Indira Gandhi National Open University School of Health Sciences BNS-105 Behavioural Sciences
Basic Concepts in Sociology 1 COURSE INTRODUCTION
The study of the human society has developed a range of sciences attempting to understand the roots and nature of man’ personal, inner and social behaviour. Anthropology, Political Science, Economics, Ecology, Psychology and Sociology are all relevant in this respect. These sciences give us an insight that man cannot exist in a vacuum and that individual and social behaviour cannot be separated. Behavioural and social sciences are the integrated approaches to study man in a holistic perspective, viz. as a biological organism in dynamic interaction with its specific eco-systems and with its culture as adaptive technology.
In health related professions, the large scale involvement of the behavioural sciences has been relatively recent, but the trend has been particularly strong. That health has important social, cultural and psychological aspects, as well as physical ones, is no longer seriously debated. Courses in Psychology, Sociology and Anthropology are becoming an integral part of the basic training of health professionals in the content of new emerging trends to understand man in relation to health and disease.
If man has to live healthily; happily and in peace or if at all he has to survive, we need to study and integrate all human sciences including behavioural sciences.
This course on Behavioural Sciences introduces you to sociological, psychological and economic concepts, so as to enable you to give comprehensive care and apply these concepts in diagnostic and therapeutic techniques, e.g. interview, counselling, stress management and so on.
This course has been divided into four blocks:
Block 1 deals with Concepts in Sociology
Block 2 focuses on Application of Sociological Concepts
Block 3 relates to General Psychology
Block 4 is devoted to Educational Psychology
We hope this course, in addition to its academic and practical value, will provide you with interesting and enjoyable reading. Indira Gandhi National Open University BNS-105 School of Health Sciences Behavioural Sciences
Block 1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN SOCIOLOGY
UNIT 1
Application of Behavioural Sciences in Health 5
UNIT 2
Basic Concepts in Sociology 16
UNIT 3
Family as a Social Unit 27
UNIT 4
Social Stratification 44
UNIT 5
Social Mobility and Social Control 52 Basic Concepts in Sociology BLOCK INTRODUCTION
The course on sociology has been divided into two blocks for conceptual clarity and for convenience of the students. Block 1 focuses on Concepts in Sociology and Block 2 focuses on Application of Sociological Concepts in the field of medicine and nursing especially.
This block has five units:
Unit 1: Application of Behavioural Sciences in Health
Unit 2: Basic Concepts in Sociology
Unit 3: Family as a Social Unit
Unit 4: Social Stratification
Unit 5: Social Mobility and Social Control
The topics covered in these units will help you to learn basic concepts of sociology, relationship of sociology with other social sciences, social institutions, social structures, mechanism of social control and social stratification.
After completing these units, you will be able to apply these concepts in your field and use this learning in your professional field of nursing. Learning of social sciences and its knowledge would enhance your ability to interact effectively with patients and others in the community.
4 UNIT 1 APPLICATION OF BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES IN HEALTH
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition and Scope of Behavioural Sciences
1.3 Relevance of Behavioural Sciences in Health
1.4 Sociology As Science
1.4.1 Sociology a Science
1.4.2 Relationship of Sociology with other Sciences
1.4.3 Relationship between Sociology and Social Anthropology
1.4.4 The Field of Sociology
1.4.5 The Field of Medical Sociology
1.4.6 The Field of Medical Anthropology
1.5 Need for Sociological Perspective for Health Professionals
1.6 Role of a Nurse as an Agent of Change
1.6.1 Direct Health Care Provider to the Community
1.6.2 Educator
1.6.3 Manager and Supervisor
1.6.4 Planner
1.6.5 Researcher
1.6.6 Role of a Nurse as a Social Scientist
1.7 Key Ingredients for Nurse as Change Agent
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.0 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.10 Further Readings
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
● define behavioural sciences and explain its nature and scope;
● explain the relevance of behavioural sciences in health and development of Medical Sociology;
● describe the role of the nurse as change agent against the backdrop of overall changes in the society and the forthcoming challenges of Primary Health Care; and
● explain the concept of social development and enumerate its indicators as applied to health. 5 Basic Concepts in Sociology 1.1 INTRODUCTION
Knowledge of behavioural sciences helps a nurse to interact with patient in holistic manner specially keeping in view the psychology of patient and relatives and the sociological background from which the patient comes. In this unit you will be reading about behavioural sciences and its relationship to other sciences, specifically about sociology and need for sociological perspective in health. Role of nurse as a change agent is also specified.
1.2 DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES
Behavioural Science is the knowledge of human behaviour with an interdisciplinary approach to understand the human needs in the context of wider societal problems.
Behavioural Sciences include Sociology, Anthropology (minus Archaeology), Technical Linguistics, and most of Physical Anthropology, Psychology (minus Physiological Psychology) and behavioural aspects of Sociology, Economics, Geography, Law, Psychiatry and Political Science.
Luthans has shown the relationship between behavioural science and other disciplines as follows: Arts and Sciences ------Humanities ------Physical Sciences ------Biological Sciences Social Sciences ------E conomics ------History ------Political Science Behavioural Science ------Anthropology ------Sociology ------Psychology In fact, Behavioural Science is a total systems approach to understand human behaviour, which does not take human being in isolation but views man as a product of socio-psychological and cultural factors. Thus this science analyses man’s behaviour keeping in view his psychological framework, interpersonal orientation, group influence and social and cultural factors. This helps to find solutions to problems arising due to man’s complex nature.
1.3 RELEVANCE OF BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES IN HEALTH
Since man is a product of its social, cultural and economic environment, medical science alone is not sufficient to take care of the health needs of the people. Biomedical approach used by the practitioners of medical science is essential, but knowledge of socio-economic complexities and socio-behavioural aspects of the people’s lives have significance contribution to make for the welfare and well being of people. Thus it is important for the health professionals to understand the factors that contribute to health and disease, have understanding of socio-economic factors that contribute to accessibility of services. It is essential that the health practitioners including nurses have insights into these aspect of patient’s lives. Behavioural sciences are important for the students of nursing as nurses deal 6 with the human beings who have complex needs. Application of Behavioural 1.4 SOCIOLOGY AS SCIENCE Sciences in Health
Sociology is a systematic study of human society and their social life. Sociology can also be defined as the scientific study of the interaction among different organized groups of human beings. 1.4.1 Sociology a Science
The word Sociology is a combination of the Latin word - ‘socio’ meaning society and ‘logy’ meaning study on higher level. Before we move on further, we must understand what is science? Science uses systematic methods of investigation, theoretical thinking and the logical assessment of arguments to develop a body of knowledge about a particular subject matter. In the same sense, sociology occupies prime position among various disciplines such as economics, anthropology, political sciences that are usually termed as ‘social sciences’. Sociology can be explained as a scientific discipline in the sense that it involves systematic methods of investigation, the comparative analysis of data, assessment of theories applied to human life in the light of evidence and logical argument. Thus sociology means scientific study. It follows all principles and aspects of science in its approach and methodology. 1.4.2 Relationship of Sociology with other Sciences
The clear understanding of scope and distinction between Sociology, History, Psychology, Anthropology, Economics is essential for you to know as nursing students so that you can understand different facets of patients’ lives. This would also help you to work better in the professional field.
We have already defined Sociology above. But you must know the definition of other sciences before you understand the difference between them.
History: It is the record of the life of societies of man, of the changes which societies have gone through, of ideas which have determined the actions of their societies and of material conditions which have helped their development.
Psychology: Psychology deals with mental processes of an individual, considered as a social being. It studies particularly the influence of group life on mental development of an individual.
Economics: Economics is the social science, which studies the production and distribution of goods and services. In other words, economics studies how people make choices as to how to allocate their scarce resources to maximize their benefits to themselves.
Anthropology: The word anthropology is derived from the Greek word and means “the study of man”. Historically, Anthropologists started out by examining the lives and beliefs of traditional non-western people. This interest continues, but studies of western and non-western modern societies and institutions have also become common.
Relationship (Differences) between Sociology and History
Sociology and History may overlap in the area but diverge in one and another.
History Sociology
1) History establishes the sequence of events. 1) Sociology is relationship between events Arrangements of behaviour in time. occurring at same time. 2) History is study of past. 2) Sociology is the study of contemporary happenings and recent past. 3) It is not concerned with cause but how 3) It gives the interrelationship between events things happen. and consequences. 4) History deals with human events, correlated 4) Sociology studies them from the viewpoint in time. of the social relationship. 5) History describe unique events 5) Sociology provides generalization 7 Basic Concepts in Relationship between Sociology and Psychology Sociology Psychology Sociology 1) It deals with mental processes of man. 1) Sociology studies social relationships. 2) Psychology deals with human mind. 2) Sociology deals with social behaviour. 3) Psychology studies the influence of group 3) Sociology studies social facts derived life on the mental development of an from society, defined as being external to individual and effect of individual mind on individual mind. the group and the development of mental life of the groups within themselves.
1.4.3 Relationship between Sociology and Social Anthropology
Sociology and Anthropology had both began by asking general question about nature and origin of human society as a whole. They became scientific disciplines only when they began to make empirical investigations into particular societies. The type of societies social anthropologists and sociologists chose to study in detail were from the start very different from each other.
Sociology as science is of recent origin. Sociology is the study of social relationships and human interaction whereas the word Anthropology has been derived from the Greek word ‘Anthropos’ meaning man and ‘logos’ meaning study. Thus it means study of man on earth. It has three branches of study – physical anthropology, cultural anthropology and social anthropology. Anthropology devotes its attention to the study of an individual and his/her culture as they develop it in the long period.
Differences between Sociology and Anthropology
As we have seen that sociology and social anthropology are interdependent yet there are clear differences in the subject matter, methods and attitudes.
Sociology Anthropology Differences in the subject matter: Differences in the subject matter: 1) Sociology studies social relationships and 1) Anthropology is the study of man and his human interaction culture as developed in the past. 2) It expects to study the industrialized 2) Anthropologists work in alien societies – or societies that have come into being in the we can say as other culture. recent past (last century and a half) 3) Their fundamental interest is in the 3) Sociologists do not consider vast structure of the society and their organisations as a whole but look at relationship different aspects. They study parts of society and generally specialize in some institutions such as the family or a process such as social mobility. Difference in methods: Difference in methods: 1) It gets its background from records- 1) It gets its material through functional historical and statistical and their methods in which person conducting the contemporary material largely from research actually goes and lives in the questionnaires, which obtain information society, he is to study. on limited number of points from a large 2) The technique of working is called number of people. ‘participatory observation’ and the method 2) The method of analysis is more often formal of analysis is qualitative and clinical. and quantitative. Difference of Attitude: Difference of Attitude: 1) The attitude is tender towards the practical Anthropologist just study ancient and pre-historic and the present. societies. They have no concern for giving suggestions regarding the future like in the case of They depend on anthropology for getting sociology. knowledge of the past and the study of relationships, incidents and processes of the society and give suggestion and viewpoints on 8 these matters. 1.4.4 The Field of Sociology Application of Behavioural Sciences in Health In 1902, Durkheim classified Sociology into: a) General Sociology; b) Juridical Sociology; c) Moral Sociology; d) Criminal Sociology; e) Religious Sociology; f) Economic Sociology; and g) Social Morphology. The other sub-fields of Sociology are: a) Industrial Sociology; b) Family Sociology; c) Educational Sociology; and d) Health Sociology.
In the very recent times, the field of sociology has extended towards Medical Science too. “Health Sociology” or “Medical Sociology” has been the subject to describe and learn about Medicine as a Social Science. We shall give you a brief orientation about the subject in the following paragraphs.
The science of sociology as applied to medicine owes its origin to the study of relationships between health phenomena and social factors in medical context. A sociological approach to the study of history of medicine gives a better understanding of the past in order to gain insight into the current trends and developments in the sphere of medical science and thus develops an integrated knowledge to relate the life processes to the existing social phenomena and health in a meaningful manner. 1.4.5 The Field of Medical Sociology
Robert Strauss (1957) has visualized the spectrum of Medical Sociology as that field of Sociology which can provide information concerning the purpose, scope and organization of the elements of medicine which will affect the layman and professionals alike.
Medical sociology enables the practitioners with information about medical institutions. The study of distribution of diseases, cultural perspectives, attitudes and values emerging from social organization of treatment centers, relationship of treatment facilities and support facilities all fall within the purview of Medical Sociology.
In more concrete terms, therefore, Sociology of Medicine refers to the study of the various broad socio-cultural, economic and political forces that shape the health services system of a country at the macro level. 1.4.6 The Field of Medical Anthropology
The sub-fields of Anthropology are of direct relevance to health management programmes. They are: a) ethno-medicine b) medical anthropology c) cultural ecology
Each one has significant relevance from the point of health care both at individual and cultural levels. Let us have a brief orientation about the subject.
Medical Anthropology analyses the medical-clinical-curative systems in different societies. Broadly, medical anthropology has been defined as the branch of science of man which studies biological and cultural aspects of man from the point of view of understanding the medical, medico-historical, medico-social and public health problems of human beings (Hasan and Prasad, 1959).
In the light of the above definition, a historic approach to the understanding of the above science, we may define Medical Anthropology as “ the holistic of health, illness and related misfortunes, as these are culturally perceived, labeled, classified, experienced and communicated on the one hand and socially constructed roles, statuses and institutional networks which are believed to help in the health enhancing process, on the other, with a view to identify cross cultural similarities and variation in the patterning of such behaviour”.
The anthropologists, therefore, have to appreciate that the place of Medicine in any society is determined by the current social and economic structure, the value that society places on health and disease, the tasks, that are assigned to different categories of practitioners and the technology of medicine available to them. Incidentally, the World Health Forum has referred ethno-medicine as “popular medicine” or “popular health culture”. Polgar (1962) has further 9 Basic Concepts in distinguished “professional health culture of medical practitioners from the popular health Sociology culture of unspecialized lay practitioners”. It has to be appreciated in the above context that the modern culture certainly lays a great deal of stress upon scientific medicine as opposed to folk or indigenous medicine. However, one cannot forget that socio-cultural forces play an important part in determining the meaningful of illness, function of illness and ways of counteracting it.
In the above backdrop, health sociology in the context of developing nations, especially India, has a far greater challenge to face in the field of health that may provide new configurations of knowledge on social realities related to health.
1.5 NEED FOR SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE FOR HEALTH PROFESSIONALS
Mere knowledge of medicine is not sufficient to understand the health problems. Manifestation of health problems is the result of much more than the simple cause of effect relationship between organism and the host, i.e. human body. Hence health and disease cannot be seen in isolation from man’s socio-economic position in which he lives and interacts.
It is important for the practitioners of health that they understand the different factor that has influence on health and illness.
Can there be Value-free Science?
In the broad sense, sociology is not a prescriptive /proscriptive science. Sociology does not prescribe particular values/ethics as good or bad. It addresses issues. Study of human relations is the prime concern in sociology. Objectivity and rationality based on thorough knowledge of a situation alone can ensure scientific status to the discipline of sociology. The goal of research is to acquire objective knowledge, free of bias and prejudices. To be sure of this objectivity the sociologist follow the path of natural scientist. Yet biases and values do come in. The best way to overcome these is to have insights into one’s own prejudices and biases. It is difficult to have value free science but having insight into one’s own prejudices and biases helps to overcome these. The insights into one’s own prejudices and biases help to be objective, and also help understanding the prejudices and biases other people have in the community that you might come across in your professional life.
1.6 ROLE OF A NURSE AS AN AGENT OF CHANGE
In the light of the principles of primary health care and the commitment to the goal of HFA by 2000 A.D., it has been proposed to make available the preventive, promotive and rehabilitative aspects of health care services closer to the doorsteps of the people who require them most, more particularly the weaker and deprived sections of the society.
The eight essential elements and the five principles of primary health care call for preparation of nurses to assume responsibility specially for the provision of first level care in the community and thus act as a change agent in bringing about a good quality of life to the people at large. This calls for not only a reorientation of the training programmes but also requires a different approach to view their traditional roles in the context of primary health care by understanding the structural realities in our contemporary Indian Society.
A review of the traditional roles of nurses in promotion of primary health care as identified by WHO Study Group, 1985 are as follows: 1.6.1 Direct Health Care Provider to the Community
The move has to be in the direction towards caring for people in their every day life in the community rather than stick to the narrow vision of hospital oriented care. In this regard the nurse has to be sensitive to the health needs of the people in the context of broader social 10 changes. Application of Behavioural 1.6.2 Educator Sciences in Health In the context of overall social development and achievement of HFA, the primary role of nurse is to take up health educations activities in community along with the participation and involvement of local people in planning and implementing health care programmes for their attainment of good quality of life, prevention of disease and disability and promotion of health.
At the same time, the nurse has to impart this knowledge of new focus of nursing care with inputs from behavioural sciences to health and health related functionaries in order to sensitize them to the needs to the people.
1.6.3 Manager and Supervisor
The nurse in the community setting has to act as a community organizer and to some extent as a leader in planning, organizing and implementing health services through community participation.
1.6.4 Planner
As a planner, the nurse should be able to:
● make a diagnosis of peoples’ belief and practices to various diseases,
● identify some of the socio-cultural barriers and promoters related to treatment, prevention of diseases and promotion of health,
● identify community resources available for the purpose,
● select suitable health education methods, and
● develop a plan of operation by involving local people and others engaged in community development keeping in mind the social realities.
This also requires supportive supervision on the part of the community health nurse.
1.6.5 Researcher
This role involves updating of skill and knowledge, monitoring and evaluating activities, analyzing health conditions of people and bringing about changes and innovation in health care based on research.
Last but not the least the emerging role of a nurse as a change agent must be visualized as a social scientist too.
1.6.6 Role of a Nurse as a Social Scientist
Realising that man has to be understood as a member of the society and that his behaviour is dynamic which has a tendency to act and react equally within his dynamic socio-cultural environment, the nurse has to clearly understand the needs of each segment of the society. This will enable the community health nurse broadly to know:
● needs of the women,
● needs of the children,
● needs of the adolescent,
● needs of the aged, and
● needs of the families including the eligible couples. 11 Basic Concepts in Sociology Corr. Characteristics From To Focus Sick Individual ® Individual/Family/Community
Primary Setting for Learning Hospital-Centre-Homes ® Community-Homes-Centres-Hospital Nursing Concerns Conditions requiring ® Health Needs of Community hospitalization Nursing Goals ● Prevention Focus on Secondary and ® Focus on Primary Level Tertiary Levels ● Therapeutic Till Patient is discharged ® Till Patient/family/community/ develops self-reliance Nursing Practice ● Nursing care of ® ● P.H.C. Approach Individual ● Individual/family/community ● Patient/Family participation in care Participation in care ● Care of special risk groups ● O.P.D. follow-up (sometimes) Nursing Approach Intervention through ® Problem-solving through individual family Assessment
Evaluation ● Patient discharged and ● % of health coverage of classified under illness population category ® ● Rate of service utilization by ● Frequency of contact high risk group with hospital ● Rate of change of health status ● Rate of response, e.g. Immunization
(Source: Modified from WHO. A Guide to Curriculum Review for Basic Nursing Education, WHO, Geneva, 1985, 9. 11).
Assessment
Evaluation
Priority needs
Intervention
Planning
Fig. 1.1: Direction towards Community Health Orientation to Nursing Practice
As social scientist, the nurse has also to study the broader issues of community involvement in health service development requiring the knowledge of:
a) cultural aspects of health, health services, health institutions, health problems and health practices prevailing,
b) modes of production,
c) social structure,
d) distribution of power and political organizations, and
e) mobilization of resources and pattern of their uses within the community in the context of cultural perception and cultural meaning of the health problems.
12 Check Your Progress 1 Application of Behavioural Sciences in Health 1) Define Sociology...... 2) Differentiate the term Psychology from Sociology...... 3) Explain the relationship between Anthropology and Sociology? ...... 4) Fill in the blanks: a) The word Anthropology is derived from Greek word ...... b) Anthropology has three branches that are i) ...... ii)...... iii)...... 5) What do you understand by value-free science? ......
1.7 KEY INGREDIENTS FOR NURSE AS CHANGE AGENT a) Rigourous self examination of one’s own values --- both individual and social. b) Effective communication skills, listening skills, critical evaluation and accurate observation skills are most crucial. c) Need for emotional soundness, awareness of various pressures of life and maturity in accepting the challenges are required. d) Developing work habits to increase efficiency and effectivity.
Check Your Progress 2 1) Fill in the blanks: a) Traditional role of a nurse has been visualized as ...... , ...... , ...... , ...... b) As a planner, the nurse should be able to: i) ...... ii) ...... iii) ......
iv) ...... 13 Basic Concepts in v) Sociology
2) As a Social Scientist, the nurse needs to know broadly the targeted segments of the Society. These are needs of the: a) ...... b) ...... c) ...... d) ...... 3) The four key ingredients for a nurse as a change agent are: a) ...... b) ...... c) ......
d) ......
1.8 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have studied application of social sciences in health. This gives us insights into social sciences and how these are used to understand human behaviour and human society. We have understood how and why nurse should know about application of social sciences.
1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1 1) Sociology is a systematic study of human society and their social life. or Sociology can also be defined as the scientific study of the interaction among different organized groups of human beings. 2) Psychology deals with mental processes of man, whereas Sociology studies social relationships. Psychology deals with human mind, and Sociology deals with social behaviour. 3) Sociology is the study of social relationships and human interaction whereas the word Anthropology has been derived from the Greek word ‘Anthropos’ meaning man and ‘logos’ meaning study. Thus it means study of man on earth. It has three branches of study ---- physical anthropology, cultural anthropology and social anthropology. Anthropology devotes its attention to the study of man and his culture as they developed in the long past. 4) a) ‘Anthropos’ b) i) physical anthropology, ii) cultural anthropology, and iii) social anthropology. 5) There cannot be value-free science per se, but it is important to be aware of ones biases and values. Sociology does not prescribe particular values/ethics as good or bad. It addresses issues. Study of human relations is the prime concern in sociology. Objectivity and rationality based on thorough knowledge of a situation alone can ensure scientific status to the discipline of sociology. The goal of research is to acquire objective knowledge, free of bias and prejudices. To be sure of this objectivity the sociologist follow the path of natural scientist. Yet biases and values do come in. The best way to overcome these is to have insights into one’s own prejudices and biases. It is difficult to have value-free science but having insight into one’s own prejudices and 14 biases helps to overcome these. The insights into one’s own prejudices and biases help Application of Behavioural to be objective, and also help understanding the prejudices and biases other people have Sciences in Health in the community that you might come across in their professional life. Check Your Progress 2 1) a) educator, direct care provider, manager and supervisor b) i) Make a diagnosis of peoples’ belief and practices to various diseases. ii) Identify some of the socio-cultural barriers and promoters related to treatment, prevention of diseases and promotion of health. iii) Identify community resources available for the purpose. iv) Select suitable health education methods. v) Develop a plan of operation by involving local people and others engaged in community development keeping in mind the social realities. 2) a) Women b) Children c) Adolescent d) Aged 3) a) Rigourous self examination of one’s own values ---- both individual and social. b) Effective communication skills, listening, skills, critical evaluation and accurate observation skills. c) Need for emotional soundness, awareness of various pressures of life and maturity in accepting the challenges. d) Developing work habits to increase efficiency and effectivity.
1.10 FURTHER READINGS
Bhaduri, A. (1990) “Emerging Challenges in Nursing Education”, Nursing Journal of India. Vol. LXXXI, No. 4, (Apr. 90). Bose, A., Desai, P.B., Mittra, A., Sharma J.N. (Eds.) (1974), “ An Alternative Approach to India’s Development”, Population in india’s Development 1947-2000, Indian Association for the Study of Population, Delhi. Bottomore, T.B. (1972) “Change Development, Progress”, Sociology ----A Guide to Problems and Literature (revised E., Third Impression), Blackie and Son (India) Ltd. Department of Family Welfare, GOI (1994) “Population Policy, Planning and Programme Framework”, India: Country Statement, International Conference on Population and Development, Cario. Fairchild, H.P. (Ed.) (1964) Dictionary of Sociology, Littlefield, Adams & Co., Paterson, New Jersey, U.S.A. Gore, M.S. (1988), “Social Development: The Asian Experience”, Bharatiya Samajik Chintan (Special Issue), Vol. XI, No. 1-4, Mar-Dec. 88, Indian Academy of Social Sciences, Allahabad. International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Vol. 15, 1972. Joshi, P.C. Mahajan (ed.) (1992), Studies in Medical Anthropology, Reliance Publishing House, New Delhi. Luthans, F. (1977), Organisational Behaviour, McGraw Hill, New York, P. 25. Nayar, P.K.B. (ed.) (1982), Sociology in India—Retrospect and Prospect, B.R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi -52. Strauss, R. (1957), “ The Nature and Status of Medical Sociology”, American Sociology 15 Review, 22 (April) pp. 200-04.