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Social Influence in Computer-Mediated Communication: the Effects of Anonymity on Group Behavior

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Social Influence in Computer-Mediated Communication: the Effects of Anonymity on Group Behavior PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN Postmes et al. / COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION Social Influence in Computer-Mediated Communication: The Effects of Anonymity on Group Behavior Tom Postmes Russell Spears Khaled Sakhel Daphne de Groot University of Amsterdam Two studies examined hypotheses derived from a Social Identity in the interaction between group members who are model of Deindividuation Effects (SIDE) as applied to social anonymous. influence in computer-mediated communication (CMC) in Although most group theories do not explicitly rule groups. This model predicts that anonymity can increase social out the possibility of social influence when group mem- influence if a common group identity is salient. In a first study, bers are unknown to each other or do not physically group members were primed with a certain type of social behavior interact, many of these theories would expect social (efficiency vs. prosocial norms). Consistent with the model, influence to increase as a function of the intensity of anonymous groups displayed prime-consistent behavior in their social contact. For example, the theory of “normative task solutions, whereas identifiable groups did not. This sug- influence” (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955) argues that group gests that the primed norm took root in anonymous groups to a influence depends on social pressure from others and greater extent than in identifiable groups. A second study repli- that this pressure can best be exercised when group cated this effect and showed that nonprimed group members con- members are identifiable, under surveillance, and thus formed to the behavior of primed members, but only when anony- accountable to the group for their responses. Social mous, suggesting that the primed norm was socially transmitted impact theory (Latané, 1981) extends the theory of nor- within the group. Implications for social influence in small mative influence and suggests that social influence will groups are discussed. increase with the “immediacy” of its members (their proximity in space or time). Short, Williams, and Chris- tie (1976) refer to a closely related concept of “social This article is concerned with processes of social influ- presence.” Identifiability, as opposed to anonymity, ence in groups communicating by means of computers. would be expected to enhance immediacy and social A common feature of communication via e-mail and the presence and thus facilitate social influence. Similarly, Internet is the relative anonymity of contact with others, theories of social influence based on interpersonal especially in initial interactions. In two studies, we inves- attraction (Lott & Lott, 1965) or interdependence tigate the effect of visual anonymity on social influence in computer-mediated communication (CMC). In the Authors’ Note: The research of Tom Postmes is supported by a fellow- process, we address basic issues of general concern to ship of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. The au- social psychology and examine the effects of this increas- thors wish to thank Jolanda Jetten, Richard Moreland, Diederik Stapel, ingly popular communication medium. Deriving predic- Garold Stasser, and two anonymous reviewers for their comments on tions from the Social Identity model of Deindividuation earlier drafts and Chick Judd for his methodological advice. Corre- spondence concerning this article should be addressed to the first au- Effects (SIDE) (Reicher, Spears, & Postmes, 1995), we thor, University of Exeter, School of Psychology, EX4 4QG, Exeter, try to show in the first study that anonymity can enhance United Kingdom; e-mail: [email protected]. the influence of a primed norm. The second study in- PSPB, Vol. 27 No. 10, October 2001 1243-1254 vestigates evidence for the transmission of this norm © 2001 by the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc. 1243 Downloaded from psp.sagepub.com at University of Liverpool on October 24, 2016 1244 PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN (Lewin, 1948/1997) of group members suggest that face- ence. We now address a framework that attempts further to-face interaction should strengthen the interpersonal specification of the effects of anonymity within the bonds that transmit social influence, whereas isolation group. and anonymity should weaken them. In summary, in all The SIDE model. The SIDE model (Reicher, Spears, & of these cases, the anonymity of group members might Postmes, 1995) builds on self-categorization theory and be expected, either explicitly or implicitly, to weaken tries to extend it to provide a more detailed analysis of social influence by and within the group. the effects of situational factors such as anonymity on However, consideration of other theories of the social influence processes. The SIDE model acknowl- group in social psychology suggests that anonymity edges that under certain conditions identifiability can might not necessarily undermine social influence. increase accountability and influence behavior. How- Allport (1985) proposed that social psychology was not ever, this generally concerns compliance to the norms of just concerned with the effect of the “real presence” of powerful outgroups to avoid behavior that would other- others on behavior but also with the effects of their wise be sanctioned, rather than referring to true influ- “imagined or implied presence.” Classic research on the ence in the sense of private acceptance (Reicher et al., influence of “reference groups” also showed that we can 1995; Turner, 1991). More generally, in terms of the be influenced by social groups or categories that might power of the ingroup to exert true influence, the SIDE not necessarily be present in situ and to which we might model proposes that when a social identity is already not even belong (French & Raven, 1959; Hyman, 1942). salient (i.e., when people define themselves as members More recently, self-categorization theory (Turner, of a group rather than as individuals), visual anonymity 1987, 1991) has proposed a group-based theory of social can actually enhance group salience and its related effects influence (originally called “referent informational (group identification). Following self-categorization influence”) that does not relate influence to the theory, this should then lead to enhanced social influ- identifiability or surveillance of group members. Rather, ence in line with group norms (Turner, 1987, 1991). social influence is an internal and willing process stem- It is argued that visual anonymity obscures personal ming from a social definition of the self and social valida- features and interpersonal differences and thereby tion of one’s views in relation to the group (Turner, 1987, diminishes the relative importance of interpersonal con- 1991). In these terms, social influence is in the first cerns in favor of a focus on the known or emergent char- instance cognitively mediated by one’s self-categorization acteristics of the group as a whole. Provided a common as a group member, rather than by processes involving identity is available, anonymity thus increases the social contact per se. However, this does not mean that salience of group identity and group identification, social influence is just a “cognitive” matter; the strength thereby enhancing the group’s influence. In sum, of group self-categorization is closely bound up with the according to the SIDE model, anonymity should accen- affective and emotional significance attached to this social tuate the effects of the salient social identity and the self-definition, as measured by constructs such as group dominant normative response associated with it identification. Self-categorization theory indicates that (Reicher et al., 1995). One of the main aims of the pres- social influence should generally increase as a function ent research is to investigate whether anonymity can of group identification or of variables that increase it. actually enhance group influence in CMC, as predicted Although the indicators of group identification can be by the SIDE model, or whether identifiability enhances individually measured, it is not conceptualized as a fixed influence as suggested by the classical theories of group individual difference variable: It should increase with influence referred to earlier. factors that facilitate a shift in self-definition from the It is important to distinguish the SIDE model from personal to the group level of self-categorization deindividuation theory (e.g., Diener, 1980; Zimbardo, (Turner, 1987). 1969). “Classical” deindividuation theory (e.g., Although self-categorization theory does not sug- Zimbardo, 1969) is most relevant here because, like the gest that anonymity in the group should weaken social SIDE model, it is concerned with the effects of anonym- influence, it does not explicitly state that it should ity within the group. It proposes that immersion and ano- strengthen it, either. In fact, it has been argued by some nymity in the group can lead to reduced self-awareness self-categorization researchers that the very copresence (a state of deindividuation), which results in antinor- of others can render the group unit salient and thus mative behavior. With regard to social influence, de- increase group identification and social influence individuation caused by anonymity would therefore (Abrams, Wetherell, Cochrane, Hogg, & Turner, 1990). imply reduced self-awareness and reduced influence of As elaborated further below, this article examines the social norms and standards. The contemporary
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