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AN ETHNOGRAPHY of CANAL ZONE AMERICANS By DIVIDING TO CONNECT: AN ETHNOGRAPHY OF CANAL ZONE AMERICANS by MARILEE ROSE BREWER A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS In THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Master of Linguistics We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard Jamin Pelkey, PhD; Thesis Supervisor Doug Trick, PhD; Second Reader Lori Gardner, MA; Third Reader TRINITY WESTERN UNIVERSITY December 11, 2017 © Marilee Brewer ii Abstract This thesis is a linguistic ethnography of the Americans who moved from the Panama Canal Zone to the U.S. when the Canal was sold to Panama. Theirs was a society of authoritarian socialism, lived beneath the Canal Zone’s official motto: “The Land Divided, The World United.” Close-knit, but wary of outsiders, they called themselves “Zonians.” Upon returning to the United States en masse between 1978 and 1999, they experienced overwhelming nostalgia for the Canal Zone, declaring it a “utopia.” Using Thomas More’s Utopia as a gestalt for the utopian experience, this study compares the features of More’s Utopia with the Panama Canal Zone. In particular, it examines the utopian gesture of dividing from the old to connect to the new, arguing that the image-schematic metaphor of dividing in order to connect is constitutive of Zonian culture at multiple semiotic levels, from the physical transformation of the earth, to the social construction of group identity to everyday practices involving intercultural relations. The author’s fieldwork within the Zonian community in the USA is intertwined with findings from cognitive linguistics and semiotics in order to interpret Zonian language and culture today, exploring the idea of dividing as connecting, from the way that division and connection formed the primary meaning of the Canal, to how these seemingly opposite forces are perpetually reinterpreted by one another until they are fused into a single construct. As a result of researching the Zonian subset of American culture, the themes which emerge shed light on the implications of division as connection, findings which are pertinent to all who are enticed by Idealized Cognitive Models of 'utopia'. iii Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the help and support of many people. To begin with I thank my instructors at Canada Institute of Linguistics and especially my advisor, Jamin Pelkey, who worked patiently with me throughout the long process of this thesis. Jamin saw something good in my writing early in my graduate program, and it was based on that tiny fuse of genuine encouragement that I dared to undertake this thesis. Most importantly, he encouraged a sense of wonder. My second reader, Doug Trick, lent his expertise to improving my penultimate draft. His interest in my project and my work in general over the years continues to inspire me to show the same keen attention to others. I want to thank my third reader, Lori Gardner, who gave me considerate feedback at my thesis defense. As for the research process, the Zonians who welcomed me into their lives and shared their stories with me brought this thesis to life. Joining them for the boisterous festivities that compose their annual reunion meant being included in their community in such a way that I glimpsed the Canal Zone life, albeit geographically removed. I owe a debt of gratitude to my father, Zonian extraordinaire, Caleb Clement, Jr. It was out of curiosity and desire to understand his life that this thesis came to be centered on the Panama Canal Zone, and it was his exuberant energy and willingness to connect me to his Panama that got me started. If it was Caleb who got me started, it was my husband Jonathan Brewer who helped me to finish. Jonathan sat with me through long hours to help me refine my ideas. He encouraged me to dig deeper. He tirelessly edited my drafts to help the process move forward. His optimistic support and companionship are nonpareil. I also thank Coleen and Ervin Starwalt; mentors, linguists, and second parents. My final thanks is to the great Creator. May this project bring you glory, ‘Abba.’ “He reached down from on high and took hold of me; He drew me out of deep waters” (Psalm 18:16, NIV). iv Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents iv 1. Finding the world’s shortcut; the first call: “Panama is a utopia” ........................................................... 1 1.1. Thesis question 3 1.2 Organization 4 1.2.1 Structure ....................................................................................................................................... 4 1.2.2 Scope of the study ........................................................................................................................ 5 1.3 Research philosophy 6 1.3.1 Theory .......................................................................................................................................... 6 1.3.1.1 Cognitive linguistics and semiotics ....................................................................................... 6 1.3.1.2 Defining conceptual metaphor .............................................................................................. 7 1.3.1.3 The utopian gestalt ................................................................................................................ 8 1.3.2 Methodology ................................................................................................................................ 9 1.3.2.1 The ethnographic approach ................................................................................................... 9 1.3.2.2 Research phases .................................................................................................................... 9 1.3.2.3 Sampling ............................................................................................................................. 10 1.4 Literature review 13 1.4.1 Linguistics .................................................................................................................................. 14 1.4.2 Ethnography ............................................................................................................................... 17 1.4.3 History ........................................................................................................................................ 19 1.4.4 Panama writers ........................................................................................................................... 20 1.5 Background 21 1.5.1 The Canal Zone American ......................................................................................................... 21 1.5.2 Zonians today ............................................................................................................................. 24 1.5.3 Author’s interest ......................................................................................................................... 26 1.6 Potential contribution 27 1.7 Conclusion 28 2 Analyzing the metaphor of the canal as a divide ..................................................................................... 28 2.1 Origin of the division metaphor and the official seal of the Canal Zone 28 2.2 The utopian myth: words into worlds 36 v 2.2.1 Defining gestalt .......................................................................................................................... 38 2.2.2 Key features of the utopian conceptual metaphor identified ...................................................... 39 2.3 The gesture of division at the Panama Canal 40 2.3.1 Embodiment: the physical divide ............................................................................................... 40 2.3.1.1 Dying ................................................................................................................................... 42 2.3.1.2. Leaving home ..................................................................................................................... 47 2.3.1.3 Digging ............................................................................................................................... 50 2.3.2 Imagination: The social divide ................................................................................................... 52 2.3.2.1 Gold/silver roll .................................................................................................................... 52 2.3.2.2 Language of division ........................................................................................................... 65 2.4 Conclusion 65 3. Connecting “the world” .......................................................................................................................... 66 3.1 What is being connected? 68 3.1.1 The social connection ................................................................................................................. 73 3.1.2 The emotional connection .......................................................................................................... 74 3.1.2.1 Canal Zone .......................................................................................................................... 74 3.1.2.2 Royal
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