CEU eTD Collection Professor Miklós Lojko Miklós Professor Iordachi Constantin Professor Supervisors: The ImpactofSovietization: A casestudy ofthe Hungarianpeasantry “In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts” Central European University Department ofHistory under Thesis submitted to Budapest, Hungary Budapest, David Essig David Essig June 2007 By CEU eTD Collection such instructions may notbe made without the written permission of the Author.” form made in such page mustmade. copies with a partof accordance Further any copies and lodged in Central the Library.Author European may be Details from obtained the librarian.the by This given instructions the with accordance in only made be may part, or full “Copyright in the text of this thesis rests with the Author. Copies by any process,Statement ofCopyright either in David Essig CEU eTD Collection sources. English-language amongst topic neglected an often Communism, under transitional period campaigns. In broaderthe context, this study provides an analysis of a peasant society in its determined tohave beenheavily influenced by government-initiated social engineering are effects Both youngerthe generation. amongst particularly atmosphere, liberalized demeanour the in of aduality both theportrays that analysis peasantry,an is result The change. for catalyst as well unfavourable economic conditions of asHungary’s command economy as providing the a divergence understanding politics, of work, thefamily andunit, interaction, social pointing to from traditional traditional inthepeasantry’s transformation ideological an describes The thesis social middleupon the asabackdrop. peasantry, using of period Stalinization the (1948-1953) attitudesmodel in by examines ofthe Hungary Soviet generated imposition effects social the the to a much more author The period. post-Soviet of the academicdiscourse the into Hungarian refugees, studies, namely in600 interviews conducted1957/8by Columbia University with Abstract This thesis a aims toreintroduce previously ignored resource intomodern-day social David Essig CEU eTD Collection 1 past. into the for thisinspiration sojourn the provided experience myacknowledgement to Annie andNicholasgrandparents Essig,whosechildhood aspecial confer wish I to Last, project. of this forms thefoundation that material archival staff to the Open the at ArchivesSociety for inBudapest providing accessibility to the todiversifyingcontributed my extendAdditionally,myown approach. to Iwish gratitude methodshas of anthropological and comprehension research process the throughout Acknowledgment Page I wouldlike to thank Constantin Professor invaluableIordachi, whose assistance David Essig CEU eTD Collection operative in transition.” 1 Nigel Swain, “From toholding company:a Hungarian co- agricultural producer circumstances directly encountered, given and transmitted from past. from the given transmitted and encountered, directly circumstances they notmakedo itunder circumstances chosen by themselves, butunder Men make their own history, but they do not make it just as they please; Journal ofHistorical Sociology David Essig - 13,no.2 (June 2000):143. 1 CEU eTD Collection Bibliography...... 103 Appendix: Residences of CURPH Interviewees...... 101 Conclusions, Considerations, and Further Suggestions...... 94 4. Redefining Social Values...... 72 3. Transforming ...... 56 the Self 2. The New Politics...... 42 1. Economic Policy and Agricultural Development in Hungary...... 24 The New Turn, Oral History, and Social Anthropology...... 10 ...... 4 Introduction 4.3 Re-defining the Institution of Love...... 81 4.2 Duality and Combating Party Propaganda (Re-educating the Youth)...... 78 4.1 Theft versus Procurement...... 75 3.4 The Role of Second Economy...... 67 3.3 Work Ethics ...... 63 and the Family Unit 3.2 Class Integration: Birth of the Peasant-Worker...... 60 3.1 Social Stratification and Creation ...... 57 of the ‘New Man’ 2.3 Politics...... 50 2.2 Party ...... 48 Apparatus and Ideology 2.1 Impressions...... 44 1.4 From ...... 39 Reform to Revolution 1.3 ...... 34 1.2 Aftermath of War...... 28 The Prewar 1.1 Situation...... 24 Table of Contents David Essig CEU eTD Collection impact of collectivization upon the peasantry within the satellite state state of within peasantry Hungary the after upon satellite collectivization the impact of new wave of historical examination, there remains a lack of exploration into the social materialize. of yetto Regardless this has interest such 1956Revolution, anniversary the of this may changenumber of social afteranthropologists thesuch as Nigelrecent Swain, Chris states. Sovietized Hann, rise and Peter Bell.of Whileinterestother into reverberation little with but Union, Soviet inthe attempts collectivization in impact social on much-neededthe andliterature and of reforms agricultural both attention Hungarybrought have Viola, Lynne and Fitzpatrick Sheila as such inHistorians, Union. Soviet the the wake of years of pastthe studies exception academics,the anumberof from with case compelling the 50 inlittle has garnered under attention Stalinization of asocial nature peasantry group the as changing The society. peasant traditional transformed eventually which change, social hardship, of terror, and anupheaval inintroduced Soviet the satellitesthroughout 1949 collectivization mass implement to decision Moscow’s population. rural Hungary’s of yetSovietization rapid incipient the oppression during state and forced collectivization 406isSubject socialbroader No. expressive change developedyearsa of overseveral of 2 Introduction SubjectFile406. No. (accessedNovember 12,2006). Hungarian refugee Interviews from1957-1958 Columbia University Research Project on Hungary,on Project Research Columbia University In the case of Hungary, the literature is particularly meagre, with the exception of a of exception the meagre,with is particularly literature the Hungary, In the caseof interview University’s Columbia by peasantry Hungarian the of depiction above The became rather sophisticated. rather became and hadstart to read think he and to ahead economically peasants the agreements! may sound These from butsurprising keep atpeasants, to all for taxation deliveries! Abolish progressive Abolish gohome! Russians crop the farmer! Use the Kossuth coat of arms! Reveal secret trade 2 David Essig . OSA Archivum OSA . Donald andVera Blinken Collection – th CEU eTD Collection 3 Communist the and council village local the regarding specifically politics, to peasantry the of relationship (1)the categories: three fallinto ofthis essay Thefocal areas subjects. inthe responses the of these topics three of in prevalence the and interviews, the available The decision to limit the politics, values, andsocial of against backdrop areasthe collectivization the of drive 1949-1953. of examination to these social human in inlabour,changes of condition the the Hungarian peasantry of the spheres three spheres is based exploreHungary on by in the to Project conducted Research Columbia order University’s on the data bloc. Sovietthe throughout peasantry’s within view on their status bothin the Sovietorder, Hungary,broadly and more lack the regarding thereof, or changes, behavioural tothe pertaining discourse increased andattitude, organization Hungarianpeasantry.the of it Inaddition,would allow for development, the affected directly policies economic radical the how of understanding Investigation of dimension this of Hungarianthe experience would provide foran inbutalso relation to theurban environmentand theworld beyond Hungary’s borders. viewednot inargues, changedthewaypeasantry only itself to relation government the Coulter dimension, new This politics. national into peasantry the of entry “baptismal” explains introduction the that Communistof complete hegemony in1949began the experienced by peasantry. the was engineering social and collectivization, economy, command a of imposition the how understanding led a thorough of 1956Hungarian with the Revolution,that dispensing to impacts inis butof agricultural policy Hungary inexploring thecausaleffects preoccupied existconcerneddoes is social the 1945. Thebulkliterature thatwith not of the unravelling European Review Harris “The L. Coulter, Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”, The purpose of this thesis will be to perform in-depth perform interviewsthe be of analysis will The an to thesis this of purpose Hungarian author the 1959article,“ThePeasantry”, entitled In L.Coulter’s Harris 18,no.4(Dec.,1959): 3 David Essig 539. American SlavicandEast CEU eTD Collection 4 landless peasant one only with peasants, middle and and landholders onesmall the of large representative overwhelmingly landowner contributing to their However, includedenvironment. subjects experience study in inthe the are this pre-Soviet class’ experiences. Sincein the prewar systema of agriculture and community life as much as those who were had little average ageis29,providing a individuals balanceof respectable involvedwho weredeeply from eastern Hungary includedpeople in hail Hungary, study from this western isalsothere notableas a presence well. The mean age ofHungary regions in Figure1 majority throughout Appendix).While (see and 2 the of the the 31 subjects is 30 years old and the of socialist in the social-political subsequentHungary’s periods history. regime to transition the in documenting assist will economy command with a associated practices and lifestyle inmorality, Changes thesis. of this focus the accurately quite describes refers emphasis]”. [original did they as individually they unless [individuals] westudy doso small the understand why “wedonot that, continues explaining Elster arise. situations when atypical Sciences”, Social the for Bolts and “Nuts article in his indicates Elster Jon scientist Social industry. abandoning their long-cherished land holds for traditionally stigmatized in employment such as campaign, collectivization in of aggressiveSoviet-style faceof the an courses action delinquentactivity. and courtship regarding norms changing and unit, family the of relations interpersonal class integration, changing work ethics, and self-sufficiency, and; (3) social values and with creationParty;the (2) hybridspecial attention processof of the to a peasant-worker, Press, 1992):10. Jon Elster, The cumulative Subject Files (SF) represents a broad spectrum and backgrounds spectrum of abroad represents Files (SF) Subject The cumulative This satisfystudy aims to surroundingwhy curiosities peasantry the pursued certain that rational thought does not always enter into the decision-making process decision-making the into enter always not does thought rational that Nuts and Bolts fortheSocial David Essig Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University 4 In fact, the small mechanism to which Elster mechanisms which made them act CEU eTD Collection 7 University Press, 1996): 4/31. quite the same. quite herein is theinterest embarkedupon their and quest, writers sociologists since thesevarious 6 (Stanford: Stanford University v. 1961): Press, 5 servants”. of agricultural the primarily concerned with the conditions of the village peasants, of the landless peasants, and “literature whichwas produce to endeavoured who interwar period, of explorers” Hungary’s similar “village the ambitions of the is to Theessencechapter. most nextstudy the this of nature. bias-prone works, preferring to rely upon official documents to those of a more personal and frankly researchof area this on attention their focus who historians of majority The tendcollectivization. under to ignoreprevents him from orcompleting a comprehensivedeviate analysis of the experiences of the peasantry upon 1956 the Uprising,Kecskemeti’s focus is upon latterthe half of these aims, which from incorporating disintegration”. its of and pattern Stalinist the of imposition of forcible the both effects and social political interrelated the show “to aims, Kecskemeti first-handinterviews.as CURPH) referred to Hungary on (henceforth Project University Research accounts inRevolution their own historiography.Hungarian Paul publicationKecskemeti’s entitled interviews. the of cases analysis the presentedduring isolated or more unique the from typical experiences the distinguish to possible is it available is lifestyle economic and material their regarding peasantry Hungarian the of general disposition tothe pertaining literature of large amount Andrea Graziosi, Andrea SFNo.152. Paul Kecskemeti, It deserves a unique mention isIt whatIam that inthefield not pursuing approach of , comes very close to completing a similar social analysis of the Columbia The Great Soviet Peasant War: and Peasants, 1917-1933 6 The issueof oral sources and is their reliability thoroughly addressed in The Unexpected Revolution: social intheHungarianforces 7 Although the circumstances and ruling body body Althoughhave changed the circumstancesand ruling David Essig 5 While having one eyefixed Whilehaving one . (Cambridge: Harvard The Unexpected Uprising CEU eTD Collection 1993): 17. 10 în România,1949-1962 9 Process of Land in Collectivization Romania, 1949-1962)(Ia colectivizare a agriculturii înRomânia,1949-1962 8 society. socialist within generated processes within the Soviet bloc and the systems Sovietization. within of experience social human the of part integral an as themselves relationsof and in and changes that were social of instead beingstudied broader processes the [interpreting] processes” and political “as to weredisregarded an appendix since such experiences impact of collectivization theory of 1960s the severely limitedand 1970s the possibility historians tounderstandof the themodernization such as methodological notes, approaches Constantin Iordachi pointedly andrecords, newhavein historical approaches emerged that last30years.the As historian inclusive of newly archivalevidence,released previously sources ignored in formthe of oral analysis, the subject of social change under Communism requires of methods a fresh new of re-examinationlight in and, School Totalitarian the with associated or Kremlinologists by various economic policies. economic various by werealtered survivedor that society thetrends peasant of and early Hungarian perceptions information on the valuable of asource they provide still epochs, restricted by particular not periodization in favourof analyzing the dynamicsand the evolution of ongoing processes limitedAlthough of caseindividual are studies andtypically to their works avoid and local records. first-hand by accounts and combining realities various social perceptions extensive fieldwork, anthropologists such as Bell,Hann, and Swain were ablereconstruct to towards understandingtowards life thevarious dynamics facets social of viaof peasant Hungarian Dobrincu andIordachi, eds. Dorin Dobrincu andConstantin Iordachi, eds. C. M. Hann, ed. Social anthropologists, starting in the early 1970s, began to focus on internal on focus to began 1970s, early in the starting anthropologists, Social Many researchers who worked within the framework of CURPH were either : ideas, ideologies, and the localpractice : 5. : ğăUă 10 Interestingly enough, the social turn in anthropology 9 nimea After numerous venturesHungarian into villages, and David Essig ú i puterea:Procesul decolectivizare a agriculturii ğăUă (The Peasantry and the Power: The Power: the and Peasantry (The nimea ú i puterea:Procesul de ú i: Polirom, 5. 2005): . (London: Routledge, 8 CEU eTD Collection listening habits of Hungarianthe population. the on reports summary contain which Europe, Free Radio of records the are interviews these through asexpressed Hungarian experience comprehensive study everydayof life and prevailing perceptions onsocial order. fornumerous a allowing topics, andcover eachsection comprising are extensive questions opinions; as well as possible party, government, and affiliations. police The scopes of the and ideology, attitudes andeducation; social experience; lifeproblems work and personal of themes the to according categorized sections, several of arecomprised The interviews and structure organisation of interviewthe lend scripts analysis. favourably themselves to The in located Budapest. (OSA), Open Archives the at interviews available Society leavingmany unanswered.questions Hungarian peasantry’sher topic ofthe of the from butaside by Zsuzsanna publications, a number Varga, break from away traditional withintopics of exploration historiography,notably Hungarian life under to beenattempts have There yet historiography. inHungarian hasnot appeared sources oral collectivization remains a dismal area of exploration, The context of my work will primarily focus on reconstructing certain facets of the of facets certain reconstructing on focus primarily will mywork of context The CURPH the of examination an by answered be will questions research own My David Essig accounts. Complementary to the CURPH the to Complementary accounts. CEU eTD Collection Farmswhich Work? agriculture. within labour wage socialist or labour family a in either involved individuals indicate cross-sectionnot only traditionalthe meaning of family non-wageearning the agrarian butalsounit, the provided1949. in the CURPH in inHungary transformation” starting socio-economic “radical,large-scale, agriculture’s collection.to refer and Swain, Nigel anthropologist from borrowed be will collectivization The firstfor of definition Soviet andthe the patterns population. Hungary consumption the Second, part pre- of trends market capitalist incipient the both to opposition ofdirect in economy command the definition will Hann’s 13 1985): 2. 12 Resistance 11 andmiddle whorepresent peasant, 80 percent Subject of Filesthe employed in It study. this smallholder the to specifically more refers it Additionally, Party. Communist (Workers’) Hungarian the under life everyday of experiences their share to agreed and Revolution, left rural inas hailing frompeasant originsareas, who ofthe Hungary or theaftermath 1956 collectivization. including nation, the industrializing heavily into lines,Stalinist being masssocial preoccupied with concentratingengineering and resources economic, and political, the of restructuring complete the refers to Sovietization First, peasantry. social and systemcollectivization, Sovietization, terms the namely, essay, the throughout appear of Hungary into a centralized state alongThe New Turn, Oral History, andSocial Anthropology characteristically For further explanation on ‘family labour farm’ or ‘socialist wage labour’ see C. M. Nigel Swain, Lynne Viola, 12 For the sake of clarity, it is worth explicating a number of terminologies that will that terminologies of a number explicating is worth it clarity, sakeof the For Social Anthropology Last, the term peasantry requires a unique description since the term term since the encapsulates description the term requires Last, aunique peasantry . (New York: Oxford. (New University Press, 1996): vii 13 The second half of a definition the group denotes individualsof self-identified Collective Farmswhich Work? Peasant Rebels under Stalin: Collectivization andtheCulture of Peasant . (Coventry: & Hodder 2000),:68,andStoughton, Swain’s : 6, respectively. David Essig (Cambridge: Cambridge (Cambridge: University Press, 11 Also, it refers to a CEU eTD Collection 14 In period casesinvolvingHungary are typically anthropological of studies, collectivization. quitecapture vividly essence of the lifein everyday Russia during that country’s most brutal Fitzpatrick’s as such works historical contrary, the On aims. individual in their failed have they that say in Hungary historians have failed toprovide illustration the changingregarding nature of peasantrythe As aresult, material. such source of availability the despite have studied, they peasants of the part on the testimonial absencedirect of is asignificant there engineering, scale social large-economic at andattempts reforms Soviet under experience Hungarian the peasantry’s a synthesis of the current literature between both disciplines. attitude towards rigid or finite periodization. ambivalent more a with relations and structures social changing of intricacies the to insight provide theto readerwith ingenre attempt this works anthropological transformations”, withstudies typically or “answeeping eyetounchangingoperate structures to rural-centricsocio-historical While pertaining academic literature to historical works. headings such as labour, politics, and values, is into typical categorized of both socio-anthropological studies social existing of and Stratification policies. economic Soviet various and relations of individualthe Hungarian peasantvia theadaptation integrationand of lens focused style,follows with a narrative on a highly structures thematic social changing socio-historicalupon a combination and socio-anthropologicalof Thepaper templates. the collective orstate , but attempted to eke out an existence outside of State control. importantis also tonote none that of included Subjectsthe inthisstudy were involved with Ethnologist Martha Lampland, “Pigs, Party Secretaries, and Private Lives in Hungary.” Although social historianshave understanding prolific toour contributed works of study andmethodology rely framework present the will of The structural primarily 18,no. 3, (Aug., 1991):459. as experienced by the peasants bythe as experienced Stalin's Peasants or Viola’s or David Essig Peasant Rebels Peasant under Stalin in the early phase of sovietization. Thisis not to 14 The methodology of this study also provides haveboth managed to American CEU eTD Collection the authorship of Bell, Fél & Hofer, and Swain. 15 Great as the (such genres from historical reproach The traditional by thegeneral population. nature of with life asexperienced multifaceted everyday the historians concerned exploring of patronage The new emergedprimarily from the belowunder history turn approach. a for history,social approach achangein widelyexercised to called and top-down the turn” in history. “newof the as part defined best are characteristics of these Both study. of this center the combination of social anthropologymust a rely upon (1948-1953) wave of collectivization first under the peasant’s experience and oral testimony, Hungarian in the interested reconstructing researchers As a result, collectivization. such as the CURPH of waves secondand third intothe well death, Stalin’s after a fewdecades from hails interviews typically data atthe but farms, collective of number a within living Hungarian’s of testimonies themselves. farms the within relations impact accompanying planning, economic aswell the as dynamic of features power social the successfully uncover Europe, of Eastern context in broader the Sovietization beginning of post-socialistperiod,the aswell Hann’s Chris of comparative studies Nigel Swain’s work on collective andits evolution farming from the prewar Hungary to a divergence in the interests of social historians and social anthropologists. Additionally, marking relationships, reciprocal and social stratifications with more concerned are a voice, and influences reciprocal between individual,the environment, stateapparatus. the their varying explicating several encapsulatingdecades, provide andaccounts to experiences limited infocus on a single community rural relying population uponanon-transient or able Examples of featurethis of anthropological studies are provided in bibliography the under The historiography of the 1970s revealed this new turn new turn withinsub-discipline the of The historiography this 1970srevealed the of the collected have anthropologists social historians, of benefit great the To The approaches of social anthropologists, who attempt to provide the peasantry with David Essig 15 CEU eTD Collection 19 18 17 1991): 5. 16 larger picture. illustrating of the of signifyingof with theasan events” intention expression the particular record in form serves a series to “thick[which] written microhistory description of provides format The Marxist approach. a(neo-) with are aligned and research anthropological from emerged analysis micro-historical of characteristics The impacts. social its and reforms iscomplement macro-analysisstyleto Sovietapproach the of the economic incorporated a fuller literature, of past. established the description dimension human the of experience in canprovide,that conjunction with previously down correcthistory history the malaisetraditional by to and tries of providing another borrow Burke’s totop- To history of from below incontrast stands definition, purpose the well demonstrated in previouslythe marginalized sectionsdevelopment of the global community to reclaim their pasts, which is of women’s history and African-American events. the and viewof provideofficial anarrow to sources such of nature irreconcilable the specifically, more facts; for history. documents official on reliance heavy namely a historians, top-down reconcileof Burkeasan adeficiency to attempt Peter by explained partially is history) economic and history, political/diplomatic theory, Man material.” the scale of observation, on a microscopic analysis and an intensive study of documentary but reduced to the level of reduced tothelevel butindividual to of masses. instead the of approach the Incontrast this Levi in Burke, Giovanni Levi,“On Microhistory” in Burke, ed. Peter Burke, ed. In view of the micro-level analysis that this project entails, a micro-historical a entails, project this that analysis micro-level the of view In is from desire the amongst below of history for the appearance reason Another The concept of Giovanni involvesmicrohistory, The of the“reduction accordingof to concept Levi, 19 This view is considered structuralist in nature, typical of a Marxist framework, Marxist a of typical nature, in structuralist considered is view This New Perspectives onHistorical Writing. 18 New Perspectives on Historical Writing New Perspectives onHistorical Writing David Essig New Perspectives on Historical Writing 17 : 32. : : 95. . (Cambridge: Polity Press, 16 , Burke:98. CEU eTD Collection 22 usinglanguagecontext specifictheperiod under analysis the to as bringattention aswell to experiences. individual of collection a as known summarily are that experiences of mosaic a forms holesthe illustrate historical microhistory diversitiesof an tapestry, attempts to it and how existing within concepts Unlike the Annales. historicalmeant bulkof the writings, tofill up Jacques Revel,toview microhistory and its methods as a means of criticizing and reviewing beyond reachesofits the actual dimensions. impactpond, andits of theripple watching intofara small beingfelt surroundings, object Jacques Revel and The LynnHunt,(NewYork: NewYork Press, 1995):496. 21 (Torino: Giulio Einaudi editore s.p.a., 1986): 9. 20 internationally. grain of price market the affects that aresonance possesses act menial seemingly a such even how and bread of loaf a buy to goes who man the of example the provides he criticism, this discredit to effort an In context. historical larger the to application its limits somehow approach by this required scope narrow the that misconception is the this study further in later will chapter. discussion receive the approaches is employed. The use of oral history and its possible contributions/limitations to both of interviews, anagglomeration CURPH of the full advantage to take In aneffort meta-history. larger a niche of the small represents that each other with interacting events amontagecreate of to instead trial of transcripts, suchasinterrogation reports records, intensive documentary butincludesanalysis useof the interviewsoral and lesstraditional is Alessandro Portelli’s thematic approach, whereby the evidence does not simply rely on Jacques Revel, “Microanalysis and the Construction of the Social”, in Levi in Burke, CarloGinzburg, It is perhaps this line of thinking that led members of the Annales School, such as One of the major criticisms to the approach of microhistory, as pointed out by Levi, 22 By creating a detailed illustration, microhistory is able to enrich historical enrich to isable microhistory illustration, a detailed By creating 21 This concept of interactivity is reminiscent of tossing a pebble into a into pebble a tossing of reminiscent is interactivity of concept This New Perspectives onHistorical Writing Myth, EmblemandClues David Essig . Translated by John & Anne C. Tedeschi : 96. Histories , ed. 20 CEU eTD Collection domestic life entailed within the collective farms, as well as providing an additional source additional an providing as well as farms, collective the within entailed life domestic Hann, Swain, and Verdery. These works will further afford asense of what community and Revolution. torelationships between regime’s 1956 the of activitiesthe andthe outbreak regards in except sphere, social the within programs economic and political various of implications social the ignore to tends it Kremlin, the and Hungary within goings-on political While Wilsoninformation on the auspices sourcesprovide Woodrow the these Centre. of publications bythe released Kovrig’s Bennet Backwardness in Hungary, 1825–1945 Backwardness inHungary, Modern Hungary,1929–1945 AHistory Fifteenth: of Revolution: AHistory inDocuments bloc Gati’s asCharles such are works topic this on available information era of Communist rule in Hungary Erato the Reform the Endofthe Twentieth Century is quite comprehensive as well. Among the sources of Hungary, 1874–1946 A GreatConservative Statesman of has been well-establishedin such academic publications as Ignac Romsics’ community. immediate the without and within both peasantry the of more broadly the imposition of a command economy, which resulted in a changed outlook and bycollectivization thatwere affected elements various of interpretations multifarious the explicates literatureHungary, on pre-existing the with combined This approach, experiencesindividualjuxtaposition of in the it with group the a collectiveidentity. shares , János Rainer’s “The History of Hungary”, Csaba Békés’ Csaba of Hungary”, “The History , JánosRainer’s In addition to these resources are the publications of social anthropologists Bell, anthropologists social of thepublications are resources these to In addition Information on the development of Hungary prior to the eruption of WorldWar II eruption of tothe of Hungary Information prior thedevelopment on Communism inHungary:FromKuntoKádár Cold War HistoryInternational Project , Lazslo Bohri’s David Essig , and Gábor Gyáni’s . The current literature pertaining to the literature pertaining to . Thecurrent Hungary intheColdWar, 1945-1956 , Andrew C. János’ Social History of Hungary from Social Historyof , C.A. MacCartney’s Hungary and the Soviet Hungary andthe , and other numerous The 1956Hungarian , publishedunderthe The Politics of István Bethlen: October , CEU eTD Collection 23 is agricultural records, asevidencein providedapproach trade particularly difficult, as experienced by peoplethe themselves. significantunderstanding and context tounderstanding everyday life behind Curtain Iron the collection bring ofinformation into view will a source that has add potential to the CURPH the useof More broadly, the wave of first of collectivization. context the the by as interpreted individual the thewithin social sphere thatwas exclusively within wrought anthropology has been hinderedin its ability provide an to inclusiveanalysis of experiences this study’s contribution to social anthropology. As previously mentioned, social establishing a theoreticalin assist to investigation resource have an additional historical – will of tradition framework for their own sources consideredby a numberof historians as less reliable –thosebeing of oral the projects. Of particularthroughout similarly transformedinterest societies. In a more general sense, methods for employing will be dealing of withinworks with aspects contextof the Sovietization Hungary or either Additionally, casestudy this will acomparativeprovide sourceof analysis for existing their socialfuller how peasantsunderstood the of a ontheHungarian description peasantry, literature relationsavailable the with available interviews the of synthesis a by creating short, In values. as alteredandlabour, politics, social perception of contributepeasants’ tothe understandingto the of during the the 1950s,and formativea particularly period, on to makeuse sources, of under-researched first wave of collectivizationtheir research. Anthropology will emerge. toentitledinterviews.Hann’s publication literature Inparticular,the of comparative Burke, In studying the peasantry of Eastern Europe, any attempt to implementa bottom-up to anyattempt Europe, ofEastern peasantry the In studying By integrating currentbody these interviews into the thisintends literature, study of New Perspectives onHistorical Writing aids in defining a number of social themes that anthropologists employ in employ anthropologists that themes social of number a in defining aids David Essig : 32. Social 23 CEU eTD Collection Burke: 29. 24 address a number of concerns as handlingthe to such“unofficial” as documents evidence. information wellasto ofas sources other to preference their behind provide the reasoning to is crucial it project in this place special a hold will interviews these Since Curtain. intolife diverse the defined Iron behindthe needed glimpse andcomplex relations that propaganda campaign of RFE’s effectiveness determine the to agencies’ Western of interests various the placate within the Soviet bloc,in theand bibliographyin the case of CURPH,ofResearch Project on Hungary this(CURPH) and RadioFree Europe / Radio Liberty (RFE)listed toessay. get a much-The inspiration by history atthe conducted interviewsneed look University Columbia the the only of for these one development, of this an example For interviews interest. of academic strata lower the occupying was due in orindividuals previously part of groups experiences the preserving concerned with projects to several spawning War, Cold andthe ensuing World WarII wakeof disciplines inthe purpose of this study, sources can other be employed tocomplete this task. the for Diasporas Hungarian the of survey modern-day a performing of idea the entertain to impossible it Although is interpreting data. and of acquiring expandingmethods the was, notably due to the high level interestof in the social sciences in the postwar period, and The problem first-handof in testimony the 20 themselves. peasants the of voice the is Sharpe, Jim historian social British to according life, peasant of reconstructions most in absent is grossly that puzzle historical of the destroyedconfiscated or by rural the communities during Revolution the of piece1956. The ownership, and wereeither compulsory taxes quotas, goods and delivery to pertaining inlocal held offices muchParty documentation the In the case of of Hungary, ledgers,production and by surviving material all artefacts, sufferfrom samethe deficiency. Jim Sharpe, “History from Below” in Attention to the social conditions of the peasantry has spread throughout a number of David Essig New New Perspectives on Historical Writing th century is not as irreconcilable as is once , Peter 24 CEU eTD Collection Kracauer, and sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld from the Frankfurt school. Frankfurt from Paul the Lazarsfeld and sociologist Kracauer, system were Kremlinologists Henry , Paul E. Zinner, and philosopher Siegfried 25 date use in the only studiesthat to 1959-1962are CURPHthe collection any with released publications, Their cumulative interviews. the within methodology and formatthe Coulter, who held the position of program director, he also assisted in the development of caseof Inthe Western Europe. aswell as States spanned theUnited that process interview andKecskemeti. Paul L. Coulter, CURPH will also beconsulted,include andPaul authors FerencA.E. Zinner, Harris Vali, programming. its own thesuccess with of concerned determining RFEwas Curtain primarily whereas lifebehindthe Iron atunderstanding Hungarian inquiriesdirected specifically to responded and West, inthe securing residence after interview process undergo two-day the to volunteered interviewees theCURPH By theinterviewers. contrast, mislead andor satisfy Soviet bloc and, nothaving yet secured permanent residence abroad, were more liable totry interviewees may have feltunder duress during the interview sosoon after leaving the anumber of since the (1957/8) holdings description of that than CURPH’s accurate and its thoroughness. Isuspect that the more immediate interviews of RFE will create aless of more due former,itsunderRFE, appropriate patronage of timing purpose, to the the the interviews recorded more numerous the by over willholdconducted preference CURPH refugees moved across thein 1956/7 as interviews wereconducted in The RFE tothesoviettakeover 1945. prior Hungarian life of borderquality their interpreted classes social and different how including beyondsubjects of variety the Soviet bloc. Thesummaryaddition to on reports listeningthe habits of Hungarian the population, viewsona interviews In general, the four individuals responsible for the initial development of the interview the of development initial the for responsible individuals four the general, In Additionally, the works of academics directly associated with the production of in contain, which RFE, of records the are interviews CURPH the to Complementary 25 All these individuals played substantial roles in the roles substantial played individuals these All David Essig CEU eTD Collection of the CURPH interviews to avoiding any questions that directly pertained to political views political to pertained directly that questions any avoiding to interviews CURPH the of arrangement personal the from andinterviewee; interviewer the between informal exchange of werelargely Subjects the relied byestablishing that on an an environment diffused biases the claimed Kecskemeti execution. and creation interview’s of both the integral part refer to Kecskemeti, alongside a number of psychologists and sociologists, who was also an to is useful it much aspossible as concerns these alleviate to order In representativeness. and bias, credibility, around revolve interviews. concerns The of and reliability changes within the family unit. the to insight particular grant and included, be also will participants female of interviews material. However, source the of homogeneity greater the to contributes also this feature Incidentally, male. predominantly were process interview the for volunteered who origins making paper this primarily qualitative. Inaddition, individuals the of or rural peasant 31 files, is limited to collection CURPH within the for examination available interviews of makeher choices. certain to or him motivated that reasons the on and decisions interviewee’s individual on based differ will it which all,fit on relies atexperiences, not of anyone a collection will likely since within their social and political perceptions. At the same time, the resulting character sketch by impacteconomic wrought changes Soviet planning and subsequentadaptation the to in analysis thatcanbe lived adescriptive who taken as anyindividual the and experienced resulting peasant, Hungarian life the of everyday of sketch nature of the character a general forapproach analyzingthe interviews. substantial reliance, and as will Kecskemeti’ssuch, works inaid providing amethodological In addition to the above concerns, there are also questions regardingtheusefulness are also above the there In concerns, addition to There areseverallimitations tothismust study that beaddressed. First, thenumber create as in to a fashion arranged is from interviews these extracted The information David Essig CEU eTD Collection 29 (4Nov 2005): 1. OSA Archivum 28 number of reliable conclusions. a arrive at bepossible to itcaution will of degree acertain butby exercising overcome number of marginal or deviant religion,affiliation) party could one notsay still respondents the that included alarge elements within their (occupation, variables andattitude sociological many of representation and over- under own social groups”. atypical in[their experiences]…although self-reflection refugeesthe of lead clearly did to were agroup as refugees assume to reason is] no “[there that, claiming by dismantles the resultsfind asinaccurate. in reason no researcherto the dismissing sources of information on the general experiences amongst other differentwith correspond social to groups, tend leadingresponses the interviews, the of credibility the to pertains it As government. system questionsof ontheprevailing regarding personalopinions instead reminiscences of and informal biographical accounts, more hard-linethe traditional 27 (Stanford: Stanford University 7. 1961): Press, 26 fearspropaganda andindoctrination”. of communist Western “contemporary reflected questions whose creators, of CURPH’s but interviewees the of only not biases displayed interviews the that out pointing is worth it However, best-organized interview the andmostitsof process comprehensive type andscale. who itis regardless that of comments CURPH, of any shortcomings nevertheless perceived andmethodology have sincereceived by academics praise current such Andrasas Mink, process and interview the of quality structure the concerns, dismiss may all not justification systems. belief or Mink, Andras Mink, Kecskemeti, Kecskemeti, Paul The last concern involves representativeness, which Kecskemeti pointedly Kecskemeti which representativeness, involves concern last The CURPH 1956Hungarian RefugeeInterviews atOSAArchivum The unexpected revolution: social forces intheHungarianuprising The unexpectedrevolution: CURPH 1956Hungarian RefugeeInterviews atOSAArchivum 26 He also indicated Healso the questions that personal upon focused drawing out The unexpected revolution: social intheHungarianforces uprising David Essig 29 This shortcoming will be difficult to : 2. 27 Although this . Budapest: : 8. . 28 CEU eTD Collection 30 the approaching Firstly,inappropriate. Iam are testimony of oral methods typical the interviews, CURPH the of case Inthe documents. official accepted more widely over an historian relies wholly or too heavily upon the oral interviews, assigning it aprimary role arise when sources of oral criticism Traditional reliability. regarding concern legitimate the wave andits agricultural of Stalinist-style social reforms impacts canbe understood. better in existing publications with realities pre-Soviet the of modernization,Hungarian initial the takeover”. communist the before long way under been had that secularization and industrialization urbanization, the disregarded and society Hungarian religious and rural essentially an of image obsolete “hadresearchers an interview observeddesigners andwho project’s subsequent the that informationof by emerged from publications thus(and the them)is that Mink, supported additional afreshinneed for reassessment view of new archival evidence. behindnotCurtain asubiquitous theIron as was periodthe following an 1989; emerges thus and relied Coulter from uponare a period whenthe information lifeavailability of on as Zinner such researchers that resources The peasantry. Hungarian of the analysis further be found. to commute or move entirely urbanto areas whereindustrial work and higher wages were to chose others in agriculture, class continued while peasant the of some that shows example, themselvesindicated who those of tobut farmers, be professional the of of solely patterns peasantbehavioural and origin or rural residence. A brief survey of employment, for Mink, One of the greatest challenges precipitating from isfrom interviews the use CURPH the of precipitating challenges One of greatest the sources in rooted outdated limitations interviewssufferfrom the that The assertion for reason another provide literature secondary much of the of dates The release An important caveat for this thesis is that it does not aim to describe the opinions CURPH 1956Hungarian RefugeeInterviews atOSAArchivum 30 By post-communistcombining the archival era availableevidence David Essig : 15. CEU eTD Collection 31 century. impactsocial of economic policy inchanges a for momentdefining Hungary in the 20 and socio-economic spheres, the interviews assist in correcting political the the previouslywithin understood uncertainties previous diminished Communism of fall the after available inresources assist denying confirmingas or previousconclusions. Justarchivalrecords the archival followed clarity periodRév. Also, hindsight and andaccess that to thepost-1989 Istvan and Mink Andras as such historians from comments recent more as well as of results, criticism by on developers project’s meritsthe and andflaws post-interview examination interviews circa50years later, which hasdevelopments: significant detailed two for allowed by short-hand and written inout full after theinterview process was concluded. As a result, anxiety regarding any distortion of human recollection amongst the interviewees. inamanner theunderwere conducted events as timely examination,to relates reducing 1946-1948, 1949-1953,All questionnaire and within questions the 1945, to the 1953-1956. from with pre- periods queries demarcating often responses, serial subject’s upon the time imposed astrict itselfHungary. the wording of Additionally, sense questionnaire of the aspects enquired numerous into life study comprehensive of that in everyday Soviet ensure say leading a attemptwas madenotemployed, to questionswereastrong but to that is This from academics sciences. bynumerous natural and social the asked, asformulated what questions were todiscuss astrictencouraged totheinterviewersguideline followed freely their of thoughts, be asked, how they were were interview subjects Although between hybrid and aninterview. a questionnaire to be asked, and when structure and makenature more its it of combined a of with questions nature the extensive they were to be Burke, The interviews were all conducted in Hungarian or English, and recorded in English recorded English, and or in Hungarian conducted all were The interviews The interviews do not accommodate the traditional definition of oral history. The 31 New Perspectives onHistorical Writing David Essig : 116. th CEU eTD Collection 32 him tick’”. makesmotivation, ‘what personality, goals, of respondent—his portrait the impressionistic interviews, required interviewer toprovide“a the paragraph hisinformal,giving explanation. and interviewees required tothe unfamiliar were ‘hooliganism’ as such in English terms many fact in and association, word on based conclusions any draw to possibility is little there themselves), refugees recent were interviewers many fact (in events Hungarian recent and Hungarian both in well-versed were interviewers language analysis for use keyword is an not foroption this study. Although all the available within the interview collection. interview available the within as possible know asmuch taking author the rich data before advantageof about the to is crucial it works own not my are interviews these Since interviews. the administering lying theor interviewer) to character aglimpsethe interviewers andinto provides of the two-fold,insighthow providing into subjectthe performed during the(placating interview frankness, cooperativeness, compliance and of The subject. the advantage in is section this Interview Guide A, Section X: 3. Nov 12, 2006), (accessedon – Hungarianrefugee Interviews 1957-1958. from Columbia University Research Project on Hungary. An added element of critical assessment, labelled “Ratings” in Section X of the Xof in Section “Ratings” labelled assessment, critical of element added An 32 The questions herein are based on a scale rating and include such inquiries as inquiries such include and rating ascale on based are herein questions The David Essig OSA Archivum Donald andVera BlinkenCollection CEU eTD Collection 34 33 self-sufficient. completely become enough lifebutnot aspectof insome everyday forindependence of allowing acertain degree hierarchy. in social of Most middle-peasants, families Hungary were landowning the collectivizationprior to becamewas patrimonial and identifying of a means inthe oneself landmost peasants’ to1945.The ownership Europe of of prior world throughout Eastern classes. former the two than work with industrial contact of had degree ahigher and land own not did who peasant, landless the and crops; their of marketing and cultivation achieve whotypically through someself-sufficiency managedto middle peasant, degreeof the labourers; day employed usually who landholder, large the stratum: economic notable intelligentsia, the worker, and the peasant. Within the peasant class itself there existed three categories. of these analysis itis periods, above-mentioned outside scopeof the performthis essay in-depth moreto a I do not wish to diminish the wide spread economic and political disparity in either of the the atmosphere within the country both prior to and inclusive of the Stalinist period. While Hungary’s history,itis nonetheless necessary dealto with these topics in to establishorder partof the information on readerpertaining acertain the presumes of backgroundamount to Soviet and Soviet political, economic, and socio-political realities. Although this study 1. EconomicPolicy andAgricultural in Hungary Development C. M. Hann, SFNo.152. Land, labour, and lordship typified the economic parameters of of and Hungarian labour,lordshipthe parameters typifiedLand, theeconomic aristocracy, the into four categories: be divided can in Hungary Social classes prewar serves chapter This first as ageneral prevailingpre- and introduction the to overview 1.1 Prewar Situation The The SkeletonattheFeast David Essig . (Canterbury: CSAS Monographs, 1995):34. 34 However, for this one-third onlyaccounted of 33 CEU eTD Collection 36 35 landless. were considered the rest while peasantry, the 37 Transylvania a family.nearlylandlesssupport possessed to not or enough landon ownership inpre-Socialist Hungary,two-thirds approximately of peasantry the was regionally specific items, meaning he operated primarily outside themoney economy. vendor was when he wasin need of suchspecifically urban-made goods as clothing or foremost duty of the peasant. In most cases, the only and basicfunction most the considered was time asself-sustenance from a merchant, goods a peasant went to a merchant or strata. social the levels lowestof the at were of others patronage under the seek employment all) to none at control of their affairs and thus respected. Those peasants forced to leave theirlands (or had of social prestige, since those who were able to survive off their goal. material ultimate land were regarded as in derived from owning land,reliance none upon labour of outside unit family the wasthe relations, all coming together in social processes”. and of social sets organization of power, system, an a cultural “simultaneously represented Katherine Verdery, a played property primary role inevery life,person’s since it in 1932 indicate that only six percent of all agricultural producers generated a profit of more aprofit generated of producers of onlyall agricultural sixpercent that indicate in 1932 insector aland“three beggars”.million Hungary, creating of infollowed severely crippledWar the agricultural the1930s, bytheGreatDepression I, 39 38 Princeton University 240. Princeton Press, 1982): 40 KatherineVerdery, Lampland, “Pigs, Party Secretaries, and Private Lives in Hungary” : 468 Lampland, “Pigs, Party Secretaries, and Private Lives in Hungary” Lampland, “Pigs, Party Secretaries, and Private Lives in Hungary” Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956” Andrew C. János , The fact of the matter was that despite the elaborate system of social prestige based social prestige system of elaborate the despite wasthat of matter the The fact simply wasnot Subsistence for providing the about also It family. a carried degree . (Ithaca: Cornell. (Ithaca: University 2003):48. Press, 37 In addition, it was socially unacceptable for a peasant to purchase staple apeasant for to itwas sociallyunacceptable In addition, The Politics of Backwardness inHungary, 1825-1945 The Vanishing Hectare: Property and ValueinPostsocialist David Essig : 547. 36 Amongst the numerous benefits to be to benefits numerous the Amongst 35 According the anthropologist 39 40 The repercussions of World In fact, the income records the Infact, : 468 : 468. . (Princeton: . 38 CEU eTD Collection determined political life, but rather a political party that represented the interests of the that and peasants, the workers the forces, alliance of popular the was not “it indicates, historians as authoritarian in practice while being democratic on paper. As Gábor Gyáni setofexperiences. an alternate to peasant the wouldexpose again in War World Second the from inherited defeat difficulties WorldWarI,the before been Although pre-SovietHungarianthe peasants’ world was significantly broader itthan had large, ofmouth.with word reachingthrough poorest atof world the even peasants the climb as well, allowing toaccess rural communities newspapers andbecome acquainted understanding worldthe of beyond toiled.literacy lands the Inaddition, they began to rates broader amuch backwith coming now War was in fight Great the to marched off gentlemen”. of company in the awkward be too “would who peasantry, the of reach the beyond and intellectuals the for was parliament János, C. Andrew by indicated As parliament. of situations a local manorial lord peasantry’sat concerns the with level, dealt in meaning only rarest the inpeasant pre-Sovietthe period typicallyextend beyond not did wouldmanor. hislord’s The the of activities political The cycle. life community and holdings a village their outside peasant interact with such political bodies as the Hungarian 41 subsist. to simply resources focus landowners fivewith than large having amounts percent, great even of their to 42 43 János , János , János , The political structure of The interwarof political Hungary structure has been by defined a number of had who generation War,asthe World First the after changed reality this However, A number of events in the 20 The Politics of Backwardness inHungary, 1825-1945 The Politics of Backwardness inHungary, 1825-1945 The Politics of Backwardness inHungary, 1825-1945 42 41 th David Essig century century had introduced the peasantry the worldto : 245. : 241/2. : 241. 43 CEU eTD Collection 45 Twentieth Century 48 Press, 2006):88. 46 Twentieth Century 44 capableintegratinglandowners of and capitalists, peasantry”. the 47 Twentieth Century 20-40 percent its of 9million inhabitants toparticipate in electoral the process. with voting Hungary’s rights, requirements of landholdingeducation and allowed foronly nations, percentof structured averagedemocratically population on 45-65 the enfranchising poor peasantspoor and smalllandholders. ISP or SDP. The NPP was initially a pro-peasant party, aimed at providing a voice for the 1939 butuntil it1944 didplay not a major role in the political comparedapparatus to the in created party The latter was initially (NPP). Party National Peasants’ recently reformed Smallholders’ Party, Hungarian Communist Party, Socialist Democratic Party, and the only real option for ademocratic system of government. ideological extremes includingproletariat, the landless Thispeasants. in period politics by was typified amongst most of gained middlethe and large landholders, while amongst the prominence latter the the participating among by especially peasantry, the favoured former was The Social the Party. Democratic parties, with the ISP offering the leading political in to overt pressures political the ofmanyleanings peasants. In thecountryside this privilegeprovided wasnot butinstead open voting wasrequired, cities and other large urban centres, the process of voting was privileged with a secret ballot. towards It agricultural the towards leadersErdei had Ferencworker. and Imre been Kovács“village Gyáni and others, Kenez, Gyáni and others, others, and Gyáni Gábor Peter Kenez, Peter The most prominent partiesThe most prominentperiod in were Independent the post-1945 the and Party Smallholders’ Independent before 1939werethe notable parties The most Hungary from the NazisHungary from to the Soviets Hungary fromtheNazis totheSoviets . (New York: Columbia. (New University 2004): 494-5. Press, : 495. : 495. Social History ofHungary theReform from Era to the Endof the Social History ofHungary theReform from Era to the Endof the Social History Hungaryof the from Reform Era tothe End ofthe 48 However, in 1944 the NPP realigned its platform David Essig : 86. . (Cambridge: Cambridge University 47 44 Compared other to 46 45 In the In CEU eTD Collection 50 production. thirds livingin countryside,the and half of entirepopulationthe engaged in agricultural in political Hungary parties bein acrippledwould state. reconstructing 51 Twentieth Century 49 peasantry, whohad employed means alow-tech lands, of theirworking 1945primarily the For Moscow. aid reorganizeitself the Hungarian without to of population unable crippled already an left revenues and equipment industrial of removal The desired. Russia fashion in whatever losses war extracting of also but Commission Control Allied itsthe through supervising reconstruction of duty not only holding era, the in thepostwar reparationssubsequent andPotsdam securedRussia’shegemony Conference Hungary over much-neededof The inleft destroyed, repair. a state entire country the infrastructure communities. period sawan increasedpostwar level in amongst rural the of politics participation agricultural-based. income was 40 percentof national the in fact that the 1949 greatstrides hadbeen numbers, thelivestock achieved in revitalizing partly reflected asit period era. in hadin popularity interwar postwar the the extremely pro-worker and negligent of the peasantry. The ISP still retained a high level of Erdei was known to be aligned with the HCP, a party that was seen in the villages as pro-nationalist state. Although they attempted to garner their support from the rural areas, in explorers” and period interwar the dismantle desiredto feudal infavour of Hungary a Gyáni and others, Kenez, Kenez, Postwar demographicsPostwar for Hungary listjust over9 million inhabitants, with two- 1.2 Aftermath of War The massive incurredby losses WorldHungary both induring WarII, lives and Hungary from the NazisHungary from to the Soviets the NazisHungary from to the Soviets 50 Despite huge losses to the agricultural sector in the Second World War, by : 523 Social History ofHungary theReform from Era totheEndof the David Essig : 96. : 88. 49 The primary task of the 51 Additionally, the Additionally, CEU eTD Collection the ineffectual strategy of the land reforms for the Communists, in which the HCP and the reform from upvotes would well stir villages.However,the 1945elections illustrated the surroundingnotpush area,did instead the countryside,their campaigninto hoping the land allowed to vote. The food;and pricethe creatingHCP, (3) of for aproletariat industrial work”. relyingindustrialization; intodirectly population, supply,(2) control food rural the the andthereby on a majority industrial majorby meansseizing of growth a production (1) and its transferring surplus of thefor plans rapid “facilitate as crucial to reformswereseen the tobuildingsocialism, regards votes in BudapestHungarian Communistand the Party so they could make a good showing in the elections. In 52 a landbeing to entitled grant. Hungary changed handsin 1945, with anyone owningless than 10 holds14.2 acres) (or financially incomeon rental from its lands. Approximately 35 percentof landall in relied landownerwho in Hungary thelargest previously Church, Catholic entrenched becomeit well- the landowners.Secondly, private weakened population’s desire to self-sufficient. become ownership of forproperty with those none,yet notproviding enougharable landfor most to as Minister amassiveland of Agriculture promulgated greatly reform the act, equalizing term short majority landless Imre Nagy’s enfranchising previously the alargepeasantry. of signalled achange inlandfrom ownership, largethe estates to individual holdings, 53 Bell, Verdery, Under the new electoral system, all Hungarian citizens over the age of overthe20were ageof citizens Hungarian system,new all Under electoral the The purpose of the was three-fold. First, it was meant to satiate the Peasants in SocialistTransition: in life a collectivized Hungarian village The Vanishing Hectare: Property andValue in Postsocialist Transylvania 52 Last, the land reform was meant to bolster support for the for support bolster to meant was reform land the Last, David Essig 53 : 104. : 41. CEU eTD Collection 56 1986): 90. 57 55 century. participated, making this one of the most representative electoral turn-outs in the 20 first democratically elected government, animpressive 92% of eligiblethe voting pool Kenez, February (accessedon and,12, 2005) Peter 54 Smallholders’ Party. by accumulated Independent the 57 percent compared 24percent votes, of the to NPP cumulatively only received first period fromfirst period December of 1944–May was that 1947 GenuineCoalition.the political transformations stages.are dividedbyhistorianinto Hugh The three Seton-Watson 1945-1948 wouldevents throughout Hungary’s alter Stalin’s position on matter. the Communism threatened to education. to beaccess and a serious growth, disadvantageeconomic peasantry, the to redistribution land modernization, industrial religion, to the HCP in the election, but their party alsobutpolitical system of leadership. rapid Muscovite Sovietization under policy intended Stalinthat had beginning for Hungary,andnot only markedthe of a one- 1956. December 1948-November from rule, occurring Communist of Monolithic the wasthat Thelaststage support. under HCP’s nothing the in happened Communist control, thatwithout ensuring Hungary administrations having key government by characterized was 1947 –December1948,and a coalition government. The second stage was that of the Bogus Coalition,lasting from May of formation the for opting instead proletariat, the of dictatorship a establishing immediately suppressed desires Communists the of nativethe Hungarian (suchas Lászlófrom Rajk) Rákosi) Mátyás as such Communists, Hungarian (Moscow-trained Muscovites the stage, Gati, Gati, Charles Gati, U.S. Library of Congress. “Country Studies: Hungary”, n.d., Despite Moscow’s initial intention to hold out on rapid Sovietization in Hungary, The majorissues in wereprimarily 1945elections Hungary’s with concerned Hungary from the Hungary from Nazis totheSoviets Hungary and theSoviet bloc Hungary and theSoviet bloc Hungary and theSovietbloc 57 The inherent ideological conflicts between and between religion conflicts ideological inherent The 56 : 84. : : 83. : This last stage signified an end to the Communization the signified anend to Thislast stage David Essig . (NorthCarolina: Duke University Press, : 96; isit interesting note to tat asHungary’s 54 55 th In this CEU eTD Collection 61 Harper &Row, 1966): 144 Premier. was appointed Nagy Ferenc while Minister Prime nominated was Party Smallholders’ Independent the of by was then adecision any unopposed parties,the Zoltán and Tildy aRepublic, declared of 60 59 58 support aHungarian family. in of to enough providing cases fellshort mere all sevenacres, almost population,the a land generated anticipated by popularthe to given had HCP.Theof not parcels the support Soviet sympathisers several to ministry positions. ministerial Instead, Voroshilovpositions. hisveto power andused hisappoint influence to key to politicians certain nominate to right the denied were Tildy and Nagy and Voroshilov, government. provisional the under granted suffrage universal the to accredited HCP. This hadmobilized in history, election typically largest turnout the country’s the reducedtheparliamentary the presence of The 1945dramatically of 15 November elections hadbeen by whoheld completely in dominated Communists, the 495seats assembly.the day elections. so on of andthe showed takeover concernsa Soviet of harboured votingthe population chance parties. However, among all of the heldsuccess strongest the economy battered Hungary’s resurrecting and regions urban the modernizing for agenda became State employees on collectivized farms or were branded (rich peasants) and peasants) (rich kulaks branded were farms or collectivized employees on State became either with agriculture continue decided who farmers to The in work urban centers. the U.S.Library Congress. “Country of Studies: Hungary”. Vaclav Vaclav others, Benez and Kenez, “The Hungarian Communist Party and Catholic the Church, 1945-1948” :874. U.S.Library Congress. “Country of Studies: Hungary” Unfortunately forRákosi, agricultural initiated the by reforms inImre Nagy 1945 The was provisional that establishedgovernment inDebrecen on 22 December 1944 60 The results of the election did not satisfy the ACC’s Marshal 61 Eastern European Government andPolitics This meant that most peasants were forced to seek industrial seek mostforced were peasants to meantthat This David Essig . (New York: 59 Hungary 58 CEU eTD Collection 63 After 1956. (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University,1956): 2.and Tamas Aczel, 62 government. play bythecentral modes not production werecontrolled all ownership since of a role did by for beingcapitalists. persecuted government the operative in transition.” 64 Central University European 2002):5. Press, 1956. October of weredisbandedthe following events thisperiod during many formed the of aims,achieve its and manage not to did wave second The collectivization. of wave second seventh andlast was markedas leaderof return period inby Rákosi’s HCPthe 1955-56, a precipitated the freezing and period sixth asthe was characterized markedStalin,of death by the from 1953-1955, the compulsory to convince deliveriesthe peasantry jointo collective or state farms. The “New Course” of Imre Nagy and abrogation campaign in engaged apparatus coercive aviciously and State the Rákosi collectivization. of the collectives.fromlabour. The fifth stage, 1950-1953 marked aggressive the most phase of The affording more thebenefitfarm thus eachother chances of andof subsistence, equipment received landin voluntarily1945 begin to form improve co-operatives to their diminishing Marshall In Moscow’s criticism from period, who Tito. fourth the of peasants 1948-1949, on based collectivization implement to decision HCP’s the announced Rákosi later month Yugoslavia’s failure collectivize to ataParty meeting on 27 June 1948, andjust under a on debate political inter-Soviet was the Third farmingcollectivization. over private frompopulation.lasted whereby Party Thesecondperiod encourages 1946-1948, the hungerplacatemeant of the land the land to on15March1945, first was the reforms CsabaBekes, U.S. Department of the Army,“Hungary: Resistance Activities and Potentials,” January Nigel Swain, “From kolkhoz toholding company:a Hungarian co- agricultural producer . (GreatBritain: MacGibbon & Kee 1966): Ltd., 4. The phases of collectivization in Hungary were periodized by seven events. The by events. seven periodized inwere Hungary collectivization The phasesof 63 64 The 1956HungarianRevolution: AHistory inDocuments For the majority of landless peasants, as well as those who joined the joined who those as well as peasants, landless of majority the For Journal ofHistorical Sociology David Essig 62 In the Soviet model, private land private model, Soviet the In 13,no.2 (June 2000):145. . (Budapest: Ten Years CEU eTD Collection 65 a which by slow process transition…is be farms…the universally replaced social conditions “the that conditions do notyetin exist Hungary individualfor farming to discussedin April 1948.The abriefstudy HCPconcludedafter of agricultural the and deliveries, the peasants were paid for their crops. gouging, model along with compulsory UnliketheSoviet deliveries. of compulsory July 1945, price freezing stuffs onfood wasto prevent introduced inflation and price makingfood, wholly dependantupon As rural the them food. for a population by result, The centres. little Warhadleft acquire World urban Second the meansfor to population urban inthemajor starvation stem the tide of warto the in aftermath the introduced program. centralization driven a state- part of not and voluntary completely were collectives these However, development. in agricultural assistfarming on forfunds necessary a loan system to purchasing equipment the provided who Association, Loan and Saving National Central by the directed centrally asmarketing operated enterprises, peakingin 1930s.Thecollectives the popularity during model infarmingin Hungary. had of Collectives Hungaryasearly existed as 1860s, the prominently by rapidly disintegrating conditions and increased hardships. most much characterized more of continuity, displayed drive collectivization the throughout experience smallholders’ the Instead as pronounced. not phaseswere these middle peasant, collectives and state farms, these events were of great significance. Forthe smallholder and 66 6. withEuropean Experience Collectivization Marida Hollos and Bela C. Maday, eds., Bell, The first step towards implementing Soviet-style collectivization in Hungary was in Hungary collectivization Soviet-style implementing towards step first The Additionally,1949, werenotunique buthadbeen deliveries compulsory to a co-operative instancefirst of the not was campaign collectivization The HCP’s Peasants in SocialistTransition 65 David Essig :: 115. . (New York: York: Social. (New Science Monographs, 1983): New Peasants:Hungarian EastCentral An 66 CEU eTD Collection University Press, 1990):31. 71 (Chicago: Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, 1969): 52. 69 68 Kner(Gyomaendrod: 1986): Printing House, 107. 67 peasant”. the of education patient and decision voluntary the demands 70 Crowell-Collier Publishing Company, 7. 1961): increasing agricultural increasing large-scalemechanization through following agricultural Worldoutput War II, particular Hungary, by was propagated himselfStalin in 1948,who sawitas a means of in eyes of the peasantry. theParty espoused the benefits forseeable industrial in reforms a mechanicalsuch and dehumanizingfashion completely debunked any capabilities.historian According to Ivan Berend,the HCP’s imposition agricultural of and country’s economic the capabilities of strengthsconsiderations and regarding the anti-agricultural both an of Mátyás introduced and devoid Rákosi policy economic property”. private of parcels collective for way 200years was fragmented into exactly measured andindependently used “marked the end of a processby landwhich possessed bythe community inand used a Historians Edit Fél and inby harvests 1920s. the Tamás in poor caused shortages food Russia of based on realities the Hofer indicate that approach. conciliatory the Soviet agricultural of amuch morepreferred inStalin, was not interests who initial the collectivization reforms of 1927 centralization agriculture. andof of institution economic compulsory the deliveries, the was this to answer HCP’s The measures. corrective of form some demanded shortages Ivan T. Berend, David Mitrany, Bell, Balogh, Sándor Edit Fél and Tamás Hofer, eds., The idea of implementing collectivization in the postwar Soviet bloc, and in and bloc, Soviet postwar the in collectivization implementing of idea The historianAccording to theoristand political DavidMitrany,of concept the 1.3 Dekulakization Peasants in SocialistTransition Marx against thePeasant: AStudy inSocialDogmatism The History the of HungaryAfter Second World War, 1944-1980 The Hungarianeconomic reforms 1953-1988 69 The decision to implement radical agrarian economic reforms was reforms economic agrarian radical implement to decision The 70 In Hungary, a similar process would occur in1948 when would In process occur a similar Hungary, Proper Peasants:traditional life in a Hungarian village David Essig : 115. . (Cambridge: Cambridge 71 67 However, the food . (New York: . 68 . CEU eTD Collection 74 agriculture”. “small peasant called Swain what time with first was owners forthe middle andlargeestate replaced independent peasants composition of , 1945-1962.” 75 73 definition, asdetermined by Lenin, wasreferextortioniststo in to countryside;the not context. Hungarian inits the usage origins and as it mention to some deserves Hungarian government, class figuredenemy soprominently in and propaganda the conscription tactics the of of this kulaks.Sincethe creation as labelled weresummarily farms collective outside the methods. of Leninist was reminiscent that the against campaign warfare class aggressive an of introduction the was collective join a collective felt to increasingly pressure maintained collectives from the independence peasantry that farm by the HCP. In conjunction employmentopportunities lifestyles. agrarian their traditional outside with mountingmembers inseek innumerable rural (agriculture of the andforced population particular), to pressureintegral toheavyindustry not awayfrom statefunds society,any spheres market directed to joinThe implementation central of planning effectively destroyed the plausibility an of open a restructuringheavilyinto country industrialized the a and mechanized production center. of thebackwardness Hungary,leaderswhatSoviet had as correct proclaimed intended to industrialsynonymous with urbanized, workingan were class. Additionally, reforms the if not was akin, that thepeasantry within aclass identity create to aimed The newpolicy agricultural of reforms 1948-1953 radically from differed Hungarian pre-Sovietthe system. 72 centers. rural than of urban more characteristic agro-towns creating effectively Swain, David. A. Kideckel, “The Socialist Transformation of Agriculture in a Romanian Hann, Mitrany, The first usage of in term the Bolshevik kulak rhetoric Lenin. wasbyV.I. The The SkeletonattheFeast Collective Farms whichWork? Farms Collective Marx against thePeasant: AStudy in Social Dogmatism American Ethnologist : 68. David Essig : 3. 75 Theindividuals and whoresisted remained 9 (May 1982): 323. 74 The majority of the new : 8. 73 The pre-existing The 72 The CEU eTD Collection whosaw landtheyhad the support in received as inadequate themselves to meet1945 and peasants by andpoor populated middle the primarily wereestablished, cooperative farms accounting for only foraccounting only of percent all earners. 3.3 agricultural couldpeasants, considered wealthy farms. Inactuality, be kulaknow 30,000 only farms were 70,000 over requirements, these According to be akulak. branded to a peasant 77 Russia 76 income aside from farming. outside labourers, had a netincome of 350 gold crowns or more, or had some other form of In theory, kulak referred to anyone who owned more than 25 holds of land, employed within the population he sawas inhibitingdestabilizing or the collectivization drive. by determinewhich to policy, butcontinually manipulated the definition includeto those kulakword acquired amuch more transientmeaning. Stalin began usingnot asa itstandard administratingpeasantry or by . goods trading over the of labour hard from profit reaped who those but themselves peasants necessarily 80 79 in transition” operative 78 128. largest. the being kolkhoz the with model, Russian the as division same the followed categories collectives. The of types three introduced HCP the for such prepared a program, was not conclusionsSeptember inApril 1948,despite samethe of yearthatHungarian agriculture transientin definition as before. as would just years later remain Hungarianagrarian twenty the reforms into incorporation Lewin, Lewin, Moshe Balogh, Balogh, Swain, “From kolkhoz toholding company: aHungarian agricultural co- producer . (New York: The New Press, 1985): 122. 78 Following the National Conference of Agricultural Agricultural (MSZOK)in National Following the of Conference It was at this time that the Russian term kulak entered into the Hungarian model. Hungarian the into entered kulak term Russian the that time this at was It The makingofthe Soviet system: essays the social historyofin interwar Russia The History of Hungaryafter theSecond World War, 1944-1980 The History of Hungaryafter theSecond World War, 1944-1980 The makingofthe Soviet system: essays inthesocial history ofinterwar : 145. 79 The HCP required only one of these conditions to be metfor David Essig 80 By endof the 1948 roughly 500 76 However, by 1928, the : : 110. 110. 77 : Its CEU eTD Collection government’s side, they accredited their insufficient rural grain andinsufficientinadequate side,rural government’s support theiraccredited they the From present. were Party the and peasantry the between confrontation open for rapidindustrialization, conditions(due to the discontent), rising with andcombined peasant from decreasing requisitions in farms the facethe of an increasing need such for provisions inresulted agricultural 26 commodity to dropping percentbelow the prewarlevels. 81 in 1950. formulated Plan newFiveYear as Plan,the aswell inagricultureinto ThreeYear the investments went of state total agriculture: 15percent even abandoning the farm altogether for what seemed like a better life in the cities. farms,sometimes at the they received times amount four the make or could three where they manycooperatives, husbands andchildren commute factorieswould to and urban centers deliveries. mandatory 85 84 83 82 starvation”. fulfilling the quotas were “so severe that for penalties not the an inflated mark-up. However, at same the peasant soldback to it it was usually preferable to take one’s state price, and then the market of a fraction the at done so laws were compulsory delivery chance on soldOften, delivery increased products quotas. stateaccording agricultural the to to and remaining independentalso became a struggle inview of new laws taxation and AVH operatives, and the regular Blue Police to convince peasants to join. men, party urban officers, army out sent HCP the cases many in and implementation, its of Balogh, Balogh, Balogh, Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”:548. Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”:458. The year 1950 was a crucial turning point for both the peasantry and the State. With A large part of the problem was the HCP’s financial commitment (orlack thereof) in The pressure join to co-operativesthe graduallyincreased over course the of 1949, The History of Hungaryafter theSecond World War,1944- The History of Hungaryafter theSecond World War, 1944- The History of Hungaryafter theSecond World War, 1944- 82 In order to combat the increasing deficit facing increasingthe tocombatoutside In deficit peasants theorder 81 Anyone was allowed to join the cooperatives in the first two years two in thefirst join cooperatives the to allowed was Anyone David Essig 84 This lack of lack investment This of 1980: 108. 1980: 101. 1980: 101. 83 85 CEU eTD Collection kulak legislation. price, as andifapeasantowned little became as10-15 holds,of new targets they any anti- marketfree the exceeded fertilizersfor drastically loans, prices from government obtaining loans (to which all kulaks had to oversubscribe) were increased. Kulaks were disallowed fall 1950. of 90 89 88 87 86 best. at difficult cooperatives outside the improperly inor allstacking the manure aimed atmaking barnyard, lifethe strategies dog, a plough notbeing in the shed, no concrete floor in the pigsty, abicycle left at the road, administration. supplies notasaresult economicof poor policies butbecause of an incompletesaboteurs or mandatory deliveries, concealed harvests, and bribed officials. andbribed harvests, concealed deliveries, mandatory persecution. state harassmentand making to subject cooperatives the outside anyone cooperatives, dwelling. vacant the in to move then and camps of one these to family transferred entire the have could they easily farmer, if as brigade”. home Additionally, the referred to “transferofficial of the a party a desired division camps such theonein andrunby as Hortobágy; organized a state commonly peasants left their farms and moved to urbanpeasants leftmoved notincludingtheirfarms and to centres, abandoned those who from is218,000 roughly that 1950-1953, estimated It engaged inself-dekulakization. Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”:551. Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”:542. SFNo.626. Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”:542. Bell, The first measure was to increase taxation. Forced deliveries, landmeasure deliveries, and taxes, increasepeace The firstwas Forced taxation. to In response tothe aggressive dekulakization policies of the HCP, the peasants halted Peasants in SocialistTransition 86 This typically rationaleStalinist sparkedadekulakizationin the program 87 The state also levied fines for a number of minor offences: a barking 89 By 1952, kulaks were completely denied entrance into the David Essig : 112. 88 Many alsofearedkulaks state-run deportation to 90 The peasantry also CEU eTD Collection 92 91 infarmers reported in most10,000 remained1949, only of 1953, them half only their farmerindependent received. the percent of what 67.5 received employees co-operative in 1949,while 66 percentof that hadsank to farmers collectives thefreedom disband andto to return theirfamily own unit. labour the of members permitting while agriculture into investment higher for allow to economy national the reorganized and peasantry, the on pressure the relieved greatly Nagy, Imre such manage experience and to an operation. cultivate formingintoin butalsopeasants farmers the collectives whohadtherequiredremoving state police as manyso fortunate, family whowereconsidered members kulaks away by were taken the (AVH) and torturedlabelKalicz’s even from an grandson denied receiving education. before Kalicz’s that found authorities the family brandedaskulak.This force out because was being deported.In one such case, the son of Gyula KaliczThis was relieved and reachbeyondinto urbanareas. managed rural ahead. program The the to districts the from histactic position in an urban police was used to scare leaving 330,000of them unable make to tax payments to government.the By winterthe of 800,000peasantfamilies1951, over goods for werewithout the winter, faced acrisis. at social engineering HCP’sattempt rebels, the by peasant and sabotage the jobs. industrial from and to commuted and farming 95 94 93 Balogh, Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”:548. Balogh, Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”:544. Bell, By the time of By in timethe “NewNagy’s of Course” independent average1953, the income of 1.4 From ReformtoRevolution The subsequent period known as NewCourse, the under ministerial the leadership of HCPcontinued the campaign, dekulakization the of failures obvious the Despite Peasants in SocialistTransition The History of Hungaryafter theSecond World War, 1944-1980 The History of Hungaryafter theSecond World War, 1944-1980 David Essig : 114. 91 95 Between the dekulakization campaign In addition, of 47,000wealthy the addition, of In 94 93 Other families were not 92 : 111. : 112. CEU eTD Collection HCP. growth in agriculture,in Moscow’s Nagy’s attitudes towards reform policies limited further developmentand eventually resulting in the prime minister’s removal as head of the opinion and resistance. and opinion in unity creating and persecution, of oppression hadexperienced sameconditions the other relations lifestyles improved tenuous between and urban both rural the realized populations; and leave collectives, the farms, their toreorganize many peasants for chance the afforded 11 million forints designated for agricultural actually development materialize. did despite the growingmembers numberof farms, in collective andstate and 5 million of the planned22,000 tractors for distribution were evermade, availablefertilizersin were decline numerous elements of the Five Year Plan that had never seen completion: only half of the 98 intensification of agricultural production as his goal.” maladies. economic [Hungarians] Hedefined the needtoreduceheavy industry and need goals. In his 1953 speech to parliament, Nagy “gave an excellent analysis of our disparity inof population the Soviet’s toreach the industrialization attempt unattainable 97 96 respectively. percent by100andincreased 500 tractors and overall national investment into improving farming methods and fertilizers were peasantry. the amongst aggravation and disparity social mounting relieve to werenecessary reforms agricultural Nagy that to apparent became it quotas, deliveries. original holdmost sizessince farmers pay wereunable meetto or forced taxes their 100 99 Swain, SFNo. 152:Imre Nagy recognized andpublicly theacknowledged lack offunds and Bell, Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”:457. Swain, The next two years of laxity in state interference in the lives of the rural lives population rural interference inthe inyearsthe of laxity state The next of two Based inability on declining wagesand the collectivesof tomeet their delivery Peasants in SocialistTransition Collective Farms whichWork? Farms Collective 96 Collective Farms whichWork? Farms Collective 99 For those peasants who remained in the collectives, the number of number the in collectives, the whoremained peasants those For David Essig : 116. : 26. : 27. 100 Unfortunately for the peasantry, a change 97 There were also 98 CEU eTD Collection from abandoned cooperatives. abandoned from dividelandlivestock areas, abolishingand and allowed forcedpeasantsto the deliveries government of Imre Nagy made immediate agrarian reforms placateto the needs of the rural lists butpreserved and tax records, landownership records. Following October 23 scale. suchaviolent on dekulakization from relief permanent afew and (for years) cripplingto revitalize efforts sector. theagricultural their introduced when the Soviet thepeasantry relieving any in a of arrears upto taxes maximum forints. This was 50,000 of government admitted that it was their own policies that were on intensity. such on massiveor scale a be HWPthe until 1960s the that agricultural againattempt would butnever reforms, again remained beingby collectivized, people worked inall 158,469 Hungary.of March phenomenonfarms of either; from 3333 November1957, only to revolution the 106 105 104 103 102 101 year. previous the comparison to inFrom cooperatives by2percent numberof 1956,the December only 1955–October rose utterly. failed dekulakization and collectivization reinstituting at attempts their government, Bell, Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”:552. Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”:552. Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”:553. Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”:457. Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”:457. The by-product of 1956Revolutionthe from was emancipation mass collectivization In April 1955, whenRákosi and Ger Peasants in SocialistTransition rd , the peasantry , the revolutionary established councils, destroyed party 104 This abandonment of the cooperatives was not simply a 101 106 InJuly concessionsintroduced theHCPof 1956, David Essig : Chapter 6. Ę returned tothehelm Communistthe of 102 103 The new Communist new The 105 It would not would It CEU eTD Collection nation for the first time from the bonds of authoritarian control. However, the brief the However, control. authoritarian of bonds the from time first the for nation 1944, andRussian thesubsequent liberation on 13 FebruaryBudapest of 1945 relieved the population if community the lackingwas its own. midwivesspecialized training. Inaddition, from weresometimes recruited the local outside required theposition since notary, of the case in the was local in bureaucracy the to brought villagewas The from the outside only someone mayor,andmagistrate. time alderman, of positions held who the of members community,the by most prosperous was populated the population a numbermen of for military service. economicfor responsible selecting landpurchases,and local tax the from units, collections, and political autonomous villages werecompletely a largedegree, unions. To trade between of largethemselves and and landowners estates, alimitedlocal perhaps number of peoplebusiness their of educated peasantry”. own attheexpense conducted place adistant atbest, where was, “parliament AndrewJános, historian to According in itstill did urbanenvironment, play noticeable not tothe exposure role a government. the increasedhis with themarket environment growing interaction economy through and of understanding broader much a of developing incipientitself stages peasantry wasinthe 109 108 107 2. The New Politics 110 Bell, János , SFNo.238. Bell, The termination of Admiral The Horthy’s inHungary on15October regency Miklós termination of lifetime was their most experienced during peasants exposure The extentof political the Although aristocracy. the of domain the mainly was Hungary in prewar Politics Peasants in SocialistTransition Peasants in SocialistTransition the rest ofthepopulation. rest the and aristocracy party the communism: classesunder social two There are The Politics of Backwardness inHungary, 1825-1945 107 David Essig : 88. : 89. 110 109 The administration at the village level village the at administration The : 241. 108 CEU eTD Collection 111 intention of elucidatingthe peasantry’s the understanding and bias’ towards personalitiesthe as well as the villagers’ interpretation of the Party’s attitudes. in as of Hungary, Communists general the the aims and peasantsunderstood stereotypes the interpretations regarding what of numberabstract contextualize a to attempt and ambitious broad is a of examination area first The class. peasant the amongst itgenerated adaptations policy were andchanges understood whatreactions, social lifestylereinterpretations, and interacted both with anddescribe within the political landscape,in to order howcertain councils. andworkers’ their and local between administrative relationship villagers respective the and interaction the and; itself, Party Communist Hungarian the of nature and structure the categories: general impressions and representation of communism and itsof aims and goals; in three thematically below presented is in Hungary politics new the of interpretation peasantryexamined for this study discuss frequently,quite andquite thoroughly, interaction the of the with intoelement their lives: national andpolitics centralized planning.The subject files the Communistmasse. As a result, the rural population was forced to accommodate a previously unknown itsen imposinginto peasantry presence upon the thecountryside,engineering far reached State. DialogueCommunistParty, aprelude providing Soviet tothe political takeover of December 1948. on the inimpotent view of largenumberthe of ministrieskey by controlled Hungarian the population’s (December interlude ofamultiparty 1944-May government 1947) hadbecome coalition interaction and Gati, Secondly, the Communist Party itself is placed in the front and centre, with the with centre, and front the in placed is itself Party Communist the Secondly, and interpreted population rural the how analyze will approach thematic first The social and mobilization economic mass of agenda regime’s Communist The Hungary and theSoviet bloc : 84-90. David Essig 111 CEU eTD Collection 114 employed knewits this vernacular origins. result of new Soviet troops arriving from and , yet not all the peasants who 113 112 file tothebeing aims.Onesubject Party’s ideologically prosperity devoted without mobility or upward for wasanychance notfeel villagersdid there the however, aristocracy, his lovers and nowadays communistthe bigwig has his lovers too”. “In by thecounthad No.54-M, interestsintheirAs noted times old Subject mind. personal very small sphereindividualsthe andpolitics of beingcomposed number of a with of only was viewed by the peasantry as the new aristocracy, exercising a similar degree of control in establishment of estate landholders, differed very little in function. The Communist Party brought forth old stereotypes of the “oriental horde” and “Mongolian type[s]”. to theduty feedingof “the bottomless of Union”appetite Sovietthe generatedbitterness and in beingrelegated their by unhappiness peasants, clearly indicated needsnot the these was linked clearly needs. toRussia’smaterial peasant population, industrialization. and collectivization the everydayin frustrations experienced anumber the of will explicate workplaces inefficiency various villagers. Attitudes local towards chairmen,management, and frequentproblems regarding life Partyof andthe the peasantsvillage ideologically population.opposed within thewhile an governing in binds them that agenda Stalinist apparatus, andthe State comprising the community under and the workplacepressures from the side toof themeet the demands of SFNo.152. SF No. 562, SF No. 445, SF No. F-84; Stereotypes of the Mongolian nature was the SF No. 54-M, SF No. 238. The peasantry’s general impression of the Party, when compared to the prewar the to compared when Party, the of impression general The peasantry’s The aims and goals of the Communist2.1 Impressions Party in Hungary were, in the minds of the Finally, be will a dialogue there grassroots level on the betweenthe experiences of David Essig 112 Although particularsthe of 114 Unlike the old 113 CEU eTD Collection period. war of recruits post the groups: the pre-1945Communists and the intotwo can be divided Hungary. focusthe blameof as why to Communiststhe could exercise such influenceextensive in made them rolepropaganda and in central State’s the character international whose workers, harassment. The peasantryinstances, some rare ofcriticism andin became target worst, the and and at alien, often commentedbest asdistrusted at by population rural the wastreated politics entered that newaristocracy that alongside the The weretheirrepresentatives. unwelcome,in as 1948was forceful intervention state’s the new aristocracy were majority politicalthe supported agendaof Independentthe Smallholders’ Party. the politics, notably in the coalition government following World an WarII, overwhelming Ger to interact with interact politics. to whirlpool manifesteditself in every aspect of theirlives. the quotas, delivery compulsory the to or farms collectivized to lose to possessions material 119 118 role in of state the Smallholders’ the favours platform. agricultural planning questions regardingland musings ownership, on Hungary’s economic organization, and the theory that the majority of the subjects identified themselves with the ISP, their responses to remaining 13being unknown notlisted.or Although numbersthese donotsupport the 2 Christian Democrats, 1 Peasants’ Party, 1 Social Democrat, 12 listed as none, and the the 31 files examined, the political affiliation indicated: 2 Independent Smallholders’ Party, Independent Smallholders’ Party, who won by an overwhelming 57% of the vote. Among 117 116 115 sucked in deeper”. described youlike“you Communism asfunctioning can awhirlpool, can’tgetout, only get SF No. 54-M. SF No. 26-M. SFNo. 3-M; The general election on 15 November 1945ended in a victory for the SF No. 54-M. SF No. 54-M. Ę , Jozsef Révai, and Mihály Farkas), involvement in the Bela Kun take-over of ininvolvement of Kuntake-over 1919, or Bela , Jozsef the Révai, and MihályFarkas), 119 The ranks of the new regime, “composed of former bums and peddlers and so on”, so and peddlers and bums former of “composed regime, new the of ranks The The peasantry’s primary concern before 1948 was to attain income, not to before a reasonable 1948was concern primary The peasantry’s 118 The old Communists were typified by their Muscovite past (Mátyás Rákosi, Ern 115 For the small landholders with groups andmiddlepeasantry, two 116 In rare cases when the peasant population attempted to engage in David Essig 117 Assuch, Ę CEU eTD Collection 124 123 122 121 political manoeuvrings and supportamongst strong parties such as Socialthe Democrats. December 1947. The primary cause of this increase was accounted for by the HCP’s in 1944listedDecember asupportbase of later 2,500, reached animpressive 864,000in 120 join. to reasons ideological had joined Party the inimproving hopesof own theirpersonal living found conditions or who individuals mainly were Communists new The War. Civil Spanish inthe participation mother should the Party ask”. Party the mother should kill He must be he own to bewilling [his] aturn-coat. words, mustrequires. In other ishisahead beliefsand isonewho political capableof changingconvictions as situation the get to liable most person the communism “Under friends. own ones denounce to willing and of succumbed toParty hightaxation farmers whopressures quotas. delivery individualsjoined included that also key figures within communities as as well peasant village. people the of uprooted SubjectFiles, werethe the according to harassment. fear out of or of personal remain with Communists,the aligned themselves with in tokeep Party the jobs order their disillusioned with hadmounting regime,the experienced or by pressure officialsParty to follow the Party line became increasingly difficult tobear, and numerous people who were to their with and coercion relation Party. propaganda Increased the re-evaluated individuals nomenklatura, trumpednomenklatura, by individual’s an ability Partylinethe tow to andexecute orders. alcoholics. overpaid, chronic and aslazy, bureaucrats underworked, viewed peasantry the labour, SF No. 21-M. SF No. 26-M. SFNo.426. SF No. 16-M. Gati, Once Rákosi began purging his political adversaries from the State apparatus,many from began Once State the purging hispolitical adversaries Rákosi The stigmasocial with joining associated included the Party being two-faced and Hungary and theSoviet bloc 124 In short, talent was the least important feature of the supervisors and of feature supervisors the important least was the Inshort, talent 120 123 Additionally, due to the association of work with physical : 82; Hungarian Communist Party membership indices membership Party Communist Hungarian : 82; 121 David Essig Thejoin onlyindividuals to Party the 1949, after 122 In reality, the CEU eTD Collection has a proletariat origin – I have it and I was not good enough forhas good communists”. the a proletariat–Ihaveit origin and Iwasnot had to work in the shop and in the house of the master. I had to watch his kids. If anybody inmeant old Hungary? We had work to from six in morningthe till eight-nine at night. I apprenticeship knowwhat You exploiter. and me a capitalist called communists and the years “Thirty-four of proletariat. of concept the perversions the about indetail complained life. human on than equipment the on placed value higher a was there state, communist entrenched deeper in political malleability than social malleability origin. in than deeper political entrenched was lineproletariat of Party concept the support the to that attempted whopeasantry promote as the it very the attempted disillusioned superficial class proletariatto the State’s of exaltation spearhead of the socialist movement. It was obvious for much of the air “don’t controlleryou would say know that you couldhave ruined the plane?”. training mission where the control tower chastised him forflying at too low an altitude. The peasants working and during poor aflight- episode numerous discussed an poor class, 126 125 a 25-year-old453, 2 inefficientand uncaring apparatuswas even feltby members of Airthe Subject Force. No. of miscalculation or oversight on the part of economic policymakers. The exposure to an SFNo.525. SFNo.453. Another individual, interwar the period as during Another a locksmith, apprenticed The lack of human consideration by the State apparatus wentbeyond apparatus boundaries the by human The lack State the consideration of nd lieutenant in the Hungarian Air Force, a career that was populated by was populated that acareer AirForce, in Hungarian lieutenant the David Essig 125 126 In the In The CEU eTD Collection communists trickled top-level for the reserved typically attitudes reason The plains. in western the or down to the local levelfarms Budapest asaround such the in of prosperity, areas common wasmoreThis attitude was because of such described with samelevel the negativityof instances 10,000,as butwith top the a hintof sympathy. where, say, a promulgated by promulgated in “new course” the 1953. reforms the of because Nagy, Imre was terms in amicable perceived Communist Kádár,and Ern with feelingwith population’sthe of and State itsthe disconnect representatives. likely contributed the peasantry and The lack top-level the between officials acquaintance of most of the population to rely upon foreign broadcasts to provide them with information. insightintoleaving Hungary’s during piece noleader, literature the early of 1950s, provided leaders of the HCP are either diabolic fanatics, ambitious people with no moral inhibitions, by andmajority conviction”. the are communists moral no with people ambitious fanatics, diabolic either are HCP the of leaders “the top communities of rural the experiences the Basedon was concerned. peasantry asfar asthe from andelusivecharacters enigmatic and remained apart population the 131 Party’s membership. itinexamined,appears least at six files in subject questionsrelation ontheto Communist Hungarian peasantry at thisin period nation’sthe history. Among the 31interviews 130 129 128 127 SF No. 21-M. SF No. 21-M; The term “dirty bums” appears to be in common usage amongst the SF No. 21-M. SF No. 26-M. Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”:543. The prominentother personalities of Stalinistthe such period, as LászlóRajk, János The Party apparatus, or as a number of Subjects described it the “top 10,000”, livedit described“top asanumberthe or Subjects The Party of apparatus, 2.2 Party Apparatus andIdeology representatives of of government. the representatives the and people the between collusion minimize to positions administrative tothese were appointed thevillagers mass of the alien to Elements Ę Ger Ę , were often described as “bastards and dirty andbums”. dirty “bastards , were often as described David Essig 127 131 Lower level communists areoccasionally level Lower communists 128 Rákosi’s biography, awidely distributed 130 The only 129 CEU eTD Collection 135 134 133 132 contempt”. with proud time same the at but passivity with system “[communist] the viewing village the of majority socialism as the ultimate path prosperityto were considered hypocritical and elitist, with the similar treatment. with population remaining the indirectly police,threatening State the collective, the officials join new to the local coerce the peasants items, andto necessary appropriate In order would label animals. no certain with and acres a few of out farms collective forming members peasants Party of groups as kulaks and have deported a workoccupants to camp in. move andthen instancesincluded Similar small them deported current the have and by countryside in the fancied they house a find would official Party centres. For example, the one of localthe priests in the southern village of Baja commented highly urban villages based to populated varied, proximity of the on experience often peasantry’s the of measure The familiar. personally were they Communists individual throughout entirethe Also,all country. individuals werenot unanimously of contemptuous high surroundingpraise the virtues and benefits of building socialism in Hungary. Party’s the despite changed really had little how illustrate to them comparing communists, andthenew betweenthevicesof old counts the peasants would drawcomparisons considereditwas not of regime, the features key the as one of by peasantry the was well-defined a new developmentOlympus”. Communist the on above high somewhere masses, in from the far removed “lived who leaders political the demagogical the were reforms from the actions of the ruling body. In many ways, the SFNo.525. SFNo.413. SFNo.302. SF No. 16-M. The Party’s ideology surrounding the central role of the proletariat and the road to The level of exposure and intensity of the Party’s policies were not equally felt 133 As far as the peasants were concerned, the only ones to benefit David Essig 134 While moral depravity 135 132 CEU eTD Collection act of physical labour,in the embedded wastraditionally work of concept peasantry’s before, the was mentioned since the chair’s dutiesperhaps, usually butnot technically fortrained their particularfield of supervision. required a substantialyoung 30years (around old)inexperienced and in their positions; being able bureaucrats amount of shuffling 139 138 or found it useful haveto a Party official in case problems should arise. to friends who became Party members because they could suppress the political differences Alternatively, of some young both subjects, the and oldindicated thattheymaintained ties coercion that left their neighbours with little choice but to register with the Party. 137 136 interaction. to barrier tangible avery creating Party, Communist the asspies of andforemost first wereviewed Allbureaucrats orders. State’s the of execution the with interfering from ties familial any prevent to effort an in in by Typically, individuals director. brought Party were from the thevillage outside these circumstances for retaining relations with individuals.these such people, an while in took olderthe Subjects apologist approach explaining the to ties all disavowed Subjects younger the friendships, those of status the and communists hadfriends become When who about sustaintheirfamily.asked fear,to of or coercion, less critical opinion of indicating Communiststhe many that them supported of Party the out member.The older portion of population,the over typically theagethose of 30 provided a Communists as a whole or providedsand”. in water desert the exceptionslike away,just acupof five force kilometres from lost their Pécs sent “instructions that based on familiarity with certain Party SFNo.F-84. SF No. 21-M. SF No. 54-M; The peasant apologists often described extreme instances of hardship or SF No. 72-M. Another major source of discontentfor villagers was the village council chairman, or 2.3 Village Politics condemned peasant the whether in role substantial a played age addition, In 136 David Essig 138 In addition, many of the new chairs were 137 139 As CEU eTD Collection 142 141 140 money State. expensethe of at the pocket financialallowedfurther that them thissometimes and submitted to took reports one-step illnot requisitioning to from disposed tools orgoods workplace.the The managers Additionally,delivery quotas. employed those infactories,including the managers, were meeting inlieuof bribes present could peasants the In some cases, State. the of expense representatives. Party’s Communist as the heindicated that Subject No.605, old bailiffhadthe beennot countthe nearly of as vicious chair.by In amoment or of reflection norm-man laziness of the incompetence and the was farm, blamed fill deteriorationthe often inability quotas compulsory on to andits the of influence wasstrong, areas wheretheindustrial Party’s agricultural Inrural production. or The norm-manand order, carried out,disregardingorder that humantechnical every or consideration”. was the mouth very 152as No. receivedan by unpopular…he was described“confidential work, Subject of the Party, not an real work. expert in and issuingpaperwork to individuals orders in laboursthe their werenotregardedas village, the technical aspects of were the competency of the managers in their respective fields and the overall prosperity of prosperity overall the and fields respective their in managers the of competency the were even showed signs of cooperation in assuring the security and well-being of the community. and villagers the representatives the Party’slocal between villages, relationship the remote more and in some smaller and cities, larger the from distance villages the on depending SF No. 16-M. SFNo.605. SFNo.152. However, the village chairs and managers were not impervious corruption not managersHowever,at the village to the chairs were and The was individual second mostin disliked “norm-man”. village the His work Two elements that could foster amicable relations between the Party people the and Party the between relations amicable foster could elements that Two David Essig 141 142 This with frequency occurred an increased 140 CEU eTD Collection local level. the at methods of self-governance a theirmuch attachment traditional to greater illustrated whowere “willingbe to directed” unlike thesmall landholders andmiddle peasantswho peasants by was primarily poor TheNoble populated Grapecollective middle peasants. largely populationstudy inthatthe Noble Grapewasnot smallholdersat composed of or in this used Files from Subject the casediffers particular This Grape. Noble of collective atthe force,labour suchas landefficient ahighly or fertile inextremely areasof was true the West. produce relatives inAmerica andincreasedpressureto couldin result theirto out-migration the requirements and delivery production quotas norms. Thechairappealed his Party to keep supervisor to to a minimumknowledgeable in agriculturefor and defendingthe from community high unreasonably becauseprimarily middlecomposed of peasants, localthe chair receivedpraise forbeing both the majority of the villagers claimed to have condition. human the account into to take so executed were operations how change to laxity of willingness and amount acertain heexercised because also but his field, of not only aspects technical managers understand ability improvementwas based on the to relational examined, cases the In parties. both between respect amount of greater inaffluent there hisbe trade tended to both a higher degreeof productivity as well a as 146 operative in :147. transition” 145 144 143 it However, in Hungary. centres other than life of quality in the improvement marginal discussed, it is known that the appeal was successful and the village was able to enjoy a itself. collective the SFNo.461. Swain, “From kolkhoz toholding company: aHungarian agricultural co- producer SFNo.525. SFNo.461. In the case of one sparsely populated collective farm, located outside Vas and 146 145 Although further details of the chair’s discussion with the Party are not 143 In villages where the factory manager or agricultural director was director agricultural or manager factory the where villages In David Essig 144 The same CEU eTD Collection 149 148 147 intoandintegration working the createdanewHungarian culture class peasant. newforms, adopted representatives Party with left experiences residences, who their rural villagers together bonded the inmelancholy A and sense of apathy chapter. first discussed inthe as those both their place of such representative’s, disrupt of speeches Party the to tactics innocent seemingly employed work and their family.were not veiledopenly anti-communist, antipathy andwas ubiquitous villagers often However, for individualsby unify which to and reaffirm their opposition to Communists.the Although meetings the propaganda, designed toinfusevillagers amedium the with villagers State actually provided individualsreport antagonize or activities. for clandestine to awaited anopportunity eagerly that “Communist ears” of villagers wereconscious seemingly monitoring.constant villagers from the State. further the disillusioned and productivity of reduced Communism bureaucratic nature from the tractormenialaccomplishing even most the tasks, suchasordering anadditionalmachine thresher compound, bureaucracy. State villagecouncil,the the then and became villagersthe by local the hadgo to beforechair council.the This resulted inlong delays in an arduous to prescribed was not that action or decision every since presence the State’s of mindful be task in itself. prominencethe of explicit CURPHinterview sample. dominatingnumerous concerns the The effect inview especially of positive aspects, the overemphasize misleading to bewould extremely of the thick SFNo.461, SF No.F-84. SF No. 16-M. SFNo.525. The disillusionment of the peasantry was reinforced daily through the Party’s the through daily reinforced was peasantry the of disillusionment The to was difficultnot heed. took It itself, the villagers manifested Anywhere Party the 148 Whether it was at the local tavern or the workplace, the workplace, the or local tavern the at itwas Whether David Essig 147 The procedural The inprocedural setbacks 149 Regular Party meetings, Party Regular CEU eTD Collection council members, who previously represented the wealthiest members of members thewealthiestcouncil members, whopreviously of represented community,the magistrates,village other and councils between the and cooperation control of hadbeenalevel there almost allbefore. What had changed was the nature of the relationship. Whereas in thereciprocity pre-Soviet era really changed between for the peasants.community’s rulingFrom tothe opposition an administrative body. point view,little of had the Politics two primarily partiesCommunists resulted inhomogenizing the as political unifyingexperience, well as the persisted at ceased.the local level as theyNo hadlongerCommunists. did the of ranks the join who individuals theto bonds non-familial and familial lifelong rescind less-forgiving much and often are predecessors, age thantheir a muchyounger reforms at name characteryounger is the by impressed same.The the people, upon Stalinistthe aristocratic rulers regime interpreted outside comparable current the the asbeingquite Party.to They the also in the prewar remaining of difficulties the period, relating by Communists the join or remain to administrators, suggesting that althoughactors. the State goesThe by a subjectsnew overmarginal in becomingcentrifugally weakened, barriers. face the of geographical 40 rationalized issued bureaucracy asadherencetoorders central by the of extent aswell collectivization, The administrators. village the of competency the and centres, urban large to theirproximity friends’ their population, the of composition economic pre-Soviet the factors: three on based decisions, was populations onthe rural Party exercise could Communist influence the The degreeof and the events. andrecreational official meetings during andpropaganda received in workplace the lower level For the rural communities, replacing the large estates andAge played aroleindividual also inmoulding andperceptions of political politics counts with the experience everyday by their dictated was politics of understanding peasantry’s The Conclusions Chapter David Essig CEU eTD Collection ‘new man’. ‘new as of places labour surplusviable for of instead support creationthe a new of andsociety a overwhelminglythe agrarian in population favour of industrialan treating caste, areas rural neglected itstrongly order, social existing the not and aims economic itself with concerned permitted observation but not interaction. experience. collectivization the diversity of Since the public face the of largerfor understanding a and provide studieseach other, twocomplement these of the Communist Party Hungary’s middle view, the society.definitely representnot Inthis of peasant do strata prosperity Hungary,within experiences and the of whothose included are inhisstudy most study small of incommunities evidencerural instance Hungary of provides a unique of Swain’santhropological societies. variousTobemore specific, while bottom peasant up of discussedby lendsSwain, support asit to the need for amorein-depth from analysis the authorities. concerns outside ofmeeting the norms and fulfilling demands handed downfrom higher functionedpolitical hierarchy in a andmechanical detached mostof inconsiderate way, hire daylabourers provide or asource of andgoods labourexchange. The newvillage More broadly, the first major experience of the peasantry with state-level politics state-level with peasantry the majorof experience first broadly, the More case is Noblethe of Grapecollective interestOf thepreviously-mentioned particular David Essig CEU eTD Collection “the family unit” during the collectivization campaign will be analyzed from be from perspective the campaign will analyzed collectivization the “the unit” during family new economic policies. Thirdly, toencapsulate oldwere challengedby isinthe theof features addressedorder peasantry that the transformation of the into workingmeanings the environment, class andacclimation its particularincluding characteristics of “work ethics” and peasant-worker, thehybridized of creation the Secondly, purposes. for contextualization induring Stalinization,social the‘newman’ regardsnorms bediscussed and to policy, will held.once peasantry years traditional means of altered irrevocably the and subsistence worldly perspectives model inof in Stalinist eight preceding reassessmentthe Hungary the a significant 1956, was Although there achieve. aimed State to the what werefarfrom man’. results ‘new The cooperativeaggregate communities and anideological campaign aimed atengineering a into agriculture of mechanization the by flanked was economy a command to economy 150 fourthe yearsof collectivization. aggressive farmers skilled in agriculture abandoned just million a mentioned, over previously quarter an low.historic A to production urban sendingto the emigration agricultural centres, of rates unprecedented experienced areas as rural challenged were stratification social relationships,family bonds, ways and models andmeansofsubsistence.the Traditional of suchcountryside, causinganupheavalin social orders pre-existing as reciprocal 3. Transforming theSelf 151 Experience withCollectivization Hollos and Maday, eds, Bell, The focus of The focus fourfold. willbe chapter of thethis First, general andatmosphere before The social impact of the First Five Year Plan in Hungary reached deep into the deep Five inHungary reached First YearPlan of the impact The social Peasants in SocialistTransition son, Iwill kill them. If they call me a peasant, I don’t mind, but if they apply this term to my New Peasants:East CentralEuropean Hungarian An 150 : 19. David Essig : 117. 151 The reorganization of market The prewar the reorganization of CEU eTD Collection interviews as the peasant-worker; neither wholly isolated from the lands he had tilled yet not yet tilled he had lands the from isolated wholly neither peasant-worker; the as interviews the within self-described emerged,often labourer of interaction a newtype this class population to interact directly with industry and the urban population at large. As a result of achieve abasic level subsistenceof forced a significantportion Hungary’s of rural variousbe types of itwork, agricultural industrial, or a deviant attitude. with The need to sufficiency forhishim family and remainingmeant the (while outside approachingParty) First Five Year Plan. Any ability the peasant had toachieve even marginala degree of self- State’s the within found attainable longersubsistence no prewarpeasant population. The rural the of lives the into challenges socio-economic of a number introduced economy 152 tocompensate forattempted financial material maladies.and curing these in economy of asecond importance andthe goods, of lack incomes andgeneral insufficient ailments,supplementing for strategies employed Lastly, peasant. middle and smallholder the of will afford examples of methods by which the rural population SFNo.226. The imposition of collectivization under the auspice of a Soviet-style command of auspice a Soviet-style the under collectivization of The imposition 3.1 Social 3.1 Social Stratification Creation and ofthe‘NewMan’ the future.the youth’. He must always test theridiculous theefficacy slogan sounds, he must believe that ‘the future belongsof tothe the regime by hislike to, children fruitsmatterhow will laborsenjoy andhisno the the of promises of shouldbe convinced, although that today he doesnot live the way he would think of the living; good is heconsider supposed of allforms bad and to government communistregime inspite of factthe that itis actually bad not anddoes provide hima state the adore musthis life. He him can direct and string pull a on The state as the onlydisposal of the regime andthe who at follows thegood orders is constantly of thewho state man ina is He every way. ties. family without form and religion, of government.The mythical ideal,regimes is being, ‘new man’,this the without a creature He 152 David Essig CEU eTD Collection 156 withEuropean Experience Collectivization 155 from experience. emerged socialist the that transformation model. Iam indebted to this work for bringing to my attention examples of adaptation and insightful description of dynamicthe incurred through changes impositionthe a Sovietof 1962” :335; David Kideckel’s work on socialist in transformation Transylvania provides an 154 Central European Experience with Collectivization Northern Hungarian Village” in Hollos and Maday, eds., 153 fields. the compensate gains forin to poor sector into the industrial and againmovedinadequate, once employment, found that the four or five acres he received from the government were grossly labour day and seasonal on relied once who peasants, landless The peasantry. the of needs of subsistence. ethics,own work his to the workingdisposition class,andmeans of achieving abasiclevel view thepeasant’s altered his of experience low an with gains, that associated agricultural ease financial burdens income to asecond appropriate forceto was an often attempt labour in tradesman. senseof askilled the aworker considered someplace else during thewinter”. during else someplace work and go to forced were They by. live to money enough earn not did cooperatives the enter whowere members thecooperatives. Those them of constantly delegations to pressed factors: “the independent landholdersthe werefaced with inability providean externalto due themselves for to time first the was plan economic peasants new the of demand high The policies. insurance and loans were burdened delivery taxation basedquotas, land on holdings, andmandatory governmentsubscription to with taxes. The predominantlyindustrial occurred incompulsory whensector introduced 1949, HCP the AVH and the TszCa SFNo.152. SF No. 426, Jávor in Hollos and Maday, eds., Kideckel,“The Socialist Transformation of Agriculture in a Romanian Commune, 1945- SF No. 72-m, Kata Jávor, “Continuity and change in the Social Value Systems of a By 1948,it was apparent that the land reform of 1945 did notsufficiently placate the 155 For the middle peasant and small landholders, their introduction into the into introduction their landholders, small and peasant middle the For 154 156 The only recourse available tothe peasant wastojoin David Essig : 275. New Hungarian Peasants: EastCentral An : 275. New Hungarian Peasants: East An 153 Integration into the industrial the into Integration CEU eTD Collection 160 159 158 coerce join. them in farmsto to attempt collective an the outside peasants the in pauperizing account numerous by of the employed an old,tactics still accurate Communists the provides 157 War World after II. to seize power hadmanaged Party werepartof Communist reason the the workers the number of peasants, industrialtowards the wasa andworkers combination of distrust disdain. viewthe of In a agricultural sector. the outside labourer unskilled asan seekemployment farm, or farm,form a cooperative a state communities that they resided. thatthey communities in rural the resentment days work created shorter despite success andmaterial financial level achieve areasonable both of ability to Theindustrial workers’ themselves. peasants countryside and also land owned maintained ahigher quality of life many than of the wholivedin of Workers inanumberthe ways. materialized reality this countryside, the In themselves. Communists the alongside peasantry the of enemy interim the became gains tothe workerswhopledged loyalty Communists, their the industrialto the worker promisedbourgeois great and capitalists against of proletariat the on-goingthe class conflict for raw materials. for raw cereals industry and aligned itself with goods reliedthat producing onagricultural produce crops otherthan began toproduce Farms upperlevels. atthe definiteevolving synergy period, alongside the expansion of the capitalist market. By the postwar period, there was a worker were not as stark as the former had previously imagined. Just asagricultural imagined. had as previously former as stark werenotthe worker involve themselves directly with the industrial workers, the differences between peasant and SFNo.152. SF No. 16-m. SFNo.235. Coulter’s article “The although being Hungarian 1948-1956”, Peasantry: nearly years50 Prior to the introduction of Soviet-style collectivization, the attitude of the peasants Interaction between agriculture and industry between Interaction agricultureindustry andhad first emerged interwar the during 160 Although a large portion of the wealthy and middle peasants had yet to 157 159 158 Since the majority of the Party rhetoric expounded David Essig CEU eTD Collection 164 163 162 161 in wereseen inferior. socially industrial work urban centers, as for community the left or land, persons another on employment sought who individuals rural wasof tothe importance that community with work such prestige accompanied Hungary; it was a means of establishing rural findpopulation common with ground workingthe class. oneself socially production industrial hadand foundgoods common wouldeconomic interests, sotoo the within the community. The predominantly peasant origin working class meant that the strong stigmas attached labourto Thelate workers. developmentindustrialization of in the Hungary, with combined the and peasants the between differences cultural and ideological distinct had Hungary, Germany. or as countries such Western wasdistinguishedEuropean as asinother not industrial workers outsidelabourers. agriculture of asunskilled work to they wanted that indicated of respondents the 87 percent that children revealed traditional forms labour isof apparentquite intheinterwar period; a survey of school land notions social of prestige ownership. tied to capitalistmarket economy in Hungary after the turn of the century challenged the traditional importance from “possessing landtopossessing introduced labour” by growingthe SFNo.152. János , Lampland. Lampland, Worksimply was not of a means establishinga source incomeof inprewar 3.2 Class Integration:Birth Peasant-Worker ofthe It is important to note that the ideological differences between the peasantry and the and peasantry the between differences ideological the that note to important is It The Politics of Backwardness inHungary, 1825-1945 The objectoflabor: commodification in socialist Hungary The objectoflabor: commodification in socialist Hungary 164 The latter countries, having industrialized at an earlier stage than David Essig 163 162 The developing trend away from : 241. 161 However, the shift in theshift However, : 469. : 468. CEU eTD Collection members of members household. of the village other the duties and secondary fall tothe their employment, spouseor would the peasant would haveshift work into the factories live to tend to the duties of the farm.outside their after home returned often but plots, personal their abandon of not did industry thein working farm due to the great distance between the 167 Collectivization eds., Maday, 166 165 identity. adual of development the signalled but notes, Sarkany Mihály easier amalgamation. outside of the farm was not as rigid or developed as in other countries and allowed for an Experience withCollectivization deliveries. marketforlabourunskilled for the fall the burdens and compensate winter to of compulsory the intohead immediately they would over was harvest once indicated that subjects the majority of the peasant, the of schedule work theparticular of Regardless meetings. Party back home by or commute of the consumed was often time,which evening part leisure theentirewould work frequently smallbreaks. and day take two hours. This was a strong includedlabour,hours aday,between lasting often minutes 8-12often and to acommute 30 break with the previous work day routine, classes. two the between where peasants for stereotypes adisintegration it detrimental the of on family the provided unit, effect 169 168 withEuropean Experience Collectivization Sarkany in Hollos and Maday, eds., Mihály Sarkany, “Economic Changes in a Northern Hungarian Village” in Hollos and SFNo.152. Jávor in Hollos and Maday, eds., SFNo.461. The peasant-worker was not a combination of the two classes, asanthropologist classes, two the of a combination was not The peasant-worker Another feature of work that changed for the peasantry was the adoption of shift of adoption the was peasantry for the changed that of work feature Another New Peasants: Hungarian An East Central European Experiencewith : 53, SF : 53,SF No. 72-M. 165 168 Although such distance between family members often had a had often members family between distance such Although : 230. New Hungarian Peasants:East CentralEuropean An David Essig New Peasants:Hungarian EastCentral An : 53. 167 In some extreme cases, where 169 This resulted in a shift to 166 Peasants CEU eTD Collection 173 172 171 170 take-over. Soviet the to Communist butsimply of reforms changingtimesthe a product thatbegan trends and prior of necessarily a product not was peasantry, the of dress traditional of the abandonment the furtherenvironment, blurring between the division classes. the interactingaccustomed equipment in typically with to seen amenities theurban and mechanize became to nonetheless disliked they attempts State’s peasants agriculture, the the of majority a Although environment. urban the and village the between differences in with andgapinmaterial resulted anarrowing of the rural integrated the communities, Hungarians”. reliable and loyal are they contacts political in their environment “[he] realized that although industrial the may beworkers international slightly inforceindustrial labourin asanunskilled labourer theworkplace histime 1949, during Communists. the by on spurnedmovement in developed role proletariat the of supporting over the that workers the superiority of the workers lessened during the collectivization experience, as did tensions role in both.role peasant’sapproach to the determining akey age played Hereagain, unit. family of the importance the and ethics work peasantry’s villagers were nolonger limited to the land they tilled. More noticeable was a change in the the of lifestyle traditional the peasantry), the from conscripted (primarily movement materialhad on altering the agreatinfluence also external ones world perception. SFNo.F-84. SFNo.152. SF No. 72-M. SFNo.235. Additional developments, such as the mechanization of agriculture, became agriculture, of such mechanization as the Additional developments, Certain assumedtruths withinpreviously peasantry intellectual aboutthe the Combined with the experience of two large-scale global wars and international troop international and global wars large-scale two of experience the with Combined 173 170 In a stratum where materialism was of such high importance, According72-M,whowasforcedjoin Subject No. the to to David Essig 172 171 Other changes, such as CEU eTD Collection 175 Review 174 relationships. amicable pending community, reciprocal that familyrelationshipswere broadlybut werenot exclusive, availablethe to note isto important It equipmentsuch asathresher. the meals use of or such asproviding forms in other or in kind, returned was labour for Payment season. harvest come essential ties and communal assistance.menial gains achieved for higher productivity. The work, hisapproach to attitude of well performing ajob inviewdone, diminished of the aid of neighbours attitudesyouth of peasant’s divergent Inaddition,the were desperately the the sought. with cope to methods and undermined, constantly was andinterdependence and cohesion family the landlessregime, Communist male. the Under eldest the of authority the to achallenge presented peasantryconstant inundationideology Communist of educational through andprograms propaganda was and unit the family economic the of youth as part the thenewroleof However, shame. as threatof well asthe public structure by a in heldrigid check previously patriarchal 176 asked to assist inassist harvesting. asked to crop members non-family were nor employed, labourers day were longer No family. the outside economy reciprocal the affected severely it that extent an such to rigified relationships Communist regime as the action of action of asthe a kulak. regime Communist under the stigmatized politically family was the outside members of employ assistance the engageneedpermit did that inwork to not time Additionally, for assisting others. to Bell, Fred E. Dohrs, “Incentives in Communist Agriculture: The Hungarian Models.” SF No. 26-M. 27, no. 1 27,no. (Mar., 1968): 25. The previous system of agricultural labour employed the assistance of both familial that were faced hierarchy challenges power traditional the In itself, household the 3.3 Work Ethics and the Family Unit Peasants in SocialistTransition 176 Much of this was brought about by the peasant’s great David Essig : 73. 174 175 However, under collectivization social undercollectivization However, Slavic CEU eTD Collection 180 179 178 177 campaign. hindered by secularization the was week or seven-day the work to villages due most remote the in but all prevented previously slowedof in theprocess despondency the unit, family such church-going, was as have would that events Family family. the and mother the both for process, damaging often labour. and time “defensive and alliance” offensive economicagainst hardshipsby free each utilizing others’ a formed still socialism, of accomplishments great the about learning schools or nurseries fact that bothsix. total inhabitants of to dwellingthe parents 1,400 forints, wasforced tolive his with poor in-laws dueto housing conditions, the raising had to work dwelling. 152, in who SubjectNo. worked a kilning factory and hadamonthlyand income of the childrenmorehabitate. Insomefamilybe would than instances, there even sharing a one unit spent(lack of furniture,insufficientfunds for building maintenance) forced many families co- to their days tohaveeach or to dwellingsnext Economicother. living dependency and poor conditions within Stateprewar periodituncommon was not see to generationsthree of a family sharing a dwelling, day bed. see nursery, them to only again inthe eveningin make to time dinner and putthem again to day tothe bring children her5am to sleeping she upat that woke indicated Subject Files in the mother one of routine The cohesion. its and unit family the impacting severely than in other families, as was the ability deflectto Party propaganda aimed at the youth. SFNo.302. SFNo.F-84. SFNo.152. SFNo.152. 179 The transition from maternal home-maker to unskilled worker wasadifficultand unskilled worker to home-maker maternal from The transition The number offamily members inhabiting each dwellingincreased. also In the In situations,other working mother’s sometimes became despondentand apathetic, 178 If the family unit was strong, the material difficulties were much less much were difficulties material the strong, was unit family the If David Essig 177 180 The new family unit, although fractured by the by fractured although unit, family new The The most notable concern nature the regarding notable concern Themost CEU eTD Collection makes muchless”. as a forints skilled makes while 1,500-2,000 labourer on father samejobthe years for 25-30 with a greater sense of self, much to the detriment of theNot only needs childrenfrom economicdid prevent it infusedattending school,also them parents. “Often a 20 year-old son than parents. work their towards attitude developed different quite stock peasant children of 184 183 182 181 ordefiningof purpose their structure familyof the unit. economic delicate the years, upsetting inmuch leave home ata agethan earlier previous sometimes resulted in an This bredbuildingsuperiority theirill-mannerssense of parents. socialism, andoften over-inflated to a sense of ability and worth, and the children would income. attain of family’s the sources needto additional 15yearsold”, he dueto gets waiting until children.the had lives on of needs the financial was the impact peasantry the among of family unitthe supplementing thefamilyincome but to escape the hardships of life.rural other instances, the youth left home in search of employment not with the goal of efforts. working in mineswasbased the shifton and he waspaidfor his work, his instead time of even though the work was lighter 235,Subject working No. inthelocal granary was less appealing than inthemines,working in the granary; the latter was a 7-day a week job while SFNo.235. Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”:548. SFNo.152. SFNo.461. 184 The youth also worked for money, not for existential reasons of developing a sense “hardly age, much earlier a at work to children their introduced often Parents 181 As a result of this earlier exposure and the vicissitudes of the Stalinistmodel, the 182 Higher incomes for the youth, meant towin them over to the cause of Weltanshauung David Essig , as had been characteristic of their parents. In their parents. of characteristic had been , as 183 As by noted CEU eTD Collection 187 186 185 labor and the solidarity of autonomy”. by ‘possesswork refusing objects’… to peasantstraditionally the [and] dignity celebrated of proclaim labor of dignity founded tosanctity of “representatives a party violated the the of writes, Lampland Martha itlacked. As in what but characters system’s economic well, although as generation older the among found commonplace youth, andsoon exclusive tothe not with greater reluctance. The older generation was affected not by the andmaterials the tomakeitappear as involved,there though wasmore work andthus equipment between the distances increase the to itwas possible numbers. However, those means level of wasno altering the State at there wereestablished norms the since example, imposedease norm by madesystem. burdens tothe modifications the be would managers, as long as he was not ideologically embedded in the Communist system, whereby would workers relationshipgains. with Inindustry,establishthe apositive (peasant-) for personal swindle government the to bureaucratization over and economy centralized the of deficiencies the upon relying command economy, State the to counter-culture of atype workalso generated The reconfiguration of approaching work. newof way not havingsell anything to meant receiving paymentforwork. no received for local hourly more the storeoperators the an goods wage,thus since population implemented by the regime. such the deprivation manifested clothing,possession aslardbasicacquire products of or Most State stores,ownership. once Evenempty, the State would cooperative seizure tax furniturefor arrears, andland absenceof the of animals,of confiscation not attempt stores, for to manysecure of the peasantry the only place to SFNo.562. SF No. 16-M. Lampland, “Pigs, Party Secretaries, and Private Lives in Hungary” : 475. The attitude of working for money and not for quality or personal fulfillment was fulfillment personal or quality for not and money for working of attitude The The ethical conflict between the old versus new meanings of work developed a into newmeanings of work old the versus The between ethical conflict 185 David Essig This reality manifested itself everywhere, from the 186 187 For CEU eTD Collection goods andgoods services. with mode astheprimary of bartering exchanging in informal character, was countryside commodification of labour and goods. The pre-Soviet incipient market system in the 191 190 189 188 cash Warbygrowing World Second duringincurred the thatwere agricultural regions continued into the postwar period, allowing for the alleviation of some personal losses in in exchangedlabourfields amarket This trend towards for capitalist the of supplier. the Mechanism in 1966. under long Kádár’s operationsNew Economic werepermitted smallmarketpeasant before Additionally, the emergence of a second economy played a crucial role in the survival of the peasant’s a marginal achieve to the contributed living. ability of to quality degree norms the cheating and resistance actions. Actsof passive less-apparent through system the peasantry, open rebellion was notan option,leaving them expressto their disdain for the arrived. delivery collector before the formthe of watering downmilk,making breadbarley, by with or hand threshing harvest the acquiring ahigher pay forlabour. sameof the amount Coulter, “The Hungarian Peasantry: 1948-1956”:548. SFNo.525. SFNo.226. SFNo.562. The introduction of the money economy in agricultural regions meant the meant regions agricultural in economy money the of introduction The 3.4 TheRole of Second Economy For resistance. passive form asa of acted also for self-benefit deception Employing family, so what does he do? He accepts a black job. forints as an advance from his cooperative. It is not enough for food for his Imagine anindependent tradesmanis independencewho used to gets150 191 In some instances where funds were short, the goods were 189 David Essig 188 Similar approaches were taken in weretaken Similar approaches 190 CEU eTD Collection 192 potatoes or corn. whichmeantcrops, a change also inhigher production such to goods crop profit-yielding as 194 193 Experience withCollectivization by voidfilled the created absenceof the relationships. reciprocal meansin products,providedCommunism, government-manufactured to of a resistance and blackfulfilling wasthreefold. Itprovided shortages of second economy, ameans or market, in in providingproducts often supply in short State-run stores. chairman and a small gift for him and the local police. local the and him for gift small a and chairman peasant wished to killmarket system acquireto goods not available through State channels.a Even in casescalf where a for its meat, 16-M, both Subject No. advantage andtheBlue villagecouncil the of took blackthe Police all that was needed where population (approximately the the and flourished.1,000) black According market to was the permission stores.16-M explicateslocal Subject No. State well in Bores (Gy situation the of the in the place taking even occurrence, acommon became market black the accessto corrupt, communities theParty. for from whoworked becouldthose who and well trusted knew connected where the officials nation. Soviet-controlled subsequent in every materialized economy were known to support the rural population or were 197 196 195 Experience withCollectivization emergence of the of emergence the that meansblack marketwasbyno anisolated development. Starting inRussia the with Hollos and Maday, eds., Hollos and Maday, eds., :9. Societies” of Socialist Verdery, “Anthropology SF No. 16-M. SF No. 72-M. Verdery, The second economy was comprised of goods acquired from the State, andassisted acquiredfrom State, the of goods was comprised The secondeconomy The black markets were typically by operated a small friendsof group whowere The Vanishing Hectare: Property andValue in Postsocialist Transylvania 192 blat after Lenin introduced his New Economic Policy, the same second same the Policy, New Economic his introduced Lenin after New Peasants:East CentralEuropean Hungarian An New Peasants:East CentralEuropean Hungarian An : 39. : 16. David Essig 197 194 193 It should be mentioned be should It 195 The function of the of function The Ę r County) 196 : 8. In CEU eTD Collection 203 202 201 200 199 198 makelivingbasic standardbutto of money. the rest of the peasants. For the youth, the was notutilized tosupplement their their income. either produce better consumethemselves the orsellitsupplementmarket to on black the before, that most of the peasants preferred toruin the produce they delivered to the State and State. bythe distributed was what than higher quality wereof items of mostthe fact that wasthe goods, available stores. inState pricethe listed hlf almost whereas twopounds, watches for could bepurchasedat much wrist as 46forints similarity to reciprocal relations is in the fact that black work was available to everyone to black wasavailable factthat work is in the reciprocal relations similarity to in meat. form jobs receivedcontract-style paymentflour and the say, or of, inperform entrepreneurial individual with certainskills wasemployed the to sense an that Instead of reciprocity the being basedin off work itkind, however, wasmuch more period. pre-Soviet inexisted and the that thereciprocal relationships work, resembled membersto other of in community the in exchange for goods Thiswascalledkind. black forints and was inferiorusually in quality. similar1200 stores, cost would forints. State Inthe forwatches 700 andthem around sold turned then and forints, 300 for soldiers Russian from watched of a number bought friends SFNo.525. SF No. 21-M. Lampland, “Pigs, Party Secretaries, and Private Lives in Hungary” : 473. SF No. 21-M. SFNo.F-84. SFNo.F-84. The participation of the youth in the black market differed from of from differed participation the market inthe black youth the of The participation as cost could rice example, For availability. their based on varied goods of Prices The second economy was not simply about goods, but also about selling ones skills ones selling about also but goods, about simply not was economy second The 200 199 The reason for the higher quality of goods was, as mentioned 198 The advantage in the black market, aside from readily from aside black market, in the advantage The David Essig 202 201 As Subject No. 21-M illustrates, he and his 203 The CEU eTD Collection labour toperform efficiently, admirably and produce findbut and to means shortcuts of in aims his were longer No commonplace. became efficiency own his undermining even always seemed beto ambitious (if notutopian), adepreciation in the quality hisof work and norms production Since peasantry. the of ethic work in the change noticeable a was there nightcontinue to workingin fields.the on shift work and inadequatebased an adapt to environment hadto peasant-worker The in thefactories. materialized also materials to fulfill classes, hardshipsinthefields the especially when two bridged between the divisions the the norms, and then returnworker. to theThe processfarm of atintegration did industrialthe a economylabour dual created notand socialist wage peasant,identity, part part create a new man but it did act as a catalyst andoutlook approach numerous traditionalto Theconcepts. integration intoof peasant the to countryside. in the survive to provisions necessary the without been have blackthe marketand of black work is thatwithout ita large portion of peasantry the would of emergence the of One aspect respect. degreeof merita certain andalso social position issay forIt much wouldpeasantry, reasonable to older suchwork that of enhanceones the such activities. to and, assigned prestige social the of arguably, goods source additional the 204 duringindustrial sectors or anyfreetime. landless This peasant. was work typically during lowdone production in periods the paid for in cash. it termswas not individual,the within also that wason with the community good and that SFNo.525. As a result of the pressures surrounding the possession of As andmaterial gains, pressuressurroundingthe of a resultwork of the possession peasantry’s the altered invariably economy command the of introduction The Conclusions Chapter For anumber of peasants black work was the only means of survival, particularly the David Essig 204 The value in performing unofficial work was work unofficial performing in value The CEU eTD Collection unintentional economic fumbling under collectivization. under fumbling economic unintentional intentionalpurge formsunlikethe familial bonds of took traditional the stepsto family the waragainst Party’s the inchapter, next the beillustrated As level. will social a and level economic an both on fought was family the against war The children. their express their disdain for the on-going social to them for engineeringharder much was it programchannels, these that through wasreforms directly economic the to aimedopposition at express their to was able peasantry the regime. the While to resistance forpassive medium and provided acommon state, by Communist of the fallacies nurtured the skills wasgreatly Hungary, alongand blackwork it. Anymeans with of supplementingor material goods throughout weremarkets ubiquitous Black stores. in alwaysState not available peasantry roles. parents into labourthe force, which directly challenged the modeltraditional familial of both and youth the of integration the to due relations in a deterioration or bread, daily their family intoa cohesive and unit supportive body, completely for each dependent on other the of solidification extremes: a either of one two was this of repercussions The adult. view of financial pressing andcrises the need tomobilize all available labour; child and previously heldin check through a rigid and patriarchal began protocol, deteriorate to in money; nomore, and no less. was youth, experience work the the system. of In economic centralized hampering the The development of a second inmuch-needed economy aided goodstothe providing family, bonds The the of atransmutation. experienced The family also unit David Essig CEU eTD Collection Experience withCollectivization which is bymembers attempted of a given community”. of realization the psychological, or material goals, defined socially “all the represent and considerations. ideological children with traditionaltheir own values hadformed deeper than roots of that regimesthe peasantry leftimpotentandwas hopethat their atimbuing couldoften only attempts their marriage, the suchas some instances, In relations. family power of reorganization and re-education, atadaptation, varied attempts private spheresgenerated its most of invasion this to reaction peasantry’s The goals. economic ambitious Party’s achieve the them with an bonds replace and familial of importance weaken the in to order introduced was family the unwavering Theindustrial implementation proletariats. rank-and-file unitproduction of of awaragainst loyalty the aimeda unified intorestructuring lines society Hungarian of employed at attack several State, Communists. Hungarian the of tactics inand policies the by order to mechanizefacedincreased opposition sexes, between the protocol established wellasthe courtship as the to and approaches interpretationsright traditional wrong, of the to Hungary. Challenges populationin model economic Stalinist the of implementation the accompany to ramifications the of and 207 206 205 4. Redefining Social Values Jávor in Hollos and Maday, eds., SF No. 72-m. SFNo.413. The definition of “social values” will be borrowed from anthropologist Kata Jávor, Widespread financial depravity by experienced peasantry the was but one dimension which they left out the role of the human person from their calculation. The weakness of the [communist] system isits totalitarian character, due to : 275. New Hungarian Peasants:East CentralEuropean An David Essig 207 206 In keeping with her definition, Soviet-style social engineering social Soviet-style 205 CEU eTD Collection No longer was the institute of marriage strictly regulated by the family, nor wasthenor process family, by the regulated strictly marriage of longer the institute No was a interaction between men newwomen and the guise. ritual courtship, adopted of also lyinga subchapter. of and context will separate re-education constitute class. Delinquency and theftwill be addressed within the same context,while thesocial previously levels not bythepeasant lying reached experienced of unprecedented openness of nature commonplace the Additionally, use. of terms acceptable of socially parameter definition and offalsehoodsadopted prominence new meanings and alsodeveloped anew the Stalinization, of rapid hardships socio-economic Underthe unacceptable. socially and definition of theft in below. discussion attention the in the traditional scholasticthe environmentfor asaplatform engineering, social it receive some does peasant population.information of education Thesameistrue usebuton due tothe system,the of mentality, files)investigation into non-rural subjectin moulding themorality of religions’ role of the werefurther deal (without leavingspeculation agreat stop of there, to tends secularization previously considered 209 208 age”. very tender and fear children is that from be “should education important religious to that taught a God passing from almost mentions subjects.the In general, all were inagreementparticipants concerns. peasantry’s the among prominently quite figures system, political by the generated values. judgementsmoral due will also beincorporated to its inseparability in discussions social on SFNo.F-84. SFNo.525. Secondly,life-defining most oldest the andarguably of all engagements,social the implications social the First, themes. three on specifically focus will chapter This Within the CURPH interviews, challenges to traditional social value system, value social traditional to challenges interviews, CURPH the Within 208 Although religiosity played assignificant role,it typically only received 209 However, the depth of analysis on the moral implications of David Essig CEU eTD Collection 210 andmentality action”. establishedif [only] communiststhe in succeed bringing upa fullygeneration of communist completely will…be rule, workers’ the regime, communist the that in 1948 Parliament in “Révai asserted repeatedly bySubject, indicated engineering. politically-sensitive As one in social experiment Soviet the is economy command functional and efficient an establish peasant. middle and landholders small former the amongst utility found but and destitute, poor the longerdelinquency the domain noof within remained response to hardshipsthe of forproviding oneself and the family, actionsinvolving theftor In psychologically. and materially subsist to ability peasantry’s the with associated of subjects adolescentage noticetook enough comment to in interviews. the even deviated that from its sostrongly the traditional character environment, regulated of courtship itself. The ability for both sexes to interact at a younger age, and in a less ritualized everyday life to provide for the greatest amount of exposure to Communist to provideof greatestfor amount lifeexposure the everyday ritualized to intercede in of andlives population. Party bureaucracy The the to thick the of education advantage society, taking for recreating their programs and to adhered adopted come population if the to achievements great anticipation of create used to SFNo.152. An underlying theme to this chapter that ties it to the Communist Party’s efforts to often prominently, figures quite theft of examination, the areas three Amongst Social anthropologist takes this position as well, indicating that language was they utilized every means at their disposal to bring this about. this bring to disposal their at means every utilized they family,i.e., the the destruction of objectives, these admitdared toopenly never they While work. to member family able every forced they whereby wage-politics, their of explanation is the this members, family the among barriers artificial eager tocreate wereso why the communists reason the unit which formulatesreside in a closed family circle whereand thereIt is much is tocontroleasier directand to young a man’sa lifeenforces if different,he doesnot antagonistic air, a its own laws on its members. This is 210 AccordingSubject to No.152: David Essig CEU eTD Collection 215 214 213 212 Social and of the Behavioral Sciences 211 instances of theft as such a widespread and socially accepted phenomenon. He claimed thatduring the coalitionfrom into goes government detail 1945-1947, whyheas to saw pockets with coal from the mines or wood from the State-owned forests. filledindividuals enforcedby a blind eyeto toturn their peasants’willingness the who fact repeatedly a listed, category second the fall into to accepted wasgenerally of State the which more or less does not belong to anybody is definitely not stealing”. ofmaterial ‘procuring’ Theor away taking from another. belongings personal steals person is…when differencethe “Stealing a elaborated between stealing andwage-supplementing: stealing“procurement”.and This term was bestdefined by No.152,whoclearly Subject desperation”. family unit. deconstructcampaign traditional to bonds within community the and the within delinquency, and liberalization of gender interaction were integrated as elements of a ideology and social engineering propaganda. SFNo.152. SF No. 21-m. SFNo.525. SFNo.152. Katherine Verdery, “Anthropology of Socialist Societies” in Societies” of Socialist Verdery, “Anthropology Katherine Subject No. 152, whowas Subject No. an member memberactive Party of Smallholders’ the “poverty was and The main delinquency widespread causality peasant of TheftversusProcurement 4.1 And the bigwigs in Budapest steal millions. forints. embezzle 10,000 enterprise could of largestate the The bookkeeper steal forints. morea few not than barbercould he Thepoor more steals. the is somebody higher the and system communist the in steals Everybody 212 214 Due to the ubiquitous nature of theft, a differentiation materialized between materialized a differentiation oftheft, nature ubiquitous Duetothe : 9. David Essig 211 . The constant atmosphere of lies, atmosphere of . The constant 213 International Encyclopedia 215 Theproperty CEU eTD Collection 219 218 217 216 in countryside. the property, children they steal fromencouraged to kulakthe as part of ongoingthe class war State of procurement illegal the war against wage a to tried officials Party the same time At the government. the stanceof hypocritical of the failed asaconsequence prevention what they were in most labour of Hajdú-BiharCounty),doing populationHortobágy the (in was that unconvinced to survivehard years’ several faced andif subject the caught was seenbysabotage, Party as theft the was in any way individuals goods from whoprocured but State, alwaysthe little with success.Although a misdemeanour. Promotion from away.wasting ofmaterials theft “saving” the as actions their they rationalized Ineffect, unusable. became before they itprocure quantities goods the of only to warehouses,many thought reasonable them of As peasantry the sittingwitnessed materials andproduce idle and inthefieldswasting or way”. in roundabout a complicated, needlessly, around rather and wereshipped finished, was unable to efficiently deal with the weight of its own tasks. “All kinds of materials, State the of production, bureaucratization and over centrally economy due tothe rawplanned was a means of protestforms of threat of resistancedeportation, suchaspassive cheating norms stealingin or work that wasgovernment. the available to themeans income,it againstform of political of supplementingdemonstration was alsoa ones peasantry, and risked only a marginal SFNo.525. SF No. 26-m. SFNo.152. SFNo.152. The government attempted on several occasions to marshal support against marshal support to several occasions on attempted The government Rationalizing acts of theft developed also a duality in meaning.Aside from being a 219 218 Although instances of open resistance were rare due to the very dueto very the rare real were resistance open of instances Although 217 David Essig 216 CEU eTD Collection 222 221 220 farm. collective the on labour additional perform approached him in and demandedthat forexchange cloversthe hehad takenhe should community the response In fields. communally-cultivated the from clovers stealing an that man old collective,localswas discovered the in example, notably prosperous one varied based upon the levelpolitical church”.demonstration as going to of economicpossibility of discovery. Formany individuals “stealing was muchpretty samethe kind of success of the community as a whole. For mention such that did atconduct occur, thevery infrequently.least village Since life was instancesbevery bytheir Itcan assumedthat isolated interviews. toonly within the two friends and from homesin the which they were apprenticed. goods, andinvolvingof in procurement state cases some from wentasfarstealingtheir morally lax environment than alwaystheir did parents, not abideby protocol strict the amongst the peasantry wasstate apparatus. not withoutenough not thecommunal in repercussions, the social was to rupture resistance severe to exception.In this situation, old the man’s behaviour,delinquent which in pastthe would have resulted The youth, ofmoral code conduct. he anaccepted hadbreached totheauthorities even though reported raised in a man sincewas never old the apparatus, State tothe of protection and resistance communal much morea sense was there communities agricultural prosperous more amongst even isthat illustrates this case what importantly, More his needs. meet to recourse alternate no was there man more than was happy oblige,likelyto having felt asidethat from the cloversstealing SF No. 72-m. SFNo.406. SFNo.525. However, the social norms surrounding theft were not ubiquitous and typically The previous illustration of indivisible unity and rigidly adhered social conduct David Essig 220 221 The Subject File indicates that the old the that Fileindicates TheSubject 222 However, these casesare these However, CEU eTD Collection 224 223 from family State protect the to lie in order to children their forced teach to were constantly how they often discuss subjects unit, family the against activities clandestine of Party’s the “new man”. the into population the recreate toeffectively order in family ties of weaken bonds the was to Party the of The strategy family unit. the against morality after 1945. The majority of the peasants accredit this change to an ongoing war suggest.their words hopelessness. and fear However, of emotions mixed displayed parents the the cases, many In fruitsgeneration. next of their labours the of minds the into impressed been wererecently had lies” “Communist what not monitor alwaysdiligently as grim as the tone of had to peasant evening the social gatherings, schools to From youth. the State-directed taskof At every faced mindsre-educating peasantry thearduous the turn of children. the under policesurveillance. hisin County), hewascurrently andthat timeinRecsk(Heves exploits, previous aprison Within his days inof arrival the newvillagehebecame thattheentirevillage aware of knew spendingafter 3years in membershipin for prison Independentthe Smallholders’ Party. gentleman arrivedwho inanew village (Subjectdid disclose not villagename)in the 1953 isa of An example this ofthe Party. from machinations the eachother means of protecting pastlives the informed andactions, villagers about newand of evenbe wasa old considered of the actionsbe well to everyone for aware wasatendency there isolated than urban centers, much more of others within the community. A community’s ability to tabulate the SFNo.226. SFNo.152. Each Subject Filein Each employed Subject a makes this study reference general to in decline 4.2 Dualityand Combating Party Propaganda (Re-educating the Youth) into the propaganda inundation of Party was the peasantry the concern to Of greater 223 David Essig 224 In supporting the notion the supporting In CEU eTD Collection 228 227 226 225 homelife. pertaining to illegalquestioned issuesor in being by actions about public orwhen officials Party while harassment. Many parents feared what their child may reveal about their family discussions education and social upbringing were varied. In rare cases, parents would simply cases, disallow rare parents were varied.In education and social upbringing of center man’sthe a life”. theplace became meetingsseminars of Inaword, work and conferences. production and various mention the to not factory, atthe held were and parties common excursions entertainments, events, Sports ended. workday the after even shops in the kept “were who well as parents the of lives the into extended This parents. their by unprotected while rhetoric, Socialist children with inundate would officials whereParty meetings, dances and for such arrangingas by cultural activities Party were established the and wereresponsible Women (MNDSZ) Hungarian of Organization Democratic the or Congress as the Youth andlove trust andaffection”. andfought re-conquer parents]abattle their [the estrangement…and eachday to children’s disdain, and felt that “their of expound virtues asocialistsystem. the children were exposed class the warfare and propagate able to Party was the medium classroom, In the the of to a never-ending process introduced aimedthat indoctrinating at with theyouth heavily biased Communistideology. of alienation system. Following Act the on 16 Junenew 1948,a curriculum was family security of to ensurethe the unit. SF No. 54-m. SFNo.152. SF No. 21-m, SF No. 152. SF No. 26-m. The methods available to parents to minimize the ill-effects of aCommunist of ill-effects the minimize to parents to available methods The Oneinfluential of Party’sthe most of tools social engineering was education the 225 As a result, re-educationand the ability lieto rose in prominence 228 227 In schools, addition youth numerous organizations to such David Essig 226 Parents viewed the education system utter system Parents with viewed education the CEU eTD Collection 232 231 230 229 upon their sensibilities. child’s means forno was there morality, parents and behaviour of codes traditional and old the on lessons toreiterating alleviate their educate their to constantly children, attempted theparents Although organization). concerns unofficial about an with involvement some was if there more (or theidentities two construct affects of the communist forcedbeen had to youth,who effects. of creation was the Firsta Janus-faced two generated rhetoric in versus public topics foropen discussion within the family unit. of discourse between topics distinguish acceptable to asadults) (as well practicechildren of as itself. ability the inthis caseisinterpreted language particular to and meaningof The was language Each that had sphere aspublic andprivate. delineated dialogue, strongly child returned veryto the real and squalid conditions in hiswhich family existed. regarding the greatness of rhetoric ideological the Party’s the discredited that evidence ascontradictory task, enough socialist system lost any persuasiveConvincing ones child of characteran alternate (family-rooted)in school”. not but versionthe circle, family of momentthe our in truth only true was was which often truth “a an easya explaining on contentthe of theirstudies, after which they hours carefully would spendseveral would inchildren their theparents form question which re-education includeda of methods their children to attend school beyond the elementary level. would become a full-fledged Communist, with influence,communist disregarding of influences associatedother not with the SFNo.F-84. SFNo.152. SFNo.152. SFNo.238. The effectiveness of the re-education process and constructed duality inlanguage duality andconstructed process re-education the The of effectiveness life The duality distinct of regimetwo Communistatmospheres of underthe created While the majority of the peasantry seriously their that child was not concerned majority While peasantry the of the 231 David Essig 232 they changes inassociated attitude theyouth’s 229 More commonly employed commonly More 230 CEU eTD Collection Press, 1963):3. with children had to considerwith had ensure the several children factors to For prosperity to their offspring.of Parents conditions. social and a strictsetof to protocols in accordance defined were clearly From a very young age the rules of engagement between children and adults, boys and girls, 235 234 did generate an air of deep curiosity of seem even mysterious to the youth. SF No. 226. all the subjects under the age of 25, and none held negative perceptions, butin some cases it proclaimed their style and attitude ‘barbaric’. This fashion and cultural fad wasknown by of the U.S. zoot suitors. The Party waged an unsuccessful campaign against JAMPEC and attempted to imitate it, forming a group known as JAMPEC. Typical dress was in the style culture toAmerican children exposed major the In centres, urban assistance. monetary even from inAmerica or how they would asuithad received discuss relatives subjects instances, surrounding Hungary landedand inBudapest’s black market or in villages.the Insome and material goods from the West. Often items, such as clothing, breached the Iron Curtain 233 regime. peasantry watched the changes manifest in the interaction between sexes. in the between interaction manifest changes the the watched peasantry the cases, many In man”. “new socialism’s engineering at aimed programs and policies unit atthe grassroots level. The interaction between people was dramatically affected by the family the of institutions the infiltrated and system, education the of boundaries the beyond parents could hardly “Communized”how tell hadbecome. the children minds”their had become sosuccessful disguising andat inner their emotions thoughts that living in a world wherehad upontheyouth all: at by-product an evident of in their education duality. Theyouth, “people could not speak the truth, could not reveal what was on Roy D. Laird, SFNo.152. Examples of various non-communist influences upon youth the include cultural trends At the centre of the Hungarian peasant’s life-cycle was the institution of marriage. of institution wasthe life-cycle peasant’s theHungarian of centre the At And abigbowl of cabbage soup” My greatest wish, aquiet life housewife, isthe my ideal “Now 4.3 Re-defining theInstitution of Love family against the extended unit, The and the of Communist war propaganda, effects 233 It was, in fact, hard to elucidate exactly what influence the communist system Soviet Agriculturaland Peasant Affairs. David Essig -Aleksandr Pushkin’s (Kansas: University of Kansas of University (Kansas: Onegin Travels 234 235 CEU eTD Collection the youth youth the more imposedwas divided bygender,with rigida females. structure on between interaction the pre-Soviet times, for In beingunsupervised. by perceivedparents negatively were that interaction of places providing of function additional the served three settings: local meetings, schools, and work environments. These social platforms each folk. city the subject’s towards several of attitude favourable due to the incorrect as discredited manifested in interviews,the experience their inthe urban environment be wholly cannot be itunskilledcan peasantry’sbias’ labour) likely rural-urban arguedthatwhilethe a fair number of subject’s the engaged insomelevel ininteraction of (usually the form of muchbeing by parents lesscentres. inthe peasantsas was alsoseen than urban the centre was from majorfurther population the the weaker becoming relatively urbancentres, densely-populated urban environments. Hungary. the most visible in Typically, change degreeof interaction in gender occurred the The estrangement of the children from theiroccupied by parents. the formerly adopted role the State in the in longhours fieldor forthe factory, the themselves occupy and/or seek secondary employment forced to parents were andboth introduced, in heavy-handed, parent the but collectivization wasextremely after this was all of lifepartners. possible of selection the to barrier very real a was interaction, 238 237 236 concern. wasamajor partners example,in financial stability thepre-1945atmosphere both well-being the and material of SFNo.238. SF No. 26-M. SFNo.226. The Communist Party primarily exercisedinfluence their upon peasantthe in youth Platforms for Interaction The underperiod a illustrated examination change in moral behaviour throughout 236 Class origin, while not being a barrier to general social David Essig 237 The role of 238 Since CEU eTD Collection 239 various functions. social Party-organized at mandatory necessity to acombination and attendance became subject of economic acquaintances) was no longer controlled by parents or limited tochildhood friends, but progressively waning in urban centres, such as Budapest, as early as the inter-war period. had been entirely, which almost tradition eliminatedthis population the mobilization of male of freedom counterparts”. nothavethe their they and did circumscribed, social norms, indicatingAnthropologist Peter Bell makes mention inof this his analysis of pre-1945peasantthe that “girls…met less often, the scope of their activities was more pursued education beyond the levelelementary had no but option move to from villages the who students class of peasant majority The classrooms. the as did co-educational, became dormitories student Party, all Communist Following underthe schools of the nationalization force. work labour male-dominated traditionally the into women of integration the forced also economic social and policies didfavouractivityfamilydefinitely bonds denigrated that and meetings. itsby luring ideology children to sexual anddrinkingpromoting during promiscuity Party 32. LynneWar Haney, II. of women into the workforce, especially integration in view the of lossesthe in followingpopulation World without impossible was increase This labour. skilled of fields in primarily 243 242 241 240 stimuli. adequate long Party meetings and poor economic conditions creating an atmosphere devoid of Bell, Itwas government’sthe intention in increase1949 to employmentnumbers by 500,000, SFNo.426. SFNo.445. SF No. 21-M. 243 The conventional The conventional means ofintroduction sex to the opposite common (via Education often played a large part in youth interaction in interaction social alargeintegration. and youth often played Education part Peasants in SocialistTransition 242 While the Party notdid inopenly engage propaganda to effect,this their 241 A number of the Subjects even went so far as to condemn the Party for Party the condemn to as far so went even Subjects the of Anumber Inventing theNeedy: genderandthepolitics ofwelfare inHungary David Essig : 68. 240 Many of the Subject Files make mention of make mention Files of Many Subject the 239 Mass : CEU eTD Collection abortions were not unheard of, despite State legislation preventing the termination of termination the preventing legislation State despite of, unheard not were abortions bastards five six least or were at there villages in most that indicated respondent inthough as not widespread in villagesitthe was 403,the InSubjectas cities. the File No. even undeniable, was unit family the of hegemony the challenge to campaign the of success 249 248 247 246 245 244 many environments, “indulged of them in moresexual affairs readily”. new In their for inthe specializedtrades. theyouth whopursued an alsoapprenticeship true was Thesame located. were facilities level education higher where nearbycentres urban to were protected by from were protected any State parental the ofbeingfined. on punishments pain home news of wouldmarriage of daughters with return parents whose outside pregnancy girl”. an unwed case of inthe it was glory but mother, the of obligation the outside the family. In the fifties, official placards proclaimed that giving birth to a child was childbirth “Themothers. and regime encouraged their for extra-marital support children independent woman, all tocreatingcontributed asocial promisedatmosphere that toprovide of the cause the fathers, and promoting for absent abortion,regarding wagegarnishing and ofmotherhood celebrating child-rearing. thevirtue communal supervision and socialism’s liberalization effect. liberalization socialism’s and supervision communal excesses alackof with combined inpromiscuity great itwhen generated also interaction, benefits, education such numerous as provided of barriersa deterioration gender-based for SFNo.152. SF No. 54-M. SFNo.152. SFNo.445. SFNo.152. SF No. 72-M. The Party also promoted promiscuity variousThe also at promoted Party campaigns aimed through Promiscuity David Essig 246 From From 1956, legal 1948 to reforms 245 244 While co- 247 In fact, 248 249 The and CEU eTD Collection 254 253 252 251 Hungary birth control in 1953. Haney, and included the closure of all abortion clinics and criminalization of abortions or the use of 1952) from legislation 1949-1956, was introduced in combatHungary to fallingbirthrates, 250 improvement. financial for in hopes ends” rear their with whoworkforce similarly foundfinancial hardships toodifficultat times “worked and only prostitution.through This only was not of school true butalsoof girls women in the means asignificant proportion) tosupplement even chose meagretheir stipend State visits. lacking loose dormitory dormitory, or environment, governingrules aco-ed nightly the such excesses. to immune pregnancies, providing evidence youth thatthe within the villages bynomeanswere Additionally, the social stigma attached to a femalemarried beinghome before to leaving attached stigma social the Additionally, much earlier ata achieve age. independence economic thisto wasthe youth’s ability receivedcorporal on-the-spot punishment for theirmisdeeds. them of both mother, neighbour’s the by discovered being Upon neighbour. female old year his 79-Mhad atthe age 13 example,encounter For hisfirstsexual 14 with of No. Subject traditional views of sexual activity in quiteremained strong parentsthe of youth. peasantthe their to prostitutes the homes,followed simply they brothels, the down shut Party Communist the When which functioneda number of malescases, as young as 16 years old would indulge inlocal nearby brothels.or as the latter’s new place of business. SF No. 79-M. SF No. 79-M. SF No. 79-M. SF No. 26-M. Health of after Minister the (called Welfare Ministerof National Under Ratko, Anna 251 Schools also became hotbeds of sexual activity, especially due to the shared the to due especially activity, sexual of hotbeds became also Schools The experience for boys was not much different, either in the city or the villages. In However, at later ages this type of punishment wasless frequent. The reason behind Some of the peasant girls who attended school away from their family (but by no : 32. 250 Inventing theNeedy: gender and thepolitics ofwelfare in David Essig 252 254 253 However, the However, CEU eTD Collection 260 259 258 257 256 255 late with out too physical consequences. often stayed the hand whoangry of parents, traditionally such punished acts asremaining restraint”. natural way.formality, Young people to betheir conversation as well replacedas theirwere, social contacts lost much of their former stiffness and in byand before, a than less constrained far were their relations when together, ease much more at easygoing,word, free light,from becameyounger more common inat a years. agethan previous and,social to a italso and Party, certainCommunist of the andcharacteristics liberalizing by the accelerated becoming ethical extent, pressure more human or and not indoctrinated with Party ideology but with a girlfriend orfiancée. Party. Communist the of members as returned later and village the left who individuals those employmentor reasons would moral judgementdepravity; succumb to that was saved for for educational left village latethe or out stayed all youth who that the assume automatically strong influence in arrangement.the a possessed parents the announced, was marry to intention their time the by themselves independently establish managed couple to hadnot the proposed landand If property. of form the in usually power, veto a hold did they wed, to wanted child their who regarding Bell, SFNo.152. SFNo.152. SFNo.461. SFNo.525. SF No. 79-M. 256 The ritual The hadlostfeaturesritual its somecourtship by of key of interwar period, the Courtship Butin someinstances, much to the astonishment of the parents, the youth returned Peasants in SocialistTransition 259 While parents did not exercise such rigid control in exercise interwar period control did suchrigid Whileparents the not 260 David Essig Following the imposition of collectivization, the collectivization, of imposition the Following : 62. 255 At the same time, most parents did not 258 257 “Young people were CEU eTD Collection 264 263 262 261 frustrated,marched proclaiming out whohemarriedthat wasnone theirof concern. student wasforced toattend such lasteda meeting that until which2 am,at he point afemale whowas courting instance, In oneparticular aSubject towed. proposed couples certain of benefits and feasibility the debating meetings hold often would ideologues the hard-line members career-minded of DISZ represented who manoeuvring. The or individuals who either believed in the Communist ideology or were forced to join out of fear for Communist the student organization known as DISZ; a faction youth of populated by doctrinefunctionaries. andby Party State influence of the parents in the decision-making process of a spouse-selection was replaced life anew elsewhere. life anew despitejobs theirstart thekulaklabel, lost their proceed frequently andwereforced to they marriages. of proposed strongest the but all to terminate enough wasterrifying kulak’s child or a kulak with association accompanied pressures that political and ruin economic The family. a kulak from being them of mention any made file their whether was in wedlock interested peasants facing problem common most The State. the with in poor-standing was not fiancée their assure that to energies considerable even that were notideologues Communist peasantswhoParty invested membersthe or thepossibly marriage.disallow file) and (cadre dossier newspouses the investigate to whether representative Party local the of discretion the was then at It management. to the be reported hadto All marriages easy. as werenot matters in personal scrutiny disregarding Party at attempts such workplace, the SF No. 16-M. SFNo.626. SFNo.406. SF No. 54-M. In schools, word of a possible matrimonial union quickly became a topic of debate The cadre file was so important in the consideration of possible marriage candidates marriage of possible consideration in the important so was file cadre The 263 David Essig 261 264 For the individuals that did that individuals the For 262 In CEU eTD Collection his limited sixth grade education. He quite avidly noted whilethat Hequite noted in avidly his limitedgrade education. pastsuch sixth the a union of because alsobut a rich of peasant daughter the she was because only not schoolteacher, a hisdiscussing marriage incourtship,his describing own to experience excitement with individuals from marriage considerations. Subject No.226exemplified reality this while certain longerno restricted mentioned, aspreviously Social status, past. with the more resultingfrom Party’sthe ongoing waragainst thefamily financialunitand hardships. many but differences, personal from some factors, number emerging of of a consequence a was home matrimonial the of deterioration The regime. Stalinist the under stable lessbemuch to War,proved prior tothe World Second were created that including several forto marry lovebecome more desirable firstandforemost. amicable financial family and/orrelations, stability. Sovietthe it In had environment, learn to love each other some time after living as a couple in exchange for social prestige, membership)Party love. but Additionally, youth the began todesire not stability (which impossibleseemed while outside rolelonger decisions. of concept no inmarriage such aprominent security played economic 266 265 of courtship, andfinally engagement. year another by followed acquaintances, as year one of stages through went relationships of one year requirement aslittle to as two orfour months. Inthe pre-1945 period, the majority SFNo.226. SF No. 54-M. Several new features of marriage in the postwar period emphasized a radical break aradical emphasized period in ofmarriage postwar the newfeatures Several Married Life of Stalinization, period the formed during that marriages anumber of However, The actual length of an engagement also changed, often accelerated from from usual the often accelerated changed, also of length engagement an The actual 266 In the past it was not uncommon for a married couple to 265 David Essig Dueto materialthe of poverty population,the the CEU eTD Collection 271 270 269 268 267 of and workplace. factory environment the the womenmale-dominated to introduced because itbutalso instead ofamother, State mennumerous as becausedefeminising, notonly itresignedbe the children raisedto by the From the social dimension,wife the and Sovietmother fromimposition the home was asagreatinterpreted absenceof success.For families the peasanta was other employment of perceived equality as anamong affront genders to the traditional was seen by family unit. absolutely permitted. was forbiddenabsolutely due tothe differences in social under prestige, Communism itwas even if they decided to start a family. both parents were unableleavingmost working,properly peasants to raise their children postpone having financial children hardshipsdue to in thebecause countryside, and also the family unit. femalemeaning motherhood, and such virtues as courtesy, being in ofmorality guardian the in “lessemotional” considered senseof the in impliedwhat the term period, pre-Sovietthe parents’. possibilitiesinmarriages, disparity addition to andfor adesire companionship,greater financial to for theearlier interviews of accredit Most the before Stalinism. younger than much married was youth at a youngerage at individuals which in that are all agreement married. subjects Almost the people were age as well as the lack of governance by the SFNo.226. SF No. 21-M. SF No. 226, SF No. 21-M, SF No. 72-M. SFNo.226. SFNo.226. For the previously discussed Subject, marrying previously the For discussed Subject, held a woman who also fulltime The other major feature of which major of of marriagefeature newinstitution The other the ageat wasthe 270 However, the majority of the peasant youth that stayed in the village tended to tended in stayed village the youth that peasant majority the of the However, 269 267 271 David Essig 268 In addition, employed women were women employed addition, In CEU eTD Collection 277 276 275 274 unit husband between andand therelationship wife. weakened/distanced family strain of foron periods placedagreatamount employmentthe often reasons, which from instanceslive men were forced to family when and apart were fortheir extended wife only way out was divorce”. out only way the and changed they greatly how out found soon wife the heand both yet, him divorced not had wife if the and, imprisonment] years eight [after home came husband “the 152, No. FileSubject to in According increase rates Hungary. in divorce wasasignificant war, there and psychological. Following World War IIand the long-term imprisonment of prisoners of family. and marriage stability tothe of their elements as destructive secularization and collectivization blaming typically interest, of conflict a than more much separating. couplesdeter from leaving intheway to little a verymatter, not expensive orcomplicated women well men,as “seriousas citing orprofoundcause”. Party through Familythe Lawintroduced Actin 1952.Divorces could nowbe filed by Development”, Tomka, “Social inIntegration 20th Century Evidences Europe: from Hungarian Family the marriage. within The new lawwealth and assigned a fifty-fiftyproperty to claim division or of all recourse property no andboth assets. had Bélawomen the and divorce a whereaspaperwork, under the legal system established in 1867, only male the could filefor 273 living as such is tobeprojected much higher. 1956 was67,000,stressing number the that of womenare not who officially divorced but 272 rates. divorce SFNo.461. SFNo.152. SF No. 72-M. SFNo.152. Inpractice, condition the forrequired adivorce after 1952 was to fill appropriate the out SFNo. 152:Subject speculates that number the of legally indivorced women Hungary in The major causesfor divorce within rural werefinancial,communities ideological, One of the most radical features to accompany marriage reforms was an increase in increase an was reforms marriage toaccompany features mostradical the One of Divorce 274 However, most couples separated for reasons that they asbeing rationalized thatthey reasons for most couples separated However, 272 Journal ofSocial History The process of attaining a divorce itself had changed under the Communist 276 Less extreme, but coincided with the same notion as above, David Essig 35, no.2335. 35, (2001): 273 Additionally, divorces were 275 277 CEU eTD Collection brush their teeth regularly. brush teeth their bathe because daily latter theydidnot often asinadequate the wives, or newly perceived by the Communist Party forcampaign.One female of twothe within Subjects study this noted individualsthat selected higher education often later returned to the villages homes into moving the then back of their parents. and their towards many future, the couplesnoremainreason found often to together, divorcingand as simple, backwards, unkempt, andnolongeras simple, unkempt, backwards, suitable. bread. acquiredifference the daily intheability to money regardlessno they buyingspent their them made of what on, and alcohol thusto one Subject File,people dranksimply becausewas notthere enoughmoney subsistto episodes of despair andapathyduring ofparticular periods financial Accordingcrises. to became a means of escape. For them, the future became quite aimless, which led to 281 280 279 278 alcoholismemergedin that 1950s. the joiningincessant the Party,rampant the to including and wife should to work, whether the cope with to hardships, proceed how the toand how regarding wereoften there arguments any for Party indisallowed such security madeand caseswherepeasants this the realization financialtheir security would be assuredin However,perpetuity. therandomness the of unpredictable. young job would Often seeadvantageous people assume opportunities and SF No. 26-M. SFNo.F-84. SF No. 16-M. SF No. 16-M. The last contributing factor to increased divorce rates was the Party’s was propaganda Party’s the rates increaseddivorce to factor The lastcontributing The financial situation of the peasantry, as mentioned before, was irregular and irregular was before, mentioned as peasantry, the of situation financial The 280 In short, the men that returned to the villages saw their wives their saw villages the to returned that men the short, In David Essig 278 For a portion of the peasant youth drinking 279 As a result of this forlorn attitude 281 CEU eTD Collection this time-consuming interaction, the State imposed itself into the position of intoparental position the of itself imposed State the interaction, this time-consuming children maintainto aduality in and attitude language while outside thehome. Aside from their for need the enforcing while children their into truth own their impress to trying time In an protect theirattempt to parents would childrenandthemselves, the spendconsiderable by Party propaganda impresseduponthem at school,meetings, during andin workplace.the did for toreversetime their have inattempts parents children wasspent thedamage caused family. the against war Party’s Communist the counterbalance model to role positive a in absenceof the particular and much-needed childrearing, children of deprived most family in unit. and fragmentation of traditional the casesa of some divorce, higher rates of (out wedlock), unplannedin pregnancies interaction, resulting every aspect of seeped into 284 283 282 as sexual encounters a means of depravities the of life. everyday escaping also led to a great amount but liberalization theprocess of only in not accelerating interaction resulted protocols of of excesses most notably if inimmoral of activities. secrecy engaged they among the peasanthigh degree a exercise interaction rules of accepted transgressingthe have those severe asto youth, who used so was such activity to attached stigma social the However, marital relations. extra or wasnot marital absent liberalization. period stages infidelity of pre-Soviet of incipient The in the wasalready character traditional whose class a social with collided collectivization, could meet that thedemands workforce ofheavyrank-and-file and industrialization a into peasantry the recreating at aimed which unit, family the war against with a covert SF No. 54-M. SF No. 72-M. SFNo.152. The financial needs of with family,the long combined parents’ the workdays, From From deterioratingfinancial conditions of 1949-1953, the peasantry,the combined Conclusions Chapter David Essig 282 The deconstruction of The of pre-established deconstruction 283 This excess 284 The CEU eTD Collection prevented the process from movingrapidlyprevented theprocess into developed. too excessesthe that have would that constraints thetraditional of free relatively operating program liberalization accelerated unplanned) (or unintentionally the and actions, mentioned previously actions and platform Party intentional the is phenomenon this of dimensions two The peasantry. how deeply the policies of a command economy cut into the social spheres of the Hungarian family. the against war of the rebuking andameans resistance, means passive of a of poverty, experience a common to a response in part Thiswas interests. State’s the superseded community the thebondsof occurred, of conduct rules inorganized breaches newly the where instances the In State. the of material expense needsatthe communal familialand accommodate them to modified the peasants Instead, actsdisappeared. tothese of attached previous stigma the survival. Thereorganization of was values social acceptable andinfact, none an adaptation, children had from avoidedany rhetoric.affects State detrimental their that reassured wholly never were parents of majority the a result, As supervisor. In the broader context, these three areas of examination provide an illustration of illustration an provide of examination areas three these context, broader In the In the countryside, theft became procurement, and lies employed as a means of David Essig CEU eTD Collection positive co-habitation that bridged differences and stereotypes in the face of a shared sense in a shared the faceof stereotypes and differences that bridged positive co-habitation found working class, necessity, interaction inmost and a financial cases this in resulted a from the separated socially once peasant, The norm. became the economy with second the interactingor theft workbecamecliché,and youth. Hard the redefined,among particularly proximity of certain villages to key urban centres. heavyandin industry, in ofvariety ameasurable based resulting degree intensity the on in interests byits urban the regions developing butwas own with affluence, restricted equal inits broad influence, decision the means Party by noof the affect villages managedto all his by that was foreign by directed livelihood a government Althoughdictated a power. higher degree of local exposurein form the meetingsof and anearly inescapable reminder observation. Under theCommunist regime, peasantcontinued the inthisfashion butwith a to resigned local level, generally atthe primarily with politics interacted times peasant the increasedineconomic exposurethrough and reforms social engineering.pre-Soviet In level. ideological both on a material and peasantry the affected deeply andpropaganda collectivization centralize through to agriculture attemptfirst itself andawarethat only adaptation through was their existence continued sustainable. The estrangement from the traditions of the past, indicate atsocialattempts increasing of andtheirawareness incessant an Communists engineering, a stratum of society boththe values, consciousmoral transformed relations, of social regarding concerns common and details to attention Subject’s The peasant. middle and smallholder theHungarian of conditions social and concerns economic major the into insight first-hand significant provides Conclusions, Considerations, andFurther Suggestions Concepts of work and the social value traditionally tied to itwere drastically tied to traditionally value andthesocial of work Concepts The modellife traditional pre-existing involving of peasant politicswas greatly University Columbia by created initially Files Subject the of analysis in-depth An David Essig CEU eTD Collection duality when dealing with the public sphere, in a similar yet spectrally in way yetduality asimilartheir sphere, dealingwith spectrally opposite when public the adapted asbest they could to situationthe itself, itpresented as youth the truly developed a parents While the parents. their of generation the to in comparison divergent, radically most prominently manifested approaches often youth, the within ifnot alternate developing deal consequences forced adivorce. to such as children with unexpected or certain being instances in some and life, in earlier much intimacy in engaging often interaction, ed co- of atmosphere new the embraced in some cases, senseof worth inflated an imbued with youth, life. The theof realities ideology to everyday compared in State contradictions onthe prevalent attempts atre-education and relying to waslimited propaganda of nature Party curb theseemingly destructive to parent the of Theability social activities. from youth Subjects. means The interaction attitudes traditional displayed divergent of and institutions time-consuming and activities, weighedheavily upon conscious’sallthe of the were not. State the against of acts passive resistance whileurban by centres, to a village’s proximity wasdictated socially acceptable behaviour in of changes extent acceptability and the Again,degreeof State. the expenseat the of the Activities consideredonce deplorable, such stealing lying,as became or if vindicated done emphasizing from redefinition youth’s the of work engaging in included secondeconomy the margin a of commercialization,further within it a means making as andnotof as money a rewardin itself. andof Additionally, interacting perspective, from conceptapproached labour a materialist of work, deep-rooted abandoninghis old ways shunningor the new.However, youth, not the possessing the same no time at but subsistence of level basic a achieve to attempting namesake, social new his performedboth of duties theCommunist The peasant-worker of towards State. antagonism The effects of andsocial by engineering Communistthe Party of variety a through bonds household destroy to meant family, the against war The David Essig Weltanshauung to wage supplementing. to CEU eTD Collection 285 small may havepopulation meeting meant that delivery was muchquotas harder but the A population. the with a senseof community developed bureaucracy if Party the especially freely, speak and act to chances apeasant’s improved have isolation would level the of K such as atown In Hungary.escaping of opportunity had agreater employment. Also, Baja’s the Yugoslav proximity haveto border would meantpeasants commute greatof needdistances fordevelopment mill, peasantry’s the a textile limiting to Party through would events organized have a smallweaker due been to population and the ideologically ofinfluence jobs.exercised degree However,the family intowage-earning industry would have been undeniable, aswouldmobilize the need membersto other of the findin ofPécs,approximately employment from needto the centre 60 kilometres urban the age,factors: location, and success. financial amiddle-aged For living peasant inBaja, by three wasdetermined collectivization wave of first the during collectives the outside feasible. not was man” “new constructed ideologically their into their eliminate all remoulding population social pre-existing through practices policies, the youth. the upon system Communist the of ill-effects the asto their of concerns relieved were generation olderthe 1956 in regime the October against raisedhad duringway. their era theCommunist with lost spontaneous the Only uprising believed 152indicated, thegeneration themajority truly population the Subject No. of As phenomenon. this illustrate best that youth the in manifestation its is it values, social and ethicswork be to applied can of duality Although concept the line. from Party the separate meansyet maintain of combating allowed propaganda them alevel individuality to of The lead needparents became theyouth with adouble-life to peasant-workers. provided a SFNo.152 The general character sketch of a small landowner or middle peasant whoremained middle peasant or a landowner sketch small of The general character David Essig 285 Since the Communists could not Ę szeg, in Vas County, inszeg, Vas CEU eTD Collection degree of degree of autonomy in life family the beachieved.could need the However, for thefamily ahigher and lessened was wage-earners unitsfamily of into the fragment need to case, the and cooperative farming local apparatus the where Noble Grape, as the farm such in was a co-operative or market, system worked to onthe theblack goods engaged black inselling performed work, joinedapparatus, the Party benefit of the population.he because it either regime,was under the self-sufficient marginally If abecame peasant If this was the and wealth inmajority meetingpeace loans. delivery his accumulated of to ascribing quotas disgruntled neighbour or the desires of a local Party official. Otherwise, the peasantlost the from a vendetta of a personal account in caseson but rare some by State the usually likelymost he branded theakulak, Communistfinancially stable was takeover, to prior peasant unfolded during andvalues. beenraised have in with traditional accordance the early stages youth the remaining community within much morethe and being influenced by their parents of the of residents such a town as K command economy.social Ifcommunity a peasant benefit the lifea tight-knit of faceof without hardships youth had the the interference, to towas assist necessity and State byeconomic diminished andactions decisions influence theirchildren’s them in thehave moreoccurred trying with greatermuch at a in period earlier their adolescence, andrelationshipswedlock outside would of times. openness andAs transparency.materialized have sex would the opposite interacting with life. of Thechances agricultural was the case With thewithunit in bothfor search financialindustrial work, of benefits escapehardshipsand to of the ability the of the parents to country. of the in than rest the greater much been have would the between peasants reciprocity informal and degree of assistance Financial success seems to have been the guiding factor in how the life of the of life the how in factor guiding the been have to seems success Financial youth,leaving living For thepeasantnear usuallymeant an family centre the urban Ę szeg, isolation would have generated a higher probability isolation ahigher have szeg, probability would generated of David Essig CEU eTD Collection incomplete or followed a different scheme, the social implications varied. In other countries was collectivization where Yugoslavia, and such asPoland countries, In other characters. traditional certain abandon, cases in some and protect, adapt, to forced differently, did react ofsuccess,sotoo levels respectivepopulations the reforms metwith certain in their development,points atdifferent liberalization experiencedand industrialization andEast Central Europe in countries the of number a As traditions. thepast their to economy command Soviet-style extent of social developed reorganizedof under thepopulations the between uniquethe that relationship reorganization varied family unit. of the status sacrosanct the and challenged values, as well. When social inmoral reconstituted depravity, excesses creating process, this balances accelerated certain and cheques asocial lack of the denying that nois there State, one-party the of arrival the begun to had liberalization prior as that program of a rapid canbe these changes interpreted household, replacing tradition and patriarchal with financialroles necessity.While most of opposition to the State. The family unititself became integral to the economic state of the inhisif steadfast more asbefore,not was ideologically soif as inaccessible peasant the remained Politics use. personal for cultivate to permitted he was plot small the meant now was implemented in Hungary. Whilehestill tie astrong retained hisland, landto usually Sovietizationonce life differentway years, of formed quite course 200 of over the appeared a of class, representative as adistinct peasant thepre-Soviet of perpetuation the However, heldviews. several towards traditionally new) attitude altogether sometimes modified (and andattempts atsocial engineering, beingdiminishedin rather population a and with any of the villages, regardless of the level of prosperity. in form unit was nevercompletely to absent supportive andmorally economic a cohesive The specificity of the Hungarian case illustrated throughout this study is indicative is study this throughout illustrated case Hungarian the of specificity The reforms wave of first economic the survived peasantry the picture, broader In the David Essig CEU eTD Collection human condition. In a part of the world that had been overwhelmingly peasant in character peasant overwhelmingly been had that world the of part a In condition. human are but a few studies that social analyzingsuch dekulakization,oppression as or inagricultural trends Thereregions. truly attemptor political development, economic interpreting to devoted tois consistently it studyquantities, the peasantry in ingreat available peasantry tothe are related While studies literature. historical existing the order to understand the century. impactsocial of economic policy atadefiningforchanges moment in Hungary the 20 spheres, the CURPH Communism diminished uncertainties previous within politicalandsocio-economicthe Subject of fall Files the after available records archival the as Just assist writings. in historical element in correctinghuman the of a degree neglecting often documents, official as mainstream as become the previous to remains still it methods, historical interpretations in recent accepted widely more become have methods, of the other locations.transferredAlthough history, to oral through similar created and documents been or migrated since have who those of experiences the omitting studied, they are fromevidence upon garnered thathavepopulations survivedandremainedin location the number of small epochs in a country’s historical such timeline, approaches rely heavily a observing by measured be can trends lasting and continuities While period. time their conditions,to andtrendsinpowerful particularevents, and reconstructing tool preserving a provide CURPHcollection the suchas academics, resources to countries Soviet-controlled perpetuating itsvalues and wayoflife later generations. through from stratum economic that impacting drastically economy, command outside the for such deviantroom no remained there complete, was elements collectivization where Romania, or Albania as such such as small landholders or middle peasants to attempt to live This study brings attention to the under-representation of the peasantry in the of most under-representationbrings This study peasantry attention to the of While limited majority accessibility the by of hadbeen peasant studies the of the David Essig th CEU eTD Collection human condition in every aspect of research. of historical in aspect condition every human perplexing history,but periodalso inHungary’s on needthe include onthe discussion to only potentials the of this collection, andits shed ability light to on a formidable and by plundered is academic the myhopecommunity. It that thisview study brings into not be to yet has that information of source arich undeniably is collection CURPH The ofinformation. sources available all the utilize to duty is theiras it test litmus passa facts must first passinformation, of source unofficial or a factual official asan status its of regardless fact, historical as litmus test. It is as muchbiaspertaining to and accuracy. After all, determining validity the and accuracyof evidence the duty of the historianfirst-hand to ensure the that regarding information historical of sources such allow to discipline the of detriment experiencesthe to is also it positivism, as concepts out-dated such maintaining as discipline the of individualsto adetriment much be as would history economic or political as study historical of fields to remainmodernism, and brought history intoabout-face thecultural While devaluatingturn. such extra-historicala social class that represented, in many cases, over 80 percent of the population.on account towards been directed has not more attention that is strange it centuries, last several the over of concerns The new turn in history has successfully challenged older models such as such models older challenged successfully has history in turn new The David Essig CEU eTD Collection 1; Fejér March 2007). 12 on (accessed at copyright privileges are the sole property of Compare Infobase Limited, 2006. Accessible 286 Appendix: Residences of CURPH Interviewees Somoly The map of Hungary in the appendix is the exclusive property of : 2; Baranya Place of origin – Figure 1 Gy : 1; Ę Szabolc- r-Moson-Sopron : 2; Békés: Szatmár 1 ; Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén Bereg : 3; 286 Hajdú-Bihar : 3; David Essig Vas : 6; : 1; Veszprém Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok : 2; : 1; Budapest Other Maps of WorldMaps of (Romania): 1 : 3; Csongrád : 2; , and all Nógrád : 1; : CEU eTD Collection 287 Hajdú-Bihar Seeprevious footnote. Baranya –Figure 2 Residence Major : 2; : 1; Somoly Budapest : 1; Vas : 7; : 2; Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén 287 Other David Essig : 11(rural: 7; urban:2; other N/A: 2) : 2; Gy Ę r-Moson-Sopron : 3; CEU eTD Collection 1996. Davies, R.W. New York: Oxford University 1986. Press, Conquest, . Conquest, Burke, Peter. Burke, ed. Peter. Burke, Borhi, László. Countryside, 1941-1953 Bokovoy, Melissa. University Press, 1990. Berend, Iván T. 1984. Bell, Peter D. European University Press, 2002. Békés, Csaba. Gyomaendrod: Kner Printing 1986. House, Balogh, Sándor. Aczél, Tamás. Secondary Sources 2006). (accessed November 12, Columbia Press, InterviewingRefugees andProjectsActivities Hungarian for in Research Hungary.Project Columbia University (accessedNovember 12,2006). Hungarian refugee Interviews from1957-1958 Hungary. on Research Project Columbia University 1956. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University, 1956. U.S. Department of the Army, “Hungary: Resistance Activities and Potentials,” January Sources Primary Bibliography . Budapest: Central. Budapest: University,European 2004. History & Social Theory Crisis andProgress intheSoviet Economy,1931-1933. Peasants in SocialistTransition The 1956 Hungarian Revolution: AHistoryThe 1956 inDocuments Hungary in theColdWar, 1945-1956:between theUnitedStates and the Ten YearsAfter The Hungarianeconomic reforms 1953-1988 The History of Hungaryafter the Second World War, 1944-1980. 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