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Family and Fertility Policies in the Soviet Union and Modern Russia

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Family and Fertility Policies in the Soviet Union and Modern Russia A Service of Leibniz-Informationszentrum econstor Wirtschaft Leibniz Information Centre Make Your Publications Visible. zbw for Economics Selezneva, Ekaterina Working Paper Struggling for new lives: Family and fertility policies in the Soviet Union and modern Russia IOS Working Papers, No. 355 Provided in Cooperation with: Leibniz Institute for East and Southeast European Studies (IOS), Regensburg Suggested Citation: Selezneva, Ekaterina (2016) : Struggling for new lives: Family and fertility policies in the Soviet Union and modern Russia, IOS Working Papers, No. 355, Institut für Ost- und Südosteuropaforschung (IOS), Regensburg This Version is available at: http://hdl.handle.net/10419/148912 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Terms of use: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. personal and scholarly purposes. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle You are not to copy documents for public or commercial Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, If the documents have been made available under an Open gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. www.econstor.eu Arbeitsbereich Ökonomie IOS Working Papers No. 355 April 2016 Struggling for new lives: Family and fertility policies in the Soviet Union and modern Russia Ekaterina Selezneva * * Institute for Eastern and Southeastern European Studies (IOS Regensburg), Landshter Str. 4, 93059 Regensburg, Germany. E-mail: [email protected] Landshuter Straße 4 D-93047 Regensburg Telefon: (09 41) 943 54-10 Telefax: (09 41) 943 54-27 E-Mail: [email protected] Internet: www.ios-regensburg.de ISSN: 2199-9465 Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................... v 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 2. 1917 – 1991: Soviet period .................................................................................... 3 2.1 1917 – beginning of the 1930s: political mobilization of women ................... 3 2.2 The1930s – mid-1950s: development of the ‘Soviet family’ concept ............ 6 2.3 Mid-1950s – the mid-1960s: Khrushchev Thaw ......................................... 11 2.4 The 1970s: completion of the system of benefits to families ...................... 12 2.5 1981 – 1983: fertility stimulation ................................................................. 14 2.6 Second half of the 1980s: further benefits for working mothers ................. 17 2.7 1989–1991: regional specifics in fertility stimulation ................................... 18 3. 1992 – 2015: Modern Russia ............................................................................... 22 3.1 1992 – 2000: children’s welfare takes priority ............................................ 22 3.2 2000: Demographic policy until 2015 – combating the demographic crisis .. 24 3.3 Second half of the 2000s: birth certificate and maternity capital ................ 26 3.4 2007–2010: Program of demographic development until 2025, Stage I ....... 29 3.5 2011–2015: Program of demographic development until 2025, Stage II ...... 32 4. Concluding remarks ............................................................................................. 37 References ................................................................................................................. 39 iii Struggling for new lives Abstract During the 20th century, Russian women were assigned the triple role of social and political activists, workers, caregivers and mothers. This paper makes an overview of the main steps undertaken first by the Soviet and later by the modern Russian governments to influence family formation models and fertility levels, in order to improve the demographic situation over the period from 1917 until 2015. The overview pays close attention to such measures of demographic policy as marriage and divorce regulation, support of families through family benefits and the tax system, reconciliation of family and work spheres (maternity/paternity leaves, workplace flexibility measures), fertility promotion, childbearing and childcare support, as well as rare reproductive health protection initiatives. JEL-Classification: J12, J13, J18, P30 Keywords: fertility, Russia, family policy I wish to acknowledge the financial support and hospitality of the Institute of Economic Research, Hitotsubashi University (Tokyo) during my visiting research stay that was used for the preparation of this text. I am grateful to Kazuhiro Kumo and Serfima Chirkova for their comments and suggestions. v Struggling for new lives 1. Introduction The roots of the modern demographic situation in Russia go back deeper in history than the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In the 20th century, often overlapping periods of revolution, civil and world wars, famines and purges have induced a permanent lack of population resources as well as the existence of pronounced demographic waves. These waves were often amplified by policies targeting family life and fertility. From the very foundation of the Soviet states, significant efforts were made to promote the autonomy of women as individuals, and their ability to support themselves economically, while never leaving out of focus their reproductive function. Soviet ideology brought about revolutionary change to models of family formation and the upbringing of children. During the 20th century, Russian women were assigned the triple role of social and political activists, workers, caregivers and mothers. While the relative significance of these different roles changed through the century the identity of men as defenders of the Motherland and of being the main breadwinners remained rather more stable. By the end of the 1960s, a masculinity crisis had hit the country and the motto “Take care of men!” (“Beregite muzhchin!”) was promoted. Contemporaneously, women continued elaborating strategies to cope with the burden of multiple responsibilities (worker/mother- caregiver), thus either asking for help among relatives, or giving birth to a smaller number of children. It was also in the mid-1960s, when – as Vishnevsky (2009) notes – a process of depopulation began. According to Vishnevsky, a latent depopulation stage continued up to the moment of the dissolution of the Soviet Union (a sub-period characterized by the decrease of the total fertility rate below the replacement fertility level of 2.15), then through an evident depopulation stage up until the mid-2000s (a sub-period characterized by the total number of deaths outnumbering the total amount of births), and then developed into the depopulation aggravation stage (characterized by a decrease in the number of women in a reproductive age since 2004, and a decrease of the working age population since 2007; apart from some short- term reversals of the trends due to favourable dynamics linked to demographic waves). Under this context, we will make an overview of the main steps undertaken first by the Soviet and later by the modern Russian governments to influence family formation models and fertility levels, in order to improve the demographic situation over the period from 1917 until 2015. While up-to-the-date literature contains a handful of studies of historical and modern fertility trends, only scattered facts on the underlying governmental policies can be found, especially in English. The current text provides the first long-term systematic overview of the legislation acts regulating fertility and the family sphere in the Soviet Union and modern Russia. The state(s) struggled with comparatively low fertility and high mortality throughout the last century. However the difference 1 IOS Working Paper No. 355 in the state’s attitude (ideology) and its financial capacity in addressing the demographic issues has changed dramatically. Thus we address the Soviet Union and the modern periods in two separate sections. After tracing the course of the demographic policy, we further group the evidence into politically and ideologically more homogeneous sub-periods. The overview also pays close attention to such measures of demographic policy as marriage and divorce regulation, support of families through family benefits and the tax system, reconciliation of family and work spheres (maternity/paternity leaves, workplace flexibility measures), fertility promotion, childbearing and childcare support, as well as rare reproductive health protection initiatives1. The current text provides evidence on the demographic policies chronologically, from the October revolution of 1917 up until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 in Section 2, and from the creation of the modern Russia in 1991 to 2015, in Section 3. The last section briefly summarizes the main characteristics of the demographic policies of the two
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