at their own plane of existence.

As mentioned earlier, Mulla Sadra's doctrine of the

gradation of Being has its inspiration in Suhrawardi's view of

the analogical gradation of quiddity. Mulla Sadra has taken

over Suhrawardi's view of the analogical gradation of quiddity

and applied it to Being to explain the creative process of the

self-determination of Being which results both in the

hierarchy of beings and their multiplicity. Mulla Sadra's view

of the analogical gradation of Being is consistent with his

assertion that it is being and not quiddity which is

ontologically fundamental.

Thus, the extensive metaphysical discussions of Being

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from various perspectives are brought together by Mulla Sadra

and reduced to their essentials to produce a comprehensive

metaphysical principle which lends to a better understanding

and analysis of the complex subject of Being. However, the

philosophical value of Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the various

metaphysical views does not only lie in its comprehensiveness

but more importantly in their internal coherence. The three

aspects of Being delineated by Mulla Sadra based on certain

important principles drawn from the metaphysics of Ibn Sina,

Suhrawardi and Ibn al-'Arabi, cohere with each other to

produce an original and consistent doctrine of the nature of

Being.

Mulla Sadra is also the original formulator of the

radical principle of motion in substance or transubstantial

motion (al-harakah al-iawharivyahl. In the formulation of this

principle Mulla Sadra has synthesized the Peripatetic

categories of substance and accident, matter and form and

definition of motion as the becoming actual of that which is

potential in a thing with the Sufi doctrine of the constant

renewal of the world at every moment which is oriented towards

the attainment of perfection.

As discussed in chapter five, contrary to the Peripatetic

view that motion only occurs in the accidents of a thing,

Mulla Sadra postulates that motion occurs in the very

substance of a thing and motion in the accidents are caused by

motion in substance. The Peripatetics limit motion in the

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accidents of things in order to preserve the identity of the

moving subject. Mulla Sadra overcomes the Peripatetic concern

over the possible loss of the identity of the moving subject

by maintaining that in transubstantial motion, the identity of

the moving subject is preserved by its substantial form. The

substantial form of an existent is in constant motion in order

to approximate its immutable archetype or 'lord of the specie7

(rabb al-naw') which governs it.

The doctrine of the 'lords of the species7 which are the

archetypal realities of the various species and which govern

the characteristics of their particular members in the various

levels of reality is taken by Mulla Sadra from Suhrawardi7s

philosophy. The immutable archetypes which are identified by

Mulla Sadra as God7s knowledge of His self-determinations,

relate the everchanging world of the particulars to God who is

above and beyond change.

In agreement with the Sufis, Mulla Sadra considers

creation to be in a constant state of motion in order to

overcome its imperfections. However, in contrast to the Sufi

view that in the process of the perpetual renewal of creation,

the old form of a thing is discarded and replaced by a new

form, Mulla Sadra considers renewal of creation to involve the

addition or superimposition of the new form onto the old one.

The old form provides the basis or 'matter7 for the new form

and the new form which is more perfect than the former,

integrates the old form into itself. In Mulla Sadra7s

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perspective, the lower, less perfect and more limited reality

has its principle in the higher, more perfect and less

determined reality and the latter by virtue of its greater

simplicity of being relative to the former is able to

intergrate the more limited reality to itself. Although Mulla

Sadra accepts the Sufi doctrine of the perpetual renewal of

creation at every moment, he has made certain important

modifications to it which are consistent with his metaphysical

perspective.

Thus, it can be concluded that in his formulation of the

principle of transubstantial motion, Mulla Sadra has

incorporated diverse ideas from Peripatetic and Ishraqi

philosophies and Sufism and also managed to synthesize them

into a coherent and philosophically defensible doctrine which

is able to explain in a satisfactory manner both the dynamic

and everchanging aspect of creation as well as its stable and

permanent dimension and the relation of these two aspects of

creation to its Creator who transcends both dimensions.

Mulla Sadra7s principle of the unity of the knower and

the known (ittihad al-*aqil wa'l-ma'cmll which has its source

in illumination is a re-assertion of a neo-Platonic

epistemological principle which has been rejected by the

Mashsha•i philosophers. Although Mulla Sadra does not accept

the Peripatetic view of knowledge as the abstraction of the

form of a thing from its matter and the union of the

abstracted form with the human intellect or soul, he has made

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use of their well-defined epistemological categories in his

discussion of the principle of the unity of the knower and the

known.

According to Mulla Sadra, the Mashsha'i philosophers such

as Ibn Sina rejected the neo-Platonic principle of the unity

of the knower and the known based on the mistaken view that

this principle involves the existence in actuality of two

things different in number which subsequently become a single

existent.14 In the formulation of the principle of the unity

of the knower and the known, Mulla Sadra's originality really

lies in his philosophical demonstration of it.

Mulla Sadra's demonstration of the principle of the unity

of the knower and known is based on his metaphysical

definition of knowledge as a mode of being which is a direct

result of his central thesis of the ontological primacy of

existence. By incorporating the important Sufi doctrines of

God's contemplation of the forms of things in the mirror of

His Essence as the cause of creation and the identification of

the beings of things with God's knowledge of them, Mulla Sadra

is able to expound his metaphysical view of knowledge as a

mode of being and draw the necessary implications from it such

as the creation of the intelligible form of a thing by the

intellect of the subject who knows and the power of knowledge

to transform the being of the knower.

Mulla Sadra also demonstrates the cogency of the

14 Wisdom of the Throne. 115.

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principle of the unity of the knower and the known by arguing

that there exists a necssary logical relation of unity between

the knower, the known and the act of knowing. Mulla Sadra

states that a knower is a knower by virtue of his act of

knowing an object of knowledge and a known object is precisely

one which is known by a knower and it being known can only

occur in an act of knowing.

Thus, Mulla Sadra's justification of the principle of the

unity of the knower and the known and his refutation of the

crticisms of the Mashsha'i philosophers of the principle,

involves both a metaphysical and a logical demonstration of

it.

One of the most important principles expounded by Mulla

Sadra and which is the key to an understanding of his

eschatological views is the independence and carthasis

(tajrid) of the imaginative faculty (al-quwwah al-

mutakhava 1 ivvah 1 from the body. Mulla Sadra's treatment of the

soul or psychology takes into account all the various

faculties and stages of developments of the soul from its

origination with the body to its final perfection as a

spiritual reality which becomes a perfect theophany of all of

the divine Names and Qualities.

As discussed earlier, in delineating the various types of

souls and their faculties and various stages of developments,

Mulla Sadra has accepted and made use of the Mashsha'i views

of the subject. However, Mulla Sadra does not limit himself to

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the Mashsha'i view only. One of the most important points of

departure of Mulla Sadra's psychology from the Mashsha'i

doctrine of the soul is the relationship between the soul and

the body. If the Mashsha'i philosophers such as Ibn Sina

consider the soul as the organizing principle and entelechy of

the natural body, Mulla Sadra consistent with his metaphysical

and eschatological views, regards the soul as the organizing

principle and entelechy of all subsequent bodies which the

soul will create or project for itself appropriate to the

level of being to which it belongs.

In his exposition of the stages of developments of the

soul in the posthumous state, Mulla Sadra relies heavily on

Ibn al-'Arabi's views, particularly his doctrine of the

independence of the imaginative faculty and its creative power

to originate forms from nothing. Mulla Sadra synthesizes Ibn

al-'Arabi's doctrine of the imaginative faculty of the soul

with Suhrawrdi's view of the existence of the imaginal world

by correlating the microcosmic imaginal reality with the

macrocosmic World of Images. With this synthesis Mulla Sadra

is able to establish a clear and definite relation between the

microcosmic and macrocosmic World of Images which in turn

provides a metaphysical basis for a satisfactory explanation

of the Quranic eschatological doctrine.

Although Mulla Sadra's psychological doctrine involves a

synthesis of Mashsha'i faculty psychology, Ibn al-'Arabi's

view of the imaginative faculty and Suhrawardi's intermediate

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World of Images and Qur'anic eschatological teachings, it is

an original and coherent doctrine with its particular

perspective and principles. The various views and ideas on the

soul and its destiny are synthesized by Mulla Sadra with the

purpose of substantiating and demonstrating his own views of

the subject; hence, the major points of differences between

his doctrine and the various intellectual perspectives he has

synthesized.

According to Mulla Sadra, the two most important forms of

knowledge which man needs and which enables him to attain

perfection and draw close to God are metaphysics and

eschatology. Metaphysics deals with knowledge of the Origin

(al-mabda/) and eschatology with that of the Return (al­

ma'ad) . All of Mulla Sadra's philosophical writings whether it

be the monumental Asfar or the synoptic al-*Arshiyyah. deal

with these two principal subjects.

Mulla Sadra's metaphysics is founded on the basic

metaphysical intuition of the ontological primacy of

existence. According to Mulla Sadra, Being is the sole and

absolute reality whose nature defies conceptualization. Being

can only be experienced or intuited and not defined. The

concern of metaphysics is not with existents but with Being

and Its creative act of self-determination which results in

the existentiation of the hierarchy of the various levels of

being and the multiplicity of beings.

On the basis of the metaphysical principle of the sole

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reality of Being, Mulla Sadra expounds his doctrines of the

transcendent unity of Being which asserts that the

multiplicity of existents are metaphysically one and the

analogical gradation of Being which states that Being

manifests Itself in accordance with Its nature with various

degrees and grades of intensity.

In Mulla Sadra's perspective, existence is dynamic and at

every moment, every existent in creation is constantly in

transubstantial motion to overcome its imperfections. The

perfection of an existent is determined by its immutable

archetypal or primordial reality which governs it. For Mulla

Sadra, creation involves two primary processes which

complement each other: one, the process of existentiation of

existents by means of the analogical gradation of Being

(tashkik al-wuiud1 and two, the process of return of existents

to Being through transubstantial motion f al-harakah al-

iawhariyyah'l. The first process constitutes the descending arc

of creation and the second, the ascending arc of creation. In

both processes it is being which is actively involved. The

existentiation of existents from Being and the return of

existents to Being are directed by love ( Vishg).

According to Mulla Sadra, in God there is a unity of

knowledge and being, and God's existentiation of existents is

the result of His knowledge of them. Thus, God's knowledge of

existents is identified by Mulla Sadra with the beings of

existents. The fundamental unity or identity of knowledge and

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being in God, the ontological Principle of creation, is

manifested in every existent. In relation to man, this

metaphysical principle is further accentuated by the fact of

him being created in the image of God and therefore, is the

most central and direct symbol or theophany of the divine

Nature or Names and Qualities.

The doctrines of the unity of knowledge and being and the

central position of man in creation as the direct symbol of

God have important implications for man. One implication

relates to the question of human knowledge or epistemology.

For Mulla Sadra, the unity of the knower, the known and

knowledge in God is also reflected in man. Man's being and

knowledge are closely related and there arises from this

relation a reciprocity between them: knowledge transforms the

being of man and the being of man, determines his knowledge.

Another important implication of the above principles

relates to man's destiny or eschatology. The individual human

soul is immortal and its return to God is inevitable. The

human soul which is originated with matter is destined to

ascend the various levels of being through the process of

transubstantial motion until it attains perfection and

subsists as a spiritual reality which becomes the self-

conscious and self-reflective theophany of God. As it ascends

the various levels of being, the potential aspects of the

human soul become actualized and at every stage it projects a

body for itself which is appropriate for the particular level

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of being to which it belongs. One level of being which the

human soul will traverse is the imaginal world which is

intermediate between the sensible and spiritual worlds. In the

imaginal world which is experienced by most souls in the

posthumous state, the imaginative faculty plays a central

role. Like God, the imaginative faculty possesses the creative

power to originate forms from nothing.

Thus, there exists a close inter-relation between the

four fundamental principles of Mulla Sadra's philosophy.

Through these principles which relate to the two principal

forms of knowledge: metaphysics and eschatology, one can

obtain a comprehensive, coherent and cohesive view of Mulla

Sadra's overall philosophical perspective and intellectual

vision of reality. The next guestion that has to be determined

in the evaluation of Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the truth

claims of revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy is

whether or not Mulla Sadra's fundamental principles and vision

of reality are consistent with Islamic teachings.

Mulla Sadra's view that metaphysics and eschatology

constitute the two most important and necessary forms of

knowledge required by man to perfect himself and draw close to

God, and which underlies all of his philosophical writings, is

based on the Qur'anic insistence that man should have "true

faith in God" and "knowledge of the Last Day". Mulla Sadra's

fundamental metaphysical assertion that Being is the sole and

absolute reality is a philosophical formulation of the

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doctrine of al-tawhid. The principles of the transcendent

unity of Being and the analogical gradation of Being can be

viewed as a philosophical understanding of the metaphysical

implications contained in the doctrine of the al-tawhid. If

there is no other reality except for the reality of Allah,

then every being is ultimately related to Him and are not

seperate or independent of Him. The doctrine of al-tawhid

logically implies that all beings since they relate to God,

are metaphysically one. Furthermore, if Being is the sole

reality, then every being is either a reflection or a

manifestation or a determination of Being. However, since

beings differ from each other in degree and in kind, the self­

manifestation or determination of Being is variable and not

uniform or homogeneous. The variable self-determination of

Being is not random and chaotic but hierarchic and orderly.

The Qur'an asserts that all beings have their origin in

God and will return to Him: "Verily! We belong to Allah and to

Him we return11.15 For Mulla Sadra, the existentiation of

beings from God is by means of the process of the analogical

gradation of Being and the return of beings to God is by the

complementary process of transubstantial motion. Mulla Sadra's

view of the dynamic nature of existence which is constantly in

motion is supported by the Qur'anic assertion of the renewal

15 (Q.2:156).

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of creation by God.16

Like all other Muslim gnostics, Mulla Sadra's

identification of God's creation of an existent with His

knowledge of it is based on the famous hadith gudsi which

states:

I (God) am a Hidden Treasure and I desired to be known. I created creation in order that I may be known.

On the basis of the above hadith gudsi. Mulla Sadra

asserts that there is a unity between knowledge and being and

in both processes of the existentiation of beings from God and

their return to Him, this principle is operative. The view

that in both processes of creation, love is the motivating

force is also based on the above hadith gudsi.

Mulla Sadra's epistemological principle of the unity of

the knower and the known is founded on the metaphysical

principle of the unity of knowledge and being and another

Islamic doctrine which is based on a prophetic hadith which

states that "God created Adam (man) in His own Image". On the

basis of these two fundamental Islamic doctrines, Mulla Sadra

expounds his view of knowledge as a mode of being which

involves the creation of the intelligible form of the object

of knowledge by the soul of the subject who knows it and the

necessary unity between the knower and the known in the act of

knowing.

16 "Verily 1 they are in confusion concerning a renewed creation" (Q.50:15). "And We (God) are not to be forestalled, in that We will exchange your likenesses and re-create you in what you will not know" (Q.56:60-61) .

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Based on the prophetic hadith that "God created Adam

(man) in his own Image", Mulla Sadra like the Sufis, is not

only able to assert that amongst creation, man is the central

and direct symbol or theophany of Allah but also the goal and

destiny of human creation and existence are defined and

determined by man being created in the 'likeness' of God.

Mulla Sadra's view that every human soul whether it has

attained intellectual perfection or not survives death and

will be requited with what it has earned is in conformity with

Islamic teachings on the immortality of the individual human

soul and eschatology. According to Mulla Sadra, very few human

souls attain perfection in this life and become a part of the

intelligible world. For the majority of the souls which are

imperfect, their return to God, necessitates their existence

and purgation in the intermediate imaginal world with its

Paradise and Hell before they are able to ascend to the

spiritual world.

From the above evaluation of both the internal coherence

of the fundamental principles of Mulla Sadra's philosophy and

their conformity to Islamic teachings, it can be concluded

that Mulla Sadra is successful in his synthesis of the truth

claims of revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy.

Furthermore, he created an original and consistent

philosophical perspective and intellectual vision of reality

of his own.

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The impact and influence of Mulla Sadra's philosophy on subsequent Islamic philosophers after him

The degree of success or failure of a philosopher's

philosophical perspective or thought can also be judged on the

basis of his impact and influence on the philosophers and

thinkers after him. The task of this section is to examine and

ascertain the extent of the impact and influence of Mulla

Sadra's philosophy which is based on the syntheses of the

three sources of knowledge and the truth claims of revelation,

gnosis and discursive philosophy, on the Islamic philosophers

who follow in his wake.

Although the years following Mulla Sadra's death until

the beginning of the Qajar period in the nineteenth century,

the religious climate in Persia does not particularly favor

the teachings of Hikmat philosophy, Mulla Sadra's philosophy

continues to be taught and propagated by his immediate

disciples, though in a more cautious and restricted manner.

The two most important and immediate disciples of Mulla Sadra,

who are also his sons-in-law and who are largely responsible

for the initial spread of his philosophy are Mulla Muhsin Fayd

Kashani (d. 1091 A.H./1680-1 A.D.) and Mulla 'Abd al-Razzaq

Lahiji (d. 1072 A.H./1661 A.D.). These two illustrious

students of Mulla Sadra are also prominent intellectual

figures of Safavid Persia whose works include commentaries on

the Qur'an and Hadith. as well as works on Kalam. Hikmat and

xIrfan.

Mulla Sadra's influence on these two figures is clearly

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evident. Mulla Fayd Kashani accepts Mulla Sadra's synthesis of

the three principal sources of knowledge, although he places

a greater emphasis and importance on revelation and

illumination than on discursive thought, in the realization of

the Truth.17 Kashani's acceptance of Mulla Sadra's synthesis

of the three sources of knowledge are clearly demonstrated in

his writings, and his success with bringing about a harmony

between the Law and the spiritual path or the Shari'ah and the

Tariqah within the context of Shi'ite Islam can be attributed

to his acceptance of this synthesis. Kashani's preoccupation

with the harmonious integration of revelation and illumination

leads him to compose the famous al-Mahaiiat al-bayda' fi ihya

al-ihya (The White Path in the Revival of the 1Revival'! which

is written in the same style and approach of Abu Hamid al-

Ghazzali's Ihva' xulum al-din. If al-Ghazzali's Ihya' is the

outstanding work on Islamic ethics with a Sufi orientation in

the context of Sunni Islam, then Kashani's al-Mahaiat al-

bavda' is also an important work on ethics with a Sufi

orientation, the major difference is that it is treated in the

context of Shi'ite Islam.18 Mulla Sadra's influence on Mulla

Fayd Kashani is also very much evident in his other important

works on gnosis such as the Usui al-maxarif and al-Kalimat al-

maknuna. In the al-Kalimat al-maknuna for example, Kashani

17 See Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "The School of Isfahan," History of Muslim Philosophy. Vol.2, ed. M.M. Sharif, 926.

18 Ibid., 626-627.

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deals with metaphysical doctrines such as the ontological

primacy of existence and the sole reality of Being, the

renewal of creation at every moment and the principles of

imkan al-ashraf and imkan al-akhass in the descending and

ascending arcs of creation.19

The influence of Mulla Sadra's thought on his other

prominent disciple, Mulla 'Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji, is evident in

the latter's works on Hikmat such as Huduth al-'alam v „ (Origination of the World) and al-Kalimat al-tavvibah which

deals with the contending metaphysical views of the

ontological primacy of existence of Mulla Sadra and the

ontological primacy of quiddity of Mir Damad. True to the

teachings of his master, Lahiji advocates the ontological

primacy of existence. However, the influence of Mulla Sadra's

philosophical thought is less obvious and more concealed in

Lahiji's influential works on Kalam such as the Gauhar murad

(The Substance of One's Intentions') in which he disassociates

himself from Mulla Sadra's teachings on the transcendent unity

of Being and the independence and carthasis of the imaginative

faculty from the body, due to criticisms from certain

xulama'.20 However, these doctrines of Mulla Sadra are upheld

by Lahiji in his philosophical works. Although Lahiji appears

to waver in his acceptance of Mulla Sadra's metaphysical

19 Ibid., 927-929.

20 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Spiritual Movements, Philosophy and Theology in the Safavid Period," The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol.6, eds. Peter Jackson & Lawrence Lockhart, 691.

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views, his poems or qasidah in praise of the Prophet, the

Imams and his devotion to Mir Damad and his own teacher, Mulla

Sadra, reveals his strong, personal and intellectual

attachment to the latter.21

Both Mulla Fayd Kashani and Mulla 'Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji

being prominent intellectual figures of their times had many

disciples. The most important among them through whom the

teachings of Mulla Sadra continued to be taught and to bear

its influence was Qadi Sa'id Qummi (d. 1103 A.H./1691-92

A.D.). In Qadi Sai'id Qummi's works, the esoteric

interpretation (ta'wil) of the verses of the Qur'an, Hadith

and sayings of the Imams and their profound significances and

implications on the spiritual and practical aspects of the

religious life are expounded in a lucid and masterly manner.

Mulla Sadra's commentary on the Usui al-kafi of Kulayni which

is the definitive work of Shi'ite metaphysics, is the model

and inspiration of Qadi Sa'id Qummi's major work which is a

commentary on Shaikh-i Saduq Ibn Babuyah's Tawhid.22

One of the most important intellectual figures and

hukama' of the later part of Safavid Persia and who is largely

responsible for the continued spread and influence of Mulla

Sadra's thought during these politically difficult years is

Mulla Muhammad Sadiq Ardistani (d. 1134 A.H./1721-2 A.D.).

Mulla Ardistani is clearly a follower of the transcendent

21 Ibid.

22 Henry Corbin, History of Islamic Philosophy. 347.

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philosophy of Mulla Sadra and he subscribes to many of the

important principles of the latter's philosophy such as the

ontological primacy and unity of Being and the independence

and carthasis of the imaginative faculty. One of his principal

works which bears the influence of Mulla Sadra is Hikmat-i « sadiqxyah which deals with the soul and the immateriality of

the imaginative faculty.23

Mulla Sadra's philosophy does not gain dominance until

the advent of the Qajar period and the emergence of an

outstanding, influential and highly respected hakim and 'alim.

Mulla 'Ali Nuri (d. 1246 A.H./1830-31 A.D.) who revived Hikmat

Philosophy and taught for over fifty years, the philosophy of

Mulla Sadra in the old capital, Isfahan, and trained a large

and new generation of students belonging to Mulla Sadra#s

school of thought. Mulla 'Ali Nuri also wrote commentaries on

some of Mulla Sadra's most important works such as the Asfar,

al-Masha'ir and Sharh usul al-kafi.24 Through Mulla 'Ali

Nuri's oral instruction and commentaries on Mulla Sadra's

works, the philosophy of Mulla Sadra became very well-known

and its influence widespread. Mulla Sadra's influence is

clearly evident in the thought of the leading hukama' of Qajar

Iran such as Mulla Muhammad Isma'il Isfahani (d. 1277

A.H./1860—61 A.D.), Mulla 'Abdallah Zunuzi (d. 1257 A.H./1841-

42 A.D.) and Mulla Ja'far Langarudi who are all exponents of

23 Ibid., 349.

24 Ibid., 350.

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Mulla Sadra's philosophy. Mulla Isma'il Isfahani left

important lectures on Mulla Sadra and Mulla Ja'afar Langarudi

wrote extensive commentaries on Mulla Sadra's al-Masha'ir and

al-Hikmat al-*arshivvah.

Thus, the revival of Hikmat Philosophy in post-Savafid

Persia revolves mainly around the philosophical thought of

Mulla Sadra. And not surprisingly, the greatest and most

influential hakim of Qajar Iran, Hajji Mulla Hadi Sabzawari

(d. 1295 A.H./1878 A.D.) is also the most capable expositor

and commentator of the school of Mulla Sadra. The

philosophical thought of Mulla Sadra are systemmatized,

summarized and crystallized by Mulla Hadi Sabzawari and his

works such as the Sharh al-manzumah is one of the most

important and popular text books on Hikmat Philosophy in the

madarasahs of Iran ever since.25 Mulla Hadi Sabzawari also

wrote commentaries on many of Mulla Sadra's works such as the

Asfar. Shawahid al-rububiyyah. a 1 -Mabda' wa' 1 -ma11 ad and

Mafatih al-ahayb.26

Like Mulla Sadra, Mulla Hadi Sabzawari's works involve a

synthesis of the three sources of knowledge and they draw

heavily from the treasury of Islamic learning which precedes

him. However, unlike Mulla Sadra, Mulla Hadi Sabzawari is able

to expound his gnostic doctrines openly and explicitly without

25 See Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Renaissance in Iran: Hajji Mulla Hadi Sabzawari," ed., M. Sharif, A History of Muslim Philosophy, Vol.II.

26 Ibid., 191.

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being harshly criticized by his contemporaries and he also

possesses the gift of poetry which enables him to express and

formulate in a succint manner, the profound and complicated

metaphysical principles of Mulla Sadra's philosophy in verse

form which renders them more palatable to certain audiences

than Mulla Sadra's expositions. This explains the popularity

of Mulla Hadi Sabziwari's Sharh al-manzumah which is a summary 4 of Mulla Sadra's philosophy in poetry and written in Persian,

as a .textbook of Hikmat Philosophy and the best introduction

to Mulla Sadra's philosophy, in Iran since the last century.

Mulla Hadi Sabzawari's thorough knowledge of Hikmat

Philosophy and the sanctity of his person, together with his

lucid and eloquent expositions of Mulla Sadra's philosophy,

makes him one of the most important figures of the school of

Mulla Sadra who contributed tremendously to its widespread

influence and is therefore, instrumental in making it the

dominant school of Hikmat Philosophy in the region. Henry

Corbin considers Mulla Hadi Sabzawari to have played a major

role in making Mulla Sadra "a 'master thinker' of the Iranian

philosophers".27

By the time of Mulla 'Ali Nuri's death in mid-nineteenth

century, the center of philosophical activities in Iran had

shifted from Isfahan to the new capital, Tehran. The influence

of Mulla Sadra's thought on the leading intellectual figures

of this period is unmistakable: Mulla 'Ali Zunuzi (d. 1307

27 Henry Corbin, Islamic Philosophy. 358.

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A.H./1889—90 A.D.), Aga Muhammad Rida Qumshahi (d. 1306

A.D./1888—89 A.H.), Seyyid Abu al-Hasan Jalvah, all belong to

the philosophical school of Mulla Sadra. Mulla 'Ali Zunuzi

also known as Aqa 'Ali Mudarris taught and wrote commentaries

on Mulla Sadra's philosophy, his famous work in Persian,

Badayi' al-hikam is a reply to several questions on Mulla

Sadra's philosophy posed by the prince Imad al-Dawlah Badi al-

Mulk Mirza who himself is a translator of Mulla Sadra's works

into Persian.28 Sayyid Abu al-Hasan Jalwah taught Mulla

Sadra's philosophy for forty years at the Madrasa Dar al-

Shifa' and wrote commentaries on Mulla Sadra's Asfar and also

a treatise on transubstantial motion.29

Mulla Sadra's philosophy continues to fascinate and

engage the philosophical minds of the leading intellectuals of

modern Iran and the influence of Mulla Sadra appears

unabated. In this century, the impact of Mulla Sadra's

philosophical thought can be seen in the works of the

outstanding present day hukama' of Iran, such as Sayyid

Muhammad Kazim 'Assar, Sayyid Abu'l Hasan Qazwini and Sayyid

Muhammad tjusayn Tabataba'i, all of whom belong intellectually

to the school of Mulla Sadra. Sayyid Muhammad Kazim 'Assar

taught Hikmat Philosophy both at Tehran University and the

Sipahsalar madrasah and is the author of Thalath rasa'il fi'l-

28 Ibid., 351.

29 Ibid.

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hikmat al-islamlyvah.30 Sayyid Abu'l Hasan Qazwini wrote

treatises on the principle of the unity of the knower and the

known, Ittihad-i *aqil wa ma'qul and the unity of Being,

Wahdat-i wuiud.31 Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i is

responsible for the new edition of the As far and his

philosophical works such as Bidayat al-hikmah and Nihayat al-

hikmah are clearly written from the perspective of the al- * hikmat al-muta*aliyyah of Mulla Sadra. These three emminent

representatives of the school of Mulla Sadra play a major role

in the transmission of Hikmat Philosophy in modern day Iran

and the training of its present generation of philosophers who

continue to transmit and reflect on the rich legacy of Hikmat

Philosophy generally and the school of Mulla Sadra in

particular.32

Sayyid Jalal al-Din Ashtiyani, a student of Sayyid Abu'l

Hasan Qazwini and Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i and "a

Mulla Sadra redivivus1133 has written several important works

on Mulla Sadra such as Sharh-i hal wa ara-yi falsafi-yi Mulla

Sadra and also brought out new editions of the works of the

30 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Philosophy in Contemporary Persia: A Survey of Activity during the Past Two Decades. Research Monograph No.3 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah, 1972), 7.

31 Ibid.

32 For a comprehensive treatment of the important philosophical figures, works and activities of contemporary Iran, see Islamic Philosophy in Contemporary Persia: A Survey of Activity during the Past Two Decades.

33 Henry Corbin, Islamic Philosophy. 363.

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latter. Sayyid Jalal al-Din Ashtiyani is responsible for

bringing out new editions of Mulla Sadra7s works such as the

al-Mazahir al-ilahiyvah. al-Shawahid al-rububivvah with Mulla

Sabzawari's commentary of it, as well as important

commentaries on Mulla Sadra7s works such as Mulla Muhammad

Ja'far Lahijani's commentary on Kitab al-mashaxir and new

editions of works belonging to the school of Mulla Sadra such

as Mulla Sabzawari's Maimu'ay-i rasail and Mulla Fayd

Kashani's Usui al-ma*arif with his own long commentary on the

al-hikmah al-muta'alivvah of Mulla Sadra.34

Thus, the philosophical activities of modern day Iran

like that of Qajar Iran, centers mainly around the figure and

philosophical thought of Mulla Sadra. In fact, since the death

of Mulla Sadra in the seventeenth century to the present day,

there has not been an Islamic philosopher in Iran who is not

well-versed in Mulla Sadra7s Philosophy and who does not have

to deal with his ideas and perspective. Even those thinkers

who do not agree with Mulla Sadra's perspective such as Shaykh

Ahmad Ahsa'i (d. 1241 A.H./1826 A.D.), the founder of the

'Shaykhi7 School, knew Mulla Sadra7s philosophy well and wrote

critical commentaries on two of his works, one of which is the

al-Hikmat al-^arshiyyah.35

As mentioned earlier, the revival of Hikmat Philosophy in

post-Safavid Iran is closely linked with Mulla Sadra7s

34 Ibid.

35 Henry Corbin, Islamic Philosophy. 356.

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philosophy which is a synthesis of the various important

intellectual perspectives cultivated in the Islamic tradition

since the eighth century and the harmonious integration of the

three sources of knowledge available to man. Thus, not

surprisingly, for the past three and a-half centuries, the

Islamic intellectual tradition has been dominated by the

philosophical perspective and position of Mulla Sadra and most

of its philosophical activities are related to his

teachings.36 The fact that Mulla Sadra's philosophy can

engage and nourish the philosophical interest and activities

of the region for the past three and a-half centuries until

the present day is testimony to its wealth and profundity and

the philosophical import, value and relevance of his

philosophy to the generations of Islamic thinkers who come

after him.

The impact and influence of Mulla Sadra's philosophy is

not confined to Persia but also extends to Muslim India. Mulla

Sadra's teachings spread quite early and rapidly to India

through Mirza Muhammad Sadiq Kashani who migrated to India in

the seventeenth century to propagate Mulla Sadra's al-hikmah

a1-muta * a1iyyah.37 In India, it is Mulla Sadra's commentary

on Athir al-Din Abhari's Kitab al-hidavah which made the

greatest impact. The Sharh al-hidavah is one of the most

36 See Islamic Philosophy in Contemporary Persia.

37 Cambridge History of Iran, eds. Peter Jackson & Lawrence Lockhart, 696.

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famous and influential philosophical works in India and many

commentaries and glosses have been written on it and it is one

of the important philosophical texts which is still in use in

the madrasahs today.38 The influence of Mulla Sadra or simply

Sadra as he is referred to in India, is best exemplified in

the thought of its leading intellectual figure, Shah Wali

Allah of Delhi (d. 1176 A.H./1762 A.D.).

Mulla Sadra's influence on the thought of Shah Wali Allah

is very much evident in the latter's epistemological and

metaphysical views. In his metaphysics for example, Shah Wali

Allah has made use of Mulla Sadra's ideas on the ontological

primacy of existence, the self-evident and undefinable nature

of Being, the distinctions between Absolute Being, the self-

unfolding Being or al-wuiud al-munbasit and relative beings # and the self-determination of Being through the process of

tashkik.39 In his epistemology, Shah Wali Allah like Mulla

Sadra is very much interested in the question of the

harmonious integration or synthesis between divine knowledge

and human knowledge or between shar* (revelation) and *aql

(human intellect). Like Mulla Sadra, Shah Wali Allah believes

this integration can be brought about by the subordination of

the human intellect to the light and grace of revelation. Some

of Mulla Sadra's important ideas on epistemology which Shah

38 Ibid.

39 See Hafiz Khan, "Shah Wali Allah: An Analysis of his Metaphysical Thought,11 (Ph.D. diss., Temple University, 1986), 133-48.

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Wali Allah absorbs into his own epistemological teachings are

the unity of knowledge and being, the existence of al-wuiud

al-dhihni or 'mental existence7 and the definition of

knowledge as the "realization of the form of the known object

in the intellect of the knower" .4°

Finally, the influence of Mulla Sadra's thought can also

be seen in Egypt through the charismatic figure of Jamal al-

Din al-Afghani (d. 1897 A.D.)• Jamal al-Din Afghani who was a

Persian, was educated in Qazwin and Tehran where he studied

both the religious sciences and Hikmat Philosophy and the

philosophy of Mulla Sadra.41 Apart from his political

activities which made a tremendous impact on the Muslims in

Egypt and nearby Middle Eastern countries, one of the most

important contributions of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani is with the

re-introduction of the teaching of Islamic Philosophy in the

Al-Azhar University, the major seat of learning in the Sunni

world, since it had ceased to be taught in the fifteenth

century. In this respect, the revival of Islamic Philosophy in

the Sunni world is related to the influence of the

philosophical school of Mulla Sadra which has become the

dominant school of Hikmat since the nineteenth century.

In conclusion, it can be stated with sufficient

justification that Mulla Sadra is successful in his effort to

synthesize the three sources of knowledge and the truth claims

40 Ibid., 73-80.

41 Majid Fakhry, A History of Islamic Philosophy. 333.

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of revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy to create a

coherent and original philosophical perspective and position

of his own. The success of his syntheses are demonstrated by

both the internal coherence of his fundamental principles and

their logical inter-relations and consistency which each other

to provide a unified and cohesive perspective of reality, as

well as their conformity to the Islamic religion. The success

of Mulla Sadra's syntheses can also be seen in the tremendous

impact and widespread influence of his philosophical thought

in post-Safavid Iran and in Muslim India. Particularly in

Iran, Mulla Sadra has become the dominant intellectual figure

in the same category as Ibn Sina, Suhrawardi and Ibn al-'Arabi

all of whom are the greatest representatives and exponents of

the major schools of thought in Islamic history.

Furthermore, the fact that the revival of Hikmat

Philosophy in post-Safavid Iran is centered around the

philosophy of Mulla Sadra indicates in a very concrete manner

the success of his synthesizing effort. Through Mulla Sadra's

philosophy in which the intellectual perspectives of the major

schools of Islamic thought are integrated to produce a summa

of nine centuries of Islamic thought, the teachings of the

various schools of thought are simultaneously revived. It is

not possible to comprehend Mulla Sadra's philosophy which is

a synthesis of the different intellectual perspectives,

without understanding the various intellectual elements he has

synthesized.

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Finally, Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the three sources of

knowledge based on their unity and hierarchy provides a viable

method of philosophizing in a religious universe which is

dominated and defined by the centrality of the revealed Word

of God. Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the three sources of

knowledge satisfies the requirement of having faith in divine

revelation, the rigorous demands of logical thought and the

need for a personal and immediate experience of God and the

spiritual realities. Thus, the appeal of Mulla Sadra's

philosophy for subsequent Islamic thinkers after him lies in

his intellectual vision of reality, his method of doing

philosophy and his grand summation of nine centuries of

Islamic thought which precedes him. Not surprisingly,

therefore, Mulla Sadra and his philosophy have come to

dominate the intellectual scene of Iran for the past three and

a-half centuries.

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CONCLUSION

The objective of this dissertation is to examine

critically, the legitimacy of a very important and widely held

claim made by Islamic philosophers and scholars of Islamic

Philosophy about Mulla Sadra's philosophy. The claim is that

Mulla Sadra's philosophy is a synthesis of the truth claims of

revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy. The task of

determining whether or not the claim is a legitimate one, is

divided into three parts or stages of examination. First, to

examine whether or not there exists a synthesis of the truth

claims of revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy in

Mulla Sadra's philosophy. Second, if there exists a synthesis

of the three truth claims in Mulla Sadra's philosophy, how

does he synthesize them? Third, to evaluate whether Mulla

Sadra's synthesis is a successful synthesis?

In the first stage of examination, the focus is to

determine the existence or lack thereof of a synthesis of the

truth claims of revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy

in Mulla Sadra's philosophy. In this examination, four

fundamental principles of Mulla Sadra's philosophy are chosen

for analysis. They are:

298

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1. The ontological primacy (asalah). unity (wahdah) and

gradation (tashkik) of Being (wujud).

2. Transubstantial motion (al-harakat al-iawhariyyahl.

3. The unity (ittihad) of the knower (xaail1 and the known

(malagul).

4. The independence and catharsis (tajrid) of the imaginative

faculty (al-mutakhavvilahl from the body.

The choice of the four fundamental principles are made on

the important consideration that they constitute the

foundation of Mulla Sadra's philosophy and they provide a

comprehensive summary of his philosophical perspective.

The main task of the first stage of examination, has been

to examine whether in formulating the four fundamental

principles, Mulla Sadra makes use of various ideas, doctrines

and principles which are drawn from revelation, gnosis and

discursive philosophy. The analysis of the fundamental

principles reveals that in their formulations, Mulla Sadra not

only makes use of diverse ideas drawn from the three sources

of knowledge but he also makes considerable modifications to

them consistent with his own philosophical perspective and

position. The various ideas and doctrines are given new and

original formulations by Mulla Sadra which are quite different

from their sources. On the basis of the existence of the

various ideas and doctrines drawn from the three sources of

knowledge in Mulla Sadra's fundamental principles and his

original formulations of them, it is concluded that there

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exists a synthesis of the truth claims of revelation, gnosis

and discursive philosophy in Mulla Sadra's philosophy.

The second stage of examination is to delve into Mulla

Sadra's method of synthesizing the three truth claims. Mulla

Sadra's important and synoptic philosophical text al-Hikmat

al-xarshiyyah is chosen as the basis of the analysis of his

method of synthesis. Since the al-xArshiyvah contains Mulla

Sadra's basic thoughts on the most important concern of his

philosophy which is the soul's quest for true and certain

knowledge and it deals in an extremely comprehensive way on

the two principal subjects: metaphysics and eschatology which

he considers as necessary in the human pursuit of certain

knowledge and intellectual perfection, it exemplifies all that

is fundamental and essential in Mulla Sadra's philosophical

writings.

The analysis of Mulla Sadra's manner of approach of

metaphysics and eschatology or the Origin and the Return (al-

mabda' wa'1-ma xad1 in the al-xArshivvah and his method of

reasoning and technical vocabulary (istilah) demonstrates that

Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the three truth claims is based on

his synthesis of the three sources of knowledge available to

man: revelation, intellectual intuition or illumination and

discursive reasoning. Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the three

sources of knowledge is based on the important Qur'anic

principles of the unity of knowledge and the hierarchy of the

modes of knowing. In Mulla Sadra's perspective revelation,

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intellectual intuition and reason are not three contending

sources of knowledge; rather they are complementary and they

each have a vital role to play in the human pursuit of true

and certain knowledge and perfection of his being.

The final area or stage of examination is the evaluation

of Mulla Sadra's syntheses of the three sources of knowledge

and the truth claims of revelation, gnosis and discursive

philosophy in his philosophy. Three criteria are chosen to

ascertain the success or failure of Mulla Sadra's two

syntheses: one, the internal coherence of his syntheses, two,

their conformity to Islamic teachings and three, the impact

and influence of Mulla Sadra's philosophy on subsequent

Islamic philosophers after him.

The evaluation of Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the three

sources of knowledge reveals that his synthesis is both

internally coherent and consistent with the teachings of the

Qur'an and Hadith. Thus, Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the three

sources of knowledge is defensible on two fronts:

philosophically and religiously or Islamically.

Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the three truth claims is also

philosophically coherent and consistent with Islamic

teachings. The four fundamental principles of Mulla Sadra's

philosophy cohere with each other to yield a comprehensive and

cohesive intellectual perspective or vision of reality which

is consistent with the teachings of the Qur'an. Mulla Sadra's

vision of reality can be regarded as a particular

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understanding or interpretation of the Qur'anic view of

reality. It is a vision of reality which is based on the

dynamic interplay of revealed principles, illuminative

knowledge and discursive reasoning within the framework of

orthodox Shi'ite Islam.

On the basis of the two criteria of internal coherence

and conformity to Islamic teachings, both of Mulla Sadra's

syntheses are judged as successful. The success of Mulla

Sadra's synthesizing effort is further demonstrated by the

impact and influence of his philosophical thought on the

Islamic philosophers who follow in his wake. Mulla Sadra's

influence in Persia, especially from the nineteenth century

onwards is tremendous. The revival of Hikmat Philosophy in

Qajar Iran is mainly centered around his philosophy and nearly

all the philosophical activities since then is dominated by

his thought. The a1-hikmat al-muta*alivvah of Mulla Sadra is

the dominant school of Islamic Philosophy in Iran today. Since

Mulla Sadra's Philosophy is a synthesis of nine centuries of

Islamic thought which precedes him, the dominance of Mulla

Sadra's philosophy has the invaluable merit of reviving and

maintaining the other intellectual perspectives

simultaneously. The dominance of his philosophical thought in

the intellectual scene of the region provides the

possibilities for the preservation of the rich heritage of

Islamic learning in the important fields of Qur'anic

commentary, Hadith. Kalam. Hikmat and xIrfan, as well as of

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integrating different emphases of the various intellectual

perspectives and schools of thought and sources of knowledge.

Apart from Iran, Iraq and India, Mulla Sadra's philosophy

is not particularly known in the other Islamic countries and

much less so in the West. Although there have appeared several

books and articles on Mulla Sadra and his philosophy in the

West in recent years, his philosophical thought is not as well

known compared to the other important intellectual figures of

Islam such as Ibn Sina, al-Ghazzali, Ibn Rushd and Ibn al-

'Arabi. Thus, it is hoped that this dissertation is an

addition to the limited existing literature on Mulla Sadra's

philosophy available in the English language. This

dissertation which deals with a very important and fundamental

aspect of Mulla Sadra's philosophy within the context of the

Islamic religion and intellectual tradition, provides an

introduction to Mulla Sadra's philosophy. Its treatment of the

fundamental principles of Mulla Sadra's philosophy gives a

basic summary and background of his extremely complex and

profound perspective. Such an introduction to Mulla Sadra's

philosophy may prove useful as a basis for a more detailed and

specific study of an aspect of Mulla Sadra's philosophical

thought and perspective.

The analysis of Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the three

sources of knowledge provides insights into a later Islamic

philosopher's approach to and method of philosophizing which

takes into serious consideration the requirement of faith in

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the Word of God, the rigorous demands of logical thought and

the need for an immediate and personal experience of God and

the intellectual intuitions of the revealed verities. Thus, it

provides an example of an approach to the classic problem of

reconciling faith and reason or religion and philosophy which

is an important philosophical issue particulary for

philosophers who function in a religious world-view dominated

by the centrality of the Word of God or sacred scripture. The

treatment and analysis of Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the three

sources of knowledge in this dissertation, may therefore,

provide the initial basis of an in-depth analysis of his

method of philosophizing which is founded on this synthesis.

Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the truth claims of

revelation, gnosis and discursive philosophy in his philosophy

which renders it as a grand summa of nine centuries of Islamic

thought, provides an excellent example of how a thinker can

express his intellectual creativity and originality and at the

same time remains true to the rich legacy of learning which he

inherits. Far from discarding the intellectual reflections and

labours of his predecessors, to create a new and 'pre-

suppositionless' philosophical system of his own, Mulla Sadra

works his way through his Islamic intellectual and spiritual

heritage to formulate a new and original philosophical

perspective which not only integrates the intellectual

achievements of his ancestors but also improves on them.

This study of Mulla Sadra's synthesis of the three truth

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claims in his philosophy may be used as a basis for the

important examination of Mulla Sadra's role and contribution

to the preservation and development of Islamic intellectual

tradition generally and of Islamic Philosophy, specifically.

Finally, it is hoped that this study of Mulla Sadra's

philosophy is an addition to the slowly growing literature in

the West that dispels the mistaken view that Islamic

Philosophy gradually disintegrated from the twelfth century

onwards as a result of al-Ghazzali's critique of Peripatetic

Philosophy. This study of Mulla Sadra's philosophy

demonstrates the existence of a rich and vibrant philosophical

tradition which after the twelfth century gradually develops

into a particular form of philosophy which is more faithful to

the tenets of Islam and which is based on experiential

knowledge of revealed principles and doctrines rather than

rational and speculative philosophical principles.

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______. "The School of Isfahan." In A History of Muslim Philosophy, Vol.II, ed. M. Sharif, 904-32. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1966.

______. "Renaissance in Iran: Haji Mulla Hadi Sabzawari." In A History of Muslim Philosophy. Vol.II, ed. M. Sharif, 1543-56. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1966.

______. "Islamic Philosophy in Contemporary Persia: A Survey of Activity during the Past Two Decades." Research Monograph No.3. Salt Lake City: University of Utah, 1972.

______. "The Meaning and Role of 'Philosophy' in Islam." Studia Islamica 37 (1973): 57-80.

______. "Intellect and Intuition: Their Relationship from the Islamic Perspective." Studies in Comparative Religion (Winter-Spring, 1979): 65-74.

______. "The Relation Between Sufism and Philosophy in Persian Culture." Hamdard Is1amicus (Winter 1983): 33- 47.

______. "The Metaphysics of Sadr al-Din Shirazi and Islamic Philosophy in Qajar Iran." In Oaiar Iran, eds. E. Bosworth & C. Hillenbrand, 177-98. Edinburgh: The

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______. "Spiritual Movements, Philosophy and Theology in the Safavid Period." In The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. VI, eds. P. Jackson & L. Lockhart, 656-97. Cambridge: The University Press, 1986.

______. "Existence (wujud) and Quiddity (mahivvah) in Islamic Philosophy." Iabal Review (Oct. 1989-April 1990)

Qazwini, Ayatullah Abu al-Hasan Rafi'i. "The Unity of 'Aqil and Ma'qul." Trans. 'Ali Qara'i. Al-Tawhid 9 (July-Sept 1991):_ 84-92.

Rahman, Fazlur. "Dream, Imagination and 'Alam al-mithal." Islamic Studies 3 (June 1964): 167-180.

______. "Mulla Sadra's Theory of Knowledge." Philosophical Forum 4 (Fall 1972): 141-152.

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