DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 076 821 VT 020 200

AUTHOR Nash, Edmund TITLE Labor in the U.S.S.R. INSTITUTION Bureau of Labor Statistics (DOL), Washington, D.C. REPORT NO BLS-R-414 PUB DATE Oct 72 NOTE 55p.

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29 DESCRIPTORS *Employment Practices; *Foreign Countries; Government (Administrative Body); Labor Economics; *Labor Force; *Labor Unions; Working Women IDENTIFIERS *Soviet Union

ABSTRACT This collection includes 11 articles on labor conditions in the Soviet Union prepared in the Division of Foreign Labor Conditions since 1969. The articles, most of which appeared in the division's monthly publication, "Labor Developments Abroad" and in the "Monthly Labor Review," include: (1) "The Fifteenth Congress of the Soviet Trade Unions,"(2) "Economic and Labor Data for 1971," (3) "Trade Union Functions Extended," (4) "The Party Issues a Decision on Socialist Competition," (5)"Public Employment Office Experiment," (6)"Soviet Labor Policies of the 24th Party Congress," (7) "Purchasing Power of Workers in the Soviet Union," (8)"Migration of Labor in the Soviet Union," (9) "The Status of Women in the U.S.S.R.," (10) "New Disciplinary Measures," and (11) "The International Labor Organization, Yesterday and Today." (SB)

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U 5 DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO OUCEO EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORR, 1NATING 17 POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN IONS STATED 00 NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EOU CATION POSITION OR POLICY 41Ik AS MIL so

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aalLm A' .- U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR James D. Hodgson, Secretary

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Geoffrey H. Moore, Commissioner

October 1972 Preface

This collection includes the moreimportant articles on labor conditions in the Soviet Unionprepared in the Division of ForeignLabor Conditions (DFLC) since the appearance in July 1969 of the previous collection, Labor in the U.S.S.R. in the (BLS Report 358). Mostof thearticles appeared Division's monthly publication, Labor Developments Abroad The first (LDA) and in theMonthly Labor Review (MLR). the article in this collection, "TheFifteenth Congress of Soviet Trade Unions," is published for the first time be- cause LDA, for which it was scheduled, ceased publication steps in with theJanuary 1972 issue, as one of the first the liquidationof the Divisionby the end of June 1972. The last article, "The Soviet Attitudeto the I.L.O.," was prepared in response to a request from the Bureauoe Inter- national Labor Affairs in the Department of Labor. All the articles were preparedby Edmund Nash in the Division of Foreign Labor Conditions. Contents Page

The Fifteenth Congress of the Soviet Trade Unions 1 U.S.S.R. Economic and Labor Data for 1971 8 U.S.S.R. Trade Union Functions Extended 10 U.S.S.R. The Party Issues a Decision on Socialist Competition 13 U.S.S.R. Public Employment Office Experiment 15 Soviet Labor Policies of the 24th Party Congress 17 Purchasing Power of Workers in the Soviet Union 24 U.S.S.R. Migration of Labor in the Soviet Union 31 The Status of Women in the U.S S R 38 U.S.S.R. New Disciplinary Measures 44 The International Labor Organization, Yesterday and Today 45 The Fifteenth Congress of the Soviet Trade Unions

ihe 15th Congress of thu Soviet trade the Government, especially under the unions convened in Moscow March 20-24, economic reformof 1966-68, 2/ and by 1972. TheCongress was attended by the decree of September 27, 1971, which nearly all the 4,925 delegates elected extended the functions of the executive by the country's 25 tradeunions which committee of a trade union local. 3/ --are organized by industry and have over The basic rights and functions of 98 million members. The previous con- Soviet trade unions are defined in gress was held 4 years ago in February- chapter XII of the July 15, 1970 law on March 1968; 1/ but future congresses, the "fundamental principles governing as provided by an amendment to the trade the labor legislation of the U.S.S.R. union constitution adoptedby the 15th and the Union Republics." 4/ In short, Congress, are to be held at 5-year in- the law states that the right of work- tervals, to correspond with the 5-year ers "to associate to form trade unions economic plan periods. is guaranteed by the Constitution of the Takingpart in the Congress as ob- U.S.S.R.": that trade unions elect their servers, in response to invitations, officers, who are protected against ar- were delegations or individuals repre- bitrary action by the management; that senting 137 trade union organizations unions have the right to submit draft in 103 countries and nine international labor laws, and that the unions have organizations, including the Inter- the right to participate in the prepara- national LaborOrganization, the All- tion of State economic development plans African Trade Union Federation, the In- and in the managcatent of production. ternational Confederation of Arab Trade Annual collective agreements are con- Unions, the Permanent Congress of Trade cluded by trade union locals and manage- Union Unity of Workers in Latin America, ment spelling out theirobligations and the World Federation of Trade Unions (the latest available data indicate that (which the Soviet trade unions helped fewer than 20 percent of the locals meet to establish and of which they are the the legal requirements for concluding .largest affiliate). collective agreements). The law also The Congress of Trade Unions is the states that trade unions have the respon- supremeauthorityon trade union mat- sibility for checking on (1) the imple- ters. Between congresses, the All- mentationof labor legislation and in- UnionCentral Council of Trade Unions dustrial safety regulations, and (2) (AUCCIU) implements the policies adopted the adequaCy of housing and other serv- by the last congress, exercises control ices provided to workers. The trade over all trade unionorganizations and unions administer the State social se- activities, and collaborates with the curity system. Government on matters, concerning labor. Despite these legal provisions, Soviet Nature of Soviet trade unions trade unionsare notfree and inde- pendent unions in the western sense. No As at previous congresses, the speeches independent trade union localmay be and reports of Communist Party and trade formed outside the existing hierarchical union leaders at the 15th Congress indi- trade union system. No trade union may cated that Soviet trade unions are as- declare a strike. The tradeunions do signed clearly defined functions to not bargain with management for higher further not only workers' welfare but wages, longervacations, or shorter also the ideological and economic aims hours of work because these are fixed by of the State. During recent years, law; trade unions merelycheck on the these functions have been increased by proper applicationof the laws dealing

1 2 LABOR IN THE U.SS.R.

with these matters. However, because The credentials committee of the 15th trade union membershipbrings special Congress reportedconcerning the 4,925 benefits, only in unusual circumstances delegates that 61.9 percent wereCom- do workers fail to become members. For munist Party members or candidates for example, a trade unionmember is en- membership (Partymembers constitute titled to highersocial insurance pen- only about 15 percent of ...he unionmem- sions and haspreference in receiving bership), 57.9 percent had been elected passes to health resorts and sanatoriums. for the first time, 50.3 percent were His children have priority in being ac- manual workers, 40.2 percent were women, cepted in nurseries and summer camps. 3,012 had been rewarded with medals and Union dues rangefrom about 0.7 to 1.0 other decorations, 2,402had been awarded percent of earnings; the higher rate the title, "Shockworkerof Communist applies to earnings above70 rubles Labor," 700 represented agricultural (US$84) a month.Every wage and salary workers, 18'.* represented scientific earnerin an enterprise, including the workers, 113 were managersof enter- manager, is eligible rfor union member- prises, and 32 were chairmen of collec- ship. tive farms. 9/

Trade union statistics Trade union historical background

Since the average number of wage and The trade union movement, which barely salary earners 'in 1971 was 92.7 mil- survived under the tsars, first re- lion 5/ and the announced trade union ceived legal recognition in Russia dur- membership is "over 98 million," it ing the Revolutionof 1905, when the would appear that collectivefarmers tsarist government was engaged in a and students account for much more than losing warwith Japan. By 1907, trade the 5.3 milliondifference, since not union membership grewto 245,334, but all wage andsalary earners areunion government repression had begun, so that members (just 96.3 percent were members membership declined to 35,000 in 1910 on July 1, 1967).6/ Everycollective and to about 5,000 on January 1, 1916. farm now has a trade union local, com- After the overthrow of the tsarist gov- prising mechanics and agricultural ernment on February 28, 1917, membership specialists; "about 3 million" collec- rocketed to 1.5 millionby July 1917, tive farmers are union members. 7/ (The and when the first all-RusSian Trade annualaverage number of collective UnionCongress met in January 1918, farmers in 1971 was 16.5 million.) nearly3 months after the Communist Directly under the controlof the (Bolshevik) seizure of power, there were AUCCTU are the 25 central committees of 2.6 million members. 10/ At this Con- the 25 Soviet trade unions. There are gress, the Bolshevikscontrolled the about 2,000 regional unioncommittees, majorityof _ne delegates and gained 19,000city union committees, and permanent control of the union movement. 646,000 union locals (each local has 15 Some freedom of debate and action per- members or more). Where fewer than 15 sisted in the unionsbut vanished in unionmembers are in au establishment about a yearafter the introduction in (or any subdivision thereof), a "group" 1928 of the first of the 5-year plans. may beorganized under a shopsteward ("grouporganizer"); there were over Basic purpose of the Congress 1,800,000 "groups" in 1968. Most of the trade union activityis now carried on SpeechesofPartyand trade union by nearly 36 million volunteer work- leadersmade it clear that the main ers. 8/ purpose, of the 15th Congress, as of FIFTEENTH CONGRESS OF THE TRADE UNIONS previouscongresses, was to stimulate for the further development of industry the trade unions to activate workers to and agriculture, forraising.thematerial maximize and improveproduction. Spe- standards of livingof the people, and cifically, the delegates were exhorted foreducating the working people ac- by Party and union leaders to do all in cording to Communist principles." He their power to _implement the economic called upon workers andmanagement to growth and labor policies adopted by the increaseby all means their efforts to 24th Communist Party Congress (March 30 fulfill the economic plans decided upon to April 9, 1971). 11/ The primary task by the Party and theGovernment. In of the trade unionorganizations, it this connection,he said it would be was emphasized at the 15th Congress, is necessary to have stricter enforcement to promote the further development of of labor discipline, wider use of mate- the nationaleconomy through the suc- rial and moral incentives to increase cessful fulfillment of the ninth 5-year production, greater promotion by unions EconomicPlan (1971-75). In its reso- of socialist competition in production lutions, this Congress alsocalled for amongworkers and groupsof workers, the continuous improvement of (a) work- and faster introductionof new tech- ing and living conditionsand (b) the nology into the production process. services and administrative functions He said that the Party places high de- of trade union bodies. mands on the Communists elected to trade union posts and expects them to perform Proceedings of the Congress their trade union functions energeti- cally. He repeated the traditional Alexander Shelepin, chairmanof the Party line stressed at the 24th Con- AUCCTU, opened tne Congressby wel- gress that the Party will continue to coming (1) the top Party-and Government increase trade union responsibilities leaders (who upon arrival were applauded and see to it that the trade unions and unanimously designated delegates of worthily perform their role as "schools the 15th Congress), (2) the delegates, of government, schoolsof management, and (3) the foreignobservers. The and schools of communism."He announced Congress then unanimously elected its that the Order of Lenin, the highest in various committees and commissions (in- the U.S.S.R., had been conferred on the cluding an honorary presidium [executive tradeunions in recognitionof their committee] of the Congress, made up ex- "greatservices" in "the successful clusivelyof membersof the Politburo fulfilment"of the eighth 5-year plan [ political bureau] of the Communist [1966-70] for the development of the Party), and approved thefollowing order national' economy. The second half of of main business: his speech was devoted to Soviet foreign policy. 1. Considerationof AUCCTUss report The message sent to the Congress by of its activities since the 1968 Con- the Central Committeeof the Communist gress. Party covered the same ground as 2. Consideration of the report of the Brezhnev, but briefly: primarily it Central Auditing Commission. exhorted trade unions to increase their 3. Electionof theAUCCTU and the political ideological activity and to Central Auditing Commission. improve their work in promoting produc- tion and working and living conditions. Brezhnev speech. Before the main business was taken up, Leonid Brezhnev, The AUCCTU report. Beforebeginning First Secretary of the Communist Party, his report 12/on the major results of delivered a speech in which he stressed the 4 yearsof activity of the AUCCTU the point that the 24th Party Congress and on trade union policies for the last year had approved "a broad program future, Chairman Shelepin thanked 4 LABOR IN THE 9.S.S.R.

Brezhnev for his speechand promised branches of the national economy. He that in response to the party's concern indicated three majorgoals: (1) the and attention, and the award of the promotion.of the full useof economic Order of Lenin, the trade unions "will reserves (labor, materials, and equip- work still better, increasing their ment), of acquired production and opera- energy with every passing day in the tional experience, and of new scientific struggle to realize the magnificent and technological advances; (2) the in- plans for building a Communist society culcation in workers of the "Communist outlined by the 24thParty Congress." attitude towardwork," so as to in- He spoke of the Soviet trade unions as crease laborproductivity and to ful- acting"under the leadership of the f ill productionplans; and (3) the im- Communist Partyand its Leninist Cen- provement of the trade union functional tral Committee." organization (including the selection In reviewing the major improvements and trainingof personnel), so as to in working and living conditions of the enableunion locals to be more effec- Soviet people during thepast 4 years, tive in their ideological, educational, Shelepin admitted that much more needed safety, and production-promoting activi- to be doneby the trade unions. His ties (among the last-mentioned he in- recommendations and related statements cluded the supervision of socialist constituted mostof the AUCCTU report competition amongworkersandthe holding and, since they were confirmed in asub- of workers" productionconferences in sequent resolution of the Congress, are individual establishments). summarized in the following section. In the field of workers° welfare, Shelepincalled upon union locals to Current trade union policies. Shele- checkon the implementationof work pin began his discussion of current safety regulations, and on the avail- trade union policieswith broad state- ability and quality ofconsume-r services. ments echoing the party line: "The In stressing the ideological-educa- attention of the Party, theSoviet State, tional tasks of the trade unions, Shele- and the trade unions is centered on con- pin said that "the party has delegated cern for the Soviet man. At all stages an important role to the trade unions in the great construction of aCom- in resolving the historic task of shap- munist society everything possible has ing the new man." In line with the de- been done to improve the life of the cisions of the 24th Party Congress, the Soviet people." He said that this was trade unions "are called upon to render confirmed by the 24th Party Congress all-round and active assistance to the when it set as themain task of the Communist Party in shaping a communist ninth 5-year planL1971-75j "to secure world outlook in the broadest working a considerable rise in the material and masses." The trade unions are also cultural level of living on the basis called upon "to continue to educate the of high development'rates in socialist trade union aktiv (unpaidvolunteer production, increased efficiency ofpro- workers) in a spirit of high responsi- duction, scientific and technicalprog- bility for the implementationof party ress, and accelerated growth in labor and government directives and the de- productivity." He reviewed the pro- cisions of trade unionorgans." He visions in the ninth 5-year planto in- said it was necessary for trade unions crease the real income of Soviet workers, to check more diligently on the enforce- pensioners, and others. 13/ ment of labor discipline in cases in- The bulkof Shelepings report de- volving drunkenness, loafing on the job, scribed what should be done by the trade and theft of government property, and unions to promote greater and more ef- to concern themselves more with the or- ficient production oroperation in all ganization of cultural and physical FIFTEENTH CONGRESS OF THE TRADE UNIONS

activities for workers in their leisure Soviet Union,and will continue to be time. loyal and closest helpersof the party As at the previous congress, Shele- in the great work of building communism pin called for the strengthening of the in our country." unityof the working class throughout the world, especially through the World The Auditing CommissionReport. 14/ Federationof Trade Unions (which, he The Central Auditing Commissionchecks said, had increased its membership to on the expenditure of trade union funds, 154 million in 1971, compared with the including state social insurance funds, approximately 50 million membership of and on the fiscal management of a wide the International Confederation of Free networkof trade union cultural insti- Trade Unions), and echoed the party's tutions, sport facilities, sanatoriums, attack on the "aggressive policy of and other organized activities. Its re- imperialism," especially in theareas port claimed that trade union organized around Vietnam and Israel. He said that activities reached a new high level in ideological differences were not an ob- the 4-year period after the previous stacle to the cooperationof national congress, as indicated by a more than trade unions or of international federa- 40-percent increase in trade union budget tions of trade unions in improving the expenditures. Two-thirds of these ex- welfare of workers, and called for the penditures arecovecedby union dues, conveningof an Ail-Europe conference and the remaining third by income de- of national trade unions regardless of rived from trade union activities, in- their ideologies, to consider major cluding the showing of motion pictures questionssuch as military aggression, and sales of trade union publications. hunger, environmental pollution, the The trade union budget on the national consequences to workers of the scien- level has to be approvedby a plenary tific-technical revolution, and the meeting of the AUCCTU; budgets of trade ways to achieve social progress and union committees (or councils) on the lasting peace. He said the Soviet trade republics and regional level are ap- unions were maintainingcontactwith proved by these committees (or councils). trade union organizations_in 166 coun- The report stated that in the past 4 tries, including many which were members years over 5 billion rubles (US$6 bil- of the ICFTU and the World Federation lion) had been expended by trade unions of Labor. for cultural and recreational activi- The Congress, responded to the report ties, but that some union committees and on the AUCCTU activities by passinga councils had failed to spend the funds resolution which covered almost twofull allotted to them for these activities. pages in Trud. The resolutioncon- State social insurance expenditures firmed chairman's report and his recom- had increased 46.7 percentduring the mended policies concerningtrade union past 4 years, the commission reported, activities in the futureat home and and had amounted to 64.7 billion rubles abroad. It praised theCommunist Party's (about US$78 billion). Thecommission concern to improve the welfare of the charged, as did the previous commission people and asked the AUCCTU to help the 4 years ago, that chairmenof factory Communist Party in promoting Communist trade unioncomitteefrequentlyviolated ideology among the workers by means of the rules governing the distribution of the tradeunion.press and thevarious passes to rest homes and sanatoriums by other trade union cultural facilities. bypassing the union local's social in- The resolution stated that the trade surance commission and arbitrarily as- unions "will more closely rally their signing such passes. ranks around the Leninist Central Com- As aconsequence of theCommunkit mitteeof the Communist Partyof the Party's September 1967 decision calling 6 LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R.

for more attention to workers° letters securitysystem involving collective of complaint, requests, or suggestions, farmers. the AUCCTU received in the past 4 years 3. Trade union councils may be created 202,000 letters and communications (com- in cities or municipal districts to co- pared with 277,000 in the 6 months pre- ordinate and guide the work of locals ceding the 14th CongressIn 1968). belonging to different unions,and to AUCCTU representatives were sent to work give legal assistance to union members. places to checkon the most serious of 4. A summary statement on the extended these complaints. An analysis of all functions of the executive committee of the complaintsreceived indicated the a trade union local was added to the need to improve the availability of constitution. 16/ legal advice to workers, especially 5. The national tradeunion congress through the trade union locals. will be held once every 5 years. The Commission reported that it was necessary to continue the improvement Other actions. The Congress approved of the workof auditing commissions amessageexpressing -gratitude and checking on; the financial activities of loyalty to the Central Committee of the trade union bodies. These commissions Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and have about 2 million elected members promising to improve the workof the working without pay. trade unions in the task of encouraging all workers to greater production and Election of officers. TheCongress dedicatedsupport of Communist Party unanimously elected a 369-member All- policies. It also sent a message to the Union Central Council of Trade Unions World Federation of Trade Unions, wishing and a 63-memberCentral AuditingCom- the lattercontinued growthand suc- mission. TheAUCCIU, at its first cess. The Congress approved statements plenary meeting on March 24, elected a condemning (1) the useof armed forces 33-member presidium; Shelepin, who has and thedetentionof "political pris- held this office sinceJuly 11, 1967, oners" in Northern Ireland, and (2) was reelected Chairman. "the aggressivepolicy of the ruling circles in Israel against the peoples Constitutional amendments. 15/ Of the of Arab stateswith the direct support amendments, grouped in 10 paragraphs, of USA imperialism and the international made to the Constitution of the Trade forces of Zionism." It also adopted a Unions of the U.S.S.R., the more impor- unanimous resolution calling for an end tant ones included or provided for the of "the American war of aggression" in following, in summary: Indochina.

1. "The U.S.S.R. trade unions direct Disciplined unanimity. The proceed- their work to the uninterrupted increase ings at the congress appear to have gone in the effectiveness of social produc- smoothly. AllCongress actionswere

tion . . ." They strive to improve approved unanimously. The AUCCTU re- livingand workingconditions.They port was discussed for 4 daysby 43 establish and maintaincontactswith speakers (each was allowed 15 minutes). trade unions in othercountries, re- Most of the speakers discussed the suc- gardless of the social, ethnic, politi- cess of their enterprises in fulfilling cal, or religious characterof these production plans, and the work of their unions. tradeunions in improving living and 2. The AUCCIU in addition to its right workingconditions. The monotonyof to initiate labor legislation may issue the Congressappears to have been re- instructions clarifyingexisting labor lievedsomewhat by the appearanceon law; it also supervises the social the third day of a group of young voca- FIFTEENTH CONGRESS OF THE TRADE UNIONS 7 tional students representing the Moscow 7/ Trud [Laborj, Soviet trade union trade schools, and on the fourth day, daily, March 21, 1972, p. 7. of agroupof pioneers (boy and girl 8/ Sovetskie Profsoyuzy (Scviet Trade scouts).Each groupgreeted .the Con- Unions, a semimonthly), No. 5, March gresswith the recitation of a long 1972, p. 6. poem (thatof the pioneers had about 9/ Trud, March 22, 1972, p. 2. 200 lines, and that of the trade school 10/ 0. Rozenfeld,Istoriaprofessional- students, about 150 lines). nogo dvizheniya v Rossii [The History of the Trade Union Movement in Russiaj, 1/ For discussion, see "The Four- Moscow, 1924, pp. 41-43 and 67. teenthCongressof theSovietTrade 11/ For discussion, see "Soviet Labor Unions," in Laborin the U.S.S.R. (BLS Policiesof the 24th PartyCongress," Report 358, 1969, pp. 16-22). in Labor Developments Abroad, September 2/ For discussion, see "The Economic 1971, pp. 6-12. Reform and its Labor Aspects in the 12/ Thecomplete report is given in U.S.S.R.," in Labor Developments in the Trud, March 21, 1972, pp. 4-8. U.S.S.R. (BLS Report 311, 1966, pp. 1 -9). 13/ For discussion, see Soviet Labor 3/ For discussion, see"U.S.S.R. Trade Policies in the 24th Party Congress, in Union Functions Extended," in BLS Labor DevelopmentsAbroad, September monthly, Labor Developments Abroad, 1971, pp. 6-12. January 1972, pp. 5-7. 14/ A shortened version of this report 4/ The text appears in "Vedomosti is printed in Trud, March 21,1972, p. 8. VerkhovnogoSoveta SSSR" [Register of 15/ The complete textof the decision the SupremeSoviet of the U.S.S.R.J, on amendments to the trade union consti- July 22, 1970,No. 29, Text 265. A tution appears in Trud, March 25, 1972, translation in English appears in Mos- p. 4. For the basic provisions of the cow News, Supplement to Issue No. 31, constitution, see Principal Current 1970, and in the International Labour Soviet LaborLegislation (BLS Report Office'sLegislativeSeries, 1970-- 210, 1962, pp. 112-119); also subsequent USSR'. amendments (BLS Report 358, 1969, p. 5/ Pravda, Communist Partydaily, Jan. 22). 23, 1972, p. 2. 16/ For discussion, see " U.S.S.R. Trade 6/ EkonomicheskayaGazeta[Economic Union Functions Extended," in BLS Gazettej, Moscow weekly, No. 10, March monthly, Labor Developments Abroad, 1968, p. 5. January 1972, pp. 5-7. U.S.S.R. Economic and Labor Data for 1971 The 1971 economic report of the Union rate of growth in output of consumer of Soviet Socialist Republics claims goods exceeded that of capital goods, that the country achieved all its main as planned. Data on the volume of pro- goals for economic production and social duction of selected consumer and capital welfare as set forth in the-state plan goode n in table 1. for 1971. The report acknowledges, how- Th 9, Is to have been a decline ever, that productionof some consumer in per capita food production; no in- goods--washing machines, television crease in agricultural output was re- sets, sugar, fish, and cheese--fell be- ported although population increased by low the 1970 levels. 2.4million. In agriculture, adverse The percent increase over 1970 in weather conditions were blamed for the selected economic and social indicators shortfalls in production in various is shown in the following tabulation: areas. The average number of wage and salary Percent earners in 1971 was 92.7 million, up increase, 2.5 million over 1970. At the end of 1970-71 1971, there were over 970,000 scien- National income, used for tific workers (among whom are counted consumption and accumula- workers in the social sciences, arts, tion 6.0 and letters). Monthly cash earnings of Industrial output 7.8 all wage and salary earners averaged Capital goods 7.7 126 rubles (US$152), 3.3 percent higher Consumer goods 7.9 than in 1970 and above the planned in- .0 Agricultural output crease of 2.8percent. According to Labor productivity in the report, government expenditures for industry 6.3 free consumer services and other bene- Number of wage and salary fits raised average monthly income to earners 2.8 170 rubles (US$205). Per capita real Average monthly earnings of income rose 4.5 percent during 1970-71, wage and salary earners 3.3 less than the 5.2-percent rise in 1969- Per capita real income 4.5 70. Personal savings in banks con- Retail, trade turnover 7.0 tinued to grow, increasing in 1971 by Consumer services 12.0 6.6 billion (US$8 billion) to a total Children enrolled in pre- of about 53 billion rubles (US$64 bil- school establishments 2.4 lion). At the endof 1970, there were Students enrolled in 80 million personal savings accounts, secondary specialized comparedwith 73 million in 1969; the schools .8 economic report gave nofigure for 1971. College level students .4 The increased savings could indicate The 6-percent increase in national the continued inability of many Soviet income--defined by Soviet economists as citizens to purchasedesired durable the net valueof goods and productive goods, such as refrigerators and auto- services, including turnover tax--was mobiles. smaller than the 8.5-percent increase While the retail sales of state and in 1970. The report stated that more cooperative outlets increased (in com- than four-fifths of the increase in na- parable prices) 7.0 percentover 1970, tional income was accounted for by an the demand for many consumer goods was increase in labor productivity. For not satisfied. Although the volume of the fourth year in succession the annual consumer services increased 12 percent 8 ECONOMIC AND LABOR DATA 9

Table 1. Production of selected commodities in the Soviet Union, 1971

Percent change Commodi,y Production, 1971 1970-711969-70

Steel 121 million metric tons 4 5 Coal 641 million metric tons 3 3 Crude oil 372 million metric tons 7 7 Electric power 800 billion kilowatt tons 3 7 Cement 100.3 million metric tons 5 6 Paper 4.4 million metric tons 5 3 Trucks, buses, and passenger cars 1,142.7 thousand 25 8 Passenger cars 529.0 thousand 54 17 Tractors 472 thousand 3 4 Cotton fabrics 6,397 million square meters 4 -0.9 Woolen fabrics 675 million square meters 5 4 Leather footwear 679 million pairs 0.5 6 Clocks and watches 42.1 million 5 6 Radios and radio-phonographs. 8.8 million 13 8 Television sets 5.8 million -13 1 Household refrigerators 4.6 million 10 12 Household washing machines 4.1 million -23 2 Motorcycles and scooters 872 thousand 5 2 Meat 13.1 million metric tons 7 5 Granulated sugar 9.0 million metric tons -12 -1 Canned foods 11.3 billion cans 5 10

Source: Pravda, January 23, 1972, p. 1. in monetary terms, available services technical schools added 1.7 million continued to be inadequate, especially trained workers to the laborforce. in rural areas. The report stated that During 1971, about 19 million persons plans to put new consumer service shops increased their skills while on the job. into operation were not fulfilled in In industry and construction, many many cities and throughout enterprises fell shortof their goals the country. for increased production; many also About the samenumber of new apart- failed to reduce productioncosts, to ments and single - family homes werebuilt improve quality; and to offer an ade- in,1971 as in 1970 (2,300,000 compared quate assortment of products. In trans- with 2,280,000). As a result of this portation, the problem of idle freight and the improvement of old housing,, the cars continued because enterprises were report stated, some 3 millionfamilies, slow in loading and unloading them. or 11.2million persons, experienced As in previous years, the press has better housing conditions. continued its perennial campaign against About 1.8 million students, or 6 per- productionshortcomings by exhorting centmore than in 1970, graduated as managements of enterprises strictly to professionals and technicians from enforce labor discipline, to use man- college-level and secondary specialized powerand materials economically, and schools (about 39 percent of them gradu- to imtroduce into their enterprises the ated from college-level schools). In latest scientific and technological de- addition, the secondary vocational velopments. 10 LABOR IN THE US.S.R.

U.S.S.R.Trade Union Functions locals are authorized to participate 6- Extended. a greater degree in the preparation and execution of plans relating to produc- The Supreme Soviet of the U.S.S.R. tion, higher labor productivity, and decreed a revised and enlarged statute the improvement of working and living on the "rights" (functions) of the conditions. 4/ In spelling out specific executive committee .of a tt,..de union functions of trade union executive com- local on September 27, 1971. 1/ The new mittees, the new statute emphasizes the statute, "Statute of Rights of the Fac- increased responsibility of local union tory, Plant, and Local Trade Union Com- leaders and members in realizing the replaces the '1953 statute mittee," day-to-day effectiveness of these func- which, in turn, revised the 1925 stat- tions. ute. 2/ Details-concerning the imple- The functions of the executive com- mentation of the statute are to be worked mittee havebeen reorganized and ex- out by the All-Union Central Council of panded, so that the 17 clausesof the Trade Unions and approved by "the appro- 1958 statuteare replaced by 31 more priate (Government) ministries and de- precise clauses. Although the Soviet partments." labor press did not spell out changes According to the Soviet trade union in the revised statute, a comparison of daily Trud ("Labor," September 30, the statutes indicates the following 1971), the executive committees of trade new functions of the local union execu- union locals constitute the foundation tive committee, mostly in collaboration of all Soviet trade unions, and the with management: (1) the distribution success of trade unions in the fulfill- of funds derived from enterprise profits mentof tasks assigned to them by the for workers' bonuses and for construction party depends on the effective function- projects involving housing and cultural - ing of these committees. Anexecutive recreationfacilities; (2) examination committee is electedby secret ballot and approval of any major production re- at a general meeting; the meri6ership of organization plan involving the transfer the committee depends on the number of of personnel; (3) approval in advance union members in the enterprise. For of safety and sanitary conditions in a fewer than 15 union members, the local yew enterprise workshop; (4)supervision elects .a steward ("union organizer") of working and living conditions of for al-year term to perform basic trade young workers; and (5) sponsorship of a union functions. 3/ Committees have the drive to instill among workers a com- right to present to economic and gov- munist attitude toward work. (According ernmental bodies proposalson ways to to Pravda, September 30, 1971, a worker improve production and working and who has such an attitudewill "feel living conditions; these bodies, more- responsible for the fulfillment of [pro - over, must report to the committees ductionJ plans and obligations, and will concerning the proposals. be intolerant of economic waste and vio- lations of discipline.") Generalcharacteristics of the 1971 statute. The new statute reflects pri- Summary of provisionsof 1971 statute. marily the changes in the activity of The statute, as revised, empowers the enterprises and trade unionexecutive executive committee in representing the committees which havedeveloped during workers of an enterprise to make and en- the 8th economic plan period (1966-70), force a collective agreement with manage- whena newsystem of planning and of ment on matters relating to (1) produc- incentives was introduced. Under the tion, (2) working conditions, and (3) new system, enterprises exercise in- services to workers. Committee members creased authority in making independent and workers at the enterprise are pro- decisions on production, and trade union tected from arbitrary transfer or dis- TRADE UNION FUNCTIONS EXTENDED IL missal; full-time committee members have ized by thecommittee in exceptional job reinstatement rights. cases. The committee required to (1) Promotion of production. The check on the applicationof (1) safety executive committee is expected to in- and sanitary regulations, especially duce workers to participate in the in new production units, and (2) health management of production by suggesting laws designed to protectwomen and various ways to increase efficiency in youll4 workers. general meetings, productionmeetings, (3) Services to workers. The statute and economic conferences. The com- imposes upon the enterprise'sunion mittee is to collaborate with management committee responsibilityfor the pro- in preparing programs, including plans vision and expansion of various services for the introductionof new production to workers, including housing,dining techniques and capital facilities. rooms, child-care, culture, recreation, The committeemust collaboratewith and medical attention. Thecommittee managementin the promotionof higher checks on the properexpenditure by labor productivity, especially by spon- management of funds for equipment, soringsocialist competition among maintenance, andoperation of educe- workersand groups of workers. 5/ tilnal, recreational, and other service Workers are encouraged to maximize their facilities of the enterprise.The com- production, to invent and innovate, to mittee supervises the operation of reduce absenteeism, and to economize in dining rooms in the enterprise, and the consumption of materials. The com- determines the prices ofmeals and mittee mustcooperatewith management hours of operation. Jointly with manage- in settingup rules for the distribu- ment, the committee prepares a priority tionof bonuses and other rewards to list of workers eligible for new hous- highlyproductiveworkers and in the ing. allocationof special enterprise funds The committee administers social se- for workers' housing and other social curity and determines the amount of each and cultural purposes. pension and allowance, issues passes to (2) Workingconditions. Nearlyall rest homes and sanitariums, sends cork - managementdocuments and regulations ers' children to summercamps, and relating to working conditions must be checks on medical services available. approvedby the enterprise's union The committee has the right to re- committee. Thesedocuments include questprogress reports on consumer listsof (1) job classifications, (2) services and production programs in the wage scales (both for time and piece- collective agreement. Whenmanagement`" work), (3) production quotas for work- fails to fulfill its obligations, the ers (with lowerquotas foryounger committeemay demand the dismissal of workers, 15 to 17 years of age), (4) the executives at fault. Management hazardous and arduous jobs with a must consult with the committee in the shorterworkday, (5) jobs entitling appointment of new executives. workers to free work clothing, and (6) jobs entitlingworkers to specified 1/ For the full textof the statute, quantities of free milk or other foods. see Trud ("Labor," the Soviet trade With the committee's approval, man- union daily), September 29, 1971, p. 2. agement allocates the enterprise's AnEnglish translation is given in laborforce according to the estab- Moscow News, Supplement to issue No. 42, lished scheduleof work shifts, and October 23-30, 1971. determines the schedules of workers' 2/ For a comparisonof the 1925 and annualvacations. When practicable, 1958 statutes, see "Extension of Trade workers mayperform two jobs simul- Union Functions in the Soviet Union," taneously. Overtimeand work on the LaborDevelopments Abroad, December worker's weekly days off may be author- 1958, pp. 1-3. - 12 LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R.

3/ For adiscussionof Soviet trade see "The Economic Reformand its Labor unions, see "The Fourteenth Congress of Aspects in the U.S.S.R.," in Labor De- the Soviet TradeUnions,"in Labor in velopments in the U.S.S.R. (BLS Report the U.S.S.R. (BLS Report358, 1969), 311, 1966), pp. 1-9. pp. 16-22; also for duties of the union 5/ For a discussion of socialist com- steward, see Principal Current Soviet petition, see "U.S.S.R. New Party De- LaborLegislation (BLS Report 210, cision on Socialist Competition," Labor 1962), p. 119. Developments Abroad, November-December 4/ For adiscussion of thenew system, 1971, pp. 2-4. THE PARTY ISSUES A DECISION ,...- 13 U.S.S.R. The Party Issues a Decision on creative activity by rank-and-file Socialist Competition. workers in socialist competition, from the operationof which "elements of On September 5, 1971, the Central formalism and bureaucratic distortion" Committee of the Communist Party of the must be eliminated. Certain short- Soviet Unionpublished its decision, comings need to be remedied: Many party "On the Further Improvement of the Or- and tradeunion bodies havenot paid ganization of Socialist Competition." 1/ sufficient attention to socialist compe- The Committee declared that achievement tition in light of technological prog- of this goal is most important for im- ress; "a number" of enterprises in in- plementing the country's economic and dustry, construction, and transporta- sociopolitical development. This pro- tion have given only "weak" encourage- gram wasapproved earlier in 1971 by ment to competition to discover and use the 24thCongress of the Communist hidden reserves; and "serious short- Party. 2/ comings" have occurred in the payment Under socialist competition, workers of incentive rewards and in the dissemi- or groups of workers compete to increase nation of new experience gained in com- the volume, improve the quality, and petition. lower the costsof production. At The new partydecision presented an present, about 74 millionof the coun- 8-pointprogram to improve socialist try's 93 million wage and salary earners competition: participate. Such competitionis en- couraged by material rewards and moral (1) The working people of the U.S.S.R. awards such ashonorary titles and news- most be ebbilized to increase produc- paper publicity. tion, improve the qualityof products, Competition has been part of the Soviet and lower costs. In industry, new economic system from its earlyyears. technologyandmore efficient methods of On September 8, 1971, Pravda cited V. I. production must be introducedfaster. Lenin (1370-1924), whom it called the In agriculture, steps mustbe taken to leader of the 1917 socialist revolution, improve the soil scientifically, and to as declaring the promotion of socialist make better usecf farm manpowerand competition to be a main taskof the equipment. Consumer servicesmust be Communist Party andof the Soviet re- concentrated administratively in a sep- gime. The partynow describes so- arate economic sectorand increased in cialist competition as a mass patriotic volume and quality. movement, guided by the "Leninist prin- (2) The workers themselvesmust de- ciples of its organization--publicity, velop socialist competition on a demo- comparability of results, and the possi- cratic basisaccording to Leninist bility of duplicating the experience." principles. Workers must beencouraged Pravda callssocialist competition a by material, and especially moral, in- tested meansof educatingworkers in centives. They must be instilled "with the Communist way, that is, of "forming the spiritof the communistattitude such traitsof the Sovietman as high toward work and public property." (The awareness, deep understandingof the communistattitude is exemplified by problems involved in the building of a the worker who strives to overfulfill Communist society, and a sense of per- his productionquota, respects factory sonal responsibilityfor bringing com- property, andobserves labor disci- munism into being." 3/ pline.) Everyworkermust be taught In itsSeptember 1971 decision, the to love his collective (group of work- Central Committee increased demands on ers), to help his fellow workers, and party, citycouncil, tradeunion, and to have a feeling of professional pride Komsomol (Communist youth) organiza- and a responsibilityfor the good name tions, as well as on management. To of his factory trademark. bring about an upsurge of initiative and (3) CommunistParty bodies at all 14 LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R.

geographical levels, the councilsof competition. ministersof the 15 republics of the (6) Top Governmentand trade union U.S.S.R., the ministries and departments, bodies are to improve methods for dis- the trade union bodies, and the central seminating the experience gained in so- committee of Komsomol are instructed to cialist competitionand to develop a eliminate shortcomings in socialist com- sound theoretical foundationfor the petitionand to promote the various further development of socialist compe- existing formsof competition. In- tition and a communist attitude toward dividuals and groupsof workers are to work. be instructed specifically to better (7) The editors of newspapersand formulate and adopt production pledges magazines and managers of motion picture in line with the overall economic plans housesand radio and television sta- for the enterprises and industries con- tions are instructed to publicize all

- cerned. Heads of enterprises and aspects of socialist competition and the ministries are expressly forbidden to movement for instilling a communist conceal reserves and the possibilities attitude toward work. of production so asnot to interfere (8) Thecommitteein charge of the with overall economicplanning and the permanent Exhibition of Achievements of properdistribution of materials and the National Economy in Moscow is in- equipment. structed to prepare an exhibit of (a) (4) Managers, engineers, technicians, the achievement of inventors and of out- andagricultural expertsmust assume standing collectives during the current greater responsibility for the organiza- 5-yearplan period(1971-75) and (b) tion ofsocialist competition.They the mostnoteworthy experience in the must encourage workers to increase their organizationof socialist competition. skills and to make efficiency sugges- --Soviet press. tions and technical improvements (inven- tions). (About80percent of the 4 millionsuggestionsmade yearlyhave 1/ Pravda (Communist Party Daily)and been put into practice. 4/) Trud ("Labor," the Soviet trade union (5) Party organizations mustbe in daily), September 5, 1971,pp. 1-2. the forefront to checkon the operation 2/ For adiscussion of the labor of socialist competition by management policies of the Congress, see "Soviet (to prevent theunjustified payment of Labor Policiesof the 24th Party Con- bonuses); they must strengthen therole gress," Labor Developments Abroad, Vol. of ttadeunions in the organization, 16, No. 9, September 1971,pp. 6-12. expansion, and direction of socialist 3/ Pravda, September 5, 1971, p. 1, competition.Komsomol musthelp the and September 18, 1971, p.1. trade unions draw young people into 4/ Pravda, September 18, 1971,p. 1. PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT OFFICE EXPERIMENT101.1.1001.1=111... 15

U.S.S.R. Public Employment labor shortage. If successful, the ex- result (1) in the direc- Office Experiment. periment will ting of workers in Ufa andKaluga to In January 1971, a pilotproject for industries, occupations, and enter- placing jobseekers was launched in two prises where they are needed most, and cities in the U.S.S.R. The experiment (2) in the penalizingof enterprises gives public employment offices a whose operationsare considered waste- virtual monopolyover job placement in ful of manpower. the cities of Ufa and Kaluga. (Ufa has A nationwide system of public employ- a populationof about 750,000, and is ment officeswas first created in the located about 700 miles eastof Mos- U.S.S.R. 3 years ago, and nowhas cow. Kaluga has a population of about offices in 60 cities. In their brief 200,000, and is about 200 miles south period of operation, the employment of- ofMoscow.) Jobseekers in the two fices have brought considerable economic cities must use the public employment benefits, according to Andreyev.' Use service in order to find work; they no of the offices has reduced the time longer can apply directly to the hiring lost by workersbetween jobs from an officesof enterprises. Elsewhere in average of 28 days to 12 or 15days, the U.S.S.R., proceduresfor finding depending on the city. Theoffices work areunchanged: Jobseekers can have proved useful in placing workers apply either to the local employment in jobs related to their skills. In office, if there is one, or directly Leningrad, for example, 56 of every 100 to the enterprise. workers changing jobs also changed The employment officeexperiment was trades before the employmentoffices introduced becauseof the increasing were set up.Afterwards, only 24 of seriousness of the manpower shortage in every 100 changed trades when changing the SovietUnion, according to V. P. jobs. Andreyev, Deputy Chairmanof the State The experimentof Ufa and Kaluga has Committee on Labor Reserves of the Coun- two distinctive features. In the first cil of Ministers of the Russian Republic place, direct hiring in the two cities, (the largest of the 15 republics making in effect, is banned, and with only a up the U.S.S.R.). 1/ In Andreyev's few exceptions, jobseekers must find view, the Sovietmanpower shortage re- employment through the public employ- sultsprimarily from the dispropor- ment office. (Enterprises have the tionately slow rate of population growth right to turn downapplicants referred relative to planned production growth, to them.) Exempt from the rule re- from the wasteful use of labor resources, quiring jobseekers to find work through and from loss of worktime in enter- the employment. officeareonly (1) prises, especially through absenteeism workers assigned by higher (regional or and the inefficient organization of national) administrative organs to work. Andreyev noted certain economic managerial, engineering-technical, re- and social disadvantages of direct search, and production-planning jobs, hiring. Apart from the cost to the en- and (2) youngspecialists trained in terprise, the economy as a whole suf- trade, technical, and other schools who fers because some enterprises hire More are obligated to work for several years workers than they need, while others in assigned jobs after graduation. fail to provide working conditions The second and more innovative feature attractive enough to hold the workforce. of the experiment lies in the right of Proponents of the experiment feel the public employmentoffices in Ufa that by increasingthe importance of and Kaluga to refuse an enterprise re- the public employment office in the quest for additional workers. A re- hiring process, Soviet authorities may fusal may be issued if the office de- have found a method of alleviating the termines that the enterprisealready 16 immirqmwe _ LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R.

has more workers on its payroll than its of labor-consuming and auxiliary work. production plancalls for. Proponents Since the experimentwas introduced of the employment office experiment an- in Ufa, enterprises in that cityhave ticipate that this controlwill compel saved money by cutting down heavily in enterprises to utilize their work forces their advertisements of jobvacancies more efficiently. Eachmonth, public in newspapers, over the radio, and on employment offices in Ufa and Kaluga television. Such expenditures by en- receivea report on thenumber of job terprises in Ufadroppedfrom about vacancies from theenterprises and or- 10,000 rubles (US$11,111) in April 1969 ganizations in their areas; the number to about 2,000 rubles (US$2,222) in is verified by the employment office by April 1971. comparing the actual numberof workers Theexperiencegained in Ufa and with the numberauthorized for the en- Kaluga will be useful, Andreyev said, terprise by the planning authorities. because "In thenear future we propose Each office also takes into considera- to increase the network of offices, and tion how efficiently the enterprise uses to connect them all with each other and its actual labor force and what it does with the central officeby a teletype to curtail labor turnover. system of communication." Sociologists, Now for every jobseeker, the public psychologists, and doctors are to be employmentoffice in Ufa orKaluga attached to these offices to help place makesout a punch card, recording his jobseekers withouta trade in suitable trade, age, reason for separation from jobs and to guide them in selecting a previous job, and the date of separation. trade. These data are usedin determining the It is anticipated that the employment causes and extent of labor turnover and officeswill cooperatewith local en- in reporting the existence of unsatis- terprises to establish trade and tech- factory workingconditions at particu- nical schoolsfor the training of pub- lar enterprises. lic school graduates in trades and Andreyev points out that in Ufa and skills expresslyneeded by the enter- Kalugaall jobseekers now have an op- prises of particularcities. The pub- portunity to discuss their job needs lic employmentoffice will be expected withqualified jobcounselors. They to forecast the demand for carious types can choose with greater confidence from of labor in the city as a whole, and to among the job vacancies available. recruit additionalworkers from per- During the period January-March 1971, sons outsidethe labor force, such as the Ufa employmentoffice directed ap- housewives- and able-bodied old-age proximately 17,000 persons to jobs, and pensioners. the "overwhelmingmajority" of them were hired. This number was consider- ably more than in any previous yearly 1/ Andreyev's remarks, on which this quarter. However, onlyone-third of article is based; appeared as an inter- the demand in the citywas metfor viewin the trade uniondaily Trud on loaders, charwomen, and other "auxil- July 18, 1971.He gave no indication iary personnel." According to Andreyev, of how long the experiment was intended this indicates that enterprises must to last, nor whyUfa andKaluga were pay more attention to the mechanization chosen for the experiment. Soviet Labor Policies of the 24th Party Congress*

The 24thCongress of theCommunist attention paid to the development of Partyof the SovietUnion, which met heavy industry, including the defense March 30 to April 9, 1971, supplied the branches." Brezhnev also said that the traditional platformfrom which party party line calls for intensifying the leaders reviewed political and economic moral and political indoctrination of developments since the preceding Con- the workers and "strengthening that gress in 1966, and announced policies moral and political situation in the for the next 5 years. Henceforth, country in which people breathe easily, Congresses will be held every 5 years, work well, and live tranquilly." instead of 4, to coincide with the 5- The Congress, in approving the direc- year economic plan period. tives submitted by the Central Com- Leonid Brezhnev, the General Secre- mittee abouta month and a half after tary of the CentralCommittee, first they had been published and discussed announced the policies in the report of by "tens of millions of workers," 3/ the Central Committeeof the Communist called on forthcoming subordinate party Partyof the Soviet Union (C.P.S.U.), conferences and meetings at all levels, and Aleksei Kosygin, Chairman of the as well as upon all workers, to discuss U.S.S.R. Council of Ministers,' elabo- further the directives and to send rated on these policies in a subsequent their suggestions to the U.S.S.R. Coun- report on the proposed directives for cil of Ministers. This council was the next 5-year plan (1971-75). 1/ scheduled to submit afinal draft of the These policieswere "completely and 5-year plan (1971-75) to the U.S.S.R. fully" approved by the Congress and Supreme Council (parliament) by Septem- formally detailed in the two major docu- ber 1,1971, for enactment into law. ments: (1) The "Resolution of the 24th However, any change in the percentage Congress of the CommunistParty of the goals set in the directives, and summa- Soviet Union on the Report of the Cen- rized herein, is unlikely. tralCommittee of the C.P.S.U.," and (2) the "Directives for the 5-Year Plan Previous and present 5-year plans. for the Developmentof theNational In contrast to the overly ambitious Economy of the U.S.S.R. for 1971-75." benefits, such as freefactory meals In the latterdocument the Congress and transportation, which the 22d Con- stated that "the main taskof the 5- gress (October 1961) promised "within year plan is to secure aconsiderable 10 to 20years," new party leader rise of the material and cultural level Leonid Brezhnev made modestand real- of the people on thebasis of high istic promises at the 23d (March-April growth rates in socialist production, 1966) and the recent 24th Congresses. an increase in its efficiency, scien- These promises appear to be based on tific-technical progress, and an ac- plans for growth which the economy can celerated growth of labor produc- achieve. 4/ tivity." 2/ In his report to the 24th Congress on Brezhnev emphasized that growth of the state of the Soviet Union, Brezhnev the people's welfare is the highest aim stated that directives of the 23d Con- of the party's economic policy, but gress concerning the main economic must be achieved"without lowering the goals for 1966-70had been fulfilled successfully, and that the particular goals for the improvement of the people's *By Edmund Nashof the Divisionof welfare had been exceeded. (See fig- Foreign Labor Conditions. ures for per capita real income in the

17 18 LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R.

accompanying table.) He admitted, how- growing; (2) themonthly minimumwage ever, that the 1966-70 production plans willbe raisedfrom 60 to 70rubles for some important categories of capi- (US$67 to $78); (3) wage rates in cate- tal and consumer goods werenot ful- gories near the new minimum level will filled, 5/ because the management of be adjusted upward; (4) wage rates for some enterpriseshad failed to intro- work at night and in hardship areas will duce new technology and increase labor be increased; and (5) salaries of productivity. teachers and doctors willbe increased Directives for.the 5-year plan, 1971- by about 20 percent as of September 1, 75, provide for slightlysmaller per- 1972. centage increases in growth of national The followingsupplemental payments income and industrial production, but also are to be increased: (1) Old age larger percentage increases in labor pensions and pensions to invalids; (2) productivity than did the previous 5- pensions to families of deceased veter- year plan, 1966-70.,(See accompanying ans; (3) paid leave to a working mother table.) The planned growth in real in- caring for a sick child; (4) pay during come per capita isabout the same, but maternity leave--to 10 percent of that of average monthly earnings slightly average earnings, irrespective of length higher. Even though for the first time of service; and (5) allowances to stu- in a 5-year plan, the growthrate of dents in colleges and setondary techni- production of consumer goods is sched- cal schools. In addition, family allow- uled to be slightly higher than that of ances forworkers' families whose capital goods, the latter will still per capita incomedoes not exceed 50 accountfor themajor shareof the rubles (US$56) a month will be intro- country's industrial production. In duced by 1974. Incometax exemptions 1970, capital goods constituted 74 per- will be increasedfrom the current 60 cent of all industrial production. rubles (US$67) to 70 rubles (US$78) a Wages and real income. The directives month; and income tax rates on earnings provide that real income per capita between 70 to 90 rubles (US$78 to $100) a month will be reduced. Redemption of during 1971-75 is to increaseabout 6 savings percent annually compared with about 4 bonds, which in 1957 were frozen for 20 years, 7/ percent. for the average monthlyearn- will begin in 1974. ings of allwage and salary earners. Increased grants to pensioners, The planned annual rateof increase in disabled persons, working mothers, stu- dents, earnings is lower than theactual 5 and others will come from the Social Consumption Funds percentaverageincreaseduring the which in 1970 period 1966-70. Average monthly earnings increased the average family Income by of all wage and salaryearners are ex- one-third. 8/ The new plan provides for pected to rise from 122 rubles (US$136) a 40-percent increase in these funds- - in 1970 to 146-149 rubles (US$162-$166) from 64 billion rubles (US$71 billion) in 1970to 90 billion in 1975. 6/ Real incomewill continue rubles (US$100 billion) in 1975. 9/ '7 to increase at a faster rate thanearn- ings, because most retail prices in Consumer goods and services. The Soviet state stores are to remain stable, and leaders at the Congresspromised con- price reductions are promised for some sumers more and better goods and serv- unspecified types of goods thatmay be ices, including food, clothing, durable produced in abundance and more cheaply. goods, housing, child-care centers, Soviet leaders anticipate that aver- restaurants, repair shops, and public age earnings will increase during1971- utilities (gas, water,amdelectricity). 75because: (1) Theproportion of Efforts will continue to narrow the gap skilled and professional workers is. between the living levelsof rural and 19 LABOR POLICIES

5-year Major growth indicators of theeighth (1966-70) and ninth (1971-75) economic plans, U.S.S.R.

Percent increa e

1966-70 1971-75 Indicator Actual Planned Planned.

38-41 37-40 National income 1/ 41 47-50 42-46 Industrial production, tonal 50 3/ 49-52 41-45 Capital goods (2/) 3/ 43-46 44-48 Consumer goods (2/) 30 30 Real income, per capita 33 Average monthly earnings of wageand salary 20 20-22 earners 26 36-40 Labor productivity, in industry4/ 5/32 33-35 by state Value of goods sold to consumers 7/42 and cooperative stores 6/50 (2 /) 1/ Definedby Soviet economists as 6/ Sovetskie Profsoyuzy (Soviet Trade -the net value of goods and productive Unions, a semimonthly),No. 1, January services, including turnover tax. Con- 1971, p. 14. The authorsays "nearly sumer services are not included. 50 percent." 2/ Not available. 7/ Trud, April 7, 1971, p. 6. 3/ Pravda, April 10, 1966, pp. 2-3. 4i Includes primarily manufacturing, Source: Exceptas indicated in the mining, and electric power generation. footnotes, Trud- ("Labor," Soviet trade 5/ Trud, April 7, 1971, p. 3. union daily), April 11, 1971, pp. 1-6.

He alsosaid that the urban people. Brezhnevsaid that the consumer goods. the use of days are gone when millions of citizens Government wasconsidering handi- had to be content with the bare necessi- more pensioners, housewives, and capped persons to expand consumer serv- ties of life. Hescored the workers Who up to the present time "not only ices. 10/ 60 million people, in the provinces but also at the cen- Housing for about of the population, is ter, have got used to shortcomings and about 25 percent According to the low quality of a numberof con- to be improved in 1971-75. to one Soviet periodical, "Despite the sumergoods, and work intolerably great scope of construction in our coun- slowly. Thereare some Whohave cur- try, the housingproblem continues to tailed or ceased theproduction of be one of the main ones." 11/ essential itemsaltogether;under the Specific figures forplanned increases pretense of replacingobsoletegoods with new ones they have stopped the in the production ofconsumer goods production of low-priced everyday goods were announcedat the Congress. In indispensable to the population." his report on the proposed 5-year plan Brezhnev stated that increased economic for 1971-75iKosygin emphasized the pro- capabilities now enable the Government duction of durable consumer goods. Be- to direct largercapitalinvestments tween 1970 and 1975, the number of re- 100 families is into production and the improvement of frigerators for each

ro LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R.

planned to increase from 32 to 64; tele- to the labor force. 15/ vision sets, from 51 to 72; and washing A comparisonof productivityin the machines, from 52 to 72. Annualpassen- United States and the Soviet Union is ger carproductionwill increase from difficult because .adequate data are 344,000 to at least 1,200,000. The lacking. However, in 1967, according 1971-75 plan also calls for a 40- percent to one Sovieteconomist, "labor pro- increase in the sale of clothing, a 40. ductivity in U.S.S.R. industry was 40- to 60-percent increasein the sale of 50 percent of the U.S. level." 16/In meat, fish, eggs,and vegetables, de- the Soviet Union, labor productivity is pending on thefood item, and an 80 -- defined asithe ratio of total output to percent increaseof other nondurable the number of workersemployed in an consumer goods for everydayuse. 12/ economic sector. ComparableU.S. fig- The goals for food are to be secured by uresfor all_industry, as defined by planned increased investments in agri- Soviet economists, are not available. culture. A uniform annual rateof increase in The planned increases in the produc- Soviet labor productivity may be planned tion and salesof consumer goods would butcannot always be achieved. For appear to reflect Brezhnev's statement example, the 32-percent productivity of policy that"the production ofcon- increase in industry during 1966-70was sumer goods must increase more rapidly made up of thefollowing annual in- than the monetary income of theSoviet creases,as reported in the Soviet people." 13/During 1971..75 almost press: twice as much as previously will beset aside to expand light industry (manu- Increase in labor factureof consumer goods). Luring productivity in 1966-70 theincrease in moneyincome industry was not accompanied by a corresponding Year (in percent) increase in the manufacture ofconsumer goods, because some ministries hadper- 1966 5 mitted wage payments to increase faster 1967 7 than labor productivity. 14/ 1968 5 Reflecting the unavailability ofcon- 1969 4.8 sumer durable,gooda,personal savings 1970 7 in banks morethan doubled from 1965 to 1969. Theincrease in population The planned increase in labor produc- and in incomes of personson collective tivity for 1971-75 is expected to ac- farms probably accountfor most of the countfor at least 80 percent of the 50-percent increase in the value of increase in national income and 87 to goods sold by stateandcooperative 90 percent of the increase in industrial stores during 1966-70,compared with the production. Increased production is to 26-percent increase inaverage earnings. be achieved_ ithout an appreciable rise in the number of workers.From 1968 to Production and labor productivity. Ac- 1970, the annual rate of increase in the cording to Kosygin's report on the new numberof wageand salary workers de- 5-year plan, total industrial production clined from 3.4 percentto 2.5 percent. is to increase42-46 percent during A Soviet economist hasreported that 92 1971-75; and laborproductivity, 36-40 percentof the able-bodied labor force percentcomparedwith the actual in- areemployed in production, that the creaseof 32 percent in 1966-70. Ac- flow ofworkers from ruralareas is cording to oneSoviet economist, the diminishing,and that "we arenow at increase in production wouldbe the the bottom of the labor resources equivalent to adding 11 million workers barrel." 17/ To achieveproduction LABOR POLICIES 21 goals, more machines will be introduced, Soviet Union was the second country to and more efficientuse will be made of ratify the 1935 International Labor workers (for whom expertlydetermined Organization Conventionwhich approves work quotas are recommended) and other in principle the 40-hour workweek. production resources. Also .important in increasing labor Workers' health and safety. The direc- productivity is the recently introduced tives call for further improvement of system of incentives based on profits health services, including the building obtained by"strengthening and extend- of modern hospitals, polyclinics, and ing the financialautonomy" of enter- dispensaries; the trainingof more prises. 18/ Kosyginsaid that many doctors; the raising of the level of enterprises still didnot respond ade- training of medical personnel; improve- quately to the new system of incentives. ment of medical equipment; the further Many have failed to organize labor and developmentof sanatoriaand rest productionefficiently. He said that homes; and improvement of sanitary con- "the amount of time lost in work stop- ditions in cities and workers' settle- pages in a numberof industrial enter- ments. Brezhnevannounced that the prises reaches 15 to 20 percentof the new 5-yearplan providesfor an in- total timeworked." 19/ He also said crease in expenditures forfood in that to increase efficiency it is nec- hospitalsand municipal vocational- essary to improve the training and re- technical schools. training of managerial personnel and to As for workers' safety,Kosygin said broaden worker participation in manage- "It is necessary to ensure further im- ment. 20/ provement in workingconditionsand workers' safety protection," and stressed Hours of work.Kosygin reported that the necessity "tocreate anadequate the 5-day workweekhas been achieved production capacity to producemodern for most workers in the U.S.S.R. but for technical equipment for the protection most workers the total numberof hours of the safety of workers." 23/ Speaking required cannot be less than 41 a week. at the Congress, a trade union official He promised nochange in the41-hour reported that the numberof industrial workweek during the next 5 years. Many accidents'. had declinedby 50 percent workersmustworka6-dayworkweek between 1965 and 1970, but thata periodically if their workdayis less shortageofsafety and ventilation than 8 hours and 12 minutes. Also, the equipmentstill existed. Hepledged 5-dayworkweek ruleis violated fre- that tradeunions would insist that quently. Brezhnev said: "It is no management introduce the latest advances secret . . . that overtime work has be- in safety techniques and would check on come a regular practiceat a number of the observance of safety rules and enterprises, and that people for no technical standards. 24/ good reason are deprivedof their days off." Headvised that "trade unions Workers' training and education. Brezh- can do a lot to eliminate such abnormal nev stated that higher levels of educa- practices." 21/Actually, under Soviet tion and culture of workers are impor- law overtime work may be imposed upon tant prerequisites for a rapid increase workersonlywith the consentof the in production and labor productivity, trade union local. and that such levels couldbe reached In spite of the Soviet41-hour work- morequicklyby making technical and week, aSoviet Government delegate an- professional training available to more nounced at theJune 1956 International workers. Heannounced that, in line LaborConference inGeneva that the with the Party's traditional policy of 22 LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R. AMP

raising the educational and cultural the term for the Sovietpractice of level of the people, during 1971-75 the competition among individual workersor size of scholarships and the number of groups of workers in the production of their recIpients at universitiesand in goods or theperformance of services.) secondary technical schoolswould be The resolution also emphasized thatone increased. Universal secondary school basic taskof tradeunions is to work education (grades 9and 10) is to be to improve living and working conditions madeavailable to every young person of workers. A resolutionof the All- who completes elementary school (grades Union CentralCouncil of Trade Unions 1-8). Normally, the average Soviet "whollyandcompletely" approved the pupil completes elementary schooling at decisions of theCongress concerning 15, and either enters a secondary or a trade union tasks. 28/ vocational school, or becomesa factory apprentice. Brezhnev reported that in 1971, for 1/ Jan. 1, 1971, to,Dec. 31, 1975. every 1,000 workers, over 550 had com- 2/ Trud ("Labor," the SovietTrade pleted secondary or highereducation, Union Daily), April 11, 1971, p. 1. compared with 386 in 1959. The propor- 3/ Trud, April' 8, 1971,p. 3. tion is expected to increase during 4/ Far adiscussionof the labor 1971-75. In recent years, the increase policies approved by the 20th Congress in scientific workers, .engineers, and (February 1956) and succeedingcon- technicians has exceeded that for all gresses up to the 23d (March -April 1966), otherindustrial groups. 25/ In the see Labor Developments in the U.S.S.R. past 5 years, scientific workers alone (BLS Report 311, 1966),pp. 21-25. increased by 40 percent. 5/ Trud, March 31, 1971, p. 4. For discussion of consumer goods shortages Trade union policy. Soviet trade unions and comparisonof the purchasing power alwaysfollow the party line. 26/ of the Soviet and the American worker, Brezhnev said that the party's policy see Edmund Nash, "Purchasing Power of is to broaden the role of unionsand to Workers in the Soviet Union,"Monthly raise the quality of their work. Trade Labor Review, May 1971, pp. 39-45. unions at present have over 93 million 6/ The official tourist rateof ex- members, including manyagricultural change, as fixed by the wage or salary Soviet Govern- earners. Membership is ment, is 1 ruble equals US$1.11. not compulsory, but benefitsare so 7/ Trud, April 7, 1971,p. 6. great that only in unusual circumstances 8/ Komsomolskaya Pravda,April 16, do workers fail to become members. 1971, p. 2. In itsresolution the Congress re- 9/ Trud, April 7, 1971,p. 6. iterated the traditional party policy 10/ Trud, March 31, 1971,p. 5. that trade unions mustsuccessfully ful- 11/ Sovetskie Profsoyuzy (Soviet Trade fill their roleas "schools of govern- Unions, a semimonthly), No. 1, January ernment, schools ofmanagement, and 1971, p. 15. schools of communism." The resolution 12/ Trud, April 7, 1971, pp. 4-6. said: "The tradeunions arecalled 13/ Trud, March 31, 1971, p. 5. uponto intensify work in further de- 14/ Sovetskie Profsoyuzy, No. 1, Janu- veloping the country's economy, in ary 1971, pp. 14-15. attracting workers to the administration 15/ Moscow News, March 27, 1971,p. 2. of production and public affairs, in 16/ N. Dokunin, "Increasing Labor organizing Socialist competition, and Productivity- -the Main Condition for in fosteringacommunist attitudetoward the Establishment of Communism," Sot- work." 27/ (Socialist competition is sialisticheskii Trud (Socialist Labor, LABOR POLICIES 23

a monthly) November 1969, p. 7. 20/ Ibid, p. 5. 17/ M. Sonin, "Are the Labor Reserves 21/ Trud, March 31, 1971, p. 7. Exhausted?" Pravda,March 23, 1971, 22/ Ibid, p. 5. p. 3. 23/ Trud, April 7', 1971, p. 3. 18/ Partof the greater profits to be 24/ Trud, April 8, 1971, p. 3. earned through more efficient operation 25/ Fordetails, see "Soviet Labor of enterprises is to be passedon to Statistics," Labor in theU.S.S.R., workers. For descriptionof the new July 1969, pp. 1-6. (BLS Report 358.) system, see"Labor Aspectsof the 26/ For discussionof Soviet trade Economic Reformin the Soviet Union," unions, see "The Fourteenth Congress of Monthly LaborReview, June 1966, pp. the Soviet Trade Unions," Labor in the 597-601; and "Western Influences on the U.S.S.R., July 1969, pp.. 16-22. (BL U.S.S.R.'sNew Incentives System," Report 358.) Monthly Labor Review, April 1967, p. 37. 27/ Trud, April 10, 1971, p. 4. 19/ Trud, April 7, 1971, p. 3. 28/ Trud, April 28, 1971, p. 2. Purchasing Power Average hourly earnings have increased steadily since World War II of Workers and prices have remained relatively stable in the EDMUND NASH Soviet Union A NEW STUDY of the limited data available in the annually decreed price cuts on essentialconsumer West shows that the purchasing power of Soviet goods. By 1953, approximately 38 hours of work workers has increased steadily since World War were required to buy a weekly supply of the seven II, but that continuing shortages ofconsumer foods for a family of four. goods and services restrict the workers' abilityto Since 1954, Soviet wage-price policy has been use their increased buying power. directed toward keeping prices relatively stable The study is based on an analysis of official and providing for a steady annual increase in prices set by the Soviet Government forseven average earnings.' In 1962, the worktime required essential foodsbread, potatoes,beef,butter, to buy the same essential foods had decreased to eggs, milk, and sugarand on average earnings about 30 hours. It is estimated that in 1964 the data published in the Sovietpress. The worktime purchasing power of Soviet IN orkers equaled the required to purchase a specific commoditywas previous high level set in 1928' and by mid-1970, calculated by dividing the price of the commodity the average Soviet worker would have hadto by the average hourly earnings of all the workers work only 20 hours to buy thesame amounts of (for details, see footnote 2, table 1), the seven foods for his family, or only 76 percent This article compares the worktime requiredto as long as he did in 1928. purchase the seven basic foods during specific years-1928, 1953, 1962, and 1970-For 1970,a comparison also is made between approximate Soviet wage-price policy worktime required to buy basicconsumer goods The present Soviet wage-price policy is to keel) in Moscow and New York City, prices of basic consumer goods stable and toen- The Soviet level of living reached itsprewar courage a steady average annual increase in wages. high point in 1928 (used hereas the base year), Prices of basic consumer goods were fixed by decree before the introduction of the Five-Year Plans in December 1947 and underwent annualcuts with their emphasis on the expansion of heavy until 1954. Thereafter, price cuts and increases industry, and when private enterprisewas per- occurred only occasionally and mostly for luxury mitted to a minor extent (under the New Economic or semiluxury goods. (As an indication oloighe rela- Policy) and the peasants had not yet been forced tive stability of basic foods prices,compare the into collective farms.'. Estimates showthat in 1962 and 1970 prices in ...ble 1.) Average earnings 1928 approximately 26 hours of worktimewere of wage and salary workers gradually increased required to buy a weekly supply of theseven from about 80 rubles (US$89) a month in 1959 essential foods for a family of fourpersons. (See to 120 rubles (US$132) by mid-1970, or about table 1.) The required worktime increased during 50 percent. the 1930's, and the devastation of WorldWar II The average annual increase in wages for the further decreased purchasingpower for Soviet years 1965-70 was reported as about 5 percent, workers. compared with an average annual increase of only The first large increase in purchasingpower 2.5 percent during the preceding years 1959-64.3 came in the period 1947-54, when the Government The growing proportion of skilled and professional workers in the labor force, the increase in the salaries of teachers and medical personnel, and Edmund Nash is an economist in the Division of Foreign the 1968 increase in the monthly minimumwage Labor Conditions, Bureau of Labor Statistics. from40to60 rubles(US$44to$67)have 24 POWER OF WORKERS affft.amsomaawwww.

Table 1. Approximate worktime required to buy a weekly supply of selected foods for a 4-person family atstate-fixed prices in Moscow, selected dates'

Price (inrubles) Approximate worktimes required for a week's consumption

Quantity consumed 1953 as1962 as 1970 as Food item per weekby a In hours 4$ percentpercentpercent 19283 19 534 19624 1910' familyof of 1928 of 1928 of 1928 1928 1953 1962 1970

1.91 161 105 73 Rye bread, 1 kilogram (22 pounds), .. .. .,,.,. _0.080 1. 35 0.13 0..14 9.84 Kilograms 1.71 4.52 2. 84 2.70 1.74 87 76 49 Potatoes, 1 kilogram. .085 .7 5 .10 10 12.16 kilograms 3.56 3.10 143 118 76 Beef, 1 kilogram .470 12.60 1.60 1.60 3.68 kilograms 11.04 15.77 13.3.08 8.41 == = = = --, 95 61 Butter, 1 kilogram .. . 2.430 26.75 3.60 3.60 Al kilograms 3.69 4.00 52 2.26 108 3.85 5.57 3.56 2.67 145 92 69 Sugar, 1 kilogram . ==. .620 9.09 .89 1.04 1.80 kilograms . 3.20 2.21 210 Milk, 1 liter (1.06 quarts) ,, .063 2.20 .29 8.32 4.96 liters ...... 1.08 3.71 ,,,, 229659 186 .44 1.50 1.14 .82 34341 Eggs, per 10 .,,, , : ,,,,,:,,, .200 6.88 .80 .90 6.40 eggs.. , All7 foods... _ _ ...... ,_...... 26.37 38.17 30.041 20.14 145 114 76

1 April 1,1928; April 1,1953; June 15,1962; July 1,1970 real purchasing power at that time. See Naum Jesny, The Soviet Economy Outing Work time is computed by multiplying quantity consumed by price and dividing the Plan Era (Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1951), P. 105. the product by average hourly earnings. In 1928, official national average earnings Based on published reports of U.S. and European visitors to the U.SS.R. and on were 703 rubles a year (figure given in Trud v Stiff !Labor in U.S S.R I, Moscow, 1936, nformahon appearing in the Soviet press. P. 17), or 0.29 rubles an hour. In 1953, the estimated average earnings were about 600 Weekly consumption figures per person in 1928 from International Labor Review, rubles a month, or 2.94 rubles an hour, according to an analysis of scattered data ibid , p. 659 the average worker's family in 1928 consisted of 4 persons. See Solomon appearing in the Soviet press. In June 1962, estimated average earnings of manufac- Schwarz, Labor in the Soviet Union (New York. Praeger, 1952), P. 145. The same turing workers, interms of the revaluated ruble, were aboutearubles a month, or 0.45 percent relationship between 1928 and 1966 would be obtained if the quantities for I rubles an hour; and in July 1970, the estimated average earnings were 120 rubles a Person were used instead of the quantities for a family of 4. In 1959, asample of 94 month, or about 0.70 rubles an hour. families had an average of 3.86 members per family, F. Ya. Meshina, "Social changes 3 Official Soviet prices from the People's Commissariat of Labor, as transmitted to in workingelass families over a period of nine years," in C. Y. (Wpm. ed., Industry the 'nternational Labor Office (see International Labor Review, October-November and Labor in the U.S.S.R. (London, Tavistock Publications, 1966 :. p. 61. '-d, pp. 657460). These prices were lower thar those in private trade, which played Milk was usually available only in half-liter cartons, at 0.16 rubles a carton. a larger role in workers' purchases, and theft use may somewhat inflate the workers'

contributedtothe higher increases in recent A list of goods and prices has been selected (except years. The increase in the monthly minimum for the Fiat automobile) from the lottery prize wage accounted for most of the increase of over lists published in Trud on July 15 and October 16, 7.5 percent in 1968, a postwar record. The increase 1970. (See table 3.) The articles weredescribed in average earnings during 1970 was 4.0 percent' only occasionally by brand name; consequently, A wide range in earnings exists in the Soviet a comparison cannot be made withsimilar U.S. Union, as is illustrated in the listing of earnings goods. However, calculations have been made for selected types of salaried and wage earners in showing the approximate worktime required of 1970 (table 2). The range has narrowed noticeably the average Soviet wage and salary earner to buy since 1960,5 primarily because of two increases in these goods, on the basis of average gross monthly the minimum monthly wage which raised it from earnings in July 1970 of 120 rubles (US$132) or 27 rubles (270 old rubles)" to 60 rubles (or US$30 about 0.70 rubles (US$0.78) an hour. to $67). The policy of the Government has been Moscow appears to have the lowest prices for to keep the highest salaries fixed and to increase consumer goods. In most other citiesand towns, salaries and wages on the lower levels. Wage prices reportedly have been 10 to 50 percent higher earners in Soviet industry are classified by skill than in Moscow, in some cases more than twice as into 6, 7, 8, or 10 progressive wage categories, high.' In hardship areas (such as Siberia and the depending on the industry.' The range of earnings Far North), workers are at least partially com- for a specific occupation usually depends on the pensated by payment of higher wages and salaries industry; as a rule, workers doing similar, work than in Moscow. are paid more in heavy industry than in light industry.' U.S. and U.S.S.R. real earnings The average Moscow worker has to work much Consumer goods prices longer than the average New York City worker to No comprehensive list of prices of basic con- buy comparable basic and other consumer goods, sumer goods has been published in the Soviet as shown in table 4. For potatoes, hehas to work Union since the.appearance in Pravda on Decem- twice as long; for white bread, 3 times; forbeef, ber 16, 1947, of the price-fixing decree of the 3% times; for milk, 4% times; for eggs, 7% times; Council of Ministers. However, in recent years, for butter, 8% times; and for sugar, 16 times. For prices of durable consumer goods have appeared clothing he has to work 6 to 10 times as long. For in official tables of prizes won in State lotteries. the other commodities listed, he has to work from 9,

LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R.

twice as long (cigarettes)to 8 times as long Table 2.Monthly earnings of selected groups of salaried and wage earners, 1970 (toilet soap). The difference in worktime required to buy Occupation Monthly earnings consumer goods in Moscow and New York City (in rubles I) appears to have decreased for all commodities Scientist (academician) 600-1,500 Minister (head of Government ministry or department). , ....,,,,, 700 listed in table 2 (except milk) since August 15, Glum star ...... 2500-2,000 600-1,000 1959, the date for which a Moscow -Now York Professor medicine). -7 400-600 Docent (assistant professor) - - 00-500 City comparison was made in this magazine.10 For Manager of enterprise or establishment.. . , , 31300-7.000 200 foods, Moscow worktime required, as a percent of 990-0-170 Teacher, high school- ...:.: -:. ::..-- _- ::: - -: ...... - SO-137 New York City worktime required, decreased SO- 37 PO- 2200 most for sugar (from 2,100 to 1,600 percent) and Worker, skilled :: ; 100-250 Mirka. semiskilled ...... - - - 70- 90 potatoes (from 350 to 200 percent); the decrease Worker, unskilled 60- 70 was small for beef (from 400 to 350 percent), butter The official tourist rate of exchange, as fixed by the Soviet Government, is 1 ruble= (from 900 to 850 percent), and eggs (from 800 to 11S$1.11. Tourists have reported this to be a fair rate of exchanp on an overall basis. 3 TM top salary at the liolshoi Muter has bun sported as 500 rubles a month. 750 percent). For milk, the difference increased Outside appearances increase the artist's Moms. 3 Depending mostly on the size of the enterprise. For example, in small-male local from 400 to 450 percent. industry the salaries of directors of machine-construction and metalworking enterprins range from 100 to 300 rubles a month. Sae I. L. Kekelevich, Omani:ship Zarabotnol The improvement inthe Moscow workers' platy na predpriyatlyakh niestml promphlennesti. [The Organizahon of Wages in Enterprisesof the Lout Industryl. (Moscow, 1970), p.100. clothing situation was large in allcases. For Pravda [Communist Party dells% July 14,1964, p.4. example, Moscow worktime required, as a percent of New York City worktime required, decreased The relatively high cost of foods (and nonfoods, most for a man's white cotton shirt (from 1,600 shown in table 4) may partially explain the high to 650 percent), a man's woolen suit (from 1,100 proportion (50 percent) of women among wage to 600 percent), and women's leather shoes (from and salary earners.'5 In the United States, the 1,100 to 600 percent). As for other commodities, _corresponding proportion in 1969 was 41.3.'5 there was a decrease in all cases: toilet soap (from 1,050 to 800 percent), cigarettes (from 400 to 200 Availability of goods and services percent), and vodka (from 450 to 400 percent). A 1970 report of the Joint Economic Com- Despite an increase over the year6, the Soviet mittee of Congress shows that, in 1968, Soviet worker's purchasing power has been affected by per capita consumption of consumer goods and the limited availability of consumer goods and services was about 33 percent of the U.S. level." services. According to statements in the Soviet This also would indicate some improvement in press, particularly from the recent annual eco- recent years, for a 1963 article in this magazine nomic reports of the Central Statistical Admin- showed that the real income of the average istration of the U.S.S.R. Council of Ministers, Soviet citizen was about one-quarter toone- the Soviet economy continues to have considerable third that of the average American." shortages of various consumer goodsespecially Although Soviet consumers spend muchmore durable ones, such as refrigerators, automobiles, for goods than do Americans, they are provided furniture, and housebuilding materials. As for with a number of free services, such as medical everyday minor consumer goods, Pravda (in an service, education, and pensions. They also have editorial of September 15, 1970) reported the the benefit of low housing rentals, amounting steady receipt of complaints from its readers about usually to about 5 percent of their monthly the absence in stores of glassware and chinaware, earnings;however,theirlivingquartersare knives and forks, blankets, bath towels, oilcloth, usually cramped. In the United States in 1969, kitchenware, and other goods in wide demand; it the average rental for all renting urban families called for a fundamental improvement in the pro- was about 15 percent of monthly earnings, but duction of consumer goods and for a survey of the average family lived in four or fiverooms, consumer demand. with its own kitchen and bathroom." The Soviet Possession of sufficient money to meet the pur- Government claimed tlfat in 1970 the value of chase price is no assurance of getting a scarce the free consumer services and other benefits commodity, such as an automobile or a refrigera- amounted to 42 rubles (US$47) a month, or tor. Usually, a person who has been successful in 34.4 percent of average monthly earnings." getting his name on the restricted waiting list POWER OF WORKERS 27

Table 3.Prices of selected durable consumer goods and worktime required for purchase, 1970 the general housing situation remains tight.. An example of the kind of progress made is given by Approximate the Moscow daily Vecheriraya Pravda, January 15, Price worktime Commodity (in rubies) required for 1966, which reported that an old building at 17 purchase Bakuninskaya Street, where "five to six families Automobile, "Moskvich-412" ...... 4,936 41 months had lived in one apartment" and 'shared one Automobile, Fiat ...... 5, 500 46 months 250 2 months kitchen, had just been reconstructed to provide Wash ng machine ...... 85 3 wees Vacuum cleaner...... 45 1week,3 individual apartments with separate kitchens. days Motor scooter, "Vyatka" ...... 350 3 months The average per capita floor space for city 350 3 months SO 1 week, 4 dwellers at the end of 1966 was 10 square meters days B icycle, boy's "Shkolnik" ...... 29.80 1 weeks (about 108 square feet) ;24 the 1971 economic plan Tape recorder. "Orbits-2" . .. 210 7 weeks Radio set, "Mikron," lowest-Mined.... 25.95 5 workdays aims to raise this average to 11.2 square meters Electric razor, "Kharkov"...... 22.50 4 workdays (about 121 square feet)." At the present time, About 30,000 Soviet-made Italian Fiats were produced in 1970; the goal is about only families with less than 5 square meters 200,000 in 1971. The total number of Sovietmade passenger cars manufactured in 1970 was 344,000. (about 54 square feel of floor space per capita t This wouldappear to be a simple machine without any automatic features. A "semi- automatic" washing machine (with a spin-dry feature), selling for 140 rubles (about and newlyweds are permitted to put their names US$155) is described as time-consuming and very inefficient in the Now York Times, November 29,1970. on lists for new housing, but there is a long wait at least 3 yearsbefore new housing is obtained. , The existence of large amounts of personal for the purchase of a car has to wait 2 to 4 years savings in banks indicates the limited availa- before he gets it. bility for many Soviet citizens of durable goods, Meat and vegetables continue to be in short as well as their refusal to buy undesirablegoods, supply. Millions of Soviet citizens still cultivate which are reportedto be piling up instore- private fruit and vegetable gardens to meet their houses. During the period 1965-69, the volume food needs." In 1968, the per capita annual con- of savings in banks more than doubled. The sumption of red meat (without fats) was reported savings in 80 million bank accounts on Decem- as 77 pounds in the Soviet Union and 183 pounds ber 31, 1970, amounted to more than 46 billion in the United States." The Soviets plan a per rubles (US$51billion), which included a 21- capita increase in meat consumption of 12 kilo- percent increaseof8billionrubles (US$8.9 grams (12.4 lbs.) between 1971 and 1975." billion) during 1970. The average savings account Consumer services in Soviet stores, repair shops, in 1970 was 575 rs (US$639), or about 5 laundries, restaurants, and for repairs in homes months' earnings for the average worker." continue to be inadequate. In late 1970, the Cen- The Soviet Government apparently does not tral Committee of the trade union workers in intendtoincreaseincometaxes,whichare consumer goods and services industries noted that proportionately higher for low earners than high in order to tailor an outer garment it usually earners. The first 60 rubles (US$67)of monthly took 3 to 4 months, instead of the prescribed earnings are exempt from tax. The basic income 20-25 days. The repair of footwear frequently tax rate on earnings from 61 rubles (US$68) took twice as long as prescribed." Shortages in through 100 rubles (US$111) ranges from 20 to 29 materials, equipment, and servicing personnel percent. Earnings over 100 rubles are taxed at the reportedly account for this." According to Trud, rate of only 13 percent. In addition to thebasic only about 4 to 10 percent of the needed servicing tax there is a tax on the total earnings ofbachelors personnel are being trained. There appears to be and childless couples, which ranges from 0.41 a lack of enthusiasm among Soviet youth for percent of total earnings of 61 rubles (US$68) a vocations in consumer services." month to 6.0 percent of earnings over 80 rubles Soviet housing has been notoriousforits (US$89) a month." scarcity, poor quality of construction, and prob- lems of maintenance, primarily caused by short- Policies for improving living conditions ages of skilled workers and building materials. Although housing conditions have improved con- The Soviet Government has been striving to siderably for millions of families in recent years? improve the material well-being of its citizens by 28 LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R.

implementing to some degree such oft-repeated refrigerator." On December12,1970, Pravda slogans as "All in the name of man, all for the called upon all Communist Party members to well-being of man."28On the occasion of the 53d explain to the public the provisions of the 1971 anniversary of the Bolshevik revolution, one of the economic plan, which aims to increase, among Communist Party leaders, M. A. Suslov, said, other things, "the production of consumer goods "It is no exaggeration to say that never in history in ide demand, food products housing, was as much done to improve the life of the hospitals, schools, and cultural centers." population as was done by us during the years of Among the most significant decrees issued by Soviet power." 29 Suslov pointed out that within the Soviet regime in recent years to improve the the 5-year plan period, 1966-70, the volume and consumer goods and services situation are the varietyof consumer goodsincreasedatan following. In 1967, a decree provided for improve- especially fast rate, and claimed that now every ment in meat and dairy goods procurement and second Soviet family has a television set and a processing," and another was issued "On Measures washing machine, and everythirdfamily a for the Further Expansion of Everyday Services

Table 4. Approximate worktime required to buy selected commodities at statefixed prices r in Moscow and at retail stores in New York City, July 1, 1970

Moscow New York Approximate worktime' Moscow worktime price City price as a percent of Commodity (in (in New York City rubles)' dollars)3 Unit Moscow New York City worktime

FOODS White bread: 1 vend- - -...... : : 0.20 - ... 5.239 Pound 17 minutes .... ,,..5.4 minutes .... ,.,... -1 300 1 kilegi emlii -piiindo , : : - , .44 , 636 Kilogram.:38 minutes . ,- 11.11 minutes Potatoes: 1 mid.. - .45 .114 Pound 2.1 minutes 3.9 minutes --- 1 200 1 Weirs fil ...... --..,:....:....--,:.-..:.:.:....7.-.,-----.:.-,...... -7-:,- .10 .251 Kilogram SS minutes...... _.4.7 minutes.- ,.., j 11440, rib roast: 1 r11,..nd ...... , 1.006 7 Pound 62.6 minutes__ ,,,..-..16.7 minutes...:,..-1 350 1 011111111--- --...... ,,..,...... -.. 1.60 2.21$ Kilogram 137.1 minutes .... :., .41.2 minutes...,, Butter, salted: 0.1184 Pound 16.4 minutes 140 minute....: , , - 1 850 1 legram. ::::::-, .: ....::. .. 3.60 1.945 Klemm, 349 minutes ...... 361 minutes...., Seger: 1 pound .47 .136 Pound 40.3 minutes. , 2.5 minutes- -, , 1 1,600 ;4' kilogram (1.1 pee' rids) ...... - . = -: ::::, :: .52 .150 34 kilogram 44.6 minutes. , 21 minutes.... . -. I Milk, fresh (grocery): liven . ---. -- -.. :::::-:-- ,..:: .211 +.301 OM. ., 24 minutes .., 5.6 minutes_- . ...., 1 450 34 liter (.53 quart) ..... - - - - = : _ : - :: : = , 16 .160 %liter 13.7 minutes = 3.0 minutes...... 1 Eggs, 2d garde: 1.011 '.657 Dozen 92.6 minutes...... 122 minutes....., 750 Per 10.....-...------. -- - - . -.,-. -,... ,.:, .90 546 Per 10 77.1 minutes. -- 10.2 minutes - - ,l CLOTHING Men's: Shirt, Was 8.00 5.50 Each 11.4 hours ...... 1.7 hours ...... 650 Suit, wool, single-breast- ed, middle of pric'e rinse. ::::: 110.00 114.66 Each : 157 hours .. ::: .26.3 hours. - ..,_ 600 Sims, leather oxfords, Pair ...... --... ---...... , 24.50 19.29 Pair 35 hours - - - 6.0 hours , - -- - - ..- GOO Women's: Diem street, men-made fibers. ------29.40 17.99 Each_ 42 hours 5.6 hours ...... ,, 750 Shoes, leather oxfords, middle ofprice range -: -';: 23.00 17.00 Pair 33 hours..., 5.3 hours. 600 .94 Pair 2.9 hours- :-- - - 17.5 minutes - -- 1,000 OTHER COMMODITIES

Soap, toilet, 100-erem cske(334 ounces) 0.19 . 11 Each 16.3 minutes.... .2.0 minutes - -, 600 Civilities, nonfiRer, regular size, package of 20 13.178 .46 Package. 15.1 minutes_ :, 8.5 minutes ::- 200 Vodka: Fifth .. 4.64 11 5.16 Fifth ..-. ,,6.6 /sours. ,. ...:,...1 hour. 38 minutes..1 400 34 liter (.662 fifth) . . 3.05 3.42 ;4 liter -, .UfS.,..., ... . -, 1 hour. 4 minutes...

Pikes observed on the open market, where collective farmers sell their produce, York City worktimfi F.sas4 were computed from retail pikes and average hourly earn- were much higher in comparison with state store prises. ings of $3.23 of all workers in U.S. private Industry in midholy 1970 (BLS somas). Maseew pikes in State stores, based en information appearing in the Soviet press First quality 02-93 score). and in published reports of U.S. and European visitors to the U.S.S.R. Adjusted pries from K602 for h gallon. 3 New York City pikes in retail sixes were collected by the Bureau of Libor Statis Lerp eggs, grade A (these are the only eggs for which retail prices are computed by tics; the prices for kilogram, liter, and 10 ms were calculated from New York City Prices forfieund, quart, and dozen, rospoeUvek. "S&N.priced white shirt. Mokpo.' figures for Moscow were computed on the basis of estimated average gross Brand name: "Mir." earnings of 0.70 rubles an hour of all wage and salary earners in the Soviet Union whom ss Brand name: oftiomorkenel." Adjusted Pries from mirage of 25 for 0.22 ruble. overage monthly earnings were reported as 120 rain (Pravda, July 22, 1910), New 11 Spirit blended whisky. I

POWER OF WORKERS

(especially laundries and repair shops) to the during 1969, when the production increases were Population." In 1968, a decree directed establish- 7.2 percent for consumer goods and 6.9 percent for ments in heavy industry to expand their produc- capital goods; the increase in production in 1970 tion of consumer goods as well as materials and was 8.5 percent for consumer goods and 8.2 per- (equipment for consumer goods industries. In cent for capital goods. January 1970, the Government announced that Soviet shoppers still suffer "enormous losses it had provided for a considerable expansion of of time in queues."" In 1969, Pravda reported consumer services, mostly repairs and deliveries that every shopper spent; about 300 to 400 hours from stores, during the next 5-year plan period a year in the stores." To reduce thetime spent in (1971-75). And, un July 21, 1970, Pravda an- queues (which are caused primarily by ashortage nounced the decree "Concerning Measures to In- of store personnel), the introduction of self-service crease the Production and Improve the Storageof stores with prepackaged goods is being promoted. Potatoes, Vegetables, and Fruits, and to Assure During 1968 and 1969, over 4,000 new self-service these Products for the Population." stores were opened in cities. 37 However, inmid- The 1966-70 5-year plan provided for a doubling 1970 only 7 percent of the country'snonfood of fruit production, in order to reduce the pre- stores and only 1 in 10 of the food stores were vailing large imports of fruits and fruit products. self-service stores." The increase in the number During the same period, over 1,500 new factories of self-service stores has been hindered by the and plants were reported built for the food proc- limited availability of suitable quarters and by essing industry. In 1970, the volume of production the lack of packaged goods. There has been a in the food industry was expected to increase by tendency in recent years to establish new de- nearly 5 percent." Despite this, in October 1970, partment stores away from centers of cities. the Soviet minister of the food industry pointed out Some stores attached to factories have reduced the serious need for a greater volume and a greater waiting time for workers by accepting orders in variety of processed foods." The 1971 State budget advance and having the ordered goods ready for provides for a 12.4-percent increase over 1970' in pickup at quitting time." To save time for workers, investments in agricultural development." many repair shops, laundries, tailorshops, barber Perhaps the most dramatic measure indicative shops, and other consumer service shops have of the Government's intent to speed up improve- been established at the places of work." ment of the consumer goods situation was the The Soviet leaders are aware that faster im- major change in its production policy in 1968, provement in the consumer goods and services when, according to plan, the annual rate of growth situation will come only with the broader intro- in output of consumer goods (8.3 percent) ex- duction of modern equipment and production ceeded, for the first time since the beginning of methods; all modern means of communication the 5-year plans in 1928, that of capital goods are being used constantly to conveythis idea to (8.0 percent). This new policy continued in force the mass of workers.

FOOT NbTES-7---

1 For a detailed discussion of price-wage relationships Edmund Nash, "Purchasing Power of Workers in th in the period 1927-50, see Naum Jasny, "The Soviet U.S.S.R.," Monthly Labor Review, April 1960, p. 362 Price System," American Economic Review, December The Soviet ruble was revalued on January 1, 1961, at 1950, pp. 845-863. the rate of 10 old rubles to 1 new ruble. 1 For earlier articles on the purchasing power of Soviet See Labor in the U.S.S.R. (BLS Report 358, 1969), workers in the postwar period, see Monthly Labor Review, pp. 11-12. July 1953, pp. 705-708, April 1960, pp. 359-364, and July 1966, pp. 772-773. Ibid., for a discussion on average monthly earnings by economic sector. s Ekonomicheskaya Carets, No. 11, March 1987, p. 4, Planovoe Khosiaistvo (Planned Economy, a monthly), and No. 47, November 1970, p.1. October 1985, pp. 10, 14, and 17. 4 Trud (Labor, a trade union daily), February 4, 1971, p. 1. "Monthly Labor Review, April 1980, p. 382. 30 LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R.

11 See "Consumer Welfare," Economic Performance and 24 Strana Sovetov za 50 Let [50 Years of the Country of the Military Burden :n the Somet Union (U.S. Senate, the Soviets] (Moscow, 1967), p. 38. Joint Economic Committee, Subcommittee on Foreign Economic Policy, 91st Cong., 2d sess., 1970, Committee 23 Pravda, December 9, 1970, p. 3. Print). Trud, February 4, 1971, p. 1, "Janet G. Chapman, "The Consumer in the Soviet 27 Moscow News, February 26, 1966, p. 2; and V. A. Union and the United States," Monthly Labor Review, Tur, ed., Spravochnik po nalogam i sboram s naselentya January 1963, p. 11. [Handbook on Taxes and Duties on the Population] 13 Based on the 1960-61 Survey of Consumer Expenditures (Moscow, 1968), pp. 16-17 and 72. (BLS Report 237-38, 1964), p. 14, and the BLS release 26 Pravda, July 20, 1970, p. I. Three Budgets for an Urban Family of Four Persons- Final Spring 1969 Estimates, December 1970, table 1. n Ibid., November 7, 1970, p. 2. " Trud, op. cit. " Ibid., p. 3; also December 23, 1970, p. I. For more about Soviet women workers, see Edmund " For discussion,see Jerome A. Levine, "U.S.S.R., Nash, "The status of women in the U.S.S.R.," Monthly Acts to Improve Meat and Dairy Procurement and Proc- Labor Review, June 1970, pp. 39-44. essing," Foreign Agriculture, October 30,1967, p.7. " Consumer Income, December 14, 1970, Current Pt pula- 32 Trud, October 18, 1970, p.2. tion Reports, No. 75 (U.S. Bureau of the Census), p. 133. 12 Communist [a monthly of the Communist Party], U Ekonomicheskaya Gaieta, No. 42, October 1970, p. 4. November 1965, p. 68, and September 1968, pp. 28-29. n Pravda, December 9, 1970, p. 4. 41 World Agricultural Production and Trade, Statistical Report (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1970), p. 15. Trud, October 9, 1970, p. 2. " Moscow News, December 19-26, 1970, p. 2. s Pravda, May 14, 1969, p. I. For more on this subject, " Trud, December 16, 1970, p. I. see Bernard Gwertzman, "Soviet Shoppers Spend Years in Line," The New York Times, May 13, 1969, p.17., 21 Voprosy Ekonomiki [Problems of Econom'es, a monthly], September 1970, p. 54. " Trud, April 8, 1970, p. 2. 22 Trud, November 21, 1970, p. 2. 22 Pravda, August 4, 1970, p. I. n In 1970, 11.2 million persons reportedly had their " Ibid., October 1, 1970, p. 3. housing conditions improved to an unspecified degree., Trud, February 4, 1971, p. I. 4° Sotsialisticheskii Trud, March 1970, p. 113. MIGRATION OF LABOR 31 =111M1110611111, ....m....,

U.S.S.R. allegedly temporary, many of the evac- uated persons did not return.For ex- Migration of Labor in the SoN.,3t ample, a 1947 survey in the Irkutsk Union.* A major characteristicof che Region (in East Siberia) showed that 15 Soviet laborforcehas been its ex- percent of those who had arrived during tensive geographic mobility, mainly from the war were still there. 3/ rural to nearby industrial areas and, In the postwar years, the main sources to a lesser extent, from the European of manpowerfor theeastern regions parts of the Soviet Union to the Urals, have been the central areas of the Euro- Central Asia, Siberia, and the Far pean part of the Russian Republic, the East. This mobility, manifested pri- largest of the 15 republics of the marily in the population censuses (few U.S.S.R.. (Seemap on p. 32.) The data on labor force migration are avail- republic of Kazakhstan had thelargest able), has been stimulatedon a long- population increase, 50 percent between term basis mostly by the nation's in- the censusesof 1939 and 1959, pri- dustrial growth under the 5-year economic marily as a result of the Government's plans since 1928. On a short-term basis policy to develop the region's agricul- the greatest recent movement was caused tural and mineral resources. By con- by WorldWar II, when millionsof trast, the average populationincrease workers were forced to migrate. for the entire U.S.S.R. was 9.5per- Between the census years of 1926 and cent during this period. 4/ 1959, the country's total population During the years 1959-69, population increased from 147 million to 209 mil- migration, mostly of able - bodied workers lion, or 42 percent. During this pe- from rural areas, was uneven in the 15 riod, the urban population increased republics of the SovietUnion. The fromapproximately 30 million to 100 numberof rural residents declined in million, or 233 percent. Nearly two- six of the most industrialized repub- thirds of this urban growthwas caused lics: 5/ by .Agration from rural to urban ar- eas. 1/ In the 11 years since this Republic Percent period, between the censuses ofJanu- ary 15, 1959, and January 15, 1970, the Russia (European and Asian).... -12.2 total population has increased to 241.7 Estonia -8.9 million, or 16 percent; the urban popu- Belorussia -8.6 lation has at the same time increased by Lithuania -6.5 36 million (from 100 million to 136 Ukraine -4.6 million), or36 percent, while the rural Latvia -3.4 population has declinedby 3.1 million (from 108.8 million to 105.7 million), Theother nine republics had increases or 2.8 percent. 2/ In short, the urban in the number of rural residents as population has increased from 18 percent follows: of the total population in 1926 to 56 percent by 1970. Republic Percent A significantmovement from west to east also has taken place. About 20mil- Uzbekistan 38.1 lion people were moved compulsorily be- Kirghizia, Tadzhikistan, and tween June 1941 and October 1942 from the Turkmenistan 1/35.0 European part of the U.S.S.R. to the Azerbaidzhan 32.1 east, largely becauseof the war. Al- Kazakhstan 24.1 though thiswartimeevacuation was Armenia 11.8 Moldavia 8.9 of *By Edmund Nashof the Division Georgia 5.0 Foreign Labor Conditions. 1/ Approximated. U.S.S.R. 3. 2.ESTONIA 1.LATVIA LITHUANIA 4. UKRAINE 6.5. BELORUSSIAMOLDAVIA 8. ARMENIA 9.7. GEORGIAAZERBAIDZHAN 12. UZBEKISTAN REPUBLICS 11.10. KAZAKHSTANTURKMENISTAN 14. KIRGHIZIA 15.13. RUSSIATADZHIKISTAN MIGRATION OF LABOR

Since 1966, over 3 percent of the As a result of the outflowof young U.S.S.R. population (more than 7million persons, "manycollectivd farms are persons) appear to have beeninvolved operating with a labor forceaveraging in internal migration eachyear. 6/ over 50 years of age." 10/ To stem this In 1967, the rural-urbanmigration in outflow, the Government is attempting the 15 republics of the U.S.S.R. ac- to improve living and working conditions counted for one-halfof the 3 million by the gradual introduction of mechani- increase in the urban population. The zation in all branches of farming and rates of arrivals in, anddepartures by the extentiotiofleisure-time facili- from, urban areas varied widely; how- ties. However, the Governmentadmits ever, in all instances the rate per that it will take time and considerable 1,000 populationof arrivals exceeded investment before the differences in that of departures. The net increase living conditions between city and col- ranged from 0.1 per 1,000 in the Turkmen lective farm life are overcome. 11/ Republic to 22.9 per 1,000 in the Lithu- In the period 1959-69, there has been anian Republic. (See table 1.) 7/ a substantialshift of the center of In the period 1950-69, the total num- Soviet population to the southof the ber of wage and salary earners in country, a shift causednot only by an U.S.S.R. industry increased by 103 per- increasedbirth rate in the southern cent. By republic, the increases areas, but also by the in-migration of ranged from 75 to 379percent. (See populationfrom other areas. The most table 2.) Thepercentgrowth in the serious loss of populationand labor numberof industrialwage and salary force has been in Western and Eastern earners was lowest in the agricultural Siberia, even though the natural popu- republics of Turkmenistan (75 percent) lation increase there has been above the and Azerbaidzhan (75 percent). The national average;. many of the Siberian largest percent increases took place in residents, mostly young persons,have Moldavia (379 percent) and Lithuania migrated to the warmerclimates and (315 percent). better living conditions in Central Asia, During this period, the persistent the Ukraine, and the Northern Cauca- drainof manpower--mainly young able- sus. 12/ (See map on p. 34.) Most of bodied workers--from the farms in labor - the migrants to the Far East and to the short areas has been alarming Soviet northern parts of the U.S.S.R. have come planners, because labor-saving farm from Western and Eastern Siberia; how- machinery is not being introduced fast ever, these migrants usually return from enoughto compensate for the manpower these remote and severe hardship areas losses. In the Russian Republic, the within 3 to 5 years. 13/ Soviet policy, greatest exodus from villages has been becauseof the considerable overall that of high school graduates and ag- out-migrationfrom Siberia, calls for ricultural machineoperators. 8/Ac- larger manpower inputs into this region cording to a 1967 sample survey, in the where industrial developmentand ex- manpower-shortvillages of Siberia, pansion, especially in oil and gas, have about three-fourths'of the rural gradu- taken place. 14/ ates of secondary schools had declared The SovietGovernment employs var- their desire to leave theirvillages; ious means--economic, organizational since 1963, the number of agricultural (government recruitmentagencies and machine operators had not increased be- youth 'organizations), and administra- cause of the continuous out-migration tive (transfer or assignment of workers) of such workers. The survey also showed --to regulate the territorial distribu- that a considerable number of all rural tion of labor recourses. Economic in- residents in Siberia wish to migrate to ducements, such as higher pay and longer cities, primarily as a wayto improve vacations, are considered the most im- their living conditions. 9/ portant incentives in attracting workers W VEUROPEAN)U.S.S.R.OFEPUBLICS THE 1 c"; c EUROPEAN(- PART OF RUSSIA KAZAKHSTAN MIGRATION OF LABOR 11135

Table I. Migration to and from urban areas in the U.S.S.R., by republic and region, 1967

Number Rate per (in thousands) 1,000 populat on Soviet Socialist Republic and Departing Departing Arriving Arriving region from Net from Net in urban in urban urban increase urban increase areas areas areas areas

Total 8,582 7,081 1,501 66.3 54.7 11.6

Russia 1/ 5,235 1/ 4,438 1/797 67.6 57.3 10.3 Northwestern 571 495 76 66.1 57.4 8.7 Central 811 637 174 44.2 34.8 9.4 Volga-Viatka 250 201 40 60.0 48.2 11.8 Central Black Earth 194 148 46 66.9 51.2 15.7 Volga 691 513 178 70.5 52.3 18.2 Northern Caucasus 547 443 104 80.3 65.0 15.3 Urals 698 666 32 66.8 63.7 3.1 Western Siberia 588 526 62 80.9 72.4 8.5 Eastern Siberia 416 392 24 94.0 88.5 5.5 Far Eastern 430 380 50 103.7 91.6 12.1

Ukraine 1,627 1,283 344 66.0 52.0 14.0 Donets-Dnieper 885 738 147 63.5 53.0 10.5 Southwestern 463 339 124 63.0 46.1 16.9 Southern 279 206 73 83.5 61.5 22.0

Belorussia 270 190 80 74.5 52.6 21.9 Uzbekistan 222 158 64 55.9 39.8 16.1 Kazakhstan 546 462 84 89.0 75.2 13.8 Georgia 58 46 12 26.0 20.5 5.5 Azerbaidzhan 79 72 7. 32.3 29.4 2.9 Lithuania 94 62 32 66.4 43.5 22.9 Moldavia 71 50 21 70.7 50.1 20.6 Latvia 87 68 19 60.4 47.4 13.0 Kirghizia 88 74 14 81.4 68.7 12.7 Tadzikistan 57 55 2 57.4 55.7 1.7 Armenia 37 21 16 29.4 16.5 12.9 Turkmenistan 55 55 0 56.3 56.2 .1 Estonia 56 47 9 67.8 56.7 11.1

1/ The sums of the regional figures for the Russian SOURCE:Vestnik statistiki (Statistical Herald), Republic do not equal the reported totals shown No. 10, October 1968, p.89,as cited in Murray here.These figures presumably exclude migration Feshbach, "Population." Economic Performance and betweenruzallocalities, therefore, they do not indi- theMilitaryBurdenintheSovietUnion,Joint of Congress, 91st cate thefullextent of the migratory flows. Economic Committee the U.S. Congress,2d session,Washington,D. C. ,1970, areas, es- to developing industrial pp.60-70. pecially those hardshipareas such as theFarEastknownfor their cold of consumergoods and servicesand climate, inadequate housing, and dearth recreational facilities. In 1968 and 0

36 01111/..i LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R.

Table 2. Wage and salary earners in U.S.S.R. industry, 1/ by republic, 1950and 1969 2/

[In thousands]

1950 1969 Percent . Soviet Socialist Republic (annual (annual increase average) average) 1950-69 Total 15,317 31,159 103 Russia (European and Asian) 10,827 20,028 85 Ukraine 2,509 5,921 136 Belorussia 346 992 187 Uzbekistan 254 568 124 Kazakhstan 365 1,022 180 Georgia 175 382 118 Azerbaidzhan 173 303 75 Lithuania 97 403 315 Moldavia 52 249 379 Latvia 171 Kirghizia 395 131 66 195 195 Tadzhikistan 44 127 189 Armenia 81 262 223 Turkmenistan 51 89 75 Estonia ' 106 223 110

1/ This includes industrial- production personnel 2/ The annual average figures for 1950 and 1969 in manufacturing, mining, logging, fishing, current have been taken from Narodnoe Khoziaistvo SSSR v repair of plant, and installation, current and capital 19.69g (The National Economy of the U.S. S, R. in repair of equipment, and electric power generation. 1969), Moscow, 1970, p. 166. Excluded are workers on construction sites,on farms, and in services to the public.

1969, increased special benefits, in- fore 1967, recruitmentwas handled in cluding one-time money grants, travel the Russian Republic by Orgnabor (the expenses, longer annual vacations with Organized Labor Recruiting Service).16/ pay, greater social security pensions, Orgnaborwas established in 1931 and and wage increments, weredecreed for made as many as 5million job placements workers in Eastern Siberia, the Far annually in prewar years; in postwar East, and in the northern parts of the years, 'thenumber of job placements U.S.S.R. 15/ dropped well belowa million annually, Recruitment of labor in each republic and the placementswere largely in Si- is handled by the StateCommittee on beria, in the north, and in other hard- the Utilization of LaborResources. ship areas.) The Young Communist League Promises of "well-paid" jobs andusatis- (Komsomol) is the largestSoviet or- factory" living and working conditions ganizationengaged in the recruitment lead the list of incentives advertised of the young for the development ofnew in recruiting. The State Committee areas in the East. Komsomolhas been promotes the permanent resettlement of very successful in its recruitment workers and the hiring of workers, campaignsbecauseof the useof psy- usuallyunder 3-year contracts, for chological and otherpressures, in- jobs in the northern parts of the cluding appeals to patriotism. Current U.S.S.R. and other hardshipareas. (Be- statistics on the volume of recruitment MIGRATION OF LABOR 37

of these organizational agencies forthe U.S.S.R.: A Surveyof Recent Trends country as a whole are not available.l7/ and Prospects," New Directions in the Administrative influence in the dis- Soviet Economy. Astudy prepared for tribution of the nation's labor re- the Subcommittee on ForeignEconomic sources is represented primarily by the Policy of the Joint Economic Committee, compulsory job assignment of graduates U.S. Congress, 89th Congress, 2d ses- of highereducational institutions, sion, Washington, D.C., 1966, p. 703- secondary technical schools,and voca- 788. tional schools. Under Soviet law, 7/ Based on data appearing in the graduates of college-level professional article "Population" by Murray Feshbach, schools and high school-level technical EconomicPerformance and the Military schoolsare required to work in as- Burdenin the Soviet Union, Joint Eco- signed areas for the first 3years of Sr nomic Committee,U.S. Congress, 91st graduation; graduates of trade schocas Congress, 2d session, Washington, D.C., must work where assigned for the first 1970, pp. 60-70. 4 years. Enterprisesmoving to or 8/ Perevedentsev, op. cit., p. 35. setting up branchestablishments in 9/ V. Kamyshov, "Migratsiya sel' developing areasmay transfer their skogo naseleniya" (Migrationof the workers; such transfers are not com- Rural Population),VoprosyEkonomiki pulsory. However, workers refusing (Problems of Economics), December 1969, transfer usually willhave to take pp. 148-150. lower paid jobs, if available, in their 10/ Statement made in March 1965 by area. A 1970 decree authorized courts S. P. Pavlov, the first secretary of to send petty criminals, who have re- the CentralYoungCommunist League ceivedsentences of 1 to3 years, to (Komsomol) organization. Cited by workat assigned jobs in various re-, Murray Feshbach in hisarticle, "Man- gions of the country for the duration power .in the U.S.S.R.,". in New Direc- of their sentence. 18/ tions in the Soviet Economy. 11/ Pravda, October 23, 1970, p. 2. 1/ T. I. Zaslayskaya, editor, Migra- 12/ E. L. Manevich. U.S.S.R.: Full tsiya sel'skogo naseleniya (Migration EmEoyment, Moscow, 1970.pp. 86-87. of the RuralPopulation), September 13/ Demko, Rose, and Schnell, op. cit., 1970, p. 4. P. 328. 2/ V. Perevedentsev. "Migratsiya 14/ Perevedentsev, op. cit., p. 41. naseleniya i ispol'zovanie trudovykh 15/ Ibid., pp. 42-43. resursov" (Population Migration and the 167 Formoreon this committee, see UtilizationofLabor Resources). In Daily Clark Brown's' "Continuity and Voprosy Ekonomiki (Problemsof Econom- Change in the Soviet Labor Market," ics), Moscow, September 1970, p. 34. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 3/ Foradditionalbackground dis- January 1970, pp. 171-190. cussion of Soviet migration until about 17/ For a recent discussionof Soviet 1962, seeOn Basic Migration Patterns" policies for organizing the migration by V.V. Pokshishevski andothers, in of workers, see Robert J. Osborn, Soviet PopulationGeography: AReader by SocialPolicies: Welfare. Equality, George J. Demko, Harold M. Rose, and andCommunity,Homeward, Ill., The George A. Schnell.New York, 1970, pp. Dorsey Press, 1970, pp. 156-161. 318-331. 18/ ORopyok, a Moscow weekly, No. 44, 4/ Ibid., p. 326. October 1970, pp. 26-27. (Cited in The 5/ Perevedentsev, op. cit., p. 34. CurrentDigestof theSovietPress, 6/ Murray Feshbach, "Manpower in the Feb. 9, 1971, p. 18.) The Status of Women in the

EDMUND NASH U.S.S.R. IT IS CUSTOMARY for journalists and some econo- percent of the Party's membership.' mists in the Soviet Union to claim that theirs is Nor have women achieved equality in jobs at the first country in the world to have established the higher levels in economic and cultural fields. complete equality for women.' But a study of In 1965, they were not to be found in the highest Soviet economic and political sources has indicated stratum of scholarly achievementthe direction that, generally, women have not yet achieved the of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R.' In full equality with men provided by the Soviet the field of education, where the proportion of Constitution, Article 122 of that fundamental law women among professionals in the 1968-69 school adopted in 1936 reads:: "Women in the U.S.S.R. year was 71 percent, they accounted for only 26 are accorded equal rights with men in all spheres percent of the 8-year-school directors and 23 per- of economic, government, cultural, political, and cent of the secondary school directors.? public activity." Despite the evident inequality of women at the Soviet women appear to have moved a long higher job levels, the Soviet doctrine of political, way toward equality with men since the time the economic, and social equality has proved very promising in Article 122 was adopted. In the past useful for certain purposes. It has been effectively 15 years alone they have made remarkable prog- used to encourage housewives into paid employ- ress in this direction, as will appear evident to any- ment outside the home, and to justify the utiliza- one who may compare the current data presented tion of women in some heavy and hazardous work here with those published in this magazine about of the type restricted by law or custom to men 15 years ago.' in the United States. (See section on working Women are still far from being equal with men conditions.) in the field of politics. In the Supreme Soviet of the U.S.S.R., the country's highest legislative body, Increasing employment Of women only 28 percent oftheelected members are women; in the supreme soviets of the 15 republics, All able-bodied Soviet women without family they constitute 34 percent. They are nearer equal- obligations or other justified excuses are under a ity in the village, city, regional, and territorial legal and moral obligation to work: But even soviets, where they account for 45 percent of the housewives with children have always been under members.' Women are conspicuously absent from economic pressure to seek jobs outside the home. top posts in the Communist Party, and relatively The government's emphasis on high investments few are in high government positions. At lower in heavy industryrather than the consumer levels, including thoe in research institutions, goods industrysince the introduction of the 5- men usually occupy the key positions. In 1961, year economic plans in 1928, has made it im- only 10 women were members of the Central possible for most married male worker, to support, Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet their families adequately with their own earnings. Union, a mere 3 percent of the entire body.' At (See section on living conditions.) the beginning of 1967, women constituted 20.9 Large-scale employment of housewives in the Soviet economy has been facilitated in recent. years through the widespread introduction of Edmund Nash is an economist in the Division of Foreign mechanization andvutomationofproduction Labor Conditions, Bureau of Labor Statistics. processes. Women now can easily cope physically

38 STATUS OF WOMEN 39

Table 1. Percent of women wage and salary earners I in with the new jobs, and the establishment of various U.S.S.R., by sector of economy,2 selected years, 1928-68 conveniences for NNomen %vorkers also has en- couraged women to seek paid employment: Sector of the national economy 1928 I 1940 1950 , 1960 (1968 The number of Soviet women wage and salary Total. 24 39 47 47 50 earners has increased from anannual average of . . _ Industry 1 (industrialproductmn personnel) -. 26 38 46 45- 48 2.8 million (24 percent of all earners) in 1928 to Construction (construction-installation person- 6 23 33 29 28 44.3 million (50 percent of all earners) in 1969.8 Agriculture. 21 30 42 11 13 State and industrial enterprise . 45 34 49 43 ' 43 The census of January 15,1970, reported that ToState 7 21' 28, 241 24 Communications.. 28 48 59 64 67 there were 53.9 females to every 46.1 males, or Trade, procurement, materrattec hnicat supply and sales, and public dining 19 14 57 , 66 74 19.1 million more females than males, in a popula- Health services . . . 63 , 76 84 85 85 Educational and culturabeniig htenment institu tion of 241.7 million9 The proportion of females 55 ' 59 1 69 1 70 72 Science ...... 10 12 i 43 42 46 to males was highest (55 to 45) in the republics Credit and insurance._ - 38 11 58 68 76 Administrative organs (state and cooperative in- invaded during World War II (Russia, Ukraine, stitutions). . 19 ' 34 I 43 i 51' 58 Belorussia, Estonia, and Latvia) and lowest (50 I The minimum employment age is 15 years for apprentices and 16 years for others to 50 or 51 to 49) in the Central Asian republic.° Excludes the self - employed, includes wage and salary earners on collective farms but not collective farmers who share in net farm income. The average life expectancy of Soviet women is 74 Includes manufacturing, mining. logging, fishing, current repair of plants and In consti- staltabons, current and capital repair of equipment, and electric power generation. years; of men, 66 years. Since women now SOURCE: Welk Statistild (Statistical Herald. a monthly published bythe Ctn. tral Statistical Administration of the U.S.S.R. Council of Ministers. Moscow). January tute 50 percent of all wage and salary earners, the 1970, p. 89. Soviets appear to be justified in claiming that "the problem of the mass drawing in of women into machine-building and metal-working to 72 per- social production is solved." " The proportion of women wage and salary cent in textiles and 84 percent in garment making, Although women accounted for only 43 percent of earners in the various economic sectors forselected years between 1928 and 1968 is shown in table 1. the wage and salary earners in agriculture, they In 1928, more women than men were employed in made up a majority of agricultural workers if we education and health services; by 1950, the number include collective farm workers who are not wage of women exceeded that of men also in communica- or salary earners but share in net farm income. tions, trade (including restaurants), and credit The census of 1959 showed women to be 58 per- cent of the total number engaged in agricultureu andinsuranceestablishments;and by1960, women outnumbered men also in state adminis-... At that, time women were about 41 percent of the trative jobs. In industry at the beginning of 1969, wage and salary earners in agriculture. the proportion of women ranged from 36 percent, In 1967, the proportion of women earners was in the production of cement. and 41 percent in highest in the western parts of the U.S.S.R. where consumer industries and services are better de- veloped than in the other parts. In the Estonian Republic it was 53 women to 47 men; in the Lenin on the status of women Russian and Latvian Republics, 52 to 48; in the It is said that the level of culture ishest charac- Belorussian Republic, 51 to 49. In the under- terizedby the legal status of women. There is a developed central parts of the U.S.S.R., the lowest grain of profound truth in this wing. . . proportions were in the Tajik Republic (38 to 62), '1'h, corking women's movement has for its ob- ject ,lie fight for the economic and social, and not time Armenian, Azerbaijan, and Turkmen Re- merely formal, equality of women. The main task publics (10 to 60 in all), and the Uzbek Republic is to draw theW011101 intosocially productive labor, (41 to 59),13 extricate them from "domestic slavery,' free them rf their stultifying and humiliating resignation to theperpetual and exclusive atmosphere of the ProfessiOnals and technicians kitchen and nursery. For some time now women in the Soviet Union .I.1A:six, Women and Society have had more than equal access to professional quoted in Tin Woman QurdionSeleelionx Front tin and technical training., The 1959 census showed Writings of Matt, Angilx, nin, Yoi k, International Publishers Co.,Inc" that women accounted for 54 percent of all peNons Little New World Paperbacks, 1969), p. 63. with full secondary or higher school specialized education. By the end o: 1967, women with such 40 .:"1 LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R.

educational attainment represented58percent, of work for them, Soviet women workersare still all professionals and technicians in the country.14 found in certain arduous and hazardousoccupa- At, present, women constitute about52percent tions. Westerners are often struck by thesight of of all college trained specialists, about 70 percent %voting' in t ht.ir 60's, even in the winter tittle.sweep- of the medical doctors, %And about 70 percent of the ing streets and scrubbing with steamingwater teachers.'s In mid-November of 1968, they made the steps of street underpasses.," Women have up 64 percent of the economists, 40 percent of the also been seen freqlo`litly in road maintenance agronomists sad veterinarians, 31 percent of the gangs and On construction jobs. However, the law engineers, and 63 percent of all specialists with forbids women workers to carry loads ofmore secondary school training: At the end of 1968, than 20 kilograms (44 pounds) or totransport, there were 318,700 women scientific workers, 2,500 more than 50 kilograms (110 pounds) by o single- of them with Doctor of Science degrees.'6 The pro- wheel wheelbarrow, They alsoare forbidden to portion of women students at the college level in work in specific jobs which are especially arduous the school year 1967-68 was 46 percent, and in or hazardous., A list of these jobs was published in secondary specialized schools, 52 percent." a 1932 decree, and it has been expanded from time to time. For example, in 1957, underground mining Working conditions and underground construction jobs (butnot per- sonal service jobs, such as bringing drinkingwater Like men, Soviet women workers must engage and selling snacks) were added to the list; in 1960, %.s individuals or groups ---in "socialist competi- jobs on boats of the fishing fleet (excepton crab tion," that is, they must strive to surpass their and fish canning boats and on certain boats with coworkers in overfulfilling prescribed work quotas. refrigeration) were included.", Women must be paid the same wage rates as men Although many thousands of women in the rural doing similar work. areas have completed coursesi n the operation of Although growing mechanization and automa- farm machines, including tractors, onlya few are tion of production methods have been casing the now actually operating Sitch machines. The main reasons given for this ore: First, the need for women to attend to the traditional household chores The limits of female employment including the care of children, the private vegetable garden, the cow, and poultry; second, the failure The dual nature of woman's role has also been of state (and collective) farm administrations to recognized in the U.S.S.R. There, however, the limits introduce new laborcasing techniques, shorter of potential female employment seem to be set work shifts, and special work clothing for women." higher thine in other cottutrim. The authors ofa recently published collective work on demographic Recently, however, following a resolution of the aspects of employment. , suggest that woman's U.S.S.R. Council of Ministers on the greateruse of presence at home is needed for not more than 1.5 to women in skilled jobs in agriculture, programs are 2 years after pregnancy. On this basis they calculate being set up to train wotttett to operate agricultural that not more than 7 to 9. million women of working age need be left outside the labor force. In other machines., It has been reported thata woman words the activity rate of women age 16 to 54, tractor operator (Anna Dmitriyevna Leonov a) of which rose from 63 percent in 1958 to 79 percent in 30 years' experience, and honored for this work 1965, could increase further to some 86-90 percent. with the title of "Hero of Socialist Labor," had Boththe feasibility and,the desirability of such become an ardent promoter of trainingwomen as a development could be questioned, and it may be expected that, largely because of demographic im- agricultural machine operators.° plications, the future policies governing the employ- ment of women in thevariouscountries of the area Women's attitude toward work will be more flexible than hits been thecase in the past. A recent survey of 3,000 women workers in JEUZY BEHENT, "Some Demographic Aspects of Kostroma, a town on the Volga about 200 miles Female Employment in Eastern Europe northeast of Moscow, showed that 80.2 percent andthe USSR," Inturnalional Labor llerirte, of them were completely satisfiedwiththeir February 1970, p. 192., work, 11 percent were undecided, and 8.8 percent were not happy about it. What the women liked STATUS OF WOMEN 41 most about their work was being in a fine collec- tive of congenial workers; second, the convenient Employment of women in Eastern Europe working shift; third, 'the opportunity to display initiative; fourth, proximity to their homes; fifth, As in western countries, the extent of female day-care centers for their preschool children; and employment in industry- varies considerably between sixth, the wages received. branches, u0111P11 workers predominating in such Seventy percent of the women answered ''yes'' traditional female domains astextiles,clothing, food processing, and in some other consumer indus- and 22 percent "no" to the question whether tries. But... the role of women is by no means they would continue working if their husbands negligible even in heavy industry and in energy.. started earning as much as both were earning In the late 1950's and early 1960's demand for now. The timing of work shifts, especially to female labor was intensified by the arrival at working avoid night work, was important because "the age of the reduced wartime birth cohorts. Lately, the supply of young people has increased in most brunt of running a household, bringing up children, countries, but the steep decline in births that set in and undertaking other domestic responsibilities around 1933 everywhere will reverse the trend in is still borne by women." 22 Professor Norton T. the 1970's. At the same time there has been in most Dodge has pointed out that "too much equality countries a noticeable slowing down in the rate at which labor has been shifting from agriculture to can become a burden to %mum!, . .Soviet other sectors, as the supply of young and able-bodied time-use studies show dearly that .itetotal rural workers has been drying up. Thus the demand burden of employment in the labor force and in for female labor in the towns is not likely to lessen the home falls much more heavily upon women in the near future, than pon men." 23 -JERZY BERENT, "Some Demographic Aspects of Female Employment in Eastern Europe Women workers' privileges and the USSR." International Labor Review, February 1970, pp. 179-180. In view of the burdensome demands on women workers,theSovietGovernment hastaken certain measures designedtosafeguardtheir retire at age 55 after 20 years of credited work, health and welfare. The stated objective is to and men at 60 after 25 years of work. Women in enable women "to combine happy motherhood specified arduous jobs may retire at. 50 after 20 with a more active and creative participation in years of employment, and men in such jobs, at 55 public work and public activity." 24 after 25 years." Every year on International Women's Day, Measures have been taken to reduce nightwork March 8, selected women receive special awards by women. For example, in the textile industry, in recognition of their achievements in the ranks where women predominate, their nightwork was of labor and their contribution to the cause of limited in 1963 to two shifts a month, with a communism. Between 1918 and 1970 about a 5-day, 40.6-hour workweek (instead of the stand- million and a half women have been awarded ard Soviet workweek of 41 hours)." decorations and medals for outstanding work Pregnant women (beginning with. thefifth and wartime activities. Of these, 3,925 had been month) and nursing mothers are exempt from awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor, and overtime and night shift work and have the 91, the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. In this right to lower work quotas or an assistant; in year's proclamation on. the occasion of Women's case a doctorcertifiesthat they aro unable Day, the Central Committee of the Communist physically to cope with their job, they must be Party, besides praising Soviet women for their transferred to lighter work at the same pay and contributions to Soviet achievements, called upon with the same annual .vacation (for which they them to serve as worthy examples of the com- will not have to meet the standard requirement munist attitude toward work and self-discipline of working at least 11 months). They may not and to respond eagerly to the Party's call to be sent, without, consent, on field trips. Employers promote a nationwide struggle for economy in may notrefuse employmentto,ordismiss, the use of materials, equipment, and labor." pregnant or nursing women. Soviet women are entitled to retire on old age Women get paid leave of absence from work 56 pensions 5 years earlier than men. Women may days before and 56 days tater childbirth. In cases 42 11111101110 ...... =amm..... LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R.

of multiple or abnormal births,the postnatal shorter workday, with pay according to production leave is 70 calendar days. Under a decree of July 5, or time actually worked, in- enterprises offering 1968, a woman worker is entitled to additional services directly to the public." Many of them unpaid leave until her child is1 year old, Should have been glad to accept part-time jobs especially a worker return to work before her child is 1 year if their husbands were among the lowearners. In old, she must be given (upon a doctor's certifica- 1969, the average earnings of all wage and salary tion) paid time off for breastfeeding (usually 30 earners were only 117 rubles ($129) a mouth, which minutes after no more than 3% hours of work), (lid not leave the worker very much after he paid All maternity leave is counted as part of the time for his necessities." required to receive an old age pension." The annual economic report for 1969 published by the Central Statistical Administration of the Living conditions U.S.S.R. Council of Ministers stated that even though the annual growth in output of consumer The living conditions of theaverage Soviet goods had continued, and rose 7.2 percent in 1969, woman worker are not very satisfactory, and the,,,.the demand for some basic goods, including meat, Party as well as the Government reportedly have vegetables, woolenfabrics,clothing,footwear, taken measures to improve them by freeingwomen building materials, and certain household goods from many household chores;so that they may "was not fully satisfied." Moreover, the plan for have more opportunitiesforsatisfyingtheir housing construction was not fulfilled." In Moscow cultural and spiritualneeds.29 The Kostroma and in other industrial centers it is still common survey, cited earlier, showed that women workers for a family to live in only one room and to share had, on the average, 2 hours of leisureon a a bathroom and kitchen with other families." workday and 5 hours on their days off, compared The shortage of !Musing in cities and the neces- with 4 hours and nearly 9 hours, respectively, for sity for women to work are factors that limit the men, Most of the women's leisure time was spent number of children per family., A survey of women in watching TV; 95 percent of thewomen workers workers at several enterprises in Moscow showed went to see motion pictures at least twicea month. that in instances where there were two children or Over 90 percent read fiction, but only 15percent more inthefamily, practicallyallundesired read the newspapers several timesa week.3° pregnancies ended in abortions." A survey in Soviet surveys in industrial centers have shown Estonia revealed that nearly a third of the respond- that the working mother spendson the average ents attributed decreasing birth rates to women's about 4 to 5 hours a day takingcare of her children employment." The Government, however, con- and her household tasks." Their problems have tinues its program of encouraging mothers to have been eased by lengthening the school dayfor larger families. Every mother rec;.i.-:.s a one-time children, by the expansion of thesystem of monetary grant on the birth of her third and all preschool day care centers (whichnow take care subsequent living children, and a monthly state of over 9 million children), and by the continuous allowance for her fourth and all subsequent living improvement at the enterprise level ofworking children until the age of 5. Mothers who have conditions and consumer services (so that there given birth to 10 children and are raising them are has been a reduction in the timespent standing in granted the honorary titleand the orderof queues at food and other stores and in the prepara- "Mother-Heroine." Mothers who have given birth tion of meals at home)." Of the families with to and are raising seven, eight, or nine children are children of preschoolage, 80 percent used day care granted the order of "Glory of Motherhood," and centers and nursery schools;' only 7percent are mothers who have given birth to and are raising waiting for a place ina child me center. In many five or six children are granted the "Medal of cities, it is claimed, there isno need for a waiting Motherhood." Women workers who have given list 13 birth to five children and have raised them to the Housewiveswith some unavoidable family eighth year may retire at the age of 50 after obligations have been entitledsince 1964 to a 15 years of work." 43 STATUS OF WOMEN

FOOTNOTES

I This claim was recently reiterated by an economist in 2 Trud (Labor, a Moscow trade union daily), March 4, Moscow News (an English language magazine), February 7- 1970.

14, 1970, p. 14. 21Ibid., March 22, 1970.

2Edmund Nash, "Women Workers in the Soviet Union," 22Moscow News, February 7-14, 1970, p. 14. Monthly Labor Review, September 1955, p. 1008. 23Dodge, op. cit., p. 247, 3Vestnik Statistiki (Statistical Herald, a monthly pub- 24M. Pankin, "Privileges of Women Wage and Salary lished by the Central Statistical Administration of the Earners," Sotsialisticheski Trud, March 1969, p. 135. U.S.S.R. Council of Ministers), Moscow, January 1970, P. 88. 21Pravda, March 7, 1970. 4 For detailed discussion, see Norton T. Dodge, Women n S5ornik zakonodatelnykh aktov o Crude, p. 709. in the Soviet Economy (Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins n Pankin, op. cit., p. 136. Press, 1966), pp. 213-214. $ R. G., Aslanyan, "Action to Ensure that Soviet I Kommuniat (a monthly of the Communist Party), Citizens Enjoy Equal Rights and Opportunities," Inter- Moscow, October 1967, p. 97. national Labor Review, December 1969, pp. 578-579; 8 Dodge, op. cit., pp. 236-237, Pankin, op. cit., pp. 138-139; and A. Yarkho, "Okhrana of Women atWork), Vestnik Statistiki, January 1970, p. 92. truda zenshchin"(Protection Sovetakie Profsoyuzy (Soviet Trade Unions), May 1967, Ibid., p. 89. pp. 44-45. Pravda, April 19, 1970. 41 Pravda, March 7, 1940.

10Vestnik Statistiki, January 1969, p. 82. 29Moscow News, February 21-28, 1970, p. 14.

Sotsialisticheski Trud (Socialist Labor, a monthly), 31Sotsialisticheski Trud, November 1968, p. 15. Moscow, November 1968, p. 12. n Pravda, March 7, 1970. 12Dodge, op. cit., p. 293. " Moscow News, February 7-14, 1970, p. 14. 13Vestnik Statistiki, January 1969, p. 86. Pankin, op. cit., p. 138. Zhenshchiny i Deti v SSSR (Women and Children in " New York Times, March 26, 1970. For U.S.S.R. work- the U.S.S.R., a statistical book published by the Central time requirements for consumer purchases, see Monthly Statistical Administraiton of the U.S.S.R. Council of Labor Review, July 1966, pp. 772-773. Ministers), Moscow, 1969, p. 97. 36Pravda, January 25, 1970. Moscow News,March 14-21, 1970, p. 3. " Wall Street Journal, August 14, 1969. Vestnik Statistiki, January 1970, pp. 91 and 93. 3$Vestnik Statistiki, August 1968, p. 33. For families

12Ibid., January 1969, pp. 90-93. with two children, it was 99.8 percent; for families with three children, 100 percent. " New York Times, March 9, 1970. 39Moscow News, February 28-March 7, 1970, p 14. I8 Sbornik zakonodatelnykh aktov o Crude (Collection of Legislative Acts on Labor), Moscow, 1965, pp. 523, 524- 41 Vestnik Statistiki, January 1970, p. 87. 527, and 529. 11Zhenshchiny i deli v SSSR, p. 23. LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R.

U.S.S.R. terprises at wages no higher than those they receivedat their last placeof work; they may not receive a promotion New Disciplinary Measures. Stringent duringthe first year, northe usual measures have been introduced in what employees' yearend bonus based on the appears to be a nationwide crackdown on enterprise's profits, nor apass to a violations of labor discipline.The summer resort or sanatorium. measures taken in Leningrad to counter Individual enterprises haveadopted these violations were discussed in the special means designed to reduce absen- CommunistParty daily,Pravda, on teeism and job quitting. Popov reported February 8, 1970, by G. Popov, First that theworkers' collective in the Secretary of theLeningradCity Com- Baltic SergoOrdzhonikidze plant had mitteeof the Communist Partyof the decided to penalize anunauthorized Soviet Union.Singledout as serious absencebyreducing the offender's violations of labor discipline were yearend bonus by 25 to 50 percent. Also, carelessor wasteful work, loafing on no bonuswill be given to persons who the job, and unauthorizedabsenteeism quit their jobs voluntarily. At another (usually because of drunkenness). Popov plant ("Geologoraividka"), Popov stated, reported that, in Leningrad,persons discipline had been improved by the in- discharged for violations of labor dis- troductionof plantwideand workshop cipline may be employed again, under "discipline days."This plant also has specified conditions, only through the a special personnel section where both branch offices of the recently organized a worker desiringto quit his job and Leningrad Office for the Employment of a person applying for a job may discuss LaborReserves. However, regardless their objectives. of their level of skills, they are Popov asserted that management on the directed to lower paidjobs requiring factory level could considerably reduce less skill than they possess.They are job quittingand violationsof labor not eligiblefor a bonus duringthe disciplineby improving working con- first 3 months, nor for a vacation dur- ditions and encouraging workers by in- ing the summer months. centives. "As a matter of principle," Excessivelabor turnover is caused he said, "we muststrictlyhold re- by "flitters"--those who have quit jobs sponsible those managerswhocare little at theirown requestmore than twice for people and the improvement of work- duringthe year. Flittersmay be em- ing conditions, and so allow violations ployed onlyin a limited number of en- of labor legislation." Ir

The International LaborOrganization, Yesterday and Today This summary indicates in some detail "Even though they are called upon to the contents of the book and presents promote the development ofinternational translations of the important passages collaboration, international organiza- which reflect the attitudes and policies tions represent at the same time an of the U.S.S.R. toward the ILO. Follow- arena of sharp conflict. Inthe present ing the title page isan epigraph, one epoch, when there is agenera! crisis paragraph long. TheForeword covers in capitalism as well as a competition 4 pages (pp. 3-6). There are five between two opposite social syst:..', chapters; chapter I (pp. 7-37) covers the largestof the international ,..-- the creation of the ILO and its consti- ganilations, while serving as organs o: tution; chapter II (pp. 38-72) reviews international collaboration, also re- the activities of the ILO in the period flect in their activity the basic con- between the two world wars; chapter III flict of two camps in political, eco- (pp. 73-121) discusses the fundamental nomic, and ideologicalspheres. The ILO activities of the ILO in the post-World is one of these organizations"(p. 3).

War II period; chapter IV (pp. 122-212) ". . . TheILO, having constantly ex- discusses the activitiesand policies perienced the influence of the class of the Soviet Union in regard to the struggle in the world, has well-known ILO; and chapter V (pp. 213-237) dis- ways of influencing to some extent the cusses the need for the ILO to adapt to course of this struggle . . ." (p. 3).

contemporary conditions. There are also 11 . . . From1919 to the middle 50Is, a Biblio- a Conclusion '(pp. 238-242); the representatives of avery small graphy (pp. 243-245); alable of Contents group of capitalist countries ran the (pp. 246-247); and a note (p. 248) that [ILO, considering the organization as the book was signed for printingon their private domain . . ." (p. 3). February 2, 1968). "The situationchanged completely "The International Labor Organization after 1954, the year when the U.S.S.R. of the largest and oldest (ILO) is one and two of its union republics - -the international organizations. With its Ukraine and Belorussia-joined the ILO" help, the imperialists haveattempted "[The ILO J changed from an or- in the to coordinate their efforts gan of almost one-sided propaganda for struggle against the labormovement. capitalist-reform ideology and practice with the However, after World War II, into anarena of fundamental socio- entryof the socialist countries into economic, political, and ideological this organization, the ILO became an struggle between the representatives of arena of the sharpest class struggle the two opposite social systems . . ." . . . This book by V. G. Shkunayev, who (p. 4). participated personally in many ILO The author states that formany years, conferences, for the first time de- the reactionaries in the ILO endeavored scribes exhaustively for Soviet readers to create intolerableconditions for the activity of the ILO and shows the delegates from the socialist countries, enormous contributionof the U.S.S.R. so that they would withdraw from the defenseof the interests of to the ILO, and that representatives of the workers (p. 2). socialist countries weredenied ap- This article has beenadapted by pointments to important posts and or- Edmund Nash fromMezhdunarodnaya Or- gans of the ILO. However, he adds, the ganizatsiya Truda, Vchera i Segodnya by old ILO "bosses" could not win in this Vladimir G. Shkunayev Moscow, 1968. struggle. In 1966 a representative of

45 46 LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R.,

Poland became the President of the In- the time of. Soviet reentry into the ILO ternational Labor Conference, and the in 1954. He mentions that the Soviet representative of the Soviet laborunions Union had joined the League of Nations was elected to the workers° group of (and automatically the ILO) on September the ILO Governing Body (p. 5). 18, 1934, and that it was expelled from The authorstates that the activity the League on December 14, 1939. Follow- of the ILO is often distorted in the ing the expulsion, the Soviet Union capitalist press, especially when it severed its relations with all League concerns matters supported by the of Nations° organizations, including U.S.S.R. and other socialist countries the ILO (pp. 126-143). (The author does (pp. 4-5). not mention the cause of the expulsion- the Soviet invasion of Finland.) The following data are excerpts from "The International LaborOrganiza- Chapter IV: "The Soviet Unionand the tion--whoseconstitution reflects the International Labor Organization (pp. task of supporting the establishment of 122-212). universal and lasting peace--constitutes "On April 26, 1954, the Soviet Union, in itself an arena for actually realiz- assuming the obligationsspecified by ing the policy of peaceful coexistence the constitution of the International of states, and of developing inter- Labor Organization, became a member of national collaboration in economic and the ILO. On May 12of the sameyear, social spheres. The specific tasks of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic the ILO, spelled out in its constitu- and the Belorussian SovietSocialist tion and providingfor the improvement Republic also became members of the of working and living conditions of ILO." Thus, the authorstates, a new workers, do not exclude, but on the con- stage began in the history of this or- trary, propound and thus make more im- ganization, marking the end of the portant the development of international monopolycontrol of the ILO by coun- collaboration in this field" (p. 145). tries of the capitalist system (p. 122). The authorstates thatpeaceful co- "The participation of the socialist existence of statesdoes notmean a countries, primarily the Soviet Union, disavowal of class warfare, and quotes in the International Labor Organization from The Program of the Communist Party meant the creation at the ILO Conferences of the SovietUnion: "Peaceful co- of a strong group of. delegations which existence is the basis of peacefulcom- constantly support the acceptance of petition between socialism and capital- the most progressive proposalsconcern- ism on an international scale, and is a ing questionsconsidered by the ILO specific formof class warfare between . . ." (p. 123). them" (p. 145). 11 . . . They [ "reactionary forces in "The International Labor Organization the ILO"]decided to use all possible is, specifically, oneof the organiza- means from the very beginning to prevent tions through which capitalism is en- the entry of the U.S.S.R. into the ILO; deavoring to exercise its influence then they tried to create a situation over the labor movement. With the par- whichwould compel the Soviet Union to ticipation of the representatives ofthe leave theILO; and, finally, they wanted Soviet Union and other countriesof the by every means possible to prevent the world socialist system, in the work of establishment of normal conditions for the ILO, this organizationhas been useful participation by'the delegations transformed froma forum of almost one- of Socialist sided countries in the work of reformist propaganda into an the ILO" (p. 125). arena of struggle between communist The authordiscusses relations be- ideology and capitalist-reformist ide- tween the U.S.S.R. and the ILO up to ology. This is why the socialistcoun- INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION 47

tries have a profound influence on the toward improving, living and working activity of the ILO" (pp. 147-148). conditions, and toward the protection

. . . The policy of the representa- and broadeningof theirdemocratic tives of the socialist countries in the rights and freedoms (p. 153). ILO is to achieve the preparation of To use the ILO so as to expose simul- economic and social proposalsmost ad- taneously [1] the inadequacy, insta- vantageous to workers and still feasible bility, and reversibility of the re- forms which can be attained with the under capitalist conditions . . ." (p. 150). preservation of power in the hands of "The activity of the delegations of capital and the monopolies, and [2.1 socialist countries in the ILO in the the impossibi. ty of realizing reforms struggle for the genuine interests of without a persistent and decisive the workers must not be separated from struggle of the workers to satisfy other types of activity of socialist their demands, and without the inter- delegations in this organization. It national solidarity of the workers is closely meshed with the work of keep - (p. 153). ing ILO participants informed about so- To use the ILO in the struggle against cialist methods of solving social prob- the capitalist-reformist methods of lems and about the achievements of so- solving social problems, and in the cialist. countries in the area of im- struggle against capitalist-reformist proving theworking and living condi- ideology (pp. 153-154). tions of workers and in the area of To use the ILO and its rostrum to show' raising the material and spiritual [1] socialist methods of solving so- levelsof living. It is also tied in cial problems and [2] the achievements with the propagandizingof the idea of of thesocialist countries in the the peaceful coexistence of states, and areas of improving the living and of international collaboration in mat- working conditions of workers and of ters coming within the competence of the raising theirmaterial and spiritual

ILO . . ." (p. 151). levels of living (p. 154). To use the ILO in the support of the "In summary, participation in the ILO just national aspirations of the has given the Soviet Union and other economically underdeveloped countries socialiW: countries the possibility: in their striving to secure means for independent economic and social de- To use this organization to explain and velopment, especially in the support realizewithin its limits the peace- of the anti - colonial struggle of the ful coexistence of States with dif- leaders of these countries (p. 154). ferent social systems, the preserva- To use the ILOin the struggle to es- tion and strengthening of peace, and tablish the practice of joint action the development of practical inter- by the representatives of the various national collaborationon questions federations in the international trade falling within the competence of the union movement; such a practice would ILO in conformity with theofficial contribute to the liquidation of the goals of its constitution (p. 153). splitcaused by the reactionary To use the ILO in the struggle to pre- leaders of trade unions in some capi- pare proposals concerningmeasures talist countries (p. 154). (reforms) which are the most advan- To use the ILO to facilitate coopera- tageous to workers of the member tion by countries in the exchange of countries of the ILO, these measures experiencewith technical questions or reforms being still feasible under concerning the organization of work, capitalist conditions and directed labor productivity, safety technique toward satisfying the class and gen- in production,vocational training, eral democratic interests of workers. etc.; these things come within the LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R.

scope of the various working parties past" in the ILO (pp. 216-228). of the ILO (p. 154). "The main thing is that the achieve- ments of the ILO and the results of its The author discusses the struggle of activity do not correspond to its tasks, the Soviet Union and othersocialist nor to the needs of our timebrought countries to create normal conditions about by the fundamental changes in the for the equal participation of the world's situation which haveoccurred representatives of socialist countries in recent years. . . The results of in the work of the ILO. He states that the ILO activities, even though these by 1959 the socialist countrieshad activities havebeen expanded in the succeeded in defeating the "reactionary postwar period, arefar from satis- forces in the ILO" in their attempts factory" (pp. 216-217). (1) to deny equal participation in the "Manyquestions of importance to ILO to the socialistcountries, and workers are still not resolved in ILO' (2) to disrupt peaceful coexistence and conventions awl, recommendations. This international collaboration (pp. 155- means that the tasks specified in the 179). ILO constitutionhave not been ful- "[The struggle in the ILO] continues, filled. The questions include the ways as many serious questions still remain to fight unemployment, to reduce the unresolved. The apparatus of the ILO hours of work, and to guarantee wages is still one-sided, beihg staffed mainly which assure adequate livingcondi- by citizens of several large capitalist tions" (p. 217). states. The principle of just,geographic The author also states that the ILO representation has been violated in the should do more in setting up inter- staffing of the important (the Govern- national standards concerning the rights ing Body) as well as the auxiliary of trade unions (p. 217). bodies of the ILO . . ." (p. 179). "There are serious shortcomings in the The last two sections of Chapter V present structure and methods of opera- are entitled "The Struggle of the tion of the ILO . . ." (p. 219). U.S.S.R. and the ILO to Promote Peace "The attentionof many delegations and Improve the Working and Living Con- (and not only the ones from socialist ditions of Workers" (pp. 189-203), and countries) has been attracted to the "ConcerningUnity in Actions of the composition, functions, powers, respon- Representatives of the Trade Unions of sibilities, and rules of operation of the Socialist Countries and of the Trade various ILO bodies. In this area, the Unions of the Capitalist Countries in ILO constitutes itself as a most archaic the ILO" (pp. 204-212). The author example of an international organiza- would like to see one world confedera- tion, which not only doesnot reflect tion of trade unions, insteadof the the real statusof affairs in the in- several international federations of ternational arena, but also does not trade unions now in existence. He ad- take into consideration the experience vocates joint statements at the ILA by of otherinternational organizations the international federations of trade created in the postwar period." The unions. authordisapproves of the limitation, in practice, of the number ("not more The following are excerpts and summary than 2") of representatives from so- statements from Chapter V: "The ILO cialist countries that may be appointed and Present Needs," pp. 213-237. to any one of the working committees at The authordiscusses the natureand the annual summer conference of the ILO consequences of the increased member- (p. 219). ship of the ILO (pp. 213-216). "Still more justifiable criticism has In this section the author calls for been provoked by the composition ofthe the liquidation of "the relics of the staff of the International Labor Office. INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION 49

This staff has been selected by the The author states that theGeneral director-generals, who without excep- Conference is the supreme authority of tion, have been citizens of three States the ILO, but that in practice the Gov; --the U.S.A., England, and France. More erning Body has been usurping this au= than half the staff are citizens of five thority, as a result of years of con- countries (U.S.A., England, France, the trol of the ILO by the "imperalist coun- German Federal Republic, and Canada), tries," which find it easier to carry while at the same time citizensof the out their policies in the small Govern- socialist countrieshold less than 3 ing Body than in the Conference (pp. 221- percentof the positions, and citizens 222). of the 10 largest countries in Asia, "As a result we have aparadoxical less than 5 percent. . . The attempts situation where the General Conference, to perpetuate [thissituationl can only which is the main andmost representa- aggravate the anachronistic conditions tive body, in practice has no decisive in the ILO, and place underquestion influence on the activity of the ILO

the international character of this or- . . . It merely stamps approval on the ganization" (p. 220). proposals submitted to it by the Govern- "The International Labor Office is ing Body. The ILO constitutionpro- not an exceptionamong the bodiesof vides that questions on the agenda of the International LaborOrganization( the Conference may be determined by the as theGoverning . . . Despite the fact that certain Conference as well changes have been made in recent years Body. Actually the Governing Body in thedistributionof seats in the monopolizes this right.The Conference Governments' group in the Governing passes resolutions but their implementa-

Body . . . the trade unions' [or work- tion is dependent on the Governing Body ers'3 group and theemployers' group and the Director-Generalof the Inter- have held a more reactionary stand on national Labor Office, neither of whom Con- this question . . . In the employers' is accountable Akto the General group, the privatecapitalistenter- ference. . . . The Director-General is prise associations havea monopoly of appointed notby the Conference but by representation. This abnormal sort of the Governing Body" (p. 222). representation also existed in the trade The author discusses the development unions' group until 1966 [when some im- of ananti-imperalist and anticolonialist provement was achieved with the seating struggle by socialist and newly inde- of a representativeof the U.S.S.R. pendentcountries at. recent ILO con- trade unions.]; it is necessary that ferences, especiallyagainst Portugal the composition of this group reflect and the Republic of South Africa (pp. justly and proportionately the existing 224-227). varietyof trade unionfederations in The author states that socialist and the international trade union movement" newly independentcountries arede- (p. 220). manding the ILO [to] be more active in "The most reactionary defenders of the promotion of disarmament (p. 228). discriminatorypractices, invoke the The author discusses desirable changes principle of group autonomy in electing in the program and the structure of the members to the Governing Body. However, ILO, with special attention to the re- no group autonomy can justify the gross port,of the Director-General to the violation of the elementary working 1963 conference (pp. 229-237). rules of all international organizations "At-the present time, the situation which provide that the auxiliary bodies of the ILO is such as to make changes of theseorganizationsbe formed on a unavoidable. Complete inactivity and

truly representative basis . . ." (p. the preservationof old procedures and 221). methods of work would utterly compro- 50 LABOR IN THE U.S.S.R. mise the ILO in world public opinion, Director-General be elected by the ILO as well as among the workers of western Conferenceand not by the Governing countries and the majority of represen- Body, that the Conference actually have tatives of the developing countries in the right. to determine its own agenda, Africa, Asia, and South America" (p. that the Governing Body be accountable 229). to the Conference, etc." (p. 234). The authorstates that in 1963 the The followingare excerpts from the delegation of the U.S.S.R. Government Conclusion. presented a memorandum at the 47th "Beginning in 1954, a new and power- sessionof the General Conference con- ful force began to operate in the ILO- - cerning the programof activity and the SovietUnion and othersocialist structure of the ILO; the memorandum countries. Their participation has led calledfor the directionof all ILO to a noticeable strengthening of progres- activity toward three main tasks: The sive tendencies in the work of the ILO, preservationof peace; thedefinitive to the strengthening of the position of liquidation of colonialism and its con- the supporters of peace and social sequences; and the improvement of work- progress, supporters of the preparation ing conditions (pp. 231-232). of effective measures meeting the needs The following are proposals of the of the organizedworking class, the 1963 delegation of the Soviet Union con- needs of the national-liberation move- cerning the structure of the ILO (p. ment. Simultaneously thepositions of 234). conservative and reactionary forces in

"The main proposals are: To increase the ILO are weakening . . ." (p. 241). the roleof the ILO General Conference "Afurther strengthening of the in the determination of the program and progressive, anti-imperalist tendency in the administration of the activities in the ILO resulted from the mass entry of the ILO; to secure strict performance into the ILO of countries which had by the Governing Bodyof its executive shaken of' the shackles of colonial functions; to establish a procedure for oppression (pp. 241-242). timely and unconditional implementation "Such a strengthening of the progres- of the resolutions of the General Con- sive tendency in the ILOcreates more ference; to secure effective realiza- favorableconditions in the struggle for tion of the principleof membership in peace and the peacefulcoexistence and the ILO open to all countries and of collaboration of states, for the liqui- equal participation in all ILO bodies by dation of colonialism and the indepen- countries in different geographical dent socio-economic development of regions and with different social sys- young countries, for the improvement of tems. The delegations of the socialist working and living conditions of workers, countries propose also that the rules of and for the protection and extension of order of ILO bodies provide for demo- their democratic rightsand freedoms" cratic procedures, especially that the (p. 242).

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Region I Region V 1603 JFK Federal Building 8th Floor, 300 South Wacker Drive Government Center Chicago, III. 60606 Boston, Mass. 02203 Phone: 3511880 (Area Code 312) Phone: 223-6762 (Area Code 617)

Region II Region VI 1515 Broadway 1100 Commerce St., Rm. 687 New York, N.Y. 10036 Dallas, Tex. 75202 Phone: 971.5405 (Area Code 212) Phone: 749-3516 (Area Code 214)

Region ill Region VII and VIII 406 Penn Square Building Federal Office Building 1317 Filbert St. 911 Walnut St., 15th Floor Philadelphia, Pa. 19107 Kansas City, Mo. 64106 Phone: 597.7796 (Area Code 215) Phone: 374-2481 (Area Code 816)

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Regions VII and VIII are serviced by Kansas City. Regions IX and X are serviced by San Francisco.