THE ROLE OF COMMUNITY COMPUTER NETWORKS IN LOCAL CIVIL SOCIETY

John Jespersen B.A., Simon Fraser University, 1993

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTLAL FZiLFILLMENT OF THE REQUREiMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in the Department of Geography

O John Jespersen 2000 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY March 2000

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Community-based computer networks (CCNs) are investigated in terms of their potential role in developing civil society at the local level. This study is shaped by the belief that unequal access to the benefits of timehpace-collapsing technologies leads to increasing centralization of social power over time, entrenching differences in human opportunities. CCNs are explored as a mechanism for addressing this social disparity both directly, through provision of universai access to computer networking technology, and indirectly, through influence on the development of civil society in the locai area. Best practices literature on CCNs is organized to expose the strengths and vulnerabilities of this forrn of local adaptation of technology. Specificdly, the processes involved in establishing a CCN organization, gathering resources for that organization, and developing the technical and informational structures of the organization are exarnined to provide information on how each process contributes to the development of local civil society. A general view of CCN influence is refined, which finds that the process of establishing and maintaining these organizations tends to increase both empowerrnent of individuals involved with the CCN and cooperation between community groups in the area served by the CCN, both of which trends are likely to contribute to the vitality and sustainability of civil society in a local area. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Generous support provided by the Toyota Foundation through the "Pluralism in Cornmunity Development Practices: Can New Information Technologies Build/Maintain A Civil Society?" project CO-ordinatedby Simon Fraser University (SFU) and the University of Northern British Columbia (UNBC) has been crucial to the gathering and organizing of best practices Iiterature for this thesis.

Dr. John Pierce, Dean of Arts, and Dr. Alison Gill, Chair of the Department of Geography at SFU,are owed much for their ongoing feedback dunng supervision of this thesis and, in particular, for their patience during a very Iong thesis development period.

Especial thanks go to Dr. Greg Halseth, of the Geography Program at UNBC, for the time and thought he repeatedly gifted me with. His suggestions have always been very valuable in making this document better organized and more useful to the reader.

My sincere thanks to the following: Heather Jespersen, my partner in al1 things, for the many hours spent reading and rereading the text to ensure that it is understandable to those not farniliar with the language and assumptions of computer technologies; Alison Hill, friend and office partner, for quiet but constant encouragement; Arian Soheili. long- time friend, for not-so-quiet but constant encouragement; and Peter Royce, Co-ordinator of the Vancouver CommunityNet, for his review of the best practices component of this work and his ideas for improvements to it. TABLE OF CONTENTS .- Approval Page II... Abstract 111 Ac knowledgements i v Table of Contents v List of Figures vii

Chapter 1 [NTRODUCTION TO CONCEPTS General Introduction Chapter Description The Research Topic The HaveMave Not Gap Time/Space Convergence Centralization/Decentralization Access Barriers Evolution of Community Cornputer Networks (CCNs) Technical Choractenstics of CCNs Social Characteristics of CCNs The Concept of Civil Society The Connection Between CCNs and Civil Society The Struggle Over Infrastructure Conclusion

RESEARCH LITERATURE REVIEW Chapter Description Community Croup Use of Cornputer Networks CCN Scope and Mandate CCN Usage Within the Comrnunity Influences on CCN Access Benefits and Disadvantages Linked to CCN Use Conclusion

Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY Chapter Description Research Focus Research Method Issues in the Use of Best fractices Bias and Generalizability Conclusion

Chaprer 3 CCN BEST PRACTICES: DEVELOPING LOCAL INTENT AND THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE Chapter Description Forming the Organizing Committee Community Assessment Setting Goals Developing the Working Structure Member Groupings Committee Responsibilities Registering a Legal Structure Orgrinization-Defining Documents Charitable Organization Tax Status Process Summary for Developing Organizational Structure Implications for Lod Civil Society Development Chapter 5 CCN BEST PRACTCES: DEVELOPING RESOURCE GATHERING CAPACITY Chapter Description Issues in Support Acquisition De-rnystifying the Technology Linking the Network with Community Vitality Forming Organizational Alliances Using Local Expertise Fundraising Educating Community Members about the CCN Informing Supporters New User Procedures New User Education Volunteer Orientation Process Summary for Developing Resource Gathering Capacity Implications for Local Civil Society Developrnent

Chaprer 6 CCN BEST PRACTICES: DEVELOPTNG TECHMCAL AND INFORMATIONAL STRUCTURES WHILC ENSLJRiNG COMMUMTY RESPONSIVENESS Chapter Description Developing the Technical Structure Adaptability Vulnerability Communications Tools User Interface Developing the InformationaI Structure The Internet Issue Towards Organizational Maturity Launching the CCN Achieving Critical Mass Responsiveness to the Community Process Summary for Developing Technical and Informational Structures Implications for Local Civil Society Developrnent

Chapter 7 CCN WFLUENCES ON LOCAL CIVIL SOCIETY Chapier Description Decentralization of Social Power, Civil Society. and CCNs The Role of CCNs in Local Civil Society CCNs and Individual Empowerment CCNs and Community Organization Synergy Factors Affecting Finding Generalizability Limitations of the CCN Approach Significance of this Study Space, Place. and CCNS

Appendix A Community Computer Networking Timeline Appendix B CCN Developmental Practices Appendix C Geographic Contexts of Sources of CCN Practices Bibliography vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Description Page

Aspects of local economy

Goal statement development process

Traditional non-profit organization working structure

nattened non-profit organization working structure

Cornmittee interaction pattern

Involving community members in the CCN initiative

Possible individual reactions to the CCN initiative

Potentiai organizationai dies in the community

Basic structures of a community computer network

Three styles of introductory screens

Generalized organizational life cycle

Steps leading to strengthening of local civil society

LIST OF TABLES

Table Description Page

2.1 User characteristics over three CCN studies 32 Chapter One INTRODUCTION TO CONCEPTS

GENERAL INTRODUCTION This introduction is intended to orient the reader to two irregularities in this thesis that may appear disquieting if encountered without prior explanation. The first is a multidisciplinary approach that, although not uncornmon, should receive mention. The second is an inability to adhere strictly to the norrnat forms of citation for the sources of information used in this study. This thesis addresses issues that have, historically, fallen into different categories of study. Concepts and approaches from the fields of Communications, Geography, and Political Science are mingled here to facilitate a greater understanding of the influence which a new communications technology (cornputer networking) with an unprecedented capability to reduce geographic limitations on human interactions (through time-space convergence effects) is having on the development of local capacity to sustain citizen influence over political and economic activities (civil society). The convergence of fields of study is a common trend in acadernic work today, reflecting the ongoing convergence of roles and techniques in Our society. The overlap areas of different fields of study can, like the fringes of different ecological zones, provide a richness and diversity of approach better able to cope with complexity. The theories that underlie this study are drawn from al1 three disciplines but this is by no means the first time that they have been juxtaposed. The concept of civil society is today aimost as commonly found in the work of social geographers as it is in that of political scientists. The probable effects of the adoption of communications technologies on political structures were described in 195 1, with the publication of Harold innis' The Bias of Cornrnttnication. The ability of communications technologies to facilitate a collapse of previous geographic realities such as time and distance was clearly described by Donald Janelle in 1968. These exarnples are presented to demonstrate that the basic concepts that underlie this thesis, despite their differing fields of origin, have been previously used to clarify each other and to develop a richer perspective on human activities. They will be described in further detail later in this chapter and, in the opinion of the author, work well together to build a context and projection for the phenornenom of cornmunity-based computer networking. On a different note, much of the literature available on the topic under research is published electronically. This has led to a range of irregularities in terms of quotations and citations in this thesis. Some publications are noted as king undated in that no single date can be given for their publication. The informal standards for punctuation common to and, in some cases, characterizing communications via computer networks cmbe observed in many of the quotes used in this thesis. No attempt has been made to point out unusuai grarnmar or punctuation in these quotes; they are presented in the forrn the author provided. It is common to find that an online document has been broken up into sections which are sepxately paginated. in such cases, the section or chapter is identified in the citation as weli as the page number to reduce potential confusion.

CHAPTER DESCRIPTION The topic of research for the thesis is introduced. Ideals and theories surrounding the use of community computer networking are discussed throughout the rest of this chapter both to provide context for the study and to provide rationdization for the focus on civil society effects in the research. It is noted that adoption of new information technologies has led to widespread concerns over potentid widening of the gap between individual opportunities. This potentiai is explored through review of the benefits of timelspace convergence, the commonly-found access barriers to information technologies, and the centrdizing andor decentralizing effects of communications technologies. The evolution of cornmunity computer networks (CCNs) is discussed as a direct result of widespread concerns over increasing differences in individual opportunities. The characteristics of CCN organizations are described and then related to the general concept of civil society. Reasons contributing to ongoing problerns in gathering support for CCN initiatives from govemment and business interests are outlined and related to the purpose of the thesis.

THE RESEARCH TOPIC This thesis explores how a new variant of service organization, the comrnunity computer network (CCN), cm be expected to affect conditions in the local areas ihey serve. Previous research in the field and the experiences of CCN organizers will be brought together in order to develop a clear, if generai, description of what can be expected in terrns of aiterations to collective resident ability to retain social power when a CCN is established in a community. The tendency of government and corporate funding agencies to be more interested in supporting research that relates new practices, such as CCNs, to demonstrable economic effects has influenced research in this field. Some researchers who originally sought to elaborate on such relationships have had to shift the focus of their research when the effects they sought were not manifest (Guy 1996b, Patrick 1997). On the positive side, the lack of cIear relationships between CCN development and market economy effects has helped to focus research efforts on more subtle and long-term economic effects revolving around the social economy. Few, if any, of the effects demonstrated for CCNs relate to the measurable aspects of economy. This will be discussed further in Chapter Two but it is helpful to review the character of local economy here as part of the definition of the topic of this research. The market economy is only one aspect of any area's overall econorny but draws the majority of public and political awareness because it is the easiest aspect of economy to measure. Figure 1.1 outlines various aspects of the overall economy. It is a modification of an on-line illustration provided in Issue 278 of the New Internatiûnalist, ( http://www.oneworld.ore/ni/issue 278/totem.html). nt on tI2nsportation and communication astructures, social secunty. heaIth proprns. na tu r nt national defense, education & other collective

Money transactions hidden to avoid taxation or because

I 3 kconomic activities that do not involve monetary SociPl exchange such as: rnost homecare and parenting, Economy food gathering for personal use. self- maintainance of vehicles and other possessions. skill and barter exchanges. and volunteer labour. i I I

- Sustainable ecosystems are the source of the raw materials Natural needed to support al1 other Resource Base aspects of human econorny.

Figure 1.1 Aspects of local economy

Each aspect except the underground economy acts to support thosc that are placed above it in this illustration. The underground economy provides some support to social and market economies and, through these, to governrnent expenditure but it also acts to undermine relationships between the legal aspects of economy. The relative proportions of these aspects of economy Vary somewhat in different areas, but the general relationship is as represented. The ultimate source of econornic vigour is always the natural resource base, whether it is ecosystems in the local area or in other parts of the world that provide the raw resources. The need to protect the sustainability of ecosystems to ensure ongoing economic vigour has been a strong point of argument for the envi ronmentalist movement worldwide and has created a more widespread understanding of the relation between the natural resource base and the market economy. Awareness of the support and context which the social economy provides to the market economy is still rare, however. As we move up through the pyrarnid of aspects that form the overall economy. we find more and more attention is paid by the public and policymakers. Government spending receives even more public debate than the market economy, for example. This trend means that the contributions which social economy makes to overall local economies are often overlooked. Although the sociai economy is difficult to measure or describe, it rnust be explored because it is necessary to the vigour of the market economy. Previous research on CCNs, reviewed in the next chapter, shows that it is also the area of economy most direct1 y affected by the development of a CCN. While a CCN may provide support for the communication and information storage needs of environmental groups in the area, for example, it is unlikely to have any direct effect on the actual sustainability of local ecosystcms. Although some studies have shown Iimited benefits to commercial telecommunication enterprises from the presence of a CCN, these effects are not strong enough to justify the expenditure of resources needed to set up a CCN. A CCN is, however, likely to have direct effects upon local social economy that could improve its sustainability, especially in the area of civil society. Civil society, as that part of the social economy in which people donate their time, skills, or other resources to projects intended to improve quality of life for others, is enhanced when local people become more capable of involvement with it. The majority of demonstrated positive effects of CCN use have tended to be in the areas of improved interpersonal communication, enhanced personal skills, and increased awareness of community issues (Uncapher 199 1, Guy 1996b). These findings indicate that CCN establishment may tend to have positive effects on local civil society. Using a perspective which consciously vaiues a strong civil society as a necessary clement in any community offering residents the opportunity for a good quality of life. this thesis explores the following question: What role do community computer networks play in civil society development at the local level? To fully appreciate the many different factors involved in the potentiai relationship between CCNs and civil society, we need to look at the theories and ideals that surround and inform current debates about CCN establishment and this will be done through the rest of this chapter.

THE HAVWAVE NOT GAP The new information technologies, resulting from development of electronic in formation storage systems and connection of such systems through cable and telephone lines, have been rapidly adopted for professionai and private use throughout the developed worid- The speed and unevenness of deployment of these technologies through society has led to concerns about overall effects of use on the structure and viability of society. Although there is much extrernisrn in forecasts of how society will aIter during the Information Age there is clear agreement that it will alter dramatically. Pessirnists point to the probability that the competitive advantages associated with computer network use will simply enlarge the gap in relative quality of life between technology users and the already underprivileged (Mitchell 1995, Wolpert 1996). Al1 applications of technology take place in a social context. Historically, many technologies that showed promise as tools for the redistribution of social power ended up serving as tools for the entrenchment of already-existing power flows. New communications technologies do not just impact upon places; places and the social processes and social relationships they embody also affect how such technological systems are designed, implemented, and used. Advanced communications networks are king developed and introduced within an existing economic and social context that displays stark geographical inequalities: between, for example, rich and poor nations, central and peripheral regions, cities and rural areas. We contend that the "distance-shrinking" characteristics of the new communications technologies, far from overcorning and rendering insignificant the geographical expressions of centralized economic and political power, in fact constitute new and enhanced forms of inequality and uneven development (Gillespie & Robins 1989, p. 7).

Optimists point to the likelihood that the competitive advantages of computer network use will permit currently disadvantaged individuals and groups to reduce outside control over their resources and to CO-operatelocally to improve their quality of life (Graham 1994, Schuler 1995). However, the optimistic scenario can occur only if computer network access is not limited to groups who are already relatively well-off. By providing new opportunities and empowering people to meet them, interactive communications can help make this the best of times for millions of people. However, it also threatens to create an insurmountabte divide between those with access to opportunity and those without (Morino lnstitute 1995, p. 8).

The new information technologies may represent opportunities for either reduction or increase in the ongoing gaps between opportunities in our soçiety. We need to understand the factors contributing to either possibility if we are to shape deployment of the technology to produce our preferred outcome.

TIME/SPACE CONVERGENCE

The technologies that serve as Our tools during the transition into a networked economy are extremely diverse save in two ways; they al1 use electricity to store, modify, or transmit information and they ail facilitate a collapsing of space or time to benefit individual or group users. Although the first characteristic enabled much of the already- occurring change from an industry-based economy. it is the second characteristic that promises to alter patterns of human societal structure and functioning across the globe. The possibility of conducting most social functions electronicaily has huge societal impacts because it introduces bold new options: distances, rime, and access to people and institutions can easily be spanned to the point that there really ceases to be any good reason why one cannot locate an office, home, school, or other facility virtually anywhere (Halai 1993, pp. 81-82, itaiics mine).

In 1968, Donald Janelle described the concept of 'time-space convergence'. At that time, the idea was of use mainly to geographic theorists needing to comprehend how distances could lose significance through the effects of advances in transportation and communication technologies. Today, the proliferation of 'space-adjusting technologies'. those computer networking tools that are providing us with ways of changing how we interact with each other, makes time-space convergence and related concepts crucial for anyone trying to understand how we are altering our world. When we use a technology that perrnits us to interact more quickly (time-space convergence) or more cheaply (cost-space convergence) over a set distance we have created another reality for that distance (Janelle 199 1 ). Although that distance retains the same number of trees, mountains, or rivers between its measuring points, it has been collapsed in that some or much of its existence is erased in the context of use of that technology. For exarnple, a person who talks to a friend on the other side of a river in the context of telephone use is partaking in a distance reality where that river only partiaily exists. It has lost much of its reality kcause it has kennavigated without the effort that characterizes a physical river crossing. Not al1 of the distance between the two friends in our example has ken eliminated, however. There is still some effort and cost, in the form of use of the telephone, and so there is still some distance left in the reality defined by telephone use. A distance can never be completely erased but it can be collapsed to a shorter/smaller/easier fonn through the use of tools. Any particular distance can and does have many redities for people as different tools are applied to it, but each of these realities exists only within the context of use of a particular tool. Time-space convergence is a crucial concept in understanding the benefits available to compter network users because the use of a tool to collapse distance or time confers definite competitive advantages on the user. This has ken true through the history of humanity. Some of the earliest tools used by Our species served to collapse distance for the user. Protective foot coverings, for example, allow the user to travel more quickly over a set distance than someone who is barefoot. You do not have to have shoes on to travel but the use of them reduces the overall effortkost of travelling, cspeciûlly in certain terrain. The resources you would otherwise have spent can be used elsewhere so that you can accomplish more. The sarne basic process is in effect when more recently developed tools, such as electronic mail (email) are used. EmaiI use cm collapse space and time very effectively. The effodcost involved in sending a message from Vancouver, Canada to Perth, Australia using email is much less than if the telephone were used. Compared to the effortkost involved in physically traversing the distance, it is minute. These differences in costs translate into significant competitive advantages which affect individuai opportunities and effectiveness. Such advantages can be seen even at a very detailed Ievel over a short period of time. A study of the employees of a large American corporation found, over the course of a single year, that individuais who adopted a space-time cotlapsing technology earlier than their peers increased their power and centrality in the organization. Since king central and powerful pnor to the introduction of the new technology was not related to early adoption, there was actual change in the distribution of power in the organization (Burkhardt & Brass 1990). This study provides some rare and welcome quantitative backup for an understanding that is already quite widespread today. individuals and groups who use the technologies which collapse space and time most effectively, and at this point in history that means cornputers networked in various ways, are increasing their social power relative to non- users. If the use of such tools was simply an individual decision, as it was in the study, the cornpetitive advantages gained by users would be no cause of darm. Concerns over the widening of gaps of opportunity focus on the fact that many individuds, and many community organizations, are unlikely to ever have the chance to choose to use modem t i me/space converging technologies.

CENTRALIZATION/DECENTRALiZATION Govemment and commercial management of the connection infrastructure necessary to support the new information technologies has repeatedly led to situations where only individuals with considerable relative wealth or education have been presented with choices over use of the technology. In the early days of cornputer networking, these systems were only available to highly educated researchers and to the heads of major business corporations (Sterling 1993). As systems became cheaper to produce and operate, progressively larger segments of the overall population received access, but the first to access have consistently been the relatively highly educated and the wealthy. In addition, population density has influenced access opportunities in different geographic areas. with deployment occurring first in areas of high population concentration. Since there are distinct economic and social benefits related to use of the technology, the existence of opportunities of use only amongst groups that are aiready relatively privileged threatens to entrench current patterns of power and quality of life in society. Centralization, in the context of communications technologies, occurs when use of the technology tends to shift decision-making powers from low population density areas to high population density areas. All communications technologies have potential for both centralization or decentralization of social power, depending upon the direction of information flow which is supported by use of the technology. The pattern of technology deployment through a population tends to be crucial in determining which overall effect. centralization or decentralization, will prevail. The deployment of some communication technologies ais0 served to underrnine the cohesiveness of rural communities, weakening their sense of autonomy and resolve. This made it more difficult for economic development to take place. The impact of the telegraph is a case in point. Because of high costs, telegraph use was confined largely to businesses and the press; few people used it for social communication, at least in the United States. Among the press, the telegraph fostered the standardization and central processing of news reports, allowing al1 Americans to read the same national and international news stories for the first time. But standardized content diminished the community's importance in the eyes of local citizens, while centralization shifted the locus of control from local editors to national press association headquarters and bureaus (US. Congress. Office of Technology Assessrnent 199 1, p. 6 1).

Contrast the history of the telegraph with the history of radio. Radio technology was and is relatively inexpensive to put together and does not need the wire connection infrastructure of telegraph. In North America, as Wally Bowen points out, .. .the "micro-radio" movement is attempting to resurrect the 1920s tradition of small, low-power radio stations owned and operated by average citizens and non-profits. This movement is vigorously opposed by the industry-dominated [American] Federal Communications Commission (1996, p. 1).

Although large commercial radio broadcasters use standardized news and entertainment segments, there remains a thriving amateur pool of individual and small group broadcasters who speciaiize in local or esoteric information or who simply use the technology to socialize. As Thomas Mandeville notes, the spatial consequences of information technologies are probabiy both centralizing and decentralizing. The determining factor is not the technology brrr how we choose tu rrse the teclznology (1983, p. 70, italics mine).

When a communications technology can be adopted and adapted by normally privileged people to address their individuai needs, there is a decentralizing effect on social power patterns in general and an ernpowering effect upon the individua!. The key seems to be the ability to adapt the application of technology to local or individual needs (Eastman & Mallach 1995). The physicai components of a broadcasting/receiving technology must be readily obtainable and possible to put together without advanced education. Interactions and in formation content must reflect local uniqueness and concerns. Linkages to regional, national, or global information networks must be possible without compromising the focus on the local context. Since early adoption of a technology usually allows more opportunity to adapt the technology, it becomes quite crucial in deterrnining centralization or decentralization trends. This entire process is time-sensitive, because new communications technologies are much more "open" to local adaptation in the first years of development. Eventually, mass marketing of standardized receiving units, which generally cannot be repaired or modified by normal people, will flood Iocal areas with non-adaptable components wedded to standardized information links. As a communications technology, computer networking can be used in ways that either centralize or decentralize social power. Centralization of social power contributes to overall widening of opportunity gaps between individuals, with benefits not based on either individual effort or talent accruing to those who are born into 'central1situations such as highly educated or wealthy farnilies or communities. Centralization creates situations where basic human equality rights are comprornised. Since new communications technologies are usually deployed so that the relatively wealthy and educated have first access, they usually contribute to centralization. Al1 of the media had the characteristic of concentration. The only anomalies were the telephone system (but the directory was concentrated) and the postal system (which was socialized). Ai1 the rest became structured with a central point through which the inforrnation is funneled and from which information is distributed in identical form. 1 cal1 this a "broadcast" structure, and print media quaiifies as well as electronic media. 1 remember the moment in 1969 when 1 looked out my window down the Street and saw al1 the living room windows glowing with the blue light of TV. 1 realized that they were al1 getting their information from Walter Cronkite in New York, but that we had no ready way to get information from each other (Felsenstein 1993, p. 19).

Communications media can support decentralization of social power. It can be used to enhance communication of information about the community within the community, providing a resource of locai knowledge and opinion that can trigger individuals to take decision-making power on for themselves and their area. It can be used to gather information from and about other areas, so that local residents can infonn thernselves without using standardized and often biased professional media sources. It can be used to obtain, or sell, services which would otherwise require individuai travel from the cornrnunity into urban centres. Whether the adoption of new information technologies leads to centralization or decentralization of social power depends upon how it is deployed through the general population. If those already central in power have both early access and a monopoly on decisions of who else shall access, then adoption will likely lead to centralization effects. if access can be made more equal, so that normally-privileged and underprivileged people have a say in how the technology is shaped and spread, then adoption will likely lead to decentralization effects. This dichotomy is overly simple, of course. There are many contributing factors to take into consideration. It serves the purpose, however, of underscoring the essential role of access provision, especially in the early decades of technology adoption through a large population.

ACCESS BARRIERS Access barriers to computer network technology differ in potency from place to place but can be characterized in general. Llliteracy. poverty, and lack of exposure to or training in the logic pathways that dorninate cornputer-user interfaces are the fundamental bamers to individual use (Parente & Prescott 1994). The ability to read and write in English is crucial, as English is the global standard language in computerized communications. Poverty prevents individuals from affording purchase or rental costs for equipment and connection use and is also a major factor in lirniting both education and leisure time for explonng new tools. Unfamiliarity with logic pathways and related ways of thinking makes it very difficult for an individual to effectively use either the commands or the stored information of the computer system (Civille, Fidelman & Altobello 1993). An American survey found that "the more exposure to and experience with information technologies, the more positive people's attitudes towards such technologies and the more likely they are to use them, regardless of residence and other attitudes (LaRose & Mettler 1989, pp. 55-56). This study is of especiai note as the authors were seeking ruraihrban resident differences in willingness to use computer technologies and found no such differences. There is an access barrier common to those who live in rural areas, however. In many areas of low population density, investment in the infrastructure necessary to support high speeds of computer connection has not yet occurred. National governrnents around the world are beginning to focus on supporting access for rurd and economically depressed areas. The European Economic Community has financed test projects in locally-based computer networking in al1 member nations (Gibbs & Leach 1994). The federal government of Canada, through Industry Canada's Comrnunity Access Program, is financing the initial development of five thousand public Intemet access sites in comrnunities throughout the nation. Both programs are aimed at creating computer networking infrastructure in rural or poor iueas that business interests have tended to overlook in their infrastructure investments. Most developed nations now have organizations dedicated to the establishment of CCNs (Graham 1998). Direct government support for improvement of computer network access in underprivileged areas is still rare on a global basis, however, and it is grossly outweighed by govemment support for commercial interests willing to establish connection in früstructure for large areas. However, business investment in the connection infrastructure for computer networking has consistently focused on areas with high population densities. in the United States, for exarnple, one study estimates that rural areas may face a lag time of between 10 and 20 years behind urban areas in terms of achieving the broadband communications infrastructure needed to support advanced computer networking applications (Egan 1992). A similar situation is emerging in the United Kingdom- Data on the deveiopment of cable suggest that this policy [of market- driven infrastructure development] is leading to a more geographically diverse pattern of telecommunications cornpetition and an increasing diversity in the price andor quality of telecomrnunications services supplied to different areas. The emerging imbalance raises questions about the effects on patterns of urban and regiond development (Cornford & Gillespie 1993, p. 589).

Widespread national government policies that encourage business-led infrastructure development seem likely to entrench differential access to information technologies based on population densities in areas of both developed and developing nations. In the present policy scenario, rural residency can be expected to present an access barrier to the benefits of telecomrnunications technology use. Perhaps the most interesting finding of research into access barriers has been the need for mental flexibility on the part of the computer network user (Abler 199 1, Parente & Prescott 1994). Ever since the development of this technology, computer network use has required a relearning of skills about every year and a haif to keep up with ongoing improvements in capability supported by new software, hardware, and forms of connections. As well, the exchange of information over this medium cm be bewilderingly fast and takes forms for which social normality and etiquette are only starting to be developed. Al1 of the other primary barriers to computer network access have evoked suggestions of solutions which may help current populations achieve access. The overall problem of required mental flexibility, however, has evoked only the possible solution of fundamentaliy altering education programs, especially for the young (Halai 1993). As Richard Civille notes, 20% of Our children have attentive teachers, small classes, get good heaith care when they need it , attend good suburban public or elite private schools and are tracked through advanced courses in the Company of their fortunate pers. They have access to computers, good science laboratories, video systems in class, and increasingly -- the Internet. They are taught the art of abstraction -- of finding the pattern that connects, as Gregory Bateson once said, of system thinking -- seeing the whole, the big picture, how to experiment, test and fail, and most importantly, how to collaborate, work as a tearn, and to negotiate. They are learning network literacy. Most students in the United States are not taught this way and do not have access to these kinds of resources. For them, meaning is imposed, not discovered or owned ( 1995, p. 25).

The need for education is the single greatest access bamer to effective computer network use. It is an immense issue in terms of both the number of people who need education and the diversity of forms of that need. Exposure to computer networks is only a smdI step towards addressing the need, but it is an essential first step.

EVOLUTTON OF COMMLTNITY COMPUTER NEWORKING The precursors to what are now known as CCNs were developed as social experiments in giving normally privileged people at least minimal access to the benefits of the new telecornmunications technologies. This new form of grassroots non-profit group, using volunteer labour and donated resources to suppiy their local area with access to the new information technologies, emerged in the United States in the 1970s. Appendix A contains a timeline outlining the events that marked and shaped the evolution of CCNs. Al1 of the early initiatives experienced immediate and enthusiastic public use both in North Amenca (Felsenstein 1993. Patrick & Black 1996) and in Europe (Schalken & Tops 1994, Gibbs & Leach 1994). The ideals and practices of such organizations have become characteristic enough that they cm be clearly defined and the organizations themselves have spread to the point where there are now many community- based computer networks (CCNs or community networks) operating around the world.

TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CCNS Depending on how you describe them, CCNs have existed in North America for between eleven and twenty three years now. The difficulty of defining a new and essentially unique application of technology made it quite hard for early organizers to gain support for their projects from the Iocal community and outside funding sources. Lack of any common description also made it far from easy for pioneers and others interested in the field to find each other and compare experiences. Vagueness and disagreement over community network characteristics has eased since publication of the first widely-accepted description of what makes up a community computer network and what such a network does. Widespread agreement that Anne Beamish had produced the basic definition of a CCN was first evident in discussion mong rnembers of COMMUNET, a listserve dedicated to CCN issues. Consistent citation in the field also supports this view. According to Beamish, the technical characteristics of a community cornputer network cm be summed up as follows: .. .a cornmunity network is always a network of computers with modems that are interconnected via telephone lines to a central computer which provides: community information; and a means for the community to communicate electronically. .. ..Unlike the similarly named "on-line cornmunities" or "virtual communities". community networks are based in a physical place > what participants have in common are their cities and neighborhoods ( 1995, Chap. 1, p. 1).

While this is generally considered to be the fundamental description of a community network, there are, of course, variations in specifics. In some communities the computers may be interconnected by means other than telephone cables. Although this is still rare, wireless connections are becoming more widely available. A common alteration is the use of more than one centrai computer. One of the most difficult issues for many network organizers to settle is whether the system should provide a means for the community to communicate e1ectronicalIy with cornputers outside the local area (usually through the Internet). Many established networks include Internet access as part of their sel f-description. This definition is not enough to differentiate cornmunity computer networks from commercial networks. however, especially now that many commercial networks are providing access to information about the local area. The sociai dimensions of a community network are as essential as the technical ones.

SOCiAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CCNS Four social characteristics distinguish community networks from other cornputer networks. Many people in the field used to argue for the inclusion of certain organizationai goals as king definitive of cornmunity networks, but it is common now to see statements that the goals of the organization should reflect local needs and so should differ at least slightly from place to place. A CCN should demonstrate each of the foilowing qualities. It possesses a grassroots heritage. The network was initially organized, and is still maintained, primarily through the volunteer efforts of local residents who are average in that they are not vested with an unusual amount of political or econornic power. A network initiated by municipal councilors or local business owners does not, for example, have a grassroots heritage (Felsenstein 1993). It is owned and operated by a non-profit organization. A community network uses any income only to support its current and future ability to meet local needs (Morino 1994, Schuler l996b). It provides universal access to communication technologies and information sources so that every person in the community has the opportunity to share in the benefits of such resources. Membership is tnily open to al1 in that community networks do not ignore the effects which differences in experience and situation have on individuai access. This usually translates into very low or no fees for access and may also include special facilities for users who are handicapped in various ways (Gibbs & Leach 1994, Morin0 1994). It places the highest priority on having Iocally relevant content. A cornmunity network actively seeks out information useful to residents and provides space for timely and thorough information on local events. resources, problems, and heritage (Morino 1994).

The social context behind a CCN is vitally important. Normally privileged individuais (those who are not unusually strong in social power due to wealth or formal political position) collectively guide the development and eventual configuration of the network to ensure that the CCN truly works to support equality of opportunities in their community.

THE CONCEPT OF CNIL SOCIETY In a culture that functions on capitaiistic principles, such as ours, market forces organize many aspects of life. To supplement the structure provided by capitaiism, we empower Our government to supply services we want but that businesses are unlikely to provide. The services made available by business and government interests are not, however, dways adequate to meet dlour needs. Adam Smith was the first person to widely distribute a description of the functioning of a capitalistic society. He also foresaw several limitations to capitalism as an organizing principle. The most relevant of these involves the need for a "sovereign", in Our case the govemment, to ensure that institutions for facilitating commerce and for educating the people are established (1904, Book 5. Chap. 1. Part 3, Art. 1). Both types of institutions are needed for the good of a society but cannot readily be established as profitable ventures that finance thernselves- Our present system for maintaining such institutions works much as Smith recommended. Institutions to stimulate economic development and to educate those who cannot afford to pay for it are not left to business interests but are maintained by the government on behalf of the people. A related concern of Smith's regards the ability of national governments to administer institutions which are based in and serve a local area. He notes that Even those public works which are of such a nature that they cannot afford any revenue for maintaining themselves, but of which the convenience is nearly confined to some particular place or district, are always better maintciined by a local or provincial revenue, rrnder the management of a local and provincid adnlinistration, than by the general revenue of the state, of which the executive power must dways have the management (Smith 1904, Vol. 2, p. 252-253, italics mine).

The rationale given for local control is often the greater knowledge which residents possess about conditions in their community. Motivation to manage a service effectively is also usudly much greater in people who are imrnediately affected by it. These considerations, set against the greater resources and wider outlook of large governing bodies, Iead to ongoing debate over which level of government should adrninister particular services. They also form the basis for arguments that some services be managed by the people most directly affected by them rather than by government interests of any level. There will always be a need for individuals and comrnunity groups to address local needs for services that would otherwise not be available. Capitalism can only provide those services which are financially profitable for those managing them. Govemments often lack sufficient knowledge and motivation to ensure that al1 the services which support a high quaiity of life are available to the residents of a community, or that those services are provided in an effective way. A vital civil society is absolutely necessary in a nation organized on capitalistic principles. Civil society is a broad concept which is defined and applied in a range of ways throughout the world. Although civil society can exist in the context of al1 forrns of political organization, we will explore it in terms of the context of capitalism. In the cornmentary on a review of civil society definitions, one author notes that Al1 definitions conceive civil society as distinct from the State, and tend also to distinguish it from the private sector. such that civil society may be perceived generally as the segment of society which, in the name of the general public, is capable of exercising considerable influence over the functioning of both these other sectors. This notion seems central to understanding the potentiai of the civil society and consequently the role it should be expected to play (Huggins 1999, Section 2.2).

As a general description of civil society, this cannot convey the complexity and subtleties of the interactions between government, business, and civil society interests but it does point towards the need for a certain arnount of balance between the activities of al1 three. In face. some definitions describe civil society as the crucial balancing force for government and business interests. The concept of civil society arose with John Locke, the English philosopher and political theorist. It implied a defense of human society at the national level against the power of the state and the inequalities of the marketplace. For Locke, civil society was that part of civilization -- from the family and the church to cultural life and education -- that was outside of the control of govemment or market but was increasingly marginalized by them. Locke saw the importance of social movements to protect the public sphere from these cornmerciai and governmental interests (Frederick 1992, p. 2).

Civil society, then, is a general term referring to an entire aspect of our overall social, economic, and political system in which people take it upon themselves to provide their area with institutions or services for the public good. The activities involved range from the initiatives of individual volunteers to the organization of institutions that can address widespread problerns in the community. It should be noted that, even where individuals seem to be working on their own initiative and without support, civil society activities are usually seen as king accomplished by formal or informal organizations. Civil society is fundamentally an associational domain, which implies that it functions through organized, collective expression. This does not exclude individual opinion, but it does suggest that this operates in fact rvithin o collective rrzediurn and its impact is sanctioned through collective debate, approval, and action (Huggins 1999, Section 2.1, italics mine). individual activists work with a network of social contacts and support that may be visible or invisible to others depending on the formality of the organizations involved. This is an important point for those interested in the development of policies that encourage and sustain civil society initiatives. Although individuds make up the crucial human resources that are the primary asset of most civil society initiatives, the capacity to act on those initiatives appears to be dependent on the existence of an organization supporting and linking individual activists. An immense arnount of volunteer time and resources is poured into civil society work each year. Since it is by its nature difficult to attach exact figures to, the contributions of civil society work to our overall economy are often overlooked by analysts. The social economy, which includes both civil society and the value arising out of personal care of self, farnily, and possessions, is a very significant part of our national economy. One estimate, taken from an online journal. estimates that it is actually one and a half times the size of the more visible "market economy" in developed northern nations (the relevant issue of the New Intemationalist can be accessed at http://www.one world.org/ni/issue 278/totem.html). Civil society works fairly well to address needs in Our culture that would othewise not be met. There is generally a lag time before a new need cornes to be addressed, but nearly al1 do corne to be addressed. Civil society initiatives have their beginning in an individual who sees that something needs to be done and who takes it upon themselves to see that it is, usually by involving others in the project until sufficient resources have been gathered to address the need. Civil society work often leads to personal empowerment for the volunteers who take it on, even as their work contributes to the communal good. These things are not achieved without challenges, however. and the problems faced by people who involve thernselves in civil society work are always changing to reffect both local conditions and overall changes in Our society.

THE CONNECTION BETWEEN CCNS AND CIVE SOCIETY The new information technologies present a twofold problem in tems of general civil society. Firstly, organizations and individuals that work to achieve civil society goals tend to be unable to benefit from the new information technologies to the sarne degree as business and government interests (Brainerd Foundation 1995). This is i rnportant because Civil society exists as a medium of communication, among public associations and in respect of public poIicy and public policy options and social values. This in turn suggests that irifonnationflow and access are crucial to the functioning of civil socieiy. It is difficult to envisage an effective, functioning civil society where the free flow of information is inhibited, either as a result of coercive policy on the part of the State sector or as a result of institutional, technology and poverty limitations. On the other hand, the phenomenal modem advances of a relatively low- cost and widely accessible information and communication technology, through computers and the Internet should serve as a major boost to the existence and functioning of civil society (Huggins 1999, Section 2.1, italics mine).

Civil society organizations tend to be poor in monetary resources and to have only weak access to highly trained individuals. The access barriers of poverty and low education standards apply to many of these organizations. Since the benefits of communications technology use are quite significant, this leads to alterations in the essential balance between activities of business, government, and civil society interests, with civil swiety organizations unable to keep up with the level of effectiveness of other organizations. In addition, the cornpetitive advantages of using these technologies are raising concerns that access to them needs to be recognized as a basic human right, although government and business groups tend to see them as being a privilege of those who are already prosperous and well-educated. If equal access to new information technologies, at least at a basic level. is a right rather than a privilege then there is imrnediate need for organizations that help provide basic and universal access to individuals and for other civil society organizations. If equal access to basic cornputer network services were available to the public through government or business sector services, there would be no need for civil society organizations to take this responsibility on. There is considerable reason to believe, however. that there is and will be need for civil society intervention in the provision of information technology access. Bottom-up development of effective measures for ensuring that al1 individuals have their basic needs and rights met is at the core of civil society ideals. CCNs are in themselves a form of civil society organization. They also show considerable promise as a kind of wedge to open up and maintain opportunities for: increased sharïng of the information needed to support civil society activity at the local level; improved public awareness of local issues needing civil society intervention; and increased skills and resources for the individuais who are the potential human resources of civil society organizations.

THE STRUGGLE OVER INFRASTRUCTURE Individuals and groups who feel that the provision of computer network access in their area should not be left solely to the choices of business and govcrnment interests sometimes take action on the issue by forrning a CCN. These organizations have had considerable difficulty world-wide in obtaining the cooperation from govemments and businesses that many civil society organizations can expect. Despite over 60,000electronic bulletin board systems already operating in the US alone, minimal government or corporate support has been demonstrated for the proliferation of these versatile systems in communities. The advocacy for the very real benefits that community telecomputing has dernonstrated has corne from the bottom-up, not from the top-down (Odasz undated, p. 2, accessed September 1994).

A discussion of recent history is given here to outline the reasons why such cooperation has been hard to obtain and why CCNs hold real promise for resolving the dilemma which the new information technologies present to civil society as a whole. In 1993, Revenue Canada rejected the National Capital FreeNet (NCF)'s request for charitable organization truc status. The NCF is Canada's second oldest CCN, operating out of Ottawa. Its mission statement gives a good idea of why the organizers felt it operated as a charitable organization. The National Capital FreeNet is a free, computer-based information sharing network. It links the people and organizations of this region, provides useful information, and enables an open exchange of ideas with the world. Comrnunity involvement makes FreeNet an important and accessible meeting place, and prepares people for full participation in a rapidly changing communications environment (Patrick & Black 1996, p. 1, italics mine).

As can be seen from this mission statement, the goal of a typicd CCN is to remove at least two of the primary barriers to widespread access to computer networking technology; the barriers of poverty and lack of experience/training in computer use. They address another barrier as weL Using donations, grants, and voluntary membership fees, CCNs develop connection infrastructure for their local area. Although their goals and likely effects seem positive and straightforward, they have had ongoing problems in establishing relationships with government and business interests so that they cm better achieve those goals. 1 think we should be promoting community networks as keys to self- governance, to revitalizing communities and to meeting the public interest in universal network access. But, through my own involvement in the National Capital FreeNet, 1 have become quite concerned that the Canadian [government's] policy agenda regarding information and communications infrastructure is ignoring this opportunity (Graham 1994, p. 3).

There is a subtle but crucial battle being fought over control of the connecting infrastructure which supports computer networking. Business interests, governments, and grassroots comrnunity groups are dl engaged in a three-way tug of war, the results of which will determine if access to the advantages of computer networking will be universal or strictly controlled by groups already central in social power. This battle is occurring in every nation in the developed world and in those parts of the Third World where computer networking technology has penetrrited. Why would any interest fight, either directly or indirectly, to prevent universal access to the benefits of computer networking? Other space-time collapsing technologies, like the telephone and video transmission, have achieved near universal access in developed nations through direct government and business support, including support of early grassroots efforts to extend service into new areas. What is it about computer networking technology that makes govemment and business interests seem to want to limit access to it? To understand this issue. we need to look at the patterns which arise when people begin to use computer networking to communicate with each other. Computer networking facilitates the communication of many to many, which is fundamentally different from the one to many pattern that is typical of the other communications media of our time (Harasim 1992). As Frank Odasz notes, Networking represents a culture shift towards new communications behaviors. Existing management structures are threatened by the lateralization of information access. If control of information represents power, resistance to making information more broadly availabte is to be expected (undated, p. 17).

When information flows from one point to many. it is relatively easy for the govemment to regulate the information content. In Canada, this is the primary function of the Canadian Radio-television and Telecornmunications Commission (CRTC). Other national governments have similar watchdog agencies that allow them to express their policies in terrns of the information content reaching the general public. It should be noted that the general public usually wants there to be at least some censorship of broadcast content. The CRTC acts as a direct regulatory agency on the teievision and radio stations, telephone companies and cable television networks. This strategy for content regulation does not work, however, with a medium like computer networking where anyone can be a broadcaster. With computer networking, information content cannot be filtered at a single broadcast source, so governments are seeking new ways to achieve regulation. In most cases, this takes the form of obtaining some control over the connection infrastructure that supports local access to the global network of computer networks, the Intemet. Govemments have been quite happy to have businesses, especially those already involved in telecommunications, establish and control connection infrastructure- A national government agency can obtain regulatory influence over severai large connection providers, given a few concessions. It has a much more difficult time influencing thousands of independent cornmunity computer networks. Business interests are also trying to obtain control over connection infrastructure and they have two good reasons for doing so. Firstly, the provision of Internet access and intemal communications capability to a region is highly profitable when each computer network user can be charged leasing fees for use of the connection. Secondly, the charüctenstics of computer networking as a medium favors small, flexible enterprises over the large corporations that presently dominate the broadcast media. Neither large corporations nor large governments seem capable of dealing effectively with these rapid changes in the field of telernatics. Small businesses and local institutions tend to move more rapidly to the required "culture of adaptability" which the nature of telernatics makes mandatory (Godfrey & Levy 1995, p. 3).

Computer networking is a highly volatile technology. requiring ongoing learning just to maintain competence. The effect created by many people interacting with many people electronically, called cyberspace, is even more volatile. Smail speciaiized companies that can reconfigure themselves to meet the constantly changing opportunities presented via cyberspace cm outperform the econornic giants who are used to mopping up competitors with economies of scde and distributor monopolizing but who are inherently less flexible. The only way in which the big players can maintain their current standing in earnings from broadcasts is to limit the participants by obtaining control over the computer network infrastructure. During the industrial Revolution, the "comrnons" land that had been available for use by al1 and had served as a sort of subsistence safety net for the poor was enclosed by major landowners in England and Europe. Today, we are seeing the endosure of cyberspace. Enclosure of cyberspace allows businesses to both charge at the "gates" for access and limit the pool of potential cornpetitors for those tolis. As Garth Graham points out, Think of cyberspace as public space, not "infrastructure." The gateways into it are the function of information technology, and therefore have a price. But the metaphor of "infrastructure" as used in the U.S. National Information Infrastructure and the Canadian Information and Communications Infrastructure suggests that cyberspace is not a place but a thing that we build. By the use of this metaphor, business is enclosing a public common for private gain. They are occupying the transit lounges and shoreline properties on the oceans of imagination (1994, p. 2).

Government and business interests both cite econornic efficiency as the rationaie for business-control ied connections infrastructure development (Egan 1992). CCNs are notoriously short of capital and take longer to establish local networks with outside connections than businesses specializing in leasing out connection infrastructure do. Such businesses are often called Intemet Service Providers (ISPs) in North America. Although the speed with which ISPs cm set up networks in major population centres rnay efficiently serve the purposes of strengthening a nation's ability to compete in the international economic arena, it is not an efficient way of ensuring universal access to the benefits associated with computer network use because ISPs tend to overlook poor and rural cornrnunities. The tug of war over control of connection infrastructure highlights the fact that the interests of govemment and business are not necessarily the same as the best interests of the individual citizen. The desire to control connections infrastructure for computer networking is really just an expressed preference for social stability within their nation on the part of governments and big businesses. It is well-understood that, ail social institutions have their relative certainties made possible by the centralizing power of the technologies of mass communication. The relative certainties that accompany attenuated access to the means of symbolic production is welded into the fabric of al1 institutional policies and practices. Assuming, then, that access to the means of cultural expression will be increasingly distributed, it follows that al1 of the institutions of modem society will be threatened or at least inconvenienced by this development. While expressions like "public involvement", and "participative democracy", are imbedded into our rhetoricd traditions, their unquestionable acceptability has always been conditional upon their equally unquestionable non-attainability (Weston 1994, p. 2).

The many to many information flow perrnitted by computer networking technology can appear threatening to the powers-that-be in any particular nation. There is good reason for narning this the time of the Information Revolution or the Digital Revolution (Morino 1995). The ease with which normal people can find an effective broadcast "voice" using information technologies challenges several of the hierarchies in socicty through which a person must usually work their way if they are to be widely heard. l%e responses of governing bodies to computer network use by citizens have included Iegal suits that amount to censorship attempts, withdrawal of funding to organizations involved in developing public access computer networks, and in some nations, outlawing citizen possession of computer modems (Guy 1996). Computer networking shares with ail other communications technologies the capacity to either centralize or decentraiize social power depending on how it is deployed in a comrnunity. The discussion thus far makes it clear that those already centrai in power disagree with those who are not as to how computer network access should be provided. A recent skirmish provides hope for those who advocate universal access, at lest in Canada. In a landmark decision for Canadian law and computer-based communications, the Federal Court of Appeal ruled on July 8, 1996, that the Vancouver Community Network Association, a non-profit community network, may apply for charitable [organization] tax status under the Income Tax Act (Guy 1996a, p. 1)-

This legai victory was a crucial first step in the achievement of government and business recognition of the need for at least some cyberspace gateways open to, owned, and operated by the public.

CONCLUSION Community-based computer networks cmhelp ensure that cyberspace remains a commons of information betonging to the public and accessible to dl. If enough CCNs are established and developed into sustainable organizations, govemments and business interests will not be able to enclose cyberspace and universal access to the benefits of the new information technologies will become a red possibility (Felsenstein 1993). The Industrial Age saw a narrowing of the gap between the privileged and not- privileged classes of Society in terrns of available opportunities for improving individual quality of life. The Information Age holds out a similar promise. Like any potential for change, however, this one is constrained by a window of time and it will take much work to ensure that the change goes in the desired direction. It may seem overly optirnistic to place so much hope in CCNs as a tool for improving social equality. At present, however, they represent a reai opportunity for ensuring universai access to information technologies. The difficulty of obtaining financial or other forrns of support from -government and business interests for CCN developrnent remains a problem, however, and seriously affects the probability that sufficient numbers of sustainable CCNs will be established. One of the greatest contributing factors to the current lack of government and business support for CCN development has ken the presence of considerable misinformation and confusion about what a CCN is (Anderson 1992). Anne Bearnish

( 1995) helped to establish a consensus among CCN practitioners about the characteristics and goals of a CCN, but this clarity of purpose has not been communicated over time to policy makers and the world of business. CCN activists have remained largely isolated in that both resources and information are generally not flowing between this group and the one that possesses most of the decision-making power for our nations. There is a definite need for a clear, brief description of how a CCN cm benefit a locd area, generdizable enough that policy makers wiII pay attention to it and based on sufficiently detded research that they can have faith in it. This thesis was written with the intent of contributing to the development of such a description. Chapter Two RESEARCH LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER DESCRIPTION The general context for research on CCNs is outlined in this chapter, with past research divided for the sake of clarity into similar topic groupings. Findings from studies on community group use of computer networks, the scope and mandate of CCNs, local usage of CCNs by individuals and groups, and community attitudes towards CCNs are presented- The topic of the current study is discussed in relation to these findings.

COMMUNITY GROUP USE OF COMPUTER NETWORKS A survey published a decade and a haif ago noted that those community groups found to have adopted computer technology were relatively resource-rich. Lack of funds and a discomfort with or fear of computers were found to be the two major factors inhibiting adoption, with the lack of software developed for the particular needs of community groups also king of note. Most groups who adopted the technology did so in order to increase office task efficiency. Even those who had planned to use the computer system for communications support tended to use it only for office organization (Haight & Rubinyi 1983). Several years later, a more extensive study again found that computers were primarily used for interna1 office organization when comrnunity groups did adopt them. Those groups who had intended to expand use into communications support found it difficult to initiate and support network projects. The reasons offered for the slow emergence of network applications included: difficulties in coordinating efforts with other groups; lack of time within individual groups; tcchnicai problems with the equipment or software; and budget constraints, especially in relation to costs of using long-distance telephone connections. Individual group ability to effectively use network applications of computer technology was found to be linked to rehtively greater resource access. It was found that the major barrier to resource-poor community group use of networking technology was a lack of both the time and the energy required to learn the computer system on the part of staff (Rubinyi 1989). These two studies were undertaken in the United States before and during the development of the first CCN, which began operation in 1986. Their findings influenced CCN emergence both by contributing to widespread concems that civil society organizations would be excluded from the benefits of computer network use and by identifying some of the bamers which would have to be overcorne if groups working to improve conditions in local areas were to have realistic access to the new information technologies. A more recent study (Halseth 1996), confirmed that cost and staff or volunteer leaniing time remain major access barriers to cornmunity group use of computer networking in rural B.C.

CCN SCOPE AND MANDATE It was nearly a decade after CCN emergence before studies directly focused on CCNs began to be published. The first CCNs were operated mostly by volunteers with few resources to put toward studies (data on both the small operating budgets and the prevalence of volunteer management cm be found in Molz 1994, pp. 52-62). In the mid 1990s there was a sudden and dramatic surge of research. This reflected both the dcvelopment of a demand for papers, due to initiation of conferences dedicated to CCNs, and general public optimism and interest over the rapid spread of new CCN initiatives through developed nations. CCNs were still few and far between, however, and much of the research was of a general nature, focused on the structure and goals of this new variety of community organization. An influential study of this kind sought to identify general CCN characteristics and means by which individual CCN initiatives could be monitored for progress in terms of their stated goals. Four models for CCNs were outlined: Free-Nets, bulletin board services, government sponsored networks, and wired cities. The best mode1 would combine the best aspects of each: the access and community development focus of Free-Nets, the high level of participation by city government in govemment-sponsored systems, the intimacy of neighborhood bulletin boards, and the wired city's practical focus of ensuring a connection for al1 homes, classrooms and businesses plus the liveliness and sustainability of the commercial bulletin board systems like ECHO and the WELL (Bearnish 1995, p. 87).

It shouId be noted that only the first two models would be considered CCNs given the grassroots heritage characteristic of the social definition used in this paper. Confusion over whether government sponsored networks and wired cities are part of the CCN movement persists to this day. Anne Bearnish observes that "it is essential that community networks be measured against the direction and speed of moving toward their goals, rather than the goal itself' ( 1 995. p.7 1 ). Three characteristic long-term goals are described: strengthening the comrnunity; improving democracy in the local area; and ensuring local access to national information infrastructures. Beamish recommends that researchers examining CCNs explore the extent to which the user population reflects the overall population of the community. Another study performed around the sarne time provided some very welcome quantitative data on the structure and functioning of CCNs, although the presence of several government-managed networks in the sample group created difficulties in terms of establishing trends. The problem of including fundamentally dissimiiar organizations in the sample group was highlighted by the finding that "Network governance was in many ways linked to the funding source" (Molz 1994, p. 57). with institutions providing large arnounts of funding dso providing direct administration and staffing. Significant differences in organizational structure and goals were found between networks organized using top-down as apposed to bottom-up approaches. Grassroots-based networks had considerably smaller monetary resources and could support very few, if any, paid staff. Low-level operating budgets comprise both a strength and weakness of the civic networks. Similar to the funding available for many activities organized at the grassroots level, network funding is scarce. Although this scarcity tends to threaten the network's operating capabilities, it also helps to mobilize local resources in the fonn of volunteer assistance and in-kind donations not available to the for-profit sector (Molz 1994, p. 58).

The major obstacles encountered in developing the network were given as: lack of adequate funding; lack of collaboration arnong potentiat participants; and lack of computer know-how on the part of the public. Like Beamish, Kathleen Molz calls for

It should be noted that the CCNs involved in these studies were among the first established globaily (Appendix A presents a timeline showing the relative dates of emergence of these and other significant CCNs). This primacy is evident to a certain degree in the differences found in user residency. Cleveland Free-Net was the world's first CCN and naturally attracted a great deai of attention and use from people outside the Cleveland area. Digital City was the first CCN established outside of North America and was the object of much interest throughout Europe. By the time that the National Capital Free-Net was under study, there were quite a few other CCNs operating, with users generally focusing on the ones found in their own nation or region. The user populations characterized by these studies represent very earl y adopters of this form of computer networking technology. Studies of the user populations of well established CCNs would probably show increasing trends towards diversity. In the study overseen by Kathleen Molz, it was found that information on usage rates and user demographics were not being gathered by the network organizations in ways that would allow ready cornparison of various networks, but an important overall trend in user populations was found: ...the first users were mainly white, middle-ciass, younger, male, owners of PC/modems, and relatively well educated. The next group was composed of white, older, PClmodem owners. However, the longer the rletwork operates, rhe more dissimilar its popdation group (Molz 1994, pp. 54-55, italics mine).

This finding provides some optirnism for the use of CCNs to overcome long- standing gaps in access to the benefits of information technologies. Qualitative studies about CCN usage indicate that user populations become more representative of community diversity over time (Harsh 1995). A study to determine the level of dernand in Regina, Saskatchewan for a CCN noted that At the present time, most prospective Free-Net users have acccss to a home computer or are contemplating purchasing a cornputer with modem. As such, the majonty of prospective users are male, but not overwhelmingly so. Users will tend to have a high school diploma or bachelor's degree, be in the 25-44 age bracket and make above $35,000 per annum in household income. The study aiso found a strong level of support across ail population sub-groupings. There was strong interest in the Free-Net among low-income respondents and high school students and as the percentage of homes with computers continues to expand, these groups have the potential of becoming major users of the Free-Net as well (Neidermayer 1997. p. 2 1 ).

S trategies to improve accessibility for low-income, minority, and specid needs groups are cornmon topics in the conferences and literature dedicated to CCNs. Many CCNs support ongoing outreach programs with the intent of establishing user groups that are representative of the diversity present in their communities (Agger-Gupta & Strickland 1995). Despite such efforts, CCN user groups have not been found to be representative of community populations. This is a significant overdl strategy weakness given that CCNs are being used with the intent of creating universal basic access to information technologies.

INFLUENCES ON CCN ACCESS An early study set in Montana, USA shows that attitudes towards information technology present a significant barrier to CCN use in sorne comrnunities. Older people, especially, are likely to consider themselves too busy to learn new techniques. Among those adults who do expect to use the technology, a considerable number intend to learn second-hand through their children. Media portrayals of computer networking as an 'arcane' art contribute to feelings that normal adult people cannot readily leam and benefit from the technology. In the rural setting of the study, previous top-down attempts to get farmers using information technologies failed and prejudiced community members against any further involvement with the technology (Uncapher 199 1). Exploration of Canadian regulatory influences, both present and potential, has demonstrated that the government is unlikely to be able to ensure widespread access, let alone access that permits local adaptation of the technology (Avis 1995, Guy 1996b). The situation in the United States is considered to be even worse (Avis 1995). Historical views that saw a division between information content and carriers of that content have persisted to complicate current regulatoq*situations. As Andrew Avis points out, the Canadian government is currently willing to reserve a portion of public space in cyberspace in terms of regulating provisions that cal1 for a proportionate amount of comrnunity information. There is as yet no observable willingness, however, to regulate a public component in terms of infrastructure. Without me public control over at least some of the infrastructure, measures to ensure locally relevant information are very vulnerable to distortion from their original purpose. Andrew Avis points this out when he quotes and cornrnents on a recent Canadian Federal policy statement; "parties wishing to operate new broadcasting distribution undertakings should come forward with innovative proposals for providing community expression, perhaps through incorporation of interactive comrnunity diaiogue and vehicles for sharing information." ... [this position] seems an open invitation to newcomers to the broadcast arena to contribute the bare minimum to comrnunity access, as there are no guidelines and no mandate for that contribution. In this scenario, telcos may be able to pass off phone-in or speakers' corner shows as 'community access' - leading to innovative uses of the term 'community access' rather than innovative services (1995, p. 23; quoting CRTC 1995, p. 46).

Provision of some local content selected by commercial or outside interests is not equal to what Avis calls 'valuable' access provision. Valuable access to content requires that the community served has decision-making power over that content and they are very unlikely to obtain this without some control over communications infrastructure. The oft-neglected principles of equity and social self-determination depend in large measure on the real control that cornmunities have over the resources they depend on for the meeting of their needs - both material and non-material (Gardner & Roseland 1989. p. 44, italics original).

If community residents are to retain control over the economic future of their communities, they must own and manage the infrastructure gateways for computer networking. The fast pace of transformation of economic activities into electronic media is making this issue very immediate. Individuals active in CCN devetopment reported their concerns over increasing enclosure of cyberspace by commercial interests in another recent Canadian study. Closely related to these concerns over public space are concerns of local control and ownership. Just as most mass media interests are highly centraiized, and most information content is controlled by conglomerates based in Toronto, New York, Los Angeles and London, so too are popular online services becoming centralized. The promise of the Internet, with its decentralized and user-controlled information services is not entirely gone, but many respondents said that they believed that big businesses that control the mass media today would likely control the online world also (Guy 1996b, Chap. 7, Section 2.1). If commercial interests have ai1 the decision-making power over computer network infrastructure development, universai access to the benefits of use of such technologies will be seriously compromised.

BENEFITS AND DISADVANTAGES LINKED TO CCN USE The personai and communal ernpowerment potential of CCNs is a difficult area of study in terms of obtaining reliable and specific data. Anecdotal reports on the personal benefits of CCN use are widespread (see Appendix A of Monno 1995 for a classic exarnple). Interviews of residents of a cornmunity served by a CCN called the Big Sky Telegraph have resulted in findings of a range of actual benefits. individuai users pointed out that they benefited directly from such things as: peer support for isolated professionals; serendipity effects in online research: and confidence improvement as a result of mastering new techniques. The community as a whole benefited in that the CCN enabled new opportunities in terms of satellite offices, telework, and rernote education, al1 of which have potentiai for reducing trends of leakage of bright and ambitious people out of rural communities (Uncapher 1991). Approaching the benefits issue from a quantitative perspective, another study found that more than half of the CCN users surveyed reported immediate personal benefits in the areas of: improving their computer literacy; acquiring informai learning; forrning new and ongoing social relationships; and accessing entertainment (Patrick 1997). In some communities, commercial telecommunications interests expect to benefit from the establishment of a 'bridgehead' for community informatization. [US West] stands to gain from the increasing viability of regional businesses, educational projects and institutions, and their new habits of information consrcrnption. An official with US West said to me that whether or not US West itself became [a] value added information provider, it stood to gain from greater business stability and information traffic (Uncapher 199 1, p. 73, italics mine).

Tangible benefits for commercial interests from CCN development can include a harvest of already trained users, as well. According to the respondents, Island internet and the other commercial provider in town, Digital Ark, view the community network not as a threat but as a useful education base. Users often migrate, in a sense, from the training grounds on the cornmunity net to the commercial operations (Guy 1996, Chap. 6, Section 1.2).

These benefits to commercial interests represent the evidence noted to date of direct influence on local market economies through CCN development. Garth Graham provides a note of caution for those who might focus on the commercial benefits of CCN development, however. We must not sel1 community networks on the bais of their potential to train consumers of network based products and thereby increase demand for commercialty supplied network services. How will we ever comprehend the differences between and information-based economy and a market-based economy, if one of the vital instruments of change, community networks, is perverted into an instrument of the declining paradigm? ( 1994, p. 10).

Graham raises a difficult issue for CCN managers, since grant funding tends to be si gni ficantl y easier to obtain from govemment agencies and foundations when positive market economy, rather than social economy, effects are predictable. Negative consequences of computer networking technology use on community groups and individuals tend to fa11 into two categories: potential privacy or personal security infringements; and inefficient use of limited resources. Willard Uncapher ( 199 1) found that awareness of both these problems was widespread in the population served by Big Sky Telegraph and directly affected willingness to explore CCN use. Both categories of negative benefit present major problems to individuals and organizations affected by them. Much more study is needed in this area. The benefits and disadvantages of CCN use tend to differ among various groups within the community (Uncapher 199 1). Less educated individuals and those who do not type generally have to put more time and effort into leming to use the technology, for exarnple (Avis 1995). The information and communications resources available online may be better tailored to the needs of particular groups, too. Since many CCNs provide links to library or school archives, they can be of much use to school teachers, for exarnple (Uncapher 199 1). CCN organizers need ways to assess the usefulness of the systern to different groups within the community. Two methodologies for achieving this have ~eenbrought forward. A quantitative approach to the evaluation of service provision has been outlined in a taxonomic forrn (Doctor & Ankem 1996) and a qualitative frmework for exposing best practices in the field has been described (Gygi 1996). Most CCNs lack the resources to adequately support ngorous research into their own past and present ability to meet the needs of different user groups within the community, however.

CONCLUSION Past research on CCNs has generdly focused on whether their development and presence has a positive effect on cornmunities, gradually exploring subtler issues in this question over time. Definitions of positive effect differ widely but there are trends in the findings, especidly those from qualitative studies. that support the view that CCNs have potential to directly address some previously unmet needs in the community and so to indirectly contribute to local retention of social power (in other words, the development of civil society in the local area). There are even stronger finding trends that indicate that this potential is not likely to be redized without significant efforts to understand and implement strategies to ensure it in the face of an unpromising political and economic context. Studies of CCNs as potential stimulators of social change need to emphasize local context over inherent communications medium characteristics (Uncapher 199 1). Any technological determinism must be avoided in CCN studies because "communities and social groups shape community networks, not vice versa" (Avis 1995, p. 49, italics original). The ability of local people to adapt a technology to meet the particular needs of their community is likely to be crucial in determining whether computer networking will have a strong positive effect upon community conditions. The focus of research in this field rnust remain on human use of technology to meet human needs. There is a widespread need for clear and general understandings of how CCNs cm benefit local areas. Media-fostered mystique and a very real fear of change following use of new technologies has influenced willingness to support or engage in CCN development. The diversity of CCN and civil networking initiatives does not help this situation, in that reports from different initiatives present confusing and often contradictory pictures of what people can expect when a CCN is developed for community use. Current policy for changes to Canada's telecommunications infrastructure essentially ignores the potentiaily valuable role CCNs might play in countering centralization of social power and increasing of the gap between have and have-not groups in our society during the transition to an information-based economy (Graham 1994, Avis 1995). Research is needed that can contribute to a straightforward understanding of what can be expected when a CCN is developed, in order to counter the confusion that is currently prevaient and give CCN organizers, government agencies, and potential funding agencies a common ground for discussions of what each group might bring to shared initiatives for ensuring universal access to cornputer networking benefits. The unstable potential of CCNs for decentralization of social power demands further research into the factors influencing realization of positive social effects from CCN development and presence in a community. Information on specific local adaptations of technology is important to such research, but must be presented in a way that reduces, rather than increases, prevailing confusions over the functioning of CCNs. CCNs are a form of civil society organization in that they are developed by members of a community to address social needs that are not king addressed by business or government interests. They are also examples of Iocd adaptations of communications technologies and, as such, have potential to significantly influence the ability of individuals and groups to take decisionmaking powers into their own hands and so enhance overall civil society in their local area. CCNs may form a support structure for other civil society initiatives, providing both encouragement and resources for individuals and groups who seek to identify and address otherwise unmet needs in their community. Afthough specific local adaptations of the technology are important to such research, they may lack generalizability and so need to be presented in a way that reduces, rather than increases, prevailing confusion over the functioning of CCNs in our society. This thesis is intended to address the research needs outlined above, extending what has been learned about CCNs and their effect upon a comrnunity into a statement of expected influence that is simple and generalizable enough to be distributed to policy makers. The research accomplished for this purpose will be secondary in nature, using data drawn from existing literature. Chapter Three METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER DESCRIPTION This chapter reviews the questions to be addressed in the thesis and the method to be ernployed in addressinz them. Recognition is given to issues surrounding the use of the term "best practices" to the bias present in the research technique, and to the oeneralizability of the research findings. C

RESEARCH FOCUS This research seeks to address the following question: What roles do community computer netwotks play in civil society development at the local level? The intent of this thesis is to produce a brief and generai description of what can be expected in terms of local civil society development when a CCN is established in a community. In order to provide a generai picture that cm be considered accurate, it will be necessary to explore many specific issues relevant to the topic. To better organize the exploration of CCN effect, the thesis question will be broken down into three subquestions, as follows: + How does the process of forming a CCN organization affect the development of local civil society? + How does the process of gathering resources for a CCN affect the development of local civil society? + How does the process of establishing technical and informational structures for a CCN affect the developrnent of local civil society? Each subquestion will be exmined in a separate chapter of this thesis. The understandings developed while each subquestion is explored will be brought together into a brief but reasonably representative description that addresses the overail thesis question in the final chapter. RESEARCW METHOD The research conducted in this study is of a secondary nature. consisting of a gathering and reorganizing of currently available information on CCN best practices. The sources of data are experienced CCN managers or activists and ail information used had already been made available to the public. In most cases, the information was published with the stated intent of providing other CCN activists with potentidly useful strategies. For this study. 1 selected articles and othcr published writings t'rom a gro~ip consist ing of individuah who have extensive cxpcricncc in appl ying çomputcr iictu-orkingtechnology in tlie form of CCNs md WIIO have publislied reconimendations on huw othcrs sbould do m. The data takes the fonn of specific action and strategy recommendations. It is embedded in discussion to bridge gaps between recommendations and show how the strategies tend to have accumulative and interactive effects. The data for this thesis is qualitative in nature. Qualitative research cm provide insights into social effects that are not easily converted into accurate numericai descriptions, and it is well-suited to exploratory work that seeks to answer generai, rather than specific, questions. One of the inherent problems of qualitative research is the difficulty of finding sufficient numbers of data providers who have the experience to provide useful answers to research questions. Without a reasonably large and sophisticated sarnple group, qualitative research findings are not generaiizable. Since the goal of this research is to develop a clear and generalizable view of CCN potentiai, it is crucial that the sample group be significant both in terms of numbers and experience in the field under question. Appendix C lists the authors who have provided specific strategy recommendations used in the discussion of best practices and notes the CCN in which they gained their expertise in this field- The difficulty of convincing funding agencies to support research that focuses on such essentiaily not measurable factors as socid economy effects has resulted in a field of study in which there have ken few reports of studies of an official or academic nature. The majority of rigorous studies addressing the CCN field have been reviewed in the previous chapter. and only a few of these touch on civil soçiety effects. The gap in information has generally been filled by peer-shared reports of best practices, circulated between individuals actively working to create or maintain CCNs. An extensive literature, in the form of peer-shared reports, exists on the topic of how comrnunity activists shape the new information technologies to develop and maintain CCNs in their geographic areas. Such reports will be presented in a focused review of best practices that can be used to develop an understanding of the thesis subquestions. The specific practice recommendations of experîenced CCN organizers will be organized into sarne- topic clusters and used to create an overall process pattern for CCN establishment. In order to address the thesis subquestion in sufficient detail to support accuracy of findings. we will be looking at the process of establishing a CCN at some length. Close examination of the establishment process is important both in terms of providing a clear understanding of overall context for CCN development and in terms of providing the level of detail necessary to show how specific strategies interact and support each other. Each subquestion will be explored through a discussion of the strategies involved in relevant stages of CCN establishment. In order to develop the general conclusions sought in this thesis, it is necessary that strategy trends and interactions be exposed through detailed discussion. Strategy trends will be used to determine the overall factors affecting local adaptation of computer networking technology. These factors will form the basis for the findings of this study.

ISSUES IN THE USE OF BEST PRACTICES This thesis bases most of its findings on trends in local technology adaptation strategies used and recommended by CCN managers. As recommendations for the successful adaptation of computer networking technology to the needs of local areas, these strategies are considered here to represent best practices in the field of community computer networking. It is important that there is clear understanding of what is meant here by the term "best practices", because it is a widely used phrase applied in different ways by different organizütions. For the purposes of a recent United Nations project, Best Practices are initiatives which have resulted in tangible improvements in the quality of life and the living environments of people in a sustainable way. Best Practices do not depend on location, scale of activity or type of implementing organization (Sheng undated, p. I ). This definition describes best practices on a larger scale than those with which this thesis deals. In this research, best practices are those specific strategies for technology adaptation which CCN managers or activists have found successful in their work to establish CCNs. The (American) Acquisition Reform Network points out a major problem with the use of the phrase "best practices". The terrn 'Best Practice' implies absolutism. something reinventors should steer well clear of. Each organization should take an approach to government reinvention that is appropriate to their individual situation -- no single practice will be the 'best' for everyone (Undated, p. 1).

They suggest the use of the term 'promising practices' as an alternative that emphasizes the need to carefully explore the feasibility of transfemng a practice from one organization to another. As Joseph Bass notes, "Finding an interchangeable work process is rare. Applying an innovation to a different organization without understanding the thinking behind it may not result in the improvements desired" (1994, p. 1). This thesis hoIds to use of the terrn 'best practices' because it is already so wideIy used that substitution of another phrase will only contribute to confusion. It must be kept in mind at al1 times, however, that a recommendation of a strategy for adaptation of computer networking technology to a Iocai area is by no means an assurance that the strategy will be suited to the needs and resources of any particular community or the CCN serving it. ln the business sphere, the practice of benchmarking is used to evaluate the feasibility of transfemng a practice from one organization to another. Best practices are only one of several forrns of benchmarking, usually the least rigorous type from a business perspective because they rely on qualitative rather than quantitative measures. They serve primarily as stimulators, rather than mechanisms, of change - often having a function similar to the brainstorming component of idea development (McNarnee undated). Despite an inherent lack of rigour, best practice descriptions can contribute to the development of a range of innovation choices for an organization. These can be narrowed down by carefully applying practicality, context awareness, and specific organizational goals. This thesis uses best practice descriptions from a large number of CCN orpnizations, often with very different physical and social contexts, to constmct a guide to CCN establishment. The juxtaposition of practice recommendations from different organizations is a weakness of the research method in that it seriously compromises the specific applicability of the guide to any one CCN organization. It is also a strength of the method in that it provides a richness of strategy that perrnits trends to be exposed for the development of generalizable conclusions, applicable to the field of CCNs rather than to any one CCN.

B IAS AND GE,hCERALIZABILITY It must be noted that the research method for this thesis is vulnerable to considerable bias. The primary sources of information on CCN practices are active managers or volunteers of CCNs, people who have already demonstrated considerable cornmitment to the idea of CCNs as effective tools for improving locd quality of life. Although some of these sources make clear attempts to present both the positive and negative side of the issues they discuss, the sample group as a whole is generally optimistic about the potentid of CCNs. Much heavier emphasis exists on successful strategies than on ones which failed in the literature. More information on failed strategies would have been very useful for this study and might have been elicited through survey techniques which allowed the researcher to influence the questions asked. In the methodology being used, the data providers thernselves chose the issues they would address, without input or influence from the researcher. While this approach leaves us with a general lack of information on specific failed strategies, it does have the advantage of serendipity effects in that useful information can corne out on topics that the researcher would not have known to ask about. Secondly, although researcher bias is reduced somewhat by the inability to frarne questions for surveying, the information that has resulted from the literature review is still selected and organized by a less than cornpletely objective researcher. 1 am myself a volunteer in this field, with experience in both the day-to-day working of a CCN and in reviewing which of many initiatives should be recommended for grant funding. This experience has been both helpful in ternis of increasing my ability to select the practical from the idedistic in the kst pnctices review and problematic in that it also means that I have fairly strong views on the potentials and problems of CCNs. Cornpromised researcher objectivity becomes an important problem in this methodology because there are severd different selection points for the information that will eventually become the findings of this study. These can be sumrned up as follows:

4 selection of peer-shared literature to be included in the gathering together of best practices; choice of topics to be discussed. which leaves some information out of the review; selection of the factors affecting local adaptation of computer network technology from trends in the best practices reviewed; selection of overall findings from points noted in the discussion of factors affecting local adaptations of technology. Another important point to keep in mind in terms of the potentiai generaiizability of this study, arising out of the fact that studies and even peer-shared reports focused directly on the topic are not available in significant quantity from any one nation, is that sources have been drawn from many different nations. Most of the developed nations of the world are represented in the literature used, yet the strategies suggested by the authors are organized in a frarnework that gives prïority to the Canadian context for CCN development. There are both important weaknesses and strengths to this approach. Issues must arise around the validity of taking local adaptation strategies out of their contexts and lumping them in together. On the other hand, the reason for gathering together the local adaptation strategies is to find what they have in common and it may be that the divergent contexts give more meaning to the factors found to be held in common by the best practices reported from organizations in different nations and different situations.

CONCLUSION In its defense, the overall methodology is suited to the purpose of this study. The goal is to develop a clear. bief, and general description of the overall effects which CCN development can be expected to have on local civil society. Such a description is badly needed at this point in time to counter the general lack of awareness of CCNs, and misunderstanding where there is awareness, arnong most political leaders and the public itself. Further and more rigorous research, it is to be hoped, will clarify those findings, but even general information on CCN effects is crucial because policy is king made now that will determine whether or not there are likely to be CCNs in the future to be researched and understood better. The data collection in this study is, essentidly, a gat hering of what many di fferent, under-funded, amateur researchers have shared wit h each other about ways to improve the ability of CCNs to meet their mandate. It is exploratory and not likely to be reliable and is intended to indicate whether or not the public and the policy mükers who represent that public need to give their attention and support to CCNs by showing whether CCNs can reasonably be expected to have a positive influence on local civil society during their development. The next three chapters review CCN best practices in a framework of stages of organizationd development. Appendix B contains a very generd summary of these stages. Despite the concentration of "how-to" information presented in the following chapters of this thesis, the thesis is intended as a theoretical rather than a practical document. The first step in appIying a practice developed by mother organization rnust be to research and compare the situations of the two organizations. This cannot be emphasized enough. because the careless transfer of practices can waste organizational resources, including credability, and most CCNs have very limited resources available to thern. For those who would like to explore the application of any of the strategy recomrnendations to a particular CCN, Appendix C provides information on the basic geographic context of the CCNs from which practices have ken drawn, linked to the authors cited. Since, in many cases, authors have experience with more than one CCN and have not indicated from which organization they drew their practice recommendations, this Appendix can be of only limited use. Where authors used multiple sources, it is recommended that they be contacted directly for information on which CCN developed the practice. Chapter Four CCN BEST PRACTICES: DEVELOPING LOCAL INTENT AND THE ORGANEATIONAL STRUCTURE

CHAPTER DESCRIPTION This chapter reviews CCN strategies in the context of a discussion of the steps involved in developing local intent and organizational structure for an effective community network. The purpose is to provide sufficient information to address the thesis subquestion: "how does the process of forrning a CCN organization affect the development of locd civil society?" In this discussion, the formation of the initial working group, or Organizing Comrnittee, is followed by the comrnunity needs and resources assessrnent process. Aspects of the organizational structure are then defined in terms of setting goals, developing the working structure, establishing member groupings, and outlining committee responsibilities. The process of fomalizing the organization structure is presented chronologically and includes discussion of the registration of a lcgal structure, the preparation of organization-defining documents, and the establishment of charitable organization status. The overall process presented here is then reviewed in terms of the influence it is likely to have upon the development of local civil society. It should be noted that available information on specific CCN strategies is generally lacking in terms of organizational structure issues. To some degree, this likely represents publishing bias towards "new" information such as technical issues surrounding the actual computer networks rather than farniliar topics such as organizational style. in the areas of working and legal structure formation, in particular, the author has had to rely largely on his own experience with non-profit organizations and on generalized non-profit management references rather than on cited CCN strategies.

FORMING THE ORGANEING COMMITTEE The first step in establishing a cornmunity network is the gathering together of a group to act as planners. "Form a network planning committee. Without a vision and a plan, nothing can be accomplished" (Fidelman 1994, p. 418). While one person often serves as the spark that ignites local interest, it is important that the overall vision arise frorn a gathering of people rather than an individual. Start your initiative by building a tearn of enthusiastic proponents who come from diverse backgrounds. Do not stack your cornmittee with "techies," or "computer geeks." Actively seek people who know more about communities than computers. Actively involve women. Women are often responsible (formally or informally) for initiating and running community organizations, and women help to insure that comrnunity networks are designed to meet ail aspects of a cornrnunity's needs. Try also to attract people who work with cornrnunity-minded organizations or community development agencies. Their experience and contacts in the community will help ensure that you will find the resources and support you need (Richardson & Searle 1995. pp. 7-8).

The compromises and multiple priorities that come out in group decision-making make it much more IikeIy that the plan for a network to serve the community will reflect the diverse interests of that comrnunity (Felsenstein 1993). The local library is a good place to hold initiai meetings, both because it is already Iinked with access to information in the minds of cornmunity members, and because the Iibrarians themselves will have a considerable amount of relevant experience to share with the Organizing Committee (Cisler 1994, Durrance undated, Fidelman 1994). In addition, the local library is likeiy to become an important organizational ally and information provider during CCN development. A newspaper notice is a time-tested means for finding interested people in the area and the first meeting can be as fancy (on-line demonstrations and well-known speakers) or as casual as you like (Aizu 1994). Some organizers have tried to ensure comrnunity representation by specially inviting people who cm speak for particular groups while others have worked with whoever responded to a general cal1 for those interested. Although including librarians, city councilors, and others with useful experience and contacts in the Organizing Committee can be useful, this strategy must be used with caution as the presence of very knowledgeable and powerful people can intimidate and cause normally privileged people to Ieave the cornmittee (Haiseth 1997). Group diversity is important, but probably the most important thing at this stage is that the initiative maintains a bottom-up approach. Large, govemment initiated, top-down networking efforts have a high failure rate, are unsustainable and cost large amounts of money. In areas where expensive top-down solutions have been applied, there has ken serious darnage to the seeds of local community network organizations and have set back red cornmunity networking initiatives by three to four years. Top-down solutions fail because electronic communication involves reciprocal exchanges, dialogue and relative freedom, not unidirectional information distribution or elitist information hoarding. Bottom-up solutions tend to be less expensive, more practical and intrinsically relevant to the participants rvllo lielp to design and create tirern (Richardson & Searle 1995, p.7, italics mine).

It is the input of normdly and underprivileged cornmunity members that will make it possible to form an organization that tmly addresses the needs of the community and that can be sustained by the resources of the community (Aizu 1994). Any volunteer organization's most valuable asset is the experience gained by people as they do their work. Thorough records and consistent gatherings help to pass that experience on to new volunteers, ensuring that the organization continues to benefit. It is very important that two or three people take on the job of recording the work of the Organizing Committee right from the beginning. Their only responsibility should be to regularly contact other members and gather information from them and to transcribe al1 decisions, reasons behind them, individual assignments, and new information as it arises into written reports archived for later reference. A short version of the reports could be distributed to al1 volunteers regularly to keep morale and knowledge high in the group. Al1 members can put the reports they receive, and their personal working notes, into a binder for storage and review. In addition, regular meetings should be held, probably on a monthly bais (Aizu 1994). However an Organizing Cornmittee is brought together, the difficult part at this stage will likely be convincing yourself and other committed individuals to take the time to evaluate the usefulness of a computer network to the community. The community network process must be based on a thorough and comprehensive understanding of the needs of the community to be served. Certainly that has been the ided of community networking, but we suggest that there is much room for improvement here for most active comrnunity networks (Morino 1994, p. 10, italics original). The ternptation to plunge right in and create a network can be overwhelming. Many of the problems community networks encounter in their first few years of operation, however, cm be traced back to failure to assess the needs and resources of the community before setting up the comrnunity network.

COMMUNITY ASSESSMENT A community needs and resources assessment can help to reconcile right from the start the differing priorities individuals bnng to the organizing comrnittee. It provides a factual bais for decisions, the satisfaction of immediate action for eager individuais, and reassurance that the project is receiving thorough planning for cautious individuals. Information gleaned from the assessment can help ensure that debates over priorities are based on the actual local situation rather than uninforrned personal preferences, thus shortening the time needed to achieve Organizing Cornmittee consensus. It is crucial that the group does reach a general consensus on how best to serve the community. Although it takes too long to achieve to be used generally, consensus decision making is an excellent approach for highly emotional issues or ones in which there is dready a history of discord. The central decisions about how the CCN will serve the community are good candidates for a consensus approach because they will have far- reaching influence and must evoke widespread support. The effort necessary to resolve such debates is well spent, as it means that the people working on the project can put ail their energies towards their chosen tasks rather than maintaining their end of an ongoing disagreement. Guides to facilitating group decision-making which address the differences between leading a consensus meeting and a "democratic" meeting arc widely available. Grassroots community groups are sometimes uncomfortabie with the use of rissessment research - an understandable tendency since such practices are not usuaily easy to use without some specialized training. Most comrnunities have residents who cm help with the process. It may be possible to have a researcher from a local college or university take on the task of organizing the research elements of the assessment (Niedennayer 1997). The local librarian may also have the skills needed to organize areas of research which can then be tackled by Organizing Cornmittee members. Information professionals have developed skills which answer questions. help people use information, help apply information with the aim of solving problems. Information professionals also have developed skills which help them determine information needs and translate needs into resources (Durrance undated, p. 6 of the Strategies for CN Information Professionals section).

A needs and resources assessment does not need to be a complicated or exhausting process. In fact, the most useful assessments are those developed by people who know the community weII and can describe its situation in words that al1 others will understand. Essentially, doing the assessment means answering two questions thoroughly:

4 Are there unmet needs in the local area which a community cornputer network could address? + What resources already exist in the local area that rnight help support a cornmunity computer network? To prevent people from getting frustrated, the group should set a timeline for the assessment. Set out a number of months to define the current needs of the cornmunity, identify any that are unmet, describe local resources. and put the information together. Break down the work into the smallest parts reasonable and assign generous deadlines for each part. Put it ail ont0 paper and give each organizer a copy to provide yourselves with a constant means of checking on progress, a reminder of what remains to be done, and a subtle forrn of reassurance that the project is moving ahead. Perhaps the most straightforward way to find out about unmet needs in the community is to ask people. There are many ways in which this can be done. In Saskatchewan, a CCN initiative commissioned a study on comrnunity needs, using a telephone survey to assess local demand for their services (Niederrnayer 1997). Another strategy for gathering information on cornrnunity needs is to have votunteers scan back copies of the local paper. Transcripts of town or council meetings can be useful too and are sometirnes available from the municipal office. Consuiting local people and groups wiI1 also yield much information. Archiva1 information, like newspapers and meeting transcripts, is useful both for learning about needs and as a kind of evidence for later efforts to pull in support from the larger comrnunity and govemment agencies. It can be tempting for a group to simply brainstorm their own list of what they feel the area's needs are, especially when there are not yet enough volunteers for research, but this method is likely to produce results that are seriously biased by the preferences of the individuals in the organizing comrnittee. If a group is so small that there are not enough people to support research, that group is aIso unlikely to be representative enough of the community to produce a reasonably accurate assessrnent of needs and resources. Brainstorming works well, however, for initiating the development of an inventory of resources in the community that may help to support a CCN. The group cm corne up with likely resources together, and then split up to double-check the existence of those resources. The most potent resource will be people who are committed to the Iocal area. Their experience in community-building, in the technicai aspects of computer use, and in establishing successful businesses can be transferred readily to a community nctwork project. Another crucial type of resource is the existence or past presence of working computer networks in the community. Bulletin board services run out of a hobbyist's bedroom, local area networks connecting empIoyees within a single business, and library or school networks that access national databases al1 work to make locals more farniliar with the potential uses of computer networks and much more likely to support the development of a comrnunity-based network. Physical resources such as local telephone lines, space for the organization, and equipment may be available through donation, so assign individuals to explore the possibilities. Just what constitutes a resource is lirnited only by your own creativity. An assessment of available resources leaves the Organizing Cornmittee with an information base for deciding on the scope to aim for in the first few years of the community network. Abundant resources cm validate a decision to set up a moderately Iarge computer system. On the other hand, scant resources in the comrnunity is a message to organizers that they had best start quite srnall. A iack of resources in the community does not rnean that a community network cannot work to benefit the area, just that it should begin on a rnodest scaie and grow gradually as resources develop to support the project. The appraisal made of local needs will also point you towards an appropriate initial scope for the community networking project. A useful side effect of the overall assessment process is that it will act as a testing ground for individual cornmitment to the project and ability to work with the community on the part of Organizing Committee members. It is normal to have a certain amount of tumover in the people who make up the initial group. Once the group has decided on the scale of the project and actively begun to design it, however, tumover in the group saps energy and momentum. During the assessment, each individuai should take on specific and meaningful responsibilities so that the weight of work involved in setting up a community network does not come to them as a surprise later on. The initiative will probably lose severid people as they come to comprehend the effects of sustained volunteer work on their personai lives, but it is better to lose them now and pull in new enthusiasts than to lose volunteers, and the knowledge they have developed, at a more crucial stage. Once the needs of the area are described, the group must think hard about whether or not means already exist or are being planned locally to meet those needs. 1s a community-based network really needed? Be truly honest here. The human effort that might go into an unnecessary project could be diverted into something more beneficial to your community. If there are definite needs in the community that would be best met by a community network, strategies for addressing those needs through the development of a community network organization will have to be agreed upon by the Organizing Comrnittee. An Organizing Committee needs people with patience and foresight. Those traits will be crucial during this stage of organization, when the group will take a set of community needs and transform them graduaily into a working structure for the cornputer network. This process takes time if it is to be done well. One to two years is not an unusual duration. An Organizing Committee must design an effective organization structure that reflects the uniqueness of the community and this is an exercise that will take the special knowledge and cooperation of many people in the community.

SETTING GOALS In detennining goals, the assessment of unmet needs in the community will serve the group in the same way that a starting block does a runner. It provides something solid on which to base the initial efforts. The Organizing Cornmittee should rank identified community needs into three or more groups on the basis of agreed importance. Categories might be: "must be addressed", "should be addressed", and "would be nice to address". Take the community needs which received first ranking as the basis for organizational goais. Other needs may eventually be addressed aiso, but it is important at this point to keep the focus on a few tmly crucial needs and characterize them as fully as possible. Spend whatever time it takes to corne up with a short but complete description, containing no vagueness whatsoever, of each need. The group should brainstorm a variety of strategies to address each cornmunity need. At a later meeting (to provide time to think over the strategies), the two or three strategies most likely (in the group's opinion) to effectively deal with that need cmbe selected. Individual volunteers can then develop lists of the resources needed to implement the strategies for each need. Once everyone has reported back to the group, the notes from the assessrnent of cornrnunity resources can be used to decide which strategy, in terms of each need, cm best be supported by the resources already available, or soon to be developed, in the cornmunity. The goals for the organization will be summaries of how it intends to provide the resources to support chosen strategies. These goals must be stated briefly but thoroughly and without any vagueness. Figure 4.1 shows the basic process invotved in developing a goai statement, with an examples of statements. Goal Development Process Exarnples

ommunity members who cannot afford

STATEMENT OF NEED concise description of an unmet interests and need within the community which the organization intends to address

kace computer teminals which are d connected to the community network in secure locations to which there is public SELECïiON OF STRATEGY access both during and outside regular / strategy that appears ta be both \ working hours. Provide instructions on likely to address that need effectively cornmon uses on-line and in a portable and to be possible to implement given printed form. the resources of the community

{Your CCN's Name) will establish and naintain at least two computer terrninds furnished with instruction manuals and STATEMENT OF GOAL =onnections to our network in locations exactly how the organization accessible to the public between 8:00 am and will support that strategy 8:ûû p.m. daily except on statutory holidays. J

Figure 4.1 Goal Statement Developrnent Process

The stated goals of the organization should be pooled to determine the resources required to support them dl. Alrnost anything that could rnake it easier to achieve a goal can be considered a resource. Cluster the specific resources into groups based on si mi tarity. The Organizing Cornmittee will probably find that al1 the resources they have need of will fa11 into the following general groupings:

4 physical resources,

4 hurnan resources,

4 information resources,

4 reputation-based resources. Each resource grouping will probably become the special responsibility of a separate cornmittee once the working structure of the organization has been developed. DEVELOPING THE WORKNG STRUCTURE The working structure organizes the people who maintain the organization so that they can do so more effectively. Developing a working structure early on can prevent a geat deal of potential conflict among those working to create the CCN and will enhance their ability to share resources. Although the vast majority of people involved in a CCN will be users and volunteers, it may be necessary to have employees handle part of the work load. Whether and when staff wiI1 be hired is a very individual issue for CCNs, affccted by both the size of the organization and the resources available to it. Community networks, once they achieve certain Ievels of success or critical mass, must have a fonnal "infrastructure" and full-time staff. The pioneers of community networking have done incredible, absolutely unbelievable work - by and large, in their spare time, around the edges, maintaining systems at 2:00 in the morning from cornputers in the basements of their homes. This mode1 will continue to work for smail systems that remain satisfied with a relatively narrow focus - but it clearly will not hold for most community networks and the demands they will face (Morino 1994, p. 12).

The working structure must be planned out early on or it may simply evolve, unplanneci and informally, out of ongoing interactions. The problem with that approach is that the working structure may end up reflecting the strong and weak ties between personalities of volunteers and staff instead of, as it should, reflecting logical strong and weak ties between roles or positions in the organization that favour healthy collaboration on overall goais. Most non-profit organizations make use of a structure where information flows upward through four general groupings of the peopIe involved in the organization while instructions flow downward. The level of responsibility and of decision-making power decreases as you move from "board members" to "committee chairs" to "cornmittee members" to "general members". This structure is inherently hierarchicai. At its most basic and in the experience of the author, it functions much Iike Figure 4.2 below. 5 8

A mo w = direction of information flow Arro w = direction of flo w of instructions Wdth = amount received Width = amount of responsibiliiy & decision-making power

Board of Directors (between 5 and 12 members usudly elected but sometimes appointed by an outside agency)

Committee Chairs ( I to 2 per committee usually volunteers but sometimes appointed by the Board)

(between 1 and 12 per committee always volunteers)

(any amount of individuais who have registered themselves as users of the organization)

Non-member Users (also called Guests. these individuals use the organization but have not registered themselves)

Figure 4.2 Traditional Non-profit Organization Working Structure

The regulations surrounding non-profit organizations in Canada compel them to have a working structure similar to this one. The grassroots heritage of a community computer network, however, demands that as much information and decision-making power as possible be kept in the hands of the General Membership. Community members need mechanisms for influencing network management, system and software design, as well as acceptable use policies. Democratic structures serve this purpose well. Each user should have the opportunity to become a member of the community network organization (usually upon payment of a small rnembership fee) and have a vote in deciding network policies and electing an executive council to oversee the network (Richardson & Searle 1995, p. 8). The mechanisrn for ensuring community input into organizationai development may manifest as a working structure in which the hierarchy is kept as flat as possible. Certain changes to the basic structure are important both to ensure that grassroots control is rnaintained and that the flow of communication in the organization is rapid enough to ensure that sudden changes in community conditions or computer technology are addressed effectively. Board Members should be elected by the General Membership, rather than appointed by some group outside of the comrnunity network organization. The Committees and the Board should be required to report their activities regularly to the General Membership. Limits to the types and scope of decisions which the Board or individual committees can make on behalf of the Generai Membership to support the day-to-day operation of the comrnunity network should be established in detail. Al1 other decisions must be brought to the General Membership at regular, usudly monthly, meetings. GeneraI Meeting agendas and background information on the issues to be decided should be posted at least a week before the meeting is held. All members have the right to add items to the agendas of Generai Meetings. Consensus decision-making can be used whenever practicd by the Board and cornmittees in their meetings, but General Membership decisions are usually made democratically because of the large numbers of people involved. When a hiecarchical working structure undergoes flattening, it appears more complicated to an outsider because information and instructions are no longer traveling in a single direction and the relative status of the different groupings of peopIe is harder to detemine. Figure 4.3 gives a simplified view of how information and instructions would move through a flattened organization structure. It is not possible to completely flatten the working structure because some individuals (usually officers of the Board and of specific committees) must be empowered to make on-the-spot decisions for the organization in emergency or time-constrained situations. General Mernbers

Board i cornmittee f--) 1 Cornmittee 1 f Members - Chairs Members 1 c direction of infunnation flow C direction of instruction flow

Figure 4.3 Flattened Non-profit Organization Working Structure

MEMBER GROUPINGS The vast majority of the people using a community network will fa11 into the General Members grouping. These are registered users who have not volunteered to take on any ongoing work for the organization. In many non-profit organizations it is normal for this group to have very little input into how the organization is operated. If a CCN is going to sustain itself as a grassroots organization, however. it must seek ways to put as much relevant information and decision-making power as possible into the hands of those who would not norrnally have it. General Members of a CCN are usually empowered to elect the Board of Directors and to limit the decision-making powers of the Board and committees through the creation of organization policies that specify the type and scope of decisions which the Board and committees cm make. Such policies cm be removed, refined, or created as the organization moves through time, as long as the right of the General Members to do this is included in the Rules of the organization which are registered with the provinciai government. The Rules are part of the incorporating documents of a non- profit organization and cm be altered after registration only through a special gathering of the majority of the Generai Members. The General Members, then, have just as much decision-making power as they choose to ensure for thernselves. Voting on issues is done democratically; usually by those present at a live meeting to which al1 members have been invited. Regardless of whether the General Members exert their right to make decisions. they retain a right to regular and thorough reports from both the Board of Directors and the various Comrnittee Chairs. They also have the right to view any of the archived information or documents which the community network has accumulated. important exceptions to this are the viewing of any information that might infringe on an individual's right to privacy or that may endanger the technical security of the computer network. A General Membership which is active in exerting its rights is a great benefit to the organization. The recruitment of vofunteers wili be much easier if General Members are already welt-informed and accustomed to having a say in how the community cornputer network is operated. A new volunteer is usuaily absorbed into whichever cornmittee interests that individual the most. Sometimes a particular committee will put out a cal1 for more people to share the work load. Cornmittee Members perform the majority of the work needed by the community network. Each member of a cornmittee usually has specific responsibiiities; small enough that their volunteer life does not create problems in their work or personal Iife. They are organized into a committee so that they can share i nforrnation and resources with other volunteers who hold related responsibilities. Cornmittees make many of the decisions which keep a cornmunity network organization operating srnoothly. These are usually decisions about resource management which are small enough in scope to not require the attention of the entire membership. Groups larger than 12 tend to be less effective at sharing information and making decisions, so larger cornmittees should probably look at breaking up into two or three smaller groups during most of a committee meeting. Face-to-face meetings should probably be held once a month, with email and, especially a listserve, keeping the flow of inforrnation going among group members between the meetings (Gonzalez & Weldon 1995). In a grassroots organization, decisions at the committee Ievel would usually be made using consensus. Failure to achieve consensus on a particular issue can be an indication that the issue is a potentially divisive one and should be taken to the General Membership for a vote. It is a Committee Chair's responsibility to make sure that a comrnittee fulfills its responsibilities effectively. The chair must ensure that individual comrnittee members are not overloaded with work, that they understand what they need to accomplish and the appropriate practices for doing so, and that they have access to the resources needed in their work. In addition. the chair must organize regular meetings of the group and keep those meetings both productive and pleasant for each committee member. Committee Chairs are often responsible for reporting on the activities of the committee to the General Members and sometimes to the Board of Directors. They must also ensure that record keeping is maintained for their committee. One strategy for ovexworked chairs is to fmd a partner to CO-chair with them. The tasks of a comrnittee chair are probably manageable only if they do not go beyond those described above. A cornmittee chair is a precious resource for the organization, because they enable the committee members who in tum ensure that the community network obtains the resources needed for survival and growth. It is wise to set clear limits on the responsibilities of committee chairs right in the policies of the organization. Many chairs make the error of taking on new or abandoned tasks when no other committee member will come forward. Overburdened cornmittee chairs cost an organization a great deal. The frustration that builds when a cornmittee lacks effective leadership is a common cause of volunteer drop-out. Take care of Committee Chairs by ensuring that they receive at least minimal leadership training. An individual cannot be expected to chair a cornmittee without basic training in group management skjlls. Even those with expenence should be provided with a refresher course at least every two years. Committee Members need to be able to develop a tmst relationship with their chair since they rely on the chair for orientation to their tasks and for fair arbitration of disputes over resource management issues. The chair must try to be objective regarding individual personalities and issues. This is one reason why committee chairs are often told that they should not express a preference regarding an issue or vote on an issue at comrnittee meetings. It takes a strong will to sacrifice these personal nghts and to seek satisfaction instead in the subtleties that accomplish a smoothly-running committee. Comrnittee chairs are sometimes annually elected by the members of their committee. They may aiso be staff mernbers responsible for the area of operation in which the comrnittee works or they may be volunteers appointed by the Board of Directors. They usudly meet with the Board members once a month to report on the activities of their groups and to coordinate any special projects. Some CCNs treat the Board of Directors as just another committee, and this is ideal in terms of flattening the organizational structure. The government and courts, however, require that dl registered non-profits empower a group to represent them legdly and finmciaily. It is because Board Members carry the weight of this responsibility that they usually have special decision-making privileges. Board members must work to maintain a thorough knowledge of ail the activities of the community cornputer network so that they cm make sound decisions. The Board has a final say on al1 of the decisions of the organization, saving those which the General Membership reserves for itself. Committee decisions are reported to the Board regulatly and can be ovenurned by the Board of Directors. This does not usuaily occur unless the Board Members, with their wider perspective on the goals and overall operation of the organization, see a committee decision as creating a problem for the long term effectiveness of the organization. Board Members should be careful not to veto a committee decision without significant cause. Committee decisions are the result of a significant amount of collaborative work and should be respected as such. Decisions at the Board Ievel are made on a democratic basis by those present at a live meeting, although emergency issues can be resolved by computer or phone conferencing so long as a transcript is recorded. The Board of Directors elects, from among its own members, officers to hold specific responsibilities. The following offices are always necessary in a CCN: Presideizt, to chair meetings; Vice President, to stand in for and assist the President as needed; + H~imunResources Maimger to coordinate the recmitment, training, and provision of support for volunteers; + Systems Administrator, to oversee and authorize changes to the technical structure or services of the cornputer network; + Treasrrrer, to track and report on the finances of the organization; + Corporate Secrerary, to handle officia1 correspondence; and

4 Recording Secretary, to create minutes of meetings (it is wise to divide this task arnong two or more members in case of absences). Other offices Vary between organizations depending on their needs and it is cornrnon to have one or two mernbers without regular duties so that they can take on special jobs as these arise. The crucial thing is to ensure that no one Board member is overwhelmed with responsibility and that each is maintaining an up-to-date knowledge of organizationai operation. Many non-profit organizations have a policy where Board rnembers lose their position if they miss three meetings in a row. The Board often has the right to appoint a temporary Board Member to fi11 in a position until the next elections of Board members are held. Board Members serve the CCN by ensuring that there is administrative continuity and that cornmittees are keeping the missions and policies of the organization finnly in mind as they do their work. The Board of Directors is the only group empowered to hire service people such as lawyers, managers, or janitors for the CCN. Board Members are responsibIe for overseeing policy development, office management, and al1 purchasing. They must report on their activities to the Generai Members and are individualiy etected for a term of office. usually 2 years, by the General Membership. Elections are norrnally held each year at the Annual General Meeting, with only half of the Board Members changing to ensure that there are dways some experienced individuals in the group. Even though money to do so will probably be scarce, a CCN should invest from the start in training sessions for the individuals who will be Board members and cornmittee chairs. Board Orientations, as such sessions are usually called, are cornrnonly used by non-profit organizations whose Board members are volunteers rather than appointees from outside the organization. Orientations consist of a half to full-day lecture with workshops and are meant to familiarize people with the special responsibilities and common issues involved in working with others to operate a non- profit organization. Provincial or national umbrella organizations for CO-operative associations can usually point you towards specialist teachers for Board Orientations. Annual orientations are always tailored to the specific working and legal structure of your community network and can do wonders to boost the understanding and effectiveness of the leaders within your organization.

COMMïi-iEE RESPONSIBLITIES The work of the Board of Directors ensures that the organization is operating in accordance with the law and with its own rules and policies, but the majonty of accornpIishments of the community network arise from the committees. When you look at existing community networks in Canada, you will find that no two networks organize their committees in quite the sarne way. The following descriptions of group responsibilities are meant as an exarnple only of how the work of a cornrnunity network might be divided mongst committees. In this generd exarnple, each committee is responsible for developing and maintaining a particular type of resource for the community network. Their work includes seeking donations of that resource type and providing related support or education to others. Technical Support Committee members maintain the hardware, software, and connections that form the physicai structure of the community computer network, as weIl as al1 other strictly physical resources. These may include working and storage space, furniture. and office supplies needed for the organization, especially if the community nctwork does not have a paid office manager. In many community networks, the System Administrator, an officer of the Board, chairs this committee. It is probably best to have this committee CO-chaired,with one individual overseeing the needs of the committee so that neither that individual or the System Administrator is overburdened. Members of this committee also develop network user information manuals, offer regular user instruction seminars, and provide individuals with assistance on technical problems. They advise the Board regarding equipment upgrades and purchases and continually seek donations of physicd resources. Content Committee members develop and maintain the information content of the community computer network. They are responsible for ensuring that a diverse range of useful, interesting, timely, and relevant information is available to people accessing the network. Some members will work closely with the Technical Support comrnittee while designing or upgrading user interfaces and information storage and flow structures. Other members will seek information donations by recniiting information providers throughout the community and will then serve as a liaison between these organizations or individuals and the CCN. The Content cornmittee develops and provides orientation sessions for information providers. They also provide assistance as needed to help information providers keep their postings current and correct. Human Resources Committee members develop and maintain a core group of volunteers to run the community network. They are responsible for ensuring that each committee has enough people to perform its tasks and that the individuals who are giving of themselves to the organization are king nurtured in return. Some members will work closely with the cornmittee chairs to ensure that the chairs are not king overwhelmed and that they have access to necessary supplies. Other members will contact comrnittee and Board members, usually around every 6 months. to find out if and how their volunteer experience is satisfying them. The feedback gathered in this way is used to tailor the orientations provided to new volunteers, the education opportunities offered to committee chairs and Board members, and, when necessary, the overall working structure of the community network itself. The Human Resources committee seeks donations in the forrn of volunteer tirne from individuais in the comrnunity, especially those who are already General Members of the CCN. They track who is doing how many hours of what for the organization and will write up letters of recommendation, on demand, for past or present volunteers based on their work for the community network. This comrnittee aIso provides eâch volunteer with an objective listener for frustrations or concerns about the organization. They organize the special education sessions made available to cornmittee chairs, Board members, and, if class space perrnits, interested cornmittee members. Comrnunity Relations Committee members develop and maintain the most intangible of resources; those based on the reputation of the community network. This committee is responsible for ensuring that the CCN is seen as a positive presence in the community. They seek donations in the form of approval, a subtle but potent resource gathered from individuals, organizations, and al1 levels of government. Although approval may not seem at îïrst glance to be as important to accumulate as something like equipment donations, it is actually the key resource that will help the organization access other resources. Achievement of widespread approval will make many of the tasks involved in establishing and operating the network much easier, and it can help a community network survive organizational catastrophes. Community Relations members prornote local understanding of the mission and services of the organization. They ensure that the organization is well-represented at important events and locations in the community. Members also work to establish organizational alliances with other groups in and outside the comrnunity, primarily for the sharing of political clout and other rcsources. This comrnittee develops and distributes general information about the purpose and effectiveness of the community computer network and provides first-contact information to interested individuals. They are usually responsible for registering new members and orienting those members to the practices and policies of the organization. Finance Committee members maintain an up-to-date knowledge of the movement and location of money and other financial assets in the organization, They are responsible for designing and implementing fundraising strategies for the community network. Although many organizations require that the Treasurer elected by the Board of Directors serve as the chair of this comrnittee, this practice is likely to overburden that person. This is another committee which is probably best CO-chaired,with the Treasurer taking responsibility for making regular financial reports to the Board and the other individual ensuring that the committee itself operates smoothly. Finance members regularly gather information on expenses from each cornmittee and use this information to put together annual budgets for the organization. They also oversee the collection of membership fees, if these are levied by the community network. This comrnittee is responsible for training or assisting committee and board members in the completion of grant proposals, donation receipts, purchase orders, petty cash receipts, or any other forrns and practices relating to the movement of money or assets within the organization. Archive Committee members create and maintain a hardcopy library of al1 of the documents made or used by the CCN, backing this up with soft copies stored on computer disks in another location. These documents include meeting minutes, working notes, grant proposals, educational materials, historical photographs, technical schematics, network use statistics, and any other information deemed potentially useful to the organization now or in the future. Archive Cornmittee members contact the Board and cornmittee chairs regularly to gather information from them. They use some of this information for a newsletter distributed to al1 members, usually on a monthly/ bi-monthly basis. This cornmittee is responsible for providing members with assistance or training in rcsearching needed information, whether that information is currently part of the archive or not. These descriptions of committee responsibilities give a general idea of the work involved in operating a community network. Duties are divided arnongst the groups in a way that ensures that each committee must be in regular contact with each of the other cornmittees to accomplish its tasks. Each committee provides a specific kind of information and education to individual members. The intent here is to prevent the development of isolated specialist groups within the organization, a problem noted in some CCNs (Halseth & Arnold 1997). This way of dividing responsibilities can also make it easier to transfer members frorn an overstaffed committee to an understaffed one, because the work done in each group differs primarily in the type of resource being managed and otherwise shares similarities in practices and ongoing activities. j Each committee will have some members interacting reguiarly with individuals in each other committee to accomplish particular tasks. Figure 4.4 shows as thickened lines the connections between groups that tend to work particularly closely with each other. Every group shown here has regular interactions with every other one in the course of fulfilling their responsibilities, however, and this ongoing interaction is essential to maintenance of a shared organizational vision. Figure 4.4 Cornmittee Interaction Pattern

When an Organizing Cornmittee first divides itself up into working committees, there are usually not enough people to take on dl of the work described for each committee. It may be tempting to skip the formation of committees like Community Relations and Archive in the beginning because they do not seem to be immediately necessary. These committees do important work to ensure that the organization can sustain itself over tirne. however. The formation of a new comrnittee for the organization after ail others have been well established can create an arnazing amount of political turmoil. It is good long-term strategy to treat each comrnittee as being equally important to the organization and to ensure that there are at least some members for each committee right from the start. Even with only two people, a committee can begin to organize the resources it is responsible for and support the efforts of other cornmittees. The Board of Directors must have a minimum of five members before the organization can register itself as a non-profit. It would be possible at this point to direct members of each particular group in the working structure towards separate descriptions of the issues and process involved in the work they do for the organization. instead, we will discuss the work involved in setting up a community network in a roughly chronological fashion. Anything that even hints to committee mernbers that their work is somehow isolated from that of other committees weakens the effectiveness of the CCN. Al1 committee and Board members must be able to appreciate the challenges facing volunteers in work groups other than their own if they are going to be able to work well with them. Mutual respect and trust is crucial in a flattened hierarchy and this is unlikely to arise if members are ignorant of the tme extent of each otherTsresponsibilities. The formation of a CCN is described here as though it occurred in discrete steps. Each of these steps is usudly the responsibility of a particular working group. The registration of a legal structure and development of organization-defining documents, for exarnple, is the responsibility of the first Board of Directors. To prevent this description from being misleading, it must be pointed out that al1 the committees will be working on their responsibilities at the same time and the steps outlined here are simply the progression likely to be noticed by an outside observer.

REGISTERING A LEGAL STRUCTURE The members of a community computer network, especially those serving on the Board of Directors, take on a considerable arnount of responsibility in their attempts to address unmet needs within the community. As a provider of services on a scale which will involve handling considerable funds and donated resources, the organization is in a position where it cm, and may well be, involved in legal disputes. A good legai structure, constructed with foresight and care, will prevent most situations that could lead to a dispute from ever occurring. The organization registration process is usually overseen by those members who intend to serve on the first Board of Directors, because it is Board members who are most likely to be actively involved in defending the community computer network from any Iegai actions made against it. The legd structure of a non-profit organization also serves to protect the rights of people using the services of the organization and to limit the liability of decision-makers. It is quite crucial that CCNs have a solid legal structure as lawrnakers in several different nations are still working out ways to deal with new situations of abuse of citizen rights or rnoralities corning out of the many-to-many communications possibilities of cornputer ne tworking . Some American Bulletin Board System operators, for exarnple, have faced criminal charges related to information content distributed via the system they manage (Kim 1995). A legal structure will not remove al1 IiabiIity from directors, but it will ensure that they are not held responsible for system abuses which cannot reasonably be seen as occumng through their negligence or fault. A recognized Iegal structure also simplifies relations with business and government interests because it acts to protect the rights of suppliers of resources to the organization. Registration of your organization, and incorporation if this is not already accomplished through registration, is necessary for CCNs that intend to seek grmt funding or donations. The registration of non-profit organizations is a Provincial or Territorial government responsibility in Canada, with the process involved differing depending on the type of legd structure which your group will use. CCNs are usually organized as either non-profit societies or service CO-operatives. A non-profit society is not required by law to incorporate but, when it does, it becomes a iegal entity with the sarne rights and powers as an individual. It has an unIirnited life expectancy because its existence is separate from that of any particular rnember. An incorporated society must, however, file certain documents with the provincial Registrar annually and pay associated fees to maintain its status. Five or more individuals cmform a society. Any funds accumulated by the society must be used only for the purposes of the society itself and so cannot be distributed to a member without that member giving appropriate compensation to the society first. Societies have the advantage of king widely recognized as a positive presence in a comrnunity and this general reputation can make it easier to solicit donations in the kginning of the organization's life. A service co-operative is incorporated as part of its registration. It is an organization made up of individuals in the community who want to be able to offer services to themselves and sometimes to others. in the case of a community cornputer network, mernbers would be organizing in order to provide access to information technologies for themselves and other interested people in the cornmunity. The corporation is owned by the members, each of whom purchases a share upon joining This share provides that member with the right to vote. Co-operatives are themselves a grassroots type of organization and this legal structure is easily adapted to the purposes and needs of a CCN. The CCN group should look carefully at these two types of legai structure. Spend sorne time researching the benefits and disadvantages involved in each one. Pubiic libraries will have books that focus on non-profit organization management issues and the government ministry responsible for corporate relations in each particular province or territory will mail out information on what need be done to register your organization.

ORGANEATION-DEFZNING DOCUMENTS Once a legal structure has been chosen, the group will need to develop documents which define the organization to others. These must comply with government requirements in order for the CCN to be able to register, and will be constantly of use to the community network. Drawing up these documents is a considerable amount of work, even with the guidelines and samples provided by the government. Some must be written in lepl language and al1 must be very accurate. It is costly and time-consuming to be making changes to these documents once they have been registered with the government, so the creation of final drafts of these documents is an excellent task for the more meticulous individuals in the group. The documents which will be used by the government, and the CCN, to legaily define the organization are described briefly below. The Mission Statement (often cailed a Statement of Incorporations in co- operatives and a Constitution in societies) is a short but accurate description of the purpose for which your organization was formed. It is crucial that the goais described here are specific, meaningful, and attainable. Your mission statement will serve as a reminder of the essential focus of the organization and will help to ensure that this focus is retained over time. An Australian CCN provides a good exarnple of such a statement. The Melbourne FreeNet will be a cornputer-based information service designed to meet the present information needs of the people and public agencies in the region. and to prepare the community for full and broadly- based participation in rapidly changing communication environments. The Melbourne FreeNet will be an incorporated, non-pro fit community organization that is free to everyone in the cornmunity, and will neither charge nor pay for any information or other services it provides. By dialing into a single number, members of the community will have a free, twenty-four hour connection to information and interaction with any of the participating organizations. The FreeNet will also provide other contemporary communication services for inforrnation access and exchange. It will be an electronic community centre, public square, and information fair (Accessed at http://www.vicnet.net.au/vicnet/mfn.html).

This statement is ambitious without much vagueness. it is concise and provides the reader with a clear idea of the intent of the organization. As is this one, a mission statement should be business-like in tone. Although it will embody ideals close to the heart for many members, these ideais must be expressed in a practical manner to ensure that they will be taken seriously by al1 who read it. The Rules (sometimes called Bylaws) of your organization cmrun anywhere between five and 50 pages long, depending on the complexity of the services you intend to offer to the community. Ten pages single-spaced is common. This document States the rights and limits assigned to the different people involved in and with the organization. Rules are needed as a guideline for newcomers and as a reminder for al1 members to help "make the people who use the system feel a Iittle more responsive. We had a number of people in Santa Monica who were not responsible. There were some people running through the system doing anything they wanted" (Kirschner 1994, p. 18). To prevent and deal with cases of member abuse, it is crucial that the Rules include a clear outline of how they will be enforced. One strategy, borrowed from a public library with a computer networking lab, might be "setting up a forfeit point schedule. Users who don't comply with the lab guidelines in these areas receive a forfeit point for each offense" (Cullings 1996). Point accumulation over set periods of time result in progressively greater losses of user privileges. The advantage of this system is that it provides a warning before a member is cut off from the system. A CCN seeks to include, rather than exclude, comrnunity members whenever possible, so an approach that incorporates warnings is preferable. Since a corporation is a legal entity itsel f, the Rules also state the rights and limits assigned to the organization. Once the rules have ken accepted and registered with the government, they may be enforceable by law. Rest assured that they will be read carefully by an agent for the govemment before they will be accepted on the government's behalf. For the sake of members, make the rules as easy to read and understand as possible. They will have to, at the same time, be worded very carefully to ensure that the meaning of each rule is not open to misinterpretation. The govemment will require that a minimum group of niles be copied or adapted from the exarnples they provide. The CCN organization will then need to decide whether or not to include rules above this minimum group. Looking over the rules of other CCNs will help the group judge what does and does not need to be addressed in the rules. The development of a set of rules tailored to the CCN's mission rnight best be done by a small group which brings their progress regularfy to the rest of the members for feedback. The government will require that a List of First Directors and a Notice of Organization Address is included when the CCN subrnits an application for registration. Neither of these documents is difficult to prepare, but they must be done in strict accordance with governrnent guidelines or they will cause your application to be rejected. Fortunately, the government is willing to give an organization as many chances as necessary to correct and resubmit registration documents. The agent who examines the documents will also provide detailed explanations of the changes, if any, which need be made to ensure the success of a subsequent application. Although they are not necessary for registration, there are other organization- defining documents that might best be worked on around the sarne time as registration documents. The Policies of an organization can be easily confused with the Rules, especialIy because some organizations cal1 their rules poiicies and vice versa. Policies, however, are guidelines for the behavior of al1 members in relation to the CCN. Although they do touch upon the rights and limits of individuals, they do so only within the context of the organization. Policies have a force of law only if this is provided to them through the Rules and membership procedures. For example, one of the registered Rules of the community network might ensure that any member who fails to act in accordance with a Policy in force at the time, in the view of the Board of Directors, shdl lose the rights of membership for a period not less than one year. By having al1 members sign an agreement that they have read and will abide by both the policies and rules of the organization, the CCN obtains the right to enforce policies. It is wise to do this. Many non-profit organizations fail to rnake their policies enforceable and so are quite unable to protect themselves from certain situations of member behavior. It is particularly important that a CCN have a detailed policy in terms of member usage of the information, and the ability-to-cornmunicate, provided by the network. A detailed description of appropriate and inappropriate user behaviors (often called a "netiquette") and a legd agreement protecting the comrnunity computer network from the consequences of abusive behavior on the put of users needs to be developed. Some community networks incorporate both of these documents into a single user agreement form which al1 members need to sign before they are allowed full interactive prïvileges on the computer network. Non-members are usually only able to view posted information. Computer networks are a relatively recent application of technology and the courts in this country and others have yet to develop a reasonable strategy for dealing with individuals or groups who use the technology in ways that infringe on the rights of others. Some CCNs in the United States have ken held responsible for the on-line behavior or postings of a member. Community networks can be compared to public libraries in that they store a vast amount of information for the community and are the local champions of free speech. Librarïes in this country eventually won the right to censor their own material and it is to be hoped that CCNs will also obtain this right. Advocacy groups in several countries are working hard to lobby for the right of community networks to act as their own censor of information content both in public areas like newsgroups and private ones like electronic mail. The need to lobby for limitations on network liability is one of the reasons why Telecornrnunities Canada, a national umbrella organization for CCNs, was formed. This group may be able to assist your network in planning around legal issues. Although a CCN anses out of a certain amount of social idealism, it is important not to neglect the business aspect of setting up a service organization. "Whatever the ownership model, the community network is still a business and should be nin like a business" (Richardson & Searle 1995, p. 8). The first step in putting the CCN on a solid economic footing is to do the research and planning necessq to develop a business plan. "Comrnunity networks, large or small, absolutely must establis/z an economic rnodel for their sustained operation. It is a question of econornic viability, really of survival - not a debate over 'free access"' (Morino 1994, p. 13, italics original). A community network will have income and expenditures which it must track over time and a long-range plan is crucial. Funding the set up of "access sites" is only part of the financial picture. For many community groups, it is actually the continuing costs of operating and maintaining such sites that are prohibitive. After dl, volunteer-based cornmunity groups not only have difficuity rnaintaining resident participation and involvement over long penods of time, but they also have difficulty maintaining fundraising and general budgets as well (Halseth 1996, p. 80, italics mine).

A business plan is just a document outlining how the organization intends to finance itself, but the planning that must be done in order to make up that document will have immediate impacts on awareness of how the CCN will fit into the economic context of the local community. In some cases, the process of developing the business plan will make it clear that the organization does not yet have enough resources to sustain itself over tirne. Forming a business plan at an early stage is helpful because it literally forces your group to think through al1 aspects of your strategic plans. It may be found that more research and planning than expected is necessary before the cornputer network is made available to the public. It is crucial to remember at al1 times that, even though you are not seeking profit, you must still have income and will still have to compete with other organizations for that income. In the long-term, a CCN will rely on interaction and CO-operationwith other organizations to meet its goals. Without a business plan it will be very difficult. if not impossible, to obtain donations, grant income, sponsorships, or alliances. in the experience of a telecentre initiative, for example, Funding was conditional, both on the local community showing that they believed that the faciiity would be of benefit to their comrnunity and on the preparation of a realistic business plan which showed reasonable prospects of self-sufficiency after two years (Crellin 1996, p.45). Other organizations will want to see a realistic projection of the organization's functioning over time before they have anything significant to do with the community network. Too often, non-profit organizations operate as though they have a right to community support just because they intend to do positive work in the community. The CCN organization must be able to prove that it is viable and likely to be effective before i t asks others to share their resources with it. A typicai business plan woutd include the following (modified from Simon 1994, LOO): A coverpage containing the date, the community network's name, mail address, website location, e-mail address, office phone number, and office fax number. An executive surnmary which sums up the major points of the business plan and includes your mission staternent A table of contents if there are more than three pages involved. A description of the market research which includes market size, trends, and known or projected competition. A marketing analysis that describes those who will use the CCN services and how the organization will generate income to provide that service. A murketingplon that describes intended marketing strategies, pricing decisions, advertising rnethods and promotiond means The professional assistance the CCN expects to make use of; such as lawyers and accountants. A general operations plan which gives the geographicai location of operations and detaiied description of organizational management strategy and working structure. A time schedule for implementing the plans. Any crika1risks and problems you may face, such as competitive responses and failure to achieve revenue projections. Honesty and thoroughness are always crucial in this area. Afinancial plan including forecasts of profits and losses, a balance sheet, cash flow anal ysis, and break-even charts + A description of the legal structure, including any modifications to typical legal structures of that type. The business plan will be quite a bit of work to put together but will be extremely useful as the CCN begins to gather support from in and outside your community. It also serves as a helpful check to ensure that the decisions king made. often independently of each other. fit together into a cohesive overall operating strategy.

CHARITABLE ORGANIZATION TAX STATUS A solid business plan will help persuade potential donors that the network will be viable, but registration of the network as a charitable organization will probably have an even greater influence over their willingness to donate. CCNs are now eligible for charitable organization tax status in Canada. There are several benefits to registering as a charity (those listed here are modified from MacLeod 1995, p. 167). + The community network will be given a charitable organization tax number, making it possible to wnte tax-deductible receipts which donators can use as credits against their income taxes. + The community network will be exempt from paying income tax. + The community network may be eligible for exemption or partial rebate on goods and services, federal sales, provincial sales, excise, and municipal property taxes. + Many foundations wilI give grant funding only to registered charities. It makes sense to register as a charity as soon as possible. Although registration as a non-profit organization also confers some tax exemptions, the ability to write ta- deductible receipts is a major asset to a CCN. It will be significantly easier to persuade businesses to donate used equipment to the network if they can wnte off the gift, for example. In addition, charitable tax status can affect the way in which people view an organization. Business organizations that might otherwise see the network as a source of competition rnay be more open to the possibility of collaboration with a recognized charity. This may sound manipulative, but the way that the community perceives the network will be very important to its effectiveness. The CCN must use every way it rcasonably cmto ensure that it is viewed as a positive presence in the community. Choosing and implementing the legal aspects of the organizational structure for a CCN is clearly a major undertaking. The group may find that it does not have enough resources, especially in the form of volunteers, to accomplish it right away. The core group of dedicated people must not be overstressed. It is better to postpone registration of the organization for a while than to rush into service provision unprepared or to burn out valuable volunteers. Taking good care of those volunteers will be absolutely essential at al1 stages of organization development. Keeping them informed and doing everything possible to make their voIunteer experiences positive is crucial for the sustainability of the initiative. The work involved in developing a community network organization will provide many volunteers with invaluable experience that cm readily be used in other areas of their lives. Emphasize this point and help volunteers keep in rnind the "bigger picture" - that their efforts contribute directly to the ongoing battle to ensure basic human rights at local, national, and global levels.

PROCESS SUMMARY FOR CREATING ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE Developing an effective CCN requires a rigorous evaluation of both the needs of the community and its available resources. Group consensus on the specific goals of the CCN, combined with a realistic strategy to meet those goals, is vital in creating a sustainable vision. A flattened hierarchical organizational structure is more likely to place information and decision-making power in the hands of the general membership, and thus may ensure that the grassroots nature of the organization is sustained through time. Volunteer committee members perforrn most of the work needed for maintaining the CCN, although staff may be used in certain roles. Committees gather and maintain resources in the areas of technical support, information content, hurnan resources, comrnunity relations, finances and archives, al1 of which are crucial to the proper functioning of the organization. The Board of Directors is the legal and financial representative of the CCN and ensures that it operates in accordance with the law and with its own rules and policies. Once the need for a CCN has been established, legal registration as a non-profit society or service cooperative is a first step towards preventing disputes, protecting the rights of users and limiting the liability of decision-rnakers. A series of documents which define the organization are then written. as required by government agencies. Care should be taken in the preparation of these documents, ail of which contribute to the credibility and economic integrity of the organization. Finally, registration as a charitable organization can help the CCN greatly in attracting funding and maintaining itself as a positive presence within the community.

IMPLICATIONS FOR LOCAL CiWL SOCIETY DEVELOPMENT Through discussion of the steps involved in forrning the organizational structure for a CCN, we can see specific ways in which this process cm influence local potential for civil society development through alteration of the attitudes and abilities of the volunteers active in the CCN initiative. The effects upon this group are of importance to the larger community as well as to the CCN organization, because it can be expected that volunteers will migrate to other civil society interests and organizations over time. Different steps in the process reviewed in this chapter can be expected to have different influences. as summarized below. The process and rationale for forming the Organizing Committee may help people to understand that significant improvements to local conditions require group approaches. Collective, rather than individual, action is more effective in civil society work. The community needs and resources assessment process may increase individual awareness of currently unmet needs in the community. Awareness is a necessary step towards developing the determination to alter local conditions. The process of organizational goal development may increase appreciation of the fact that goals are ideally based solidly upon the strategies that are likely to address real needs in the community and be supportable given the real resources of the community. Practicality and a thorough grounding of goals in the local situation makes a civil society organization more effective and sustainable. The process of developing an overall working structure and refining that structure through member groupings can improve the effectiveness of volunteers and staff by providing them with sufficient resources, clear responsibilities, and appropriate boundaries in terms of authority and practices. Awareness of, and demand for, clarity in these areas is likely to enhance the ability of an individual to sustain their efforts on behalf of a civil society organization. Legal structure registration and the process of creating organization-defining documents is likely to increase individual appreciation of the need for civil society organizations to meet the standards of their politicai and economic context by demonstrating sound planning and reasonable adherence to traditionai ways of organizing responsibility and authority. The first subquestion for this thesis was: how does the process of forrning a CCN organization affect the development of locd civil society? In answer, given the information reviewed in this chapter, it can be said that this process can be expected to alter and improve the abilities of the community members actively involved in it in ways that significantly increase their capacity to develop other sustainable civil society initiatives. The effects noted here are educational in nature and impact on individuals who are aIready demonstrating civil society activity. Human resources are a crucial requirement for civil society development, and improvements to the abilities of the individuals who form these resources are lasting and significant improvements to overall local potential for civil society development. Chapter Five CCN BEST PRACTICES: DEVELOPING RESOURCE GATHERING CAPACITY

CHAPTER DESCRIPTION This chapter explores ways in which a CCN can persuade individuals and organizations from the local area to assist in its development. The purpose is to provide sufficient information to address the thesis subquestion; "how does the process of gathering resources for a CCN affect the development of local civil society?" A discussion of a strategic plan for the acquisition of widespread comrnunity support is broken down into the following areas: dernystifying the technology, linking the network with comrnunity vitaiity, and forrning organizational alliances. The value of using local expertise is explored, and some avenues for recruitment suggested. A range of methods of acquiring funds for the developing CCN are discussed. The importance of training for al1 individuals involved in the network is emphasized as a crucial strategy for long-terrn resource gathering, with particular strategies noted for orienting potential supporters, new users, and volunteers. The overall resource gathering process presented here is then reviewed in terms of the influence it is likely to have upon the development of local civil society.

ISSUES IN COMMUNITY SUPPORT ACQUISITION A CCN cannot meet its goals unless it has the goodwill of the community. Many of today's groups must make a concerted effort to move beyond their current scope, which often represents only the interests and views of the people who organized and built the network. The cornmunity networking programs that will succeed in the long run will be those that have maintained a focus on the multiplicity of needs in the community and have effectively engaged the full spectrum of their neighbors (Morino 1994, p. 1 1). The organizers must continually work to draw other community members into involvement with the CCN. Fair and friendly treatment of everyone who comes into contact with your groups is essential in developing and maintaining a good reptation. Reputation, intangible as it is, is a critical resource which must be gathered and used just like any other donation which your community network receives. Much of the Community Relations committee's efforts will focus on persuading local organizations to publicly support the network by donating goods, advertisement space, or endorsernents. Such donations allow your group to attract the attention of "mainstream" community mernbers, those who are not already involved in civil society work or cornputer communications. It is not enough, naturally, to just attract people's attention. You must create an overall process for acquiring community support and apply strategies to ensure a continuous flow of that support. This will involve providing locals with a source of further information on the CCN which is easy to understand, interesting, and focused upon the benefits which the network can provide to the individual and to the community. Basic, moderate, and advanced Ievels of information should be available to suit individual levels of curiosity. Once a person or group learns enough to approve of the project, they need to be encouraged to give tangible support to the network through mernbership, volunteer time, donations, or sponsorships. The concept that support-gathering activities must be ongoing is important both in terrns of individual volunteer approach and overall strategy. Attitude can make a considerable difference to the way in which a volunteer approaches their work on behalf of the CCN. Your volunteer training program should emphasize that al1 individuals who interact with the community in the course of their tasks need to be ready at al1 times to draw new support into the CCN by answering questions cheerfully, referring people on to more knowledgeable individuals, and behaving in a manner that reflects well upon the organization. There will aiways be a need for further interaction with community members to either increase their support or draw their attention to new initiatives. Promotion of the network to residents involves a series of steps that should turn into an ongoing cycle of communication. Figure 5.1 underscores the fact that support acquisition is a continuous process and is taken from the author's experience with the Vancouver Free-Net, now known as the Vancouver CommunityNet. Sample topics for communications during the various stages are given to clarify the differences between the steps. Steps in Your Approach Sample Topics

4 the area it will serve 4 how it will work of the community it is organized by average people

4 network wilf be easy to use 4 public access to new technologies 4 easy access to local information network will be used by locals 4 increased awareness of local issues 4 support for local businesxs 4 new educational opponunities increases in local collaborations Make [hem aware of any 1 new initiatives or changes in the community network. 4 individual support adds up quickly network wants to reflect al1 views 4 community mernbers are the reason persona1 support is needed the network is formed and will make a difference. 0 funders look for wide-spread community support

4 volunteer work ways in which they can support the project. donations becoming an information provider organizational affiliation

Make it as easy and simple membership application simple as possible to give tax-deductible donation reciepts support to the project. coordinator for volunteers 4 post cards to send to politicians

Ask for their feed bac k 4 create a feedback questionaire and make it clear that their what content would they like opinions will carry weight. what problems do they see was their experïence positive 4 what would make it easier to use

I Figure 5.1 Involving Community Members in the CCN Initiative Many people want to have personai contact with someone before they involve themselves in sornething new. Volunteers providing information need to be reasonably accessible. Many requests for information will corne outside of normal business hours, when people are relaxing and "switching" from their work life to their personal Iife. Having a rotating shift of people who can be accessed 24 hours a day would be ideal. An amazing number of first contacts will corne in very late in the evening if access is provided. A single telephone number with calls forwarded to whichever volunteer is on shift could work very well. When people first become aware of the community network, they will react to its presence in the community with different levels of approvai. There may be groups in the community who oppose the project because they see it as potential cornpetition for funding and other types of local support. The range of reactions which individuais and groups may have to the project should be understood by network promoters, because it will be their responsibility to enhance and increase positive responses and rninimize, if not eliminate, negative responses.

Highly Supportive will volunteer as a Cornmittee Chair L will volunteer as a Board Member will do volunteer work will form organizational alliance with network will becorne an information provider will join as a mernber will donate money or equipment will sponsor telephone lines etc. will actively lobby for network development will support by vote or petition approve but wiIl do nothing about it Neutral or indifferent disapprove but will do nothing about it will oppose by vote or petition will actively lobby rigainst the network will develop suategies to undermine support r Highly Antagonistic

Figure 5.2 Possible Individual Reactions to the CCN Initiative The community network must interact with the entire community in an ongoing manner to maintain the support it has already gathered and to elicit new support. This will present definite challenges for the Community Relations cornmittee, as there will be little money for promotional materiais. The community computer network must find support-gathering strategies that rely on resources other than money. Three generai strategies for pulling in community support have stood out as effective approaches over the years in which cornmunity networks have been operating: + de-mystifying the technology; + promoting cornmunity heritage and vitality;

6 organizational alliances. Each taclcles the problem of lack of support from a distinctly different angle and, when put together, they provide a solid framework upon which to base promotional efforts. They al1 have the added advantage of using volunteer time and materials probably already available to the cornrnunity network.

DE-MYSTIFYING THE TECHNOLOGY Computer networks have become much easier to use in the last three decades. They earned a reputation for complexity, however, in early days when even basic commands took a lot of tirne to learn and system components worked together rather poorly. That reputation remains and discourages some individuals from trying the technology. If you can convince people that there are information resources worth accessing through the network and that it is not hard to learn to access them, they will be much more willing to invest time in the process of learning to use the technology. An effective strategy for de-mystifying the technology is to bring demonstrations of network use into the office or home a potential group of CCN supporters (Richardson & Searle 1995). An interactive show using a computer screen projected ont0 a wall cm quickly bring the group to an understanding of the benefits of using a cornmunity network. Alrnost al1 CCNs provide at least one instructional pamphlet on very basic cornputer use, often focused on ways in which a person with a home computer can connect to the network. These cm be made available in several public locations, especially gathering points such as libraries and community centres. Once a potentiai member has been convinced to try using the CCN, a "help desk will help ensure that users gradually increase their comfort level with the technology. If the CCN operates public access terminds, it sometimes staffs a help desk nearby. Most CCNs maintain virtual or phone help desks, which people can cal1 or email for assistance when they hit a problem in their use of the network (Guy 1996b, Schuler 1996b) . The human contact provided by a help desk can be very important in tenns of overcoming newcomer discomfort with computer network use. Since group tutoring uses up fewer resources than educating a large number of people on an individuai basis, many CCNs offer regularly scheduled introductory sessions. These explain how the network works and how people can best take advantage of it. The Vancouver Community Net holds introductory sessions for new users and specid new volunteer sessions once a week, for example. An important topic, regardless of the actual technique used to de-mystify the technology, is the fact that it is not necessary to have the latest, fastest computer in order to adequately take advantage of online communications. Advertising programs of computer and software manufacturers give the opposite impression. An older, already used, 300 dollar computer and a 50 dollar modem are usually al1 that is necessary for basic uses. A cornputer purchased for this arnount will give a household the ability to read newsgroups, send e-mail and do text based work on the web. For many users, multimedia displays can wait until after they have trained themselves in ail the basic uses. Even then, some users may find they are unnecessary since the most valuable information and services are still text-based. Web sites with graphics and sound are stimulating but tend to have tittle useful information content. The cost of investing in high-end computer systems causes many people to "put off' attempts to lem how to use computer networks. Makc certain potential users know that they cm start out with a relatively inexpensive computer system and upgrade it only as need exists to do so. The strategies described here al1 invoive educating members of the community. In many areas, municipal govemments will provide support to an organization that engages in local education. The ability to share municipal resources such as meeting halls, archives, and teaching aids can be a potent resource for the CCN and organizers should contact municipal authorities early on to see if a beneficial relationship cm be forrned.

LINKING THE NETWORK WITH COMMUNITY VITALITY Local activities in the arts, business, recreation, and heritage arenas al1 contribute to high qudity of life in an area and most people value such activities highly. A CCN cm draw in support for itself by making it clear to al1 how use of the network can enhance these aspects of community living. A CCN has the capacity to provide effective access to a wide range of community information and contacts (Wyllys 1995). CCNs can focus some of their marketing efforts on comrnunity education, specifically on the topic of how the CCN could contribute to the vitality of the comrnunity by making access to in formation and contacts easier and supporting communication once new contacts are made (Morino 1994). For people working in the arts, email, electronic bulletin boards, and on-line conferencing can make it much easier to keep in touch despite erratic and demanding time schedules. Much-needed access to search engines is also a boost to those who need to research background information for a particular production. The network can also help artists advertise their services, products, and productions. Small businesses are responsible for the majority of new jobs created in Canada and they provide the relatively stable core for an area's economic development- Entrepreneurs have a lot of learning to undergo if their businesses are to be successful and a community network cm help provide them with the information and resources they need. If the CCN provides Intemet access or a local college link, there will also be courses available on-line. Remote education can help a local businessperson fil1 in any gaps in their knowledge or explore new directions for their enterprise while remaining in the comrnunity to oversee their business. The ability to communicate at low cost with buyers out of the local area using email can make a big difference to those who specialize in unusual products or in services for tourists. For dlsmall business owners, email can become an unusually reliable way to place orders for supplies since both parties have printable copies of the order and the order "reaches" its destination almost immediately after sending. Employment in the local area can be affected by a CCN. Corporations seeking areas with low living costs for a satellite office are far more likely to be attracted to a community where a reasonable portion of the population is experienced in computer communications. The skills developed through use of a CCN can also help residents tap into the slowly expanding market for telecornmuters. People who have not yet learned to use computer communications in their school or work experiences can develop these skiIls in the friendly, relevant context of a community-based computer network. Local job listings on the network cm be very useful to the cornmunity as they can be kept very up-to-date and can include much more information than is practical in a newspaper classified. CCNs are ideal for bringing information together in one place about local recreational possibilities. Schedules for community courses, team sports, craft groups, and transportation companies can al1 take up an immense arnount of paper in print and are usualIy discussed separately from each other. The menu systems used for online information can make it easy to skim from one activity area to another. Regular updating cmkeep the information current and useful. Special events can be emphasized and background information provided in accessory files. Adventurers seeking those of like mind, guides, and outfitters can al1 have their own discussion areas on the network. Every community has at ieast a few people intrigued with local history and the antiques and records still present in the area. Most provincial and municipal museums actually had their origin in small groups of people who voluntarily collected and preserved items and Stones so that the heritage of their comrnunity would not be lost to time. The "elders" who know the stories and the historically-minded in your area can use the CCN to help thern bring together and make known the events that shaped your community. Heritage events and other activities that celebrate the uniqueness of an area assist people in feeling that they are part of something special, something which is bigger than them and which will continue on through time. Celebrations that are peculiar to an area are an important factor in the development of community "spirit". A CCN can help to keep special tales dive in the population. Locations of heritage sites and scheduled events cmalso be placed where they are easily seen. Conservationists working to retain the environmental heritage of an area may also find that the community network can help them attract attention to their current projects. A CCN does not usually replace traditional media like newspapers in cornmunicating local events and opportunities. Some people in the community will never use a computer interface and so cannot be reached by this means. There will probably always be some ways in which a local paper is more effective for communication within the community. Where CCNs excel is in the thoroughness, timeliness, and organization they can provide. information on local happenings can be updated as it changes. Background information, even quite lengthy amounts, cmbe provided for those who want to know more. Cross-referenced menu systems can greatly speed the rate at which a reader can find the information they want. Regularly updated calendars of local events can highlight unique happenings and provide a thorough resource for people who want to be more involved in their community. Almost any kind of interest can be supported by the communication tools and information storage provided by a community network. Speciai interest groups benefit from having a presence online in that newcomers can find and contact them and other groups in the area can readily exchange information with them. A CCN creates a situation where local groups find it easier to take advantage of opportunities to cooperate and share resources with each other. Synergy, or cooperation at the local level between groups. is one of the most potent benefits of establishing a CCN. When local groups work together they can be much more productive. The Comrnunity Relations cornmittee needs to work to ensure that mernbers of the community will support the CCN. Linking the CCN to local arts, business, recreation, and heritage activities in the minds of residents is an effective overall strategy for developing community support.

FORMING ORGANIZATIONAL ALLiANCES Local residents are more likely to support the CCN if they see it as working in cooperation with other valued organizations. Strong relationships with a range of other organizations in the community help a developing CCN succeed. Organizations which have been working in the cornmunity have valuable experiences and resources to share. Useful organizations to ally with are not hard to find. ui any community, many local L-groups are working to improve quality of life in some way. Although high-profile organizations may not need or want to ally themselves with the CCN, some will and others may point you towards the smaller groups in your area. Allying with small and developing civil groups should be a priority. Low-profile initiatives at the local level accomplish the most overall in civil society work and are well worth hunting out and working in conjunction with.

housi ng. purchasing & workers municipal. provincial cooperative associations & national libraries charitable organizations COOPERATIVES regional interpretive centres & SOCIETIES ARCHIVES service clubs I J research centres hobbyist groups public & comrnunity c) television stations rictivist groups SPECIAL BROADCAST INTEREST AGENCIES local radio support groups CROUPS 0- stations discussion groups t local newspapers EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS training centres universities

public & private cornrnunity K- 12 schools colleges

Figure 5.3 Potential Organizational Allies in the Community

Initially making contact with some of the smaller groups in your area can take time. Since contact information tends to be "insider" knowledge for many groups, finding the people who serve as focal points for community activities (local librarians and service club leaders, for example) can really decrease the time it takes to iocate and contact the groups that are working to benefit your cornmunity. Using word-of-mouth to find groups is slower but will eventudly bring many allies in. Make sure that you maintain a phone line where interested groups can get a hold of you and have a volunteer ready to do immediate follow-up on any calls. The process of fonning alliances can have its pitfalls, however. Some orgmizations may want a monopoiy on particular kinds of information, some may want to manage the entire network, some may demand a closed governing process (exclusive right to appoint directors, for exarnple), some may believe in censoring certain voices, some may impose unreasonable demands on your resources, and some may insist that the CCN should make profit. Both parties to the alliance need to negotiate as pers even if they are vastly different in size and staff numbers. A CCN cannot become a dependent of another organization and still be true to its mission. Control over policies must remain in the hands of the General Membership of the CCN at al1 times if the organization is to be effective over time in addressing cornmunity needs. in most cases, those needs exist because of gaps in the services provided by government and business interests. Handing over control of the CCN to govemment or business interests in the form of crippling alliances makes it highly questionable that the network will function to fil1 those gaps. For an alliance to be worthwhile, both parties accomplish more of their mission with the alliance than without it (Schuler 1996b). The ability of a CCN to provide communication tools and information storage and display cm mesh very well with the ability of other local organizations to provide relevant information for residents of the area. Once you have exchanged information with a potential ally and have agreed that you could each benefit from an ongoing relationship. you need to clearly outline what that relationship will entail. A basic contract that describes what each party will bring to the relationship, what procedures will be foilowed, and what rights and responsibilities each party holds can do wonders to ensure a long-tenn relationship. Many times, a CCN wilI not formalize alliances because they "want to keep things friendly" or dislike the idea of signing agreements. This is a tactical error. Anything you can do to keep communication clear and effective between allies is going to be very helpful. Non-profit organizations such as a CCN and most of its allies face continuous turnover of volunteers. Verbal agreements and understandings lose any vdidity over time even when the parties to the original agreement remain with their organizations. This process happens even faster when the individuals who initially "made" the agreement are no Ionger with the organization. The time and effort spent establishing an alliance should not be wasted and a formal agreement can help to prevent such wriste. The Community Relations cornmittee should create a simple agreement form that can be easily modified to suit the needs and preferences of an ally. Have copies on hand so that you cm formalize a relationship right away once agreement is reached. Emphasize to your ally that this is not a "legal" contract, just a document to clarify relations and serve as a reference for each group. The agreement should state the full name and addresses of the organizations involved, the date, and what each party cm expect from the other in the range of situations which you anticipate in your relationship. At ieast the following items should be covered in your agreement:

4 specific details about the type and arnount of resources being shared or given from one group to the other;

4 limitations on the responsibilities of each party;

4 the date by which the agreement must be renewed if it is to stay in effect;

4 names of contact people who will serve as liaisons when the groups need to communicate with each other. Agreements will necessarily become more complex when they have to describe reiationships which involve a great deal of resource sharing and interaction. In some cases an arrangement that can be enforced, a legal contract, may be necessary. If a CCN is definitely dependant on the services or shared resources of another organization, they had best ensure that they will not lose that "cmtch" without advance notice. Several North American CCNs have suffered greatly when a university or other ally providing them with computer connections or technical support suddenly pulled out of the relationship. When allying your group with a larger one, it is important that you ensure that governance of the CCN remain in the h,mds of the members at al1 times. Ct is cornrnon for an institution to offer dliance on the condition that they have the right to appoint some or al1 Directors to the Board or can dictate policy in some way. Make sure you do not sign away the right of the community to decide on the direction the cornrnunity network will take in the future. If you do form a legally-enforceable agreement with another group, remember that only the Board of Directors cm take on legal responsibilities for the CCN. One of the directors will have to sign the contract. In any case. written alliance agreements will outline the contributions of each party and the limitations on each Party. They keep communication clearer by serving as a reference point and greatly cut down on the overall time spent in nurturing alliances. An agreement alone is not enough to keep an organizational relationship healthy, however. A competent liaison should be assigned to each ally as their contact with the CCN. Individual liaison people usually oversee relations with several different ally organizations. They pass important news and information between groups, answer questions from an ally, and oversee the relationship. This last task usually means coordinating resource sharing. Allies who provide information postings, for example. need to be directed to someone one the Content Cornmittee of the CCN. Allies who share physical space or equipment need to be directed to the Technical Support Cornmittee. Liaisons between the CCN and each ally help keep the relationship between the organizations working smoothly over time (Gonzalez & Weldon 1995).

USING LOCAL EXPERTISE Every neighbourhood possesses substantial resources in the abilities of the people that live within it. "...look within your own town for talent before inviting others (even those who will come for free) to initial meetings" (Cisler 1994, p. 10). Cost management is by no means the only reason to harness the knowledge already present in cornmunity members on behalf of the CCN. "By using local expertise, you heIp to insure that you cm manage future administrative and technical difficulties, as well as equipment repairs" (Richardson & Searle 1995, p. 8). The skills and expenences of locals are often underused in community initiatives because: + the individuals themselves do not realize that their skills are needed; + organizers lack information on who is willing and able to contnbute, what those individuais are skilled at, and how to contact them. Obtaining and coordinating volunteers for the CCN is the responsibility of the Human Resources committee. The other cornmittees s hould pass on simple descriptions of the jobs they need volunteers for to Human Resources so that new volunteers can choose from a variety of tasks. The committee will help new volunteers contact the people involved in the task areas chosen, will orient them to the CCN as a whole, and will provide them with someone to whom they can bnng any problems that they feel they cannot take to their cornmittee chair. There are a few simple strategies that will help draw in volunteer workers for the CCN. None require paid advertising space. Make sure al1 your current volunteers know that you need more people. Perceived need greatly affects whether a person will volunteer or not and people are more likely to join in if a friend of theirs is already involved. Post clear descriptions of the jobs you need a volunteer for. Separate these into ongoing and one-time activities. Put the postings online as well as in visible locations in the community. Emphasize the skills that will be learned and/or developed by volunteers who take on these jobs (Hall 1996). Provide a single phone number that people can cal1 to be directed to the volunteer coordinator. Ask local businesses if they have an employee volunteerism prograrn. Some companies give their workers time off to do community work without wage loss. This is more cornrnon in urban areas but may also be happening arnongst larger companies in rural areas. Leave up-to-date listings of the tasks you need volunteers for in the hands of staff at municipal offices and at government agencies helping the unemployed. Both types of institutions often refer people to volunteer organizations and some unemployment relief prograrns specify that the recipient perform a small amount of work to benefit the cornmunity. Make sure the staff of the libraries serving the community know what areas you seek volunteers in. People who would like to leam new skills often speak to their librarian about it and can be referred to the CCN (Durrance, undated). Contact local schools. Volunteer work can build valuable work experience to help graduating students find their first full-time jobs. You should try to Involve students and young people. Electronic community networks in Canada are spreading rapidly because schools, cornmunity colleges and universities provide Internet access to their students. These students quickiy lem about the value of the Internet and community networks and, upon graduation, are often the first people to begin organizing cornmunity networks in their home comrnunities. The creativity, energy, ski11 and enthusiasm that young people bring to these initiatives is a tremendous resource (Richardson & Searle 1995, p. 8).

School counselors often maintain a List of local organizations that need volunteers and CCNs can benefit greatly from the enthusiasm and ideas which students of dl ages bring to their exploration of potential careers for themselves. Once you have the volunteers you need, take good care of them. Your organizational working structure should ensure that no one volunteer has too much on their hands. It is best that the Human Resources cornmittee contact each volunteer directly at least every six months to make sure that they have no serious overall problems in their work for the CCN. Even slight irritations can affect a person over time and lead to abandonment of volunteer activities. If someone is having ongoing personality conflicts with another volunteer or is frustrated by some other aspect of their current task load, you might encourage them to switch over to another committee. A change of responsibilities cm also heip keep volunteers enthusiastic if the change is of their own choice. If the volunteer wants to continue in their present role, Human Resources should alert the committee chair to any problems that the volunteer is facing and offer to help the chair resolve them. In addition to uncovering and helping fix problems for volunteers, the Human Resources committee works to enhance a volunteer's expenence. Tokens of appreciation. for example, cm go a long way to convince a volunteer that they are appreciated. Request donations of special coupons or goods from local businesses that you can give to your volunteers. If your group has registered as a charitable organization, the donator can wnte off the gift and they will likely be happy to be known as king generous to local volunteers. Like anyone else. volunteers would usually prefer to receive something that is useful to them. T-shirts. small potted plants, chocolates. and tickets to special events are al1 comrnonly used. A "certificate of appreciation" is better than nothing. but a creative committee can corne up with useful and eye-catching reminders that tell volunteers, and the community as a whole, how much the CCN appreciates the people involved in it. One thing to be very careful of, however, is that any tokens of appreciation are distributed absolutely fairly. It cm be tempting to give the core group of decision- makers, the directors and cornrnittee chairs more of the "goodies", or to just distribute t hem to volunteers that are seen as taking on especially heavy responsibilities. Avoid making any decisions about who "deserves" appreciation. Show that every person heIping out is equally important. Giving more signs of appreciation to some than to others quickly builds resentment in a volunteer group and is a losing strategy in the long run. A CCN is created and operated using the special skills and knowledge of many local people. Those who corne ionvard to give of their time and abilities should be treated well and regarded at al1 times as the most crucial resource of the community network.

FUNDRAISING The Finance committee organizes fundraising and tracks the movement of assets throughout the CCN. While sound business accounting practices are necessary as a base for the activities of the committee, an open-minded attitude towards the definition of assets is a great help as well. Some non-profit organizations handicap themselves by secking only cash from the community in their fundraising attempts. It is usuaily easier to obtain donations of goods than of funds from local people and such goods cm be used in many different ways to support CCN activities. A CCN tends to end up needing more funding than organizers initially plan for. Like a business, it usually needs to have a great deai of value input to it in the first three years. Once a community network has achieved a critical mass of users, fundraising becomes easier and the organization cm often sustain itself without the use of grants. Ail of the large older Canadian CCNs started out with extensive grant funding and had that financial support through at least their initial five years. Young CCNs nowadays cannot expect more than a year of grant funding. This situation has meant several crucial differences in how the network initiative must be organized. Early CCN initiatives tended to focus on obtaining the technological infrastructure first and developing their volunteer structure second- Current CCN initiatives need to reverse these priorities, because they must have a solid volunteer core available to staff ongoing fundraising efforts. They have to become financially independent quite quickly after the network is launched. In most cases, the mount of time spent on planning and structuring the organization has to be increased and most of these activities need to be done before the network is actually launched rather than in conjunction with launching. The money, goods, or services needed to establish a CCN cm be obtained in a variety of ways. Most CCNs use most or dlof the following fundraising techniques in their journey towards financial independence: + grants; + donations; + events; + a storefront; + fees. Grants may seem Iike an easy way to obtain a large lump of cash, but there are several problems inherent in this form of fundraising. You cannot apply for grants unless the CCN is quite well-organized. A strong legal and working structure must usually be demonstrated and a business plan is typically expected. If possible, provide proof that the organization is having a positive effect upon the local cornmunity. It sometimes seems as though grants are only available to those who do not really need them. Certainly, the majority go to established organizations that are already functioning strongly. CCN initiatives would do well to seek assistance from professional grant writers or other individuals experienced in accessing grant funding when writing up their first application. If the CCN cannot afford to pay for assistance, you might seek volunteer help from individuals in local government offices, native band councils, hospitals, colleges, or other organizations that regularly apply for grants. Local librarians can sometimes assist with wnting grant proposals, especially if a collaboration between the CCN and library to provide information to the cornrnunity already exists (Durrance undated). Grant funding sources generaily prefer to support collaborative initiatives. so a suong history of alliances will assist a CCN in obtaining grants (Cisler 1994). Most grants are provided by govemment prograrns or large business interests. In either case, the granting agency wilI undoubtedly have its own views on how the funds should be applied in your organization. This often results in difficult issues for a CCN or other non-profit organization. Should you stay true to your own mission and policies or bend them to fit into a granting agency's conception of how your organization should operate? A current example of this dilemma arises out of Industry Canada's Community Access Program (CAP). The CAP provides start-up grant funding to network organizations in communities that do not yet have reasonabte access to the Internet. Several CCNs have and are using this funding to establish themselves. CAP insists, however, that any CCN it funds provides the community with Intemet access. This is no problem for CCNs that had already decided to include internet access in their service range. Sorne CCNs choose to not provide network access outside the local area, however, and may have valid reasons for not doing so. Virtually al1 granting agencies set some conditions on use of the gant funding they oversee- A CCN's mission and effectiveness can be twisted over time into something very different from what the organizers intended if organizational goals and practices are sacrificed to meet the preferences of granting agencies. If the focus is on money then the focus is unlikely to be on community outreach. If the focus is on money, especially on getting large amounts of it in the short run, then the organizers will be more likely to accept a deal - any deal - with a large organization that could swallow them or cause them to water down their principles (Schuler 1W6a, p. 3).

Since a CCN is usually established because there are crucial gaps in the services available to Canadians from business and government organizations, acceptance of grant funding w ith inhibiting conditions placed upon it is a questionable practice that may actually set the CCN back instead of forwarding its goals. Another potentiai side-effect of seeking and relying on grant funding during CCN establishment is the tendency to neglect spending the time and effort needed to develop a prograrn for sustainable self-financing. Even if you have been informed that a grant wiII be available to your organization in perpetuity (a very rare situation), make sure that you start to draw together people and ideas for other forms of fundraising right away. Many a CCN has suffered a sudden, catastrophic loss of grant funding. In today's weak economy, most non-profit organizations are aiready wary but it does not hurt to make certain at ail times that you can do without grants. Before you apply for a grant, be certain that you know what a granting agency is looking for in the organizations it funds. At present, the Canadian government and many corporate funding sources will expect your organization to fulfill the criteria set out by the information Highway Advisory Council finai report (Industry Canada 1997). This report is good background information for those planning to apply for government funding as it will contribute to an understanding of the way that the government is officially viewing information technology development and how they intend to support it in Canada. Donations tend to be the financial mainstay of a non-profit organization over tirne. This is especially true if the benefits of organizational alliances are viewed as a forrn of donation. Donations can also be difficult to obtain. . ..almost al1 groups have reported that it is very difficult to obtain sponsonhips from large companies and donations from local businesses. Typically, funds raised carne from interested individuals, service clubs and, in some cases, from local government (Crellin 1996, p. 45).

Keep in mind that goods and services can be even more potent for helping a CCN attain financial sustainability than gifts of money. They are much more readity available from local people and, with some volunteer work added in, cmbe adapted to whatever need the CCN currently ha. An attitude that respects al1 gifts and seeks creative ways to use them to benefit the organization will greatly help the CCN. Ways in which to obtain donations have ken a major source of research in the last five years, as even the well- established non-profits feel the effects of a weakening economy on their overall income. The Finance committee should regularly look over recent publications in this field to stay current on useful techniques. The single most important strategy for obtaining donations is to pay considerable attention to reputation. "A common complaint arnong community networkers today is that they don't have enough rnoney. While this complaint is true enough, it sidesteps the real issue which is the lack of communiiy understanding and support" (Schuler 1996a, p. 3). It is absolutely crucial to maintain a positive standing in the community for your organization. At any point in time in any place, people are planning to give something away which could be of value to you. If your CCN is seen as a positive presence in the community that treats local people well and works hard to improve local conditions, you may well receive much of what is king given. It is even more important for non-profit organizations to focus on public relations and maintenance of a solid reputation in the local area than it is for businesses to do so. Never assume that, just because your organization has admirable goals, you can treat people to long waits, indifferent service, or occasional rudeness. Many worthwhile organizations suffer from rude and disorganized people on their front desk and do not seem to reaiize the costs in tenns of Iost opportunities this situation leads to Ensure that al1 volunteers see the CCN's reputation as something which must be preserved and enhanced at al1 times. improper handling of an inquiry from someone who does not seem very important can have long- term and wide-ranging effects on reputation in even a large community. Do not underestimate the amount of communication that goes on dunng idle conversation amidst the residents of an area. Every organization in an area is continuaiiy judged on the bais of their treatment of a neighbor's relative, a friend's friend, and so on through the many interwoven relations that forrn our personal communities. A CCN made up of cheerful, respectful people who believe in and work hard for their ideals will receive some donations without even having to solicit them. They will also have a much easier time obtaining alliances, volunteer workers, and specific goods when these are needed by the CCN. Most people find the act of giving something to be pleasurable. Your CCN, through the Community Relations committee and some individuals of other cornmittees, should ensure that donating is a personally rewarding act. Make it easy to give things to the organization. Show that every donation, whether it is some old clothes or a new network server, is valued and will be used to forward the CCN's goals. Most donators like to receive public appreciation for their gifts. Provide anonymity for those who prefer it and corne up with some creative ways to let the community know who your other benefactors are. Whether a donation is of money, volunteer time, goods, services, or alliance support, make certain that the giver knows that they are appreciated. Keep clear records of al1 donations so that consistent or repeat donators can be speciaily thanked. Donations record-keeping is also crucial for tax credit receipt purposes and as part of the overall financial book-keeping of the CCN. Fundraising events are an excellent way to translate donations of volunteer time or goods into ready cash. They do take a lot of time and effort but cm be an ideal way to make use of volunteers who do not have the particular skills needed for running the organization or who cm only volunteer a few times a year. Thorough organization will help ensure that every event reflects well upon the organization. This is important, as many people will be interacting with the CCN for the first time during an event and their opinions will contribute to your reputation. With this in mind, try to theme your event so that it emphasizes the positive role of the CCN in the community. A beer garden, for example, is a poor event theme for an organization that may well provide discussion areas and maillists for Alcoholics Anonymous or other substance abuse support groups. Idedly, a fundraising event will have themes to draw special attention to a new or important part of the computer network and so will benefit the CCN in more than one way. An example would be a fair with live entertainment, contests. raffles, food sales, and booths staffed by the special interest groups who maintain discussion areas on the network. Catered and guided tours of heritage gardens or ecological reserves in the local area could focus attention on community heritage information in the CCN even as it brings in money. There is no aspect of fundraising that cails for as much creativity and organizationai ski11 as event planning and supervision. It can also be intensely satisfying to have an event come off well. A good event will bnng in community interest, new volunteers, and new donations as weli as money. In some comrnunities, successful events becorne annual gatherings that are a source of local pride and which contribute to feelings of inclusion and well-king arnong residents. The Community Relations and Finance cornmittees should work together closely to plan events and should make use of the invaluable experiences of other non-profit organizations. Time spent consulting other non-profits in the local area and CCN organizations in other areas is an excellent way to develop useful ideas and avoid some of the pitfalls of fundraising event design. A storefront, sometimes simply a glas display cabinet in an office, is a little like having an ongoing fundraising event. Donations of highly-desirable goods can be translated into cash in this way when there is a long time between auctions and other events. Most of dl, however, a storefront can be used for slow but continuous sales of items that indicate support for the CCN or that help a person use the CCN to best effect. Check out university "bookstores" and public television station storefronts for ideas and supplier contacts. A non-profit often receives donations of goods that do not necessarily convey a good image for them when displayed. Used clothing or household items are a common exmple. Seek out bulk purchasers for these items rrither than putting them into a storefront's inventory. There are always groups which purchase old clothing - in many cornmunities these get sorted into re-salable, craft material, and fibre to be sent oversees for stuffing. Maintain a list of contacts who cm help the CCN liquidate donations of this kind. Any display you set up should be of high quality items that reflect the technological and cornmunity bias of the CCN. Al! items should clearly indicate that they corne from the CCN or should relate to what the CCN does in the community. Lack of space for a display is not really a problem. Although it is nice to have at least one display case in a public spot, brochures listing items for sale also work well. Scanners make it quite easy to have an illustrated on-line cataiogue as well. If your network is completely text-based, descriptions of items cm still be used. Most people do need to see and, preferably, touch an item before they will buy. Booths at community events can make this possible. As with events, storefront sales should bring in community support as well as funds. Items should be of excellent quality for the price as this reflects on your reputation. A good range of items should be available and the selection should vary slightly to reflect the seasons. There should certainly be more than just T-shirts. A little creativity in item selection will reflect well on the organization but value shouId dways be present in the item. Annud contests can be held to design new and interesting shirts or other items that reflect support for and pride in the CCN. Since a CCN cannot usually afford to maintain a large stock, a small cabinet display or on-line advertisement where buyers cm order items is ideal. Prepaid orders give you time to obtain the item at limited financial risk so that no large overhead is necessary. A sarnple of each item can be maintained so people know what they will be getting. Booth sales are an exception, however. Sufficient stock must be available so that people who want the item can take it away with them on the spot. Consignment arrangements can help in such cases. Donated goods or services cm be "sold" through a storefront and represent no overhead investment for the CCN. It is often fairly easy to convince local businesses, especially young ones, to donate an item, free pass, or service package. Properly presented, these donations can serve as a form of advertising for that business and can help them build their own reputation as a cornrnunity-oriented enterprise. You cm help this dong by assigning prime display space to such donations and emphasizing that they were a gift to the CCN, It is also good for storefront displays and staff to emphasize that purchases directly support the comrnunity-nurturing activities of the CCN. Make people feel as good as possible about what they are doing every time they interact with an aspect of the CCN. Storefront staffing can present special problems, both because vaiuable and portable items are involved and because many volunteers lack strong skills in keeping track of sales. This is another reason why a small stockpile and commission sales work well for a non-profit. Basic inventories with each staff change shoutd probably be done. This is a lot of extra work but can prevent resentments and suspicions that undercut volunteer effectiveness. The ability to take major credit cards and perform Interact transactions is also necessary to obtain reasonable sales nowadays. Many people no longer cany cash with them. Reliance on cash sales not only reduces the potential buyer group, it also creates issues of trust because it results in buildups of portable funds in the hmds of various volunteers. Since organizations which rely on volunteer labour usually take a whik longer to complete tasks, there is sometimes a time gap between an event and the final reckoning of sales and profits. Businesses have a hard enough time resolving the problems that aise when a sales till fails to balance. A non-profit can hardly afford to deal with the suspicions and discornfort such a situation creates. It is best to have as few people as possible handling money and to provide them with solid support for record-keeping. Some CCNs fÏnd a storefront to be simply too much work or too much of an issue to maintain. When properly managed, however, they add to the character and financial stability of the organization. Fees for membership or services are typical income-generators for many non- profit organizations. "Although it probably will not pay the full costs of creating, operating, and rnaintaining the system, a fee would seek to recoup some costs from those who actually patronize it (Kirschner 1994, p. 18). Fees raise important issues for CCNs, however. The basic mission of a CCN is usually to ensure that al1 members of a community have access to the benefits of information technology use. It is the fact that many people cannot afford to purchase equipment and pay for network access that leads to the need to establish a CCN. Many CCNs, especidly pioneer ones, charge nothing for use of the system and see this policy as an inherent part of their mission. Aim for free access. Free access enables large numbers of people and organizations to participate. The more people participating, the greater the quantity of communication and information sharing that will take place. You may not be able to provide free access, but if you aim for it, you will keep user costs down to a minimum. Al1 user fees are a barrier to network use (Richardson & Searle 1995, p. 9).

Other CCNs, especially those developed after the first and most generous flush of grant funding was no longer available, levy a slight fee considered to be within the ability of low-income people to pay. in some cases, community members willing to disclose their low income leveI might quaiify for a fee reduction (Gibbs & Leach 1994). Annuai membership subscriptions may also be used (Odasz 1994). Another tactic is tiered pricing, where the CCN provides basic access for free and charges increasing fees for access to aspects of the network judged to be of a luxurious or non-necessary nature. Tiered pricing is very much a part of the way our society is currently structured and people tend to accept it as being "cornmon sense" because it is farniiiar. A classic example of tiering happens in hotel room pricing. For a basic fee you can stay in a no-frills roorn without a view. For a "moderate" fee you can stay in a nicely appointed room with a reasonable view. For an exorbitant fee you cm stay in the penthouse suite and receive meticulous service. A CCN, however, is not just another for- profit service provider in a capitalistic society. It is an organization dedicated to empowering individuals by providing them with access to technology that does not depend upon their personal wealth. Tiered pricing, however sensible it sounds, is often a quiet betrayal of the ideals of CCN. An arrangement that gives some people greater access to system components because they crin pay more renders the CCN ineffective in addressing civil imbalances. It also involves deciding for others what aspects of the computer network are "necessary" and which are "luxury". It is to be hoped that the organization cm function so that such decisions are left in the hands of network users. Having said this, it must also be adrnitted that a CCN with tiered pricing is probably better than no CCN at al1 when it cornes down to addressing unmet needs for information technology access in the cornmunity. Some CCN directors feel their organization cmnot sustain itself without the income from tiered fees (Schuler 1996b). Differences in the system access available to mernbers and non-members of the CCN might sound similar to tiered pricing but are not. The difference between these two

tcroups, and the bais for limiting the access provided to non-members, is the signing of the appropriate usage agreement which protects the organization from abuses on the part of the user. The issue of whether or not to charge fees is difficult for any CCN. Organizational ide& have to be balanced with financial necessities. Most CCNs end up charging a small annual fee for membership. Usually, such fees do little more than cover the actual costs of processing memberships and they are not a major component of the overall fundraising accomplished by the organization. However you go about fundraising, you need to structure your activities to maximize the funds you obtain. An example might be the establishment of an affinity account with the telephone Company that provides long-distance services to the organization (Brainerd Foundation 1995). One of the most effective elements of this will be obtaining and maintaining charitable organization tax status with the Federal government. The precedent for recognition of a CCN as a charitable organization has already been achieved by the Vancouver ComrnunityNet with assistance from Telecommunities Canada. Make sure that your organization understands al1 of the possible benefits of achieving charitable organization tax status. There can be differences in the way municipalities treat such organizations. Thorough and easy-to-understand financiai record-keeping is also going to make a great difference to a CCN's effectiveness in using the funds it has obtained from the community. Variety in terms of sources and types of income can make book-keeping complex for a community network. Solid accounting practices and regular upkeep of the records will be necessary. Translation of financial records into readily understandable reports which a11 mernbers can comprehend is also going to be needed. Failure to inform volunteers about the overall financial picture of an organization and the specific amounts that are brought in from particular fundraising projects can lead to loss of motivation. Too many organizations will not let volunteers know how much was earned at a fundraising event. People like to know exactly what they have achieved with the time, effort, and goods they have given the CCN. A policy of openness regarding finances can go a long way to maintaining an atmosphere of inclusion arnongst al1 volunteers. When people know the needs and resources of the CCN, they cm often spot important opportunities for the organization which might otherwise be rnissed. Openness, faithfulness to the organization's ideals as these are expressed in the mission statement, and fair deaiing with al1 people will lead to a solid reputation in the community that greatly simplifies the tasks of the CCN. Cornmunity support and a good reputation makes it much easier for a CCN to obtain the resources needed for sustainability.

EDUCATING COMMUNlTY MEMBERS ABOUT THE CCN Effective training of al1 the people involved with a CCN is crucial to the success of the organization and training programs must be well established before the network is made available to the public. Virtually everyone who interacts with the CCN needs at Ieast some education provided to them. Basic English language literacy must come first. There is "no sense giving a program manuai to someone who stmggles to read or asking someone to engage in email discussion list dialogues and debates if they are so self- conscious about their spelling and grarnmar that they will simply not participate" (Halseth 1996, p. 80). Once effectiveness with wntten language has ken developed. network literacy - the development of the mental flexibility and logic needed to successfully navigate the stored information and communications features of a computer network, will be needed (Halai 1993). CCNs represent an unfamiliar type of organization for many people and the information technologies being brought to the cornmunity require ongoing learning on the part of ail those who use them. Most of dl, however, the development of new communication skills and the creation of an atmosphere where local people empower themselves to find ways to make technologies work for them is a core rationale for establishing a CCN in a cornmunity. The development of good training practices is a task best shared by every committee associated with the cornmunity network. This will help ensure that it remains an overall organizational priority. Some CCNs leave al1 their educational projects in the hands of a single group in the organization. The sheer number of people needing information and guidance in skills development and the variety of levels of cornpetence and topics for training makes it hard for any one cornmittee of votunteers to handle the training workload, however. This overail variety of training needed means that some projects are best suited to groups already specializing in that area of the CCN. Human Resources and Archive usually handle generai orientation sessions and then refer people to specific cornmittees for further information. Archive might store and ensure educational materials are available as needed. Content may help develop guidelines for online research and for formatting information to be uploaded to the network. Technical Support may help deveiop learning materials regarding how to make the network protocols work and how the systems as a whole operates. They also usually oversee one- time tutorials on special techniques or applications. An example might be a two hour course on al1 aspects of using e-mail and maillists. Community Relations may hold orientations for volunteers to go over the best ways to handle inquiries, donations, and other interactions with the community at large. When the working structure of a CCN is well-organized, each cornmittee will be overseeing some kind of on-going education and so will be ensuring that useful knowledge about their particular responsibility axa is passed on to others. Resident self-empowerrnent through learning about new techniques and about aspects of the community that one may not have been aware of is a core rationale for setting up a CCN in an area. A community network is, after dl, an organization dedicated to ensuring that al1 people in the local area have access to the communication methods and ideas that are transforrning our society. Emphasis placed on the environment for learning which a CCN fosters will help the organization access funding and, even more importantly, will help Iocal residents understand why the comrnunity network is a special undertaking worthy of their support. Significant arnounts of the CCN's resources, both in terrns of materiais and volunteer time, shouîd be dedicated to education. The effects of educating people take time to be felt and a young organization may sometimes have trouble justifying education programs as a priority when resources are already scarce. It should be a priority from the very start, however, even if initial efforts are quite modest. Education paves the way for long-term support of the organization in the comrnunity and eventual success in attaining the goals of a CCN. it is often a crucial aspect of the specific mandate of a CCN organization (Gibbs & Leach 1994). The foIiowing resources, ranked in terms of their importance, are probably necssary to support a thorough education process. + teachers and mentors; + how-to brochures and handouts; + help desk: + fixed or portable classroom. Experienced and people-oriented volunteers will become the teachers and mentors for individuals wanting to learn that which the CCN can teach. Many people over 30 years of age are not comfortable with the idea of leaming cornputer skills, much less studying networking concepts and telecornmunications technologies. We need to assure fearful citizens can receive al1 the human support necessary for them to become comfortable with the use of computers. Local volunteers need to be encouraged to help citizens through this transitional period (Odasz 1995, p. 16, italics mine).

A mentor is usually a member who has been with the organization long enough to understand the processes involved in using the network and in helping the CCN succeed. A teacher has more experience or training in some specialized field. Experienced volunteers, especially those with the advanced knowledge of a potential teacher, are scarce and often needed for the actual management of the CCN. It can be hard to encourage them to dedicate their efforts to training instead. Too often, the more knowledgeable people end up taking on teaching roles in addition to heavy responsibilities in system or overall administration. This leads to individuai bum-out and a dangerous concentration of the knowledge necessary to run the organization. Ideally, every individual who is highly-skilled in some aspect of CCN operation will have an "apprentice" to whom they pass on al1 the knowledge they can and with whom they share their responsibilities. This mangement can free up one or both individuds for teaching duties. New apprentices should be taken on at least once a year. The average North American family moves about every three years, so ail organizations need to take steps to ensure volunteer knowledge is passed on within the organization. It is absolutely crucial that information is passed on to more than one person before a volunteer with valuable experience or training moves out of the area. How-to brochures and handouts are usually the most visible and abundant leaming resource provided by CCNs. The level of detail provided varies greatly between different community networks. A CCN that is rich in experienced and knowledgeable volunteers may provide little in the way of handouts, instead putting their resources into a well-staffed help desk, for example. Another which is allied with a local printing Company might provide many different and detailed brochures to guide newcorners through use of the CCN. Witten materials can help some people feel more comfortable with trying out new technologies. The mandate to educate and to provide exposure to information technologies means that a CCN should have at least basic materials available as handouts. According to Petei- Royce. executive director of the Vancouver CommunityNet. tlicy provide thc following flycrs: + "See you onlinc!" - for individuals. with contact and help information; "Cet Connected" - for non-profit groups. aimed towards web page deveiopment. etc.; + "No Con-iputer?No Problem!" - on public access terminais; + "Looking for a Job?" - on en~ploymentresources: + "Conectese con el hhndo!" - Spanish Ianguage. Thcy also tiavc Community Information Providcr Kits, Specid tntcrcst Kits and a rnariiisl. altiiougti the nianual is not always rivailablc. The employn-ient and Spanish flycrs iirc LI~LIS~I~for a Canadian CCN but thc first thrce arc not. Some CCNs will also produce brochures on using the basic communications tools of the network (email, forums, and browsers, for example) and on ways in which an individual or group can support the activities of the CCN. A help desk is often the favorite resource of people just leaming to use the nctwork. Friendly human interaction is very encouraging and motivating when someone is fmstrated or confused by a computer system. "It was deemed essential that there should be a reliable, quick-response and, if necessary, face-to-face, help service" (Gibbs & Leach 1994, p. 2 16). It is becoming increasingly common for a CCN to have a help desk staffed outside of normal working hours. The late evening can be an important time to support users dialing up from home computers, as many people are free of work and childcare demands and thus able to explore the CCN only at this time. Help desk staff do not necessarily have to know al1 the answers. Many organizations have "front line" staff who have a basic level of knowledge and who pass on any difficult problems to someone with more advanced experience. If nothing else. they can at least take down contact information and a description of the problem so that someone more knowledgeable can phone or email back. New users will tend to phone in to the help desk. Experienced ones will lean towards email requests. In either case, organizing the flow of communication coming in to the help desk is crucial. It takes several to many people to staff a help desk, depending on how heavily volunteers are used versus paid staff. Phone forwarding and listsewers can help keep the information moving to the people currently on duty, but the CCN will need at least one person to take overall charge of ensuring that calls to the help desk are responded to in a reasonable time and that shifts turn over smoothly. Basic record keeping will help the Archive committee track changes in frequently asked questions and will also infonn the help desk organizer on the times and days when staff will be needed. When a particular question or theme cornes up regularly, it is more efficient for the CCN to hold short classes on the topic than to leave the burden on the help desk. Classroom space is usualiy in short supply for a CCN. Allies and donating organizations can sometimes provide classroom space but portable cIassrooms are kcoming more common. On-line demonstrations with the instructor's computer screen projected ont0 a wall are quite effective and the equipment needed is compact enough to take to whatever location suits everyone involved- Classes are an effective way to teach both basic and advanced topics. They can also help give a more "human" face to the CCN, always an important consideration. The fact that a CCN offers regular classes can be important in gathering certain kinds of support for the organization, especially from local governments. Ongoing education prograrns are an essential aspect of a CCN that is sustainable and actively affecting local quality of life. "People need to have the vision and the possibilities of new information technologies kept before them" (Halseth 1997, p. 47). With any of the educating techniques we have described, it is a sound strategy to contact other CCNs and find out what has (and has not) worked for them. Most people involved in running a CCN are very generous about sharing information and their experience is invaluable.

INFORMING SUPPORTERS Comrnunity members may choose to support the CCN in a lot of different ways, but they al1 have in cornrnon the need for relevant information on how best to provide that support. Making it as easy as possible for people to help out the CCN is definitely an important strategy for the organization. A brochure that addresses the various ways in which a person or group can support the CCN is a good basic approach to inforrning current and potentid supporters, and this material should be readily available in public locations. Make sure that information on how to contact the CCN by phone, in person, and through electronic mail are al1 provided. At least the following topics should be covered in enough detail that the individual can get a clear idea of the processes involved in various ways of supporting the CCN: + becoming a member, + providing information for the community, + volunteering, + donating resources to the CCN, + sponsoring fundraising events or resources like phone Iines. Individuals and groups in the community interested in helping the CCN should also be able to access knowledgeabie people who can ensure that the process of providing support is as smooth and rewarding as possible. The help desk of a CCN can assist supporters as well as those learning to use the network. This will mean providing some additionai training to help desk staff and giving them access to the people who handle alliances and donations so that they can pass potential supporters on to them. Supporters of the network essentially contribute various kinds of resources. Al1 cornmittees of the CCN need to interact regularly with supporters in the community who are providing the resource type that the cornmittee oversees. The process of interacting with supporters can be a bit of a minefield for a CCN, because there is ample room for confusion over who should be contacting supporters and when they should do so. Some CCNs get around this issue by hiring a full-time staff person to take responsibility for co- ordinating al1 relations with supporters. Cornmittees bring their resource needs to the co- ordinator and the staff person matches those needs with the donations available or alerts the responsible committee to seek new donations to meet them. Co-ordinating relations with CCN supporters is a difficult and time-consuming job that requires considerable tact and organization. It is very rare for a CCN to have a volunteer able to support the demands such a position would make on their personal life and so this is usually an area of responsibility turned over to a paid staff person with training in the field.

NEW USER PROCEDURES The people who will make use of the services offered by the community computer network fa11 into two categories - users and members. Mernbers are given more privileges than non-member users. Rights to post information, receive e-mail, elect directors. vote on policies, and establish on-line discussion areas usually are exclusive to members of the organization. In exchange for these rights, mernbers take on specific responsibilities to the CCN through an acceptable use contract. Most acceptable use contracts look about the sarne. There is a section on how the community network is a privilege which can be revoked at any time by the administrators of the system, a section that allows the comrnunity network to review and destroy any information stored in files on the comrnunity network, a section noting that the community network is for private information and entertainment purposes only, a release section where the user promises not to sue the network, a disclaimer section that does not promise that the system will work, and a section where the user promises to abide by policies put forward by the administrators of the system. This document, duly signed by a member, helps protect the CCN from abuses by that member. Non-member users cmstill use the system to find information about their community. They are essentially restrïcted in their ability to communicate on-line in that they cm read what others have posted but cannot add new information or opinions. A new user who wishes to become a member typically filis out an application form where they contract with the community network to abide by certain rules and give up their partial right to sue - the acceptable use contract discussed above. The application may need to be accompanied by a small fee or sorne other contribution. It has to be received and processed by the CCNs volunteers or staff, who are not always available to attend to it right away, and the member given system authorization before full access can take place. Although the application form is typically made available on-line as well as in hand-outs, on-line versions are intended to be downloaded and printed out as the contract must be made in a physical form which can bear the user's signature. This need for a physical form to the agreement really slows down the membership process and tends to irritate new members. There cm be a significant amount of time between the moment an individual decides to support the CCN (and benefit from it) by becoming a member and when the actual system access occurs. Providing the rationale behind the whole process, especially if you use examples from problem situations other CCNs have found themselves in, will help most people to be patient and will help reduce loss of potential members. Processing membership applications is an ongoing and considerable task. Smaller networks can often manage it with a set of several experienced volunteers but some CCNs tum this particular task over to paid staff. Many non-profit organizations find that their work can best be done by a large complement of volunteers supported by a small administrative team. Membership applications can be a case in point of the value of having at least one paid staff person. They arrive continually and really should be attended to irnmediately. Volunteers are best at tasks that they cm fit around their personal schedules and that are interesting to them. When volunteers are assigned to duties like application processing, the continuous Stream of must-be-done nearly identical arrangements leads to bum-out and loss of the volunteers thernselves. in addition, an application for membership wiI1 eventually involve almost al1 the committees of the CCN. Fees or contributions must be recorded for Finance, system access must be manged by Technical Support, and contact information on the individual should be passed on to Human Resources for volunteerism devclopment. New rnembers can faIl into the cracks between responsibilities of various committees al1 too easily and the tedious nature of rnember application processing means that even establishing a committee that just attends to this task is unlikely to work well. Having an individual paid to take good care of incoming members is an excellent strategy that appreciates the fact that not al1 of the tasks involved in running a CCN are suited to volunteer performance (Gibbs & Leach 1994).

NEW USER EDUCATION Individuds just starting to make use of the CCN need to be taught to understand the overail social meaning of the computer network, not just the ins and outs of how to use the system. A comrnunity computer network is a very special organization that exists to uphold a human right - equal access to the technologies that are transforming Our society and our daily lives. Users must appreciate the special goals, and the special limitations, of such an organization if that organization is going to be sustainable. If a community network is seen as a utility, like electricity or gas, that is always available and is paid for with a monthly check, then it can be provided by the government or by business with little or no involvement from community members. This would mean another lost opportunity for citizen participation and another lost opportunity to help rebuild the cornmunity (Schuler 1996a, p.2).

Throughout your user interfaces and training materials, stress that the community network is not just another service provider. Points which should be brought to user's attention include:

4 Conrmrinity Control. The present and future activities of the community computer network are shaped by the people who live in the area it serves. Al1 members of the community are given opportunity to join in the decision-making process which guides the network. Crucial decisions about information content, access fees, and access points in public places are made by local residents instead of people from outside the community.

4 Volunteer Operation. Although many CCNs end up hiring some staff, most or al1 of the work involved in operating the network is done by volunteers. Users must be reminded to treat volunteers with consideration and respect when they corne into contact with them and to be patient with the delays in service that often occur in volun teer-operated organizations. Teclinical Litnitations. A non-profit community organization cannot hope to "keep up" with the very latest technological innovations and will. in fact. probably lag considerably behind commercial computer network access providers in tenns of specid equipment and connection speeds. Users need to be aware that the network is meant to provide basic access to al1 members of the comrnunity. Those with highly- sophisticated needs may be better off using a commercial provider. + Civil Focus. Canadians are accustomed to using commercial service providers to fil1 their needs. To appreciate the community network fully, they need to understand that non-profit organizations have fundarnentally different goals from those of commercial service providers. Emphasize the need for a civil component to society by underlining the fact that much of society cannot afford computer network access in a strictly commercial setting. The community network exists largely to fil1 a gap in government and commercial services to the public. It ensures the upholding of human rights to equal access to technologies. The organization makes no profit off of its users.

Users must understand that a CCN is not equivalent to a commercial network access provider or any other kind of business. You must keep the distinction clear, because users will become frustrated with the CCN if they mistake it for a commercial enterprise. Users need to understand how the network organization functions before they will keep their demands upon volunteers and the system to a reasonable level. If they know that they can expect service delays and interruptions, and why. users will not abandon the community network the first time that a problem occurs. User loyalty can also be developed through openness about the characteristics and goals of the organization. Provide detail about community-oriented goals throughout the user interface. Create small areas on the user interface screens where regular updates on activities can be placed. Activities do not have to be earth-shaking in their importance to deserve a place in the updates. In fact, the most important thing is that the contents change regularly and that they are always relevant to the local area. Regular updates help to assure newcomers that the network is viable and that there are other people "out there" using it and caring for it. Despite Canada's open political system, many people still do not understand or believe that their personal actions can significantly affect the society they live in. One of the most positive side-effects of establishing a non-profit computer network in a community is that residents see, first-hand, that local quality of Iife can be improved through the actions of their neighbours and, should they become involved, themselves. Simple as this tesson seems, it is one that al1 of us need to be exposed to, over and over, before we appreciate our own power for changing our comrnunities. Give new users the opportunity to share in this lesson by encouraging them to inform the CCN about their concerns, ideas, and needs. Make it clear that user feedback is going to be listened to. It may help to provide examples of how feedback has stimulated changes in service or policy in the past. Provide several different, but simple, ways to cornmunicate feedback so that no one is left without means to cornmunicate it. It is also important that the CCN provide users with clear instmctions on how to use the various communications tools and services. An on-line prompter does not provide enough support for some people starting to explore computer network use. Several media should be used and human assistance should be available as well. Many new users will not be accustomed to reading off computer screens yet and wiI1 welcome instructions printed on paper. Another advantage of printed instructions is that they can double as advertising for the cornrnunity network. Eye-catching brochures containing basic instructions can be placed in waiting rooms and public offices. It is usudly best to separate advanced user topics into different how-to sheets or brochures as most users will want to leam one particular technique at a time and lem it in reasonable detail. Well- written handouts that refer the user on to more advanced but related topics in ottier brochures make it possible for users to learn mostly on their own, reducing their overall need for direct help from volunteers. It is part of the mission of a CCN to help people accustom themselves to information technologies. Training and assistance with problems must be made available in several different ways. In addition to brochures or how-to sheets, most CCNs staff a part-tirne "help desk for users to phone or to e-mail. Regularly scheduled question and answer periods at one or more of the network's public access sites will help those who are more comfortable with face-to-face instruction and those who do not have phone access (Gonzalez & Weldon 1995). Tutoriais for advanced users are usually very popular. Nthough it is ideal to have a public access site with multiple user stations for tutorials, they cm also be done with small groups around a single computer. A projector adapter to enlarge an instructor's computer display up on the wall for group viewing is common practice and quite effective. The main thing is to provide a variety of ways to leam so that differences in experience, technology access at home, and Iearning styles can be accommodated.

VOLUNTEER ORIENTATION Volunteers are the strength and the future of a non-profit organization. They represent the vast majority of the resources possessed by the network and are essential to every single function of the CCN. Volunteers are effective, however, only if they are properly trained into their duties (Richardson & Searle 1995). Poorly oriented volunteers can undo much of the Comrnunity Relations cornmittee's work by turning off potential members or supporters. LII-informed volunteers also contribute to ongoing internai tensions in the organizations, as peopie battle over responsibility areas or appropriate practices instead of getting on with their workioad. The establishment of strong working structures and organizational policies is only useful if al1 new volunteers are thoroughly educated about them. Almost al1 new volunteers welcome some kind of official orientation to the tasks they have decided to take on (Gonzalez & Weldon 1995). Many experienced volunteers benefit from regular "refresher" sessions as well. Training helps increase a person's satisfaction with their volunteer achievements. An individuai is better able to gauge their performance and their overall effect on the CCN if they start out knowing what they are supposed to achieve and the means currently accepted for doing so. Good training ensures that the organization is not continually having to be recreated - the invention of the wheel cari be passed dong instead of king rediscovered anew by each "generation" of volunteers. This frees up volunteers to maintain and improve the organization and has profound effects on organizational sustainability. The Human Resources cornmittee can take on the generd education of volunteers, with each cornmittee providing more detailed training for the volunteers that join that group. A three-part approach has worked well for many non-profit organizations who have to train volunteers on an ongoing bais:

4 general orientation sessions,

4 personal reference manuals, mentoring. Invite the new volunteer to a general orientation session, where they will Iearn about the basic structure and functioning of the organization dong with other volunteers. Create an inviting atmosphere with food and drinks, make the discussion interesting, and provide plenty of time for answering individual questions. Information about the duties of specific committees is usually made available, with interested people referred on to the individual Committee Chairs Many non-profits skip this approach to training because the majority of volunteers come to the organization already knowing which area they wish to work in. The long terrn effect of holding formai training sessions, however, is an organization that functions more smoothly with fewer of the "communication failures" that tend to surround the initial activities of new volunteers. Help volunteers develop a personal reference manual for their work with the CCN. Once the individual has selected a cornmittee, provide them with handouts describing the duties and practices of that committee. inctude up-to-date contact information for the other cornmittee members and a binder (with the name of the committee and the CCN on it) to keep the information in. Encourage volunteers to put al1 questions, notes, etc. relating to their work in the binder. This will give them a reference that is always available to them, cm be easily updated with new handouts, and cm be tailored to their particular duties. A summary of the policies and rules of the organization should be included and volunteers should be encouraged regularly to share any useful information which has accurnuIated in their binders with the Archive committee. Assign a "mentor" who has experience in the area in which the new volunteer will be working. This is ideally a member of the same committee (but not the Chair, as they must focus on their crucial set of responsibilities) who works well with other people. There are some experienced members who do not make good mentors - you can usually get around this problem by ensuring that no one is ever "forced" into mentoring through peer pressure. Leave this task to cheerful, outgoing types that ask to do it. A mentor should be available to the new volunteer for at least the first month and ideally the first three months of their time on the cornmittee. To be effective, a mentor must be available when needed (within reason). Volunteer work is easier to sustain over time if it cm be done on a flexible b-sis so that an individual can fit their tasks in around the other aspects of their persond schedules. The ability to contact someone knowledgeable whenever help is required greatly simplifies the leming and adjustment period for a new volunteer. Mentors provide more than just information, however. They also provide potent support by exchanging opinions and emotions with a new volunteer. In many ways, a mentor is the "human face" of the organization in the early months when a new voIunteer has not yet had tirne to develop relationships with others in the CCN. The first few months of volunteer work for a particular organization tends to establish certain habits in an individuai that persist over time. Careful training can prevent some of the subtler problems that occur arnidst any group of people working together towards shared goals. Orientations and references that outline responsibility areas and appropriate practices, for exarnple, help people to respect the workload of other volunteers and appreciate others even when they falter somewhat under that workload (Gonzalez & Weldon 1995). Policy awareness averts situations that might otherwise lead to resentment and unnecessary debates over strategies. The behaviors modeled by a mentor will set a standard for many new volunteers regarding activities such as gossiping, sharing cornmittee and organizational resources, and providing encouragement or assistance to other volunteers. Although a strong training program does not ensure that every individual who volunteers will become a major asset to the community network, it does make this prospect much more likely.

PROCESS SUMMARY FOR DEVELOPING RESOURCE GATHERING CAPACITY Strong comrnunity support cm be acquired and sustained by educational programs that send a clear and ongoing message of how the network can benefit both the individu1 and the community. The likefihood of comrnunity suppon is increased if the network makes an effort to demystiQ the technology through the use of strategies like public demonstrations and a help desk, if it promotes the vitality of local arts and business initiatives, and if it forms non-comprornising, synergistic relationships with valued local organizations. A successful CCN recognizes the enormous value of non- monetary resources such as skilled community members and donated goods and services. Thorough, accurate, and accessible accounting of al1 assets helps to foster trust among the membership. As a final, but crucial, aspect of positive community interaction, ongoing education of ail supporters. users and volunteers should be given highest priority. Above atl, members of the organization must be brought to understand the underlying purpose of the CCN, which is to promote the self-empowerment of residents. It is only in this spirit that users will appreciate the difference between commercial service providers and the CCN and so hoId realistic expectations of how the CCN benefits the community.

MPLICATIONS FOR LOCAL CIVIL SOCIETY DEVELOPMENT This discussion of the process for developing overail resource gathering capacity for a CCN brings to Iight specific ways in which the process cm influence local potential for civil society development through aiteration of the attitudes of community residents and enhancement of cooperation opportunities for organizations within the comrnunity. To better understand how this might be brought about, particular influences arising out of the process of resource gathering are described below. + General planning for resource gathering increases awareness of issues such as the need to open up organization membership so that it is representative of cornrnunity diversity and the need to perceive resource gathering as an ongoing process. Both these issues make the people involved in planning more aware of the need for ongoing renewal of the ideas and resources coming into a civil society organization from the community. + Strategies intended to demystify the technology involved in CCNs helps make people aware of the practical benefits of telecornmunications technologies in terms that are relevant to them. As a first step in demonstrating how technologies can be adapted to Iocai needs, this is likely to lead to increased use of cornputer networking by groups active on behalf of the community. + Promotion of the CCN as a unique storage and communication tool for organizing cornmunity heritage and vitality information is likely to increase resident awareness of the resources already present in the community. This helps to build widespread pnde and motivation to retain and build upon local resources. The inherent provision of connections can provide locals with access to useful information and to business or employment contacts that help them maintain a good quality of life in the area.

O The development of organizational alliances can increase general awareness of opportunities for cooperation and resource sharing among groups in the community. especially when strategies to ensure long-term mutually beneficial relations are dernonstrated.

O The use of local expertise in CCN development benefits the community in that volunteers increase local awareness of their marketable skills and receive an enrichment of experience through project challenges and personal contacts. + Fundraising practices develop useful skills and awareness in the volunteers involved in them. Experience in organizing recreational andor promotional events and in financial tracking can assist volunteers in career improvement. It also affects general awareness, in that fundraising planning helps people perceive the subtle but crucial flow of money in and out of a community and shows what steps might be taken to divert flows into patterns that are more beneficial to the local area.

4 The process of educating community members about the CCN creates increased understanding of the nature of civil society organizations and the role they play in supporting local quality of life. Lncreased awareness, in either general or organizationally-specific terrns, is very beneficial for civil society organizations in that it tends to lead to greater volunteer recruitment rates in the community.

4 Training of volunteers for the CCN has direct impacts upon the local human resources pool in tems of capacity to effectively operate civil society organizations.

4 Provision of training and orientation to community information providers may increase awareness of opportunities for cooperation between cornmunity organizations.

4 Education of new CCN users can show people how to overcome a particular set of personal access barriers. This may lead to greater awareness of other personal barriers lirniting individual potential and establish motivation to overcome them, resulting in increases to the IocaI human resources capacity to maintain civil society organizations. The potential influences on local civil society described here take the form of: relevant improvements in individual resident capacity to organize civil society projects; increased resident awareness of the need for civil society; and increased likelihood of cooperation between organizations in the community. These form the answer to the second thesis subquestion: How does the process of gathering resources for a CCN affect the development of local civil society? The development of CCN resource gathering capacity has a wider range of influences on civil society potential than the development of CCN organizationat structure, and can affect individuals and organizations in the wider cornmunity as well as CCN volunteers. Chapter Six CCN BEST PRACTICES: DEVELOPING TECHNICAL AND INFORMATION STRUCTURES WHILE ENSURING RES PONSIVENESS TO THE COMMUNITY

CHAPTER DESCRIPTION The focus in this chapter is on the development of the technical and the informational structures of a community computer network and on the factors influencing long-term organizational stability. The intent is to provide sufficient information to address the thesis subquestion; "how does the process of establishing technicai and informational structures for a CCN affect the development of local civil society?" Technical structural development is discussed with respect to system adaptability, vulnerability, communication tools, and user interface. Development of the information structure is outlined through considerations of information capacity, quaiity, and connectivity, with special mention of the advantages and disadvantages of Intemet connection. Finally, stages of organizational maturity are explored under the following headings: launching the CCN, achieving critical mass, stmcturing for adaptability, and looking to the future. The process presented here is then reviewed in terms of the influence it is likely to have upon the development of local civil society.

BRINGING CCN STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS TOGETHER From a broad perspective, CCNs are made up of three basic structures which revolve around the community and which continually affect each other. Interactions with that cornrnunity are the means by which a CCN accomplishes its goals and they dso deeply influence each of the structures that work together to fonn the CCN. Figure 6.1 illustrates the lines of influence between these three structures and the community which are served by the CCN. Organizational informational Structure Structure

RELATIONS WITH THE COMMUNiTY

Technical Structure

Figure 6.1 Basic Structures of a Community Computer Network

A CCN usually has its start when an Organizing Committee sets up the initial organizational structure. The volunteers that made up the Organizing Committee then develop a number of cornmittees, each responsible for a particular type of resource needed by the CCN and each working in concert with the others to establish positive and enriching community relations. Once a solid volunteer base has been gathered and organized, the CCN can begin to develop its other two primary structures. Technical structure and information structure should be planned simultaneously, as the shape taken on by each one greatly affects the choices available for creating the other (Schuler l996a). The "connectivity folks" are those that place primary emphasis on the technology and the access to information. The "information folks" are those that believe the information is the key to any network's success and sustainability. It is obvious that one camp cannot survive without the other. The technology must be connecting users to some important piece of information; and without the connections, the information cmremain underutilized or not accessed at dl (Vidic 1995, p. 156).

Overall, the process of developing a CCN should relate back at every point to the needs and resources existing in the comrnunity, ensunng that the system is tailored in every possible way to the unique situation of the community it serves. DEVELOPlNG THE TECHNICAL STRUCTURE Some pioneer community networkers argue that organizers should go ahead and Iaunch a network with whatever technical equipment they cm get their hands on (Richardson & Searle 1995). It is certainly true that, in the recent past. many CCNs had little or no choice about the equipment with which they began to operate. A wider range of both equipment and upgrading options are now available. More importantly, the technical problems that plagued older networks have produced some lessons for young CCNs. A CCN can be saved a lot of grief by having a few individuals do serious research into equipment options. When selecting equipment, consider how the different systems compare in terrns of the following characteristics:

4 ability to add on or adapt components; vulnerability to willful or unintentional darnage; + communication services support; + user interface options.

ADAPTABILITY Adaptability is probably the single most crucial characteristic for your computer systems, both in terms of software and hardware. The technical framework will grow and change over the lifetime of a CCN and must be easy to alter. There will continue to be relentless progress in hardware and software. CPU power will continue to double about every 18 months, so that designers can look ahead and know the approximate time that a feature on an expensive machine will be added to a consumer-priced device (Cisler 1994, p. 4).

In order to address creation of equal access to the benefits of telecornmunications technologies, CCNs must incorporate a reasonable range of new features over time. The technical structure will be flexible only if foresight has ken used to make it so. The system initially installed must aflow additions and alterations to be made fairIy easily. Selecting such a system is no easy task. The Technical Support cornmittee will be wishing that they could read the future by the time they have reviewed al1 their choices. The history of computer networking is littered with software and hardware that reached evolutionary dead-ends. To complicate matters, used equipment donations are relatively likely to turn out to be the computer equivaient of woolly marnmoths; still useful, but nothing to base the future of the system upon. Software adaptability is conferred by several characteristics: + the ease with which macros can be created or rnodified:

4 the ease with which the code of the program can be rewritten;

4 the ease with which data cm be exchanged between various prograrns;

4 the ease with which installations or upgrades cm be perfonned. As can be seen from this Iist, adaptable software proframs and packages are simply those which are easier to modify than others. Al1 software programs can be modified, but sorne take much more effort and knowledge on the part of Technicai Support people than others. There will always be many and varied modifications to make and an adaptable system makes it much easier for Technical Support to keep up to them. Macros are routines which constructed to create shortcuts wherever the software is meant to perform the same series of operations over and over again. They are analogous to a miniature software program within another software program and they can save a great deai of time and effort in the long mn. If a particular operation will be done repeatedly and if there are severai steps invoived in it, it is a good candidate for macro creation. Software in which macros can easily be created can be very "cornfortable" to use because it will soon be adapted to "fit" smoothly around the operations it is meant to do. Revision of the software code permits adaptations at a more basic level than that of macros. Where a macro simply speeds up operations which the software was already designed to do, a code rewrite aiters what the software is capable of. A good technician cm rewrite code to expand the operations of the software or to reduce the operations. This cm become very important when systems must work together which were not origindly designed to do so or when it is necessary to disable a capability of the software t hat rnight be abused should a hacker or other unauthorized user gain access to it. Code revision cm make many things possible, although there are always limits on the potentid scope of a paticular software program. It requires considerable care and expertise and will, ideally, not be necessary to perforrn. The ease with which it can be done, however, affects the useful longevity of your software. Data exchangeability is a very popular characteristic for software systems in the last five years. and rightly so. Much of the success of software packages such as Microsoft Officec cm be attributed to the ease with which data cm be sent from word processing to spreadsheet to database to presentation programs. When exchangeability has already been built in. much less time needs to be spent on converting data to new forms and this helps the CCN respond to changing needs in a timely fashion. The majority of the servicing required by networked computer systems involves the performance of software and hardware installations and upgrades. New or better forms of equipment or programs often need to be added to the system. State-of-the-art techniques are regularly converted by time to common ones and somewhere between these two points you will want to add software to your system that can support thern. Internet Relay Chat, for example, was mostly popular with experimenters and teenagers a few years ago. It is starting to be widely used as an addition to other communications tools in more conservative settings now. Since there is no real way of knowing which applications will become mainstream in the future, your software should readily allow the addition of new cornponents to support new techniques. The ability to support new features or to work smoothly with software that does is a cornbination of having re- workable code and a program that exchanges data readily with other programs. It certainly helps. however, if the company producing the software your system is dependent on will remain in business over the next few years so that you can use their upgrades to support new applications. New or better forms of hardware will have to be installed on a i'airiy regular basis. This is made much simpler if initial hardware investments were made on the basis of ensuring adaptability. Look for equipment that allows components to be readily interchanged and which has connection possibilities for more components than need is anticipated for in the next two years. Interchangeable components make installations and substitutions during repairs much simpler and quicker. Stay away from proprietary hardware to maintain a high level of interchangeability in your hardware inventory. The presence of more than ample connection points makes it easy to connect equipment in new ways to meet changing demands on the system as well as simplifying the process of adding to or upgrading the equipment. Connection points take different forms and it is best to have "spares" of them al1 as there is little way of forecasting what peripheral equipment may be donated or rnay need to be added. Spare ports, expansion card slots, RAM slots, and drive slots will make it much easier for you to accommodate whatever equipment hm to be integrated into the system. Look at the possibility of using multiple systems, so that the technical structure is dispersed and less vulnerable to overall breakdowns. CoIlaborations w i th other organizations may include use of part of their system to store certain types of information

Work to build your technical capacity and functionality to ensure openness and interoperability - it will be a key differential on which people judge the community network in cornparison to other not-for-profit and commercial services. The importance of this factor grows disproportionately as the community places a greater dependence on the services provided by the network (Morino 1994, p. 15).

Distributed systems can increase overail network sturdiness and the process of developing them may lead to new and valuable cooperative efforts between organizations in the comrnunity The smartest way to locate adaptable equipment is to get in touch with the technicd support people of several other community networks. They know about the problems which must be avoided and the kind of services a CCN system will need to support. Through their own experiences and the sharing of experiences with others in their situation, they have learnt many cues that hint at the potential of particular pieces of equipment. Expect to receive conflicting advice and survey several other CCNs until you see trends in the information to base choices on. When canvassing other networks, find out the maximum user capacity each network is set up to handle. "The hardware configuration would depend largely on how many usen the local city intends to support. You want enough capacity so that users do not run into busy signals" (Kirschner 1994, p. 18). Equipment upgrade trends that show where a system needs to be adaptable will be easier to find if notes on equipment recommendations are organized by user capacity. Having done al1 this work, share the results on-line if possible. Much of the success of the cornrnunity networking movement is due to the generous sharing of expeciences between those involved.

VULNERABILITY System vulnerability is another major criteria for choosing the equipment used in the technicd structure. The ideal computer network is "sturdy" in that it cmtake sudden changes in user demmds or several component failures without breaking down overdl. Vulnerability is affected by the quality and interchangeability of the components of a system. It is also affected by the way in which those components are interconnected. Ensure that the system is as sturdy as possible by choosing equipment that allows Technicai Support people to:

4 keep the overall technicai structure as simple as possible; have alternative connection points and components available for substitutions in case of breakdowns;

4 disable currently unused capabilities of the systern;

4 limit access to the root directory; establish regular testing routines to gauge systern functioning and uncover syrnptoms of potential break-down or break-ins. Vulnerability can be a reflection of cornplexity and is one reason why experienced Technical Support people seek equipment that works well together without requiring code revisions or unusual connection patterns. A straightfonvard technical structure is much easier to maintain. Whenever a CCN moves away from the common path in the use of computer equipment, new possibilities for breakdowns are introduced and there arc fewer resources in the general technicd support community to give advice on how to deal with them. Ample connection points and interchangeable components also contnbute to the ability of a system to survive partial breakdowns. They provide alternative connection patterns and the opportunity to substitute components so that the system cm "bypass" a problem area for a while. The ability to make repairs without shutting down the entire system is very important. People in the community need to develop a basic level of trust in the computer network king available to them whenever they require it. Reliability of service affects individual willingness to learn how to use the technology. One of the primary goals of the Technical Support comrnittee is to prevent the system from being unavailabte for even short periods of time. The equipment should make it easy to disable unnecessary or unused capabilities of the system as this helps protect the CCN against both unintentional and malicious misuse. It is always possible that sorneone may stumble or break through the security routines that protect the various organizing elements of a computer network. The potential damage cm be limited by ensuring that they will only be able to see or modify aspects of the system already in use. This makes it much more likely that Technicd Support people will find the intrusion and be able to repair my damage done. Select equipment that makes it as easy as possible to limit access to the mot directory. The root directory controls access to al1 the other aspects of the network and is the most vulnerable part of the system in terms of potential misuse. A hacker with root directory access could use the CCN to perforrn highly illegal intrusions into other computer systems and might be able to cover their tracks so that no one would know they had done so. A CCN normally allows only two or three people, al1 senior members of the Technical Support cornmittee, to have root directory access. They need to use it to regularly add and delete users from the system and to specify system functioning. Technical Support people are normally people who must usualIy have been with the organization for some time before they are trusted with root directory access. System testing needs to be done regularly and equipment should be selected with an eye to the ease with which routine tests cm be perfonned to check its functioning. The CCN can purchase troubleshooting software programs, but these are expensive and require a knowledgeable person to administer. If there are already experienced people working on the Technical Support committee, the CCN is probably better off having them research current testing procedures and develop their own. Different tests are needed to check different functions of the network. A test series should point out any components or connections that are functioning weddy and any holes where a hacker or stumbler might break through into organizing elements. If the network provides Internet access, the CCN can probably best address general Internet security issues by joining security e-mail lists. Such Iists can also be a mine of information for the particular security issues of networks not connected to the Internet. The Technical Support cornmittee could research other, more secure, methods of keeping hackers out like firewails but this will probably not be necessary for the vast majority of networks. Like other technical issues, security requires that a baiance between what the CCN cm afford to do to prevent problems against the likelihood that it will have problems.

COMMUNICATIONS TOOLS The types of communication supported by CCNs remain fairly constant between different cornmunities. Since they are the aspect of the network which confer the most obvious cornpetitive benefits on users, organizers usually try to maintain capacity for ail the various tools currently available to the generai public. This does not mean supporting them at a state-of-the-art Ievel, however (Felsenstein 1993). A CCN must balance two primary goals when deciding how to support communications tools. The system will, ideally, give locds exposure to the full range of communications made possible by computer networking technologies. It will also, ideally, provide that exposure at very low or no cost to the user. It is the speed of information transfer, cdled connection speed, that marks a state-of-the-art communications tool. The actual variety of tools changes quite rarely. In most CCNs, the need to keep costs down results in having equipment that supports fairly slow connections. This is not ail a bad thing. Those peopIe who become frustrated by slow rates of connection will tend to leave the CCN and subscribe with a local internet Service Provider instead. It is not the purpose of a CCN to provide cornputer network modem access for every single person in an area, but rather to provide access to every single person who could not otherwise afford it. There is a crucial difference here that causes CCNs to organize themseives differently from a business. Those who are just learning how to use computer networking and those who would not otherwise have access to it tend to be more patient about connection rates. The equipment you obtain to fomthe technical structure of your CCN should support the following communications tools at Ieast at a basic IeveI: e-mail; electronic forums; + Internet relay chat; + World Wide Web browsers; + file transfer protocols; + telnet. E-mail is the most important communications tools a CCN supports (Kirschner 1994). It is often seen as being the "hook that draws a newcomer deeper and deeper into an appreciation of what computer networking can do for them (Anderson, Bikson, Law & Mitchell 1995). E-mail is usually an individuai's first exposure to the ability of the new information technologies to converge time and space for the user. A message "arrives" for the recipient right after it is sent and waits for them in an electric mailbox that allows retrieval at any time. This allows people to overcome scheduling problems. You send when you have time to do so and they receive when they have time to do so, or vice versa. Sending and receiving a few messages to a friend or relative who is far away and rarely contacted will persuade almost anyone that computer networking cm enhance their personai life in ways that nothing else cm. Putting some effort into convincing newcomers that computer network use cm benefit their personal life tends to be more successful at getting them to give the technology a fair try than convincing them that it will benefit their professionai life. E-mail is dso effective at supporting business communications. Both the sender and the receiver retain copies of the message, helping to reduce confusions about what was comrnunicated. Software is available to "filter" the e-mail you receive so that professional and personal communications can be kept separate. In the right circumstances, filtering by topic can also be achieved. Various computer files can be "attached" to an e-mail message and are an easy way of passing information on to colleagues. Listservers, also known as maillists, are an extension of basic e-mail. They allow a single source to broadcast the same e-mail message to large numbers of people. This application lends itself to many uses and drmatically affects the efficiency of communication flows in any kind of group. Listserver membership is normally voluntary and based on shared interests. Electronic forums enable a group of people to participate in an extended discussion on a set topic area. They are useful for both short and long-terrn planning sessions or debates. A striking benefit has been seen in many communities in that they can provide individuals who are otherwise isolated with people of similar experiences or interest to exchange facts, opinions, and emotional support with as these are needed (Appendix A of Morino 1995). Forums can be where the special character and history of a community will express itself on-line. Like a virtual coffee shop or pub, it can be a "place" where newcomers learn about the area and find friends or where long-term residents put their heads together to get things done, chat over the past, see what is happening, and plan for the future. Local electronic forums also give area residents practice which will corne in handy if the CCN decides to provide Internet connection or if people seek it out on their own. There are some protocols to be used if a person is going to venture into the confusing but rewarding world of USENET, the arena in which the global equivalent of local electronic forums, newsgroups, are located (Carroll & Broadhead 1997). Practice on a simpler system that deals with local interests is a gentle introduction (Gibbs & Leach 1994). Intemet relay chat (IRC) allows a group, or two individuals who want privacy, to converse in real-time. There is no significant delay between typing in a message and the appearance of that message on the screen of those you are conversing with. IRC promotes an arnazing sense of irnmediacy and intimacy, perhaps because the content of the conversations, the messages, are visible. You get imrnediate feedback to messages which you can still see and this process tends to either excite or seriously turn off a user. IRC is sometimes downplayed as a mere toy, but it is very useful for serious applications such as remote disaster management, distance interviewing, and on-line training. Experiencing IRC can help persuade newcomers that computer networking really will transforrn some of the ways we do things. Not only is IRC unique as a forrn of communication, it is a logical step in the evolution between communications tools such as e-mail and potential multimedia communication techniques of the future where text, audio, and visual messages are used to instantaneously pass on information and meaning. Browsers allow the user to access information in the World Wide Web or earlier versions of globally stored information such as Gopher. The early generation of browsers accessed only text-based information. They are still useful today, but the sheer volume of sites which rely upon graphics and audio supplementation means that most people want to experience the Web with more recent browsers. Web browsing can be an arnazingly efficient way to waste time and system resources. New users should be offered basic instruction in how to extract useful information from Web sites, both to help them increase their skills and to reduce the time it takes them to browse. Most computer networks place Iimits on individual browsing time to conserve system resources. A file transfer protocol (FTP) allows the user to get files from or to send files to the CCN, a process called uploading and downloading. In a slightly different incarnation, a FTP allows you to do the same thing on the Internet. This is an older application which gets used much less frequently now that the World Wide Web is in place. There are still many useful FTP sites from which valuable information can be obtained, however. In most cases, people do not even know they are using FTP because access to the site has been achieved through a Web browser. The ability to telnet is usually limited in a CCN. Telnet allows you to log onto a computer over a distance and have that computer perform functions for you. It is a potent tool for accessing unusual or specialty software which is in turn often used to uncover and obtain information. Telnet presents some significant security risks. For this reason, a CCN does not usually permit users to establish telnet links themselves. It is rnuch safer for the CCN to have people use a telnet link that it has already established and which it maintains control over. Careful evaluation is needed in terms of how the equipment and other resources with which you will be supporting the communications tools of your CCN are allocated. Some applications take up more (or less) resources than others, have more (or less) popu lar appeal, and are more (or less) effective in supporting the specific goals of the CCN. If your goal is to encourage exploration of new communications techniques, for exarnple, you will share out your resoiirces differently than if your goal is to enhance communication within the comrnunity. USER INTERFACE The user interface is what a person connecting to the CCN uses to manipulate the information and communications tools the network is providing to the community. It is "The 'face' presented to a user by a computer operating system or application, and the set of niles governing how information is displayed and how users may enter commands" (Crumlish, 1995, pp. 96-97). This definition is used here because it points to the fact that the user interface is more than a series of introductory screens. It is also the cumulative expression of the technical and information structures, and the choices made in setting up those structures directly influence how the system presents itself to a user and how the user can interact with it. "The online environment, stmctured through software and human organization, is as custornizable as any idea one rnight imagine" (Odasz 1994, p.

1 ). Organization of your interface is critically important because users must navigate through huge amounts of data. If there are too many steps between the initial login and the information an individual wants, they will become frustrated with the system and the exploration and communication the CCN intends to support will falter. User interface design, as a reflection of the equipment chosen to forrn the computer network, is an important issue for al1 CCNs. Most CCNs are established in communities because there is a local lack of reasonable access to the new information technologies. Several of the barriers that commonly prevent access can be partidly addressed through the user interface. Poverty cm be addressed to a limited degree by providing a choice between text-based and graphies-based screens (Gonzalez & Weldon 1995). Text-based screens can be accessed by very inexpensive or outdated computer systems, where systems that access graphics cost the user much more. Weak English language skills cm be addressed by the use of large md simple type foming commonly- used words in the screens that guide users into the choices available in the system. Communities with a variety of languages in use can have their access needs partially addressed by a user interface stated in more than one language (Aizu 1994). Weak computer network literacy can be partially addressed through the use of an interface that requires the use of only simple cornmands such as arrow key/mouse movement and clicks in the menu systems (Civille 1993). Strategies for involving relatively young and old community members rely on tailoring the user interface to the needs of people outside the 20 - 45 age range which most current systems are set up by and for (Brouwer-Janse 1997). Regular feedback from users will help the CCN develop a user interface that works well in the particular conditions of your community. The community needs assessment done at the beginning of the CCN's development will tell you several important things about the characteristics the user interface shouid have if it is to be effective for that community. Note them and base the selection of equipment to form the technical structure, at least in part, on the ability of that equipment to support the kind of user interface that will best serve the comrnunity. Age demographics should receive some special attention. Different communities will have different proportions of elderly, middle-aged, and young users. There are strategies that cmhelp a CCN reach out to more than just the typical 18 to 35 year old user group. in terms of user interface design, Applications that target children airn at the child's intellectuai curiosity, at eagemess for new concepts and knowledge, and at the patterns for learning to distinguish between appearance and reality. .. . .Applications that target the elderly aim at enhancing mobility, independence, and social participation (Brouwer-Janse 1997, p. 36).

An evolving CCN needs an appeaiing user interface that helps users get maximum results and minimum frustrations during their use of the system. Users should be able to deterrnine, right from the start, that the network will have imrnediate practical uses for them. New users tend to judge a computer network by the introductory screens, while more experienced users base their preferences on actual content and the speed with which they can obtain the information or service they want. There are well-established styles for introductory screens. Choose one that reflects your organization as you wish it to be seen and add on local character. The examples shown in Figure 6.2 were downloaded from the Vancouver CommunityNet, Prince George Free-Net, and La Plaza Telecornrnunity respective1y in Septemkr of L 997. Logîcal Listmg Style

[IlAbout the CommunityNet - information - Membtrship - Voiunteering [S]Using the CommunrtpNet - Getting Started - Account Options [?mat's New at the CommmdyNet? - Recent additions - the VCN News [4]Comxnutrity Pages - Our camplete community information index [5fLocai Conunundy Pages - Community pages hosted by the VCN [6]Local Discussions - Discussion areas - Speciai interest groups @]Search- Find the infmmation pou need PlErnail - Send and receive electromc mail - Email options [PlThe Intemet - Other CommundyNets - UseNet - the Worid Wide Web [10]Help Desk - Help with usmg the ComrnunityNet system

Mode1 Town Style Graphic Styie 1 Free-Net Headquarters (Register hert) 2 Post Office and Usenet 3 Public Square 4 Arts and Entertainment Center 5 Business and Emp loyxnent Centre 6 Courthouse and Govemment Building 7 Education Building 8 Hedth Center 9 9 Lbrary Help Desk .O Newsstand 1 Science, Ttchnology& Environment Centre .2 Sports & Re creation Centre .3 Global Village 4 What's New on the P.G.Free-Net menu .5 What's Your F avoriiite Site? (net suifers forum)

Figure 6.2 Three Styles of introductory Screen Before the browser software that scans World Wide Web sites becarne widely available, the visible menus that forrn introductory screens were al1 text-based and operated as an expanding series of choice offerings in which listed items were identified and selected by a number or (rarely) a letter. This format is still widely used. It is simple and, more importantly, is accessible to people using older mode1 computers or modems. If you plan to use graphic introductory screens consider both the design problems involved and the need to accommodate users disadvantaged by low income or limited experience with cornputers. Lower income users cm purchase a computer system that can download text based sites for around $150 while computers capable of viewing a site rhat uses graphics cost at least twice this amount, On the positive side, graphics may be useful in communities using many different languages. The ease of use question goes beyond the human/computer interface and the reliability and support of the system. Ease of use must also consider the needs of multilingual comrnunities. Therefore, what is more important for such a comrnunity - a graphical interface or multilingual support? (Morino 1994, p. 16).

Some CCNs have both text-based and graphic introductory screens and provide their uses with a choice between them during the log-in process. Technicd structure exists to support the organization's needs for information structure and communications support. Equipment choices should be based on the services they need to uphold. The services offered should never depend upon the equipment chosen. There has been, especially in the early years of CCNs, an unfortunate tendency to glorify the technical equipment of the network or to treat it as though it were the end rather than the means to an end. A CCN is about strengthening people by enhancing the communications occurring between them and the opportunities available to them. Loyalty to the machines, software, or connections that are used to achieve such goals is irrationai and counterproductive. Equipment should be kept only so long as it is capable of being adapted to the changing needs for information storage and flow in the community that the CCN serves. DEVELOPING THE INFORMATIONAL STRUCTURE Information is only of use if it is timely, relevant to the user's need, and can be readily accessed as it is needed. The way in which the inforrnation resources of the CCN are stmctured influences the usefulness of that information and, ultimately, the usefulness of the entire network system to residents of the comrnunity. The stored information of the computer network can be a potent tool for empowering users and the process of gathering and maintaining that information will take up most of the resources of the organization. A CCN should support three crucial characteristics in the information it stores for the community: + capacity; + quality; + connectivity. We are used to thinking of capacity as a measurement of volume or mass. In information storage and retrieval systems, however, capacity refers to how well the space available for storage is used. It is not enough to have the ability to store a lot of information. Information is of value to a computer system user only if it can be accessed as desired. This means that a large amount of information gathered together on a particular topic can be counter-productive. The needed information may end up hidden amidst sirnilar but not quite applicable items, with the user wasting valuable time trying to sort through the entire mass. No CCN has the resources to support the sophisticated information-sorting tools found in national institutions, universities. and research centres. A CCN has to budget its overall capacity for stored information in a way that maxirnizes the usefulness of that information. Capacity for stored information must be mûnaged to ensure that the information available is as useful as possible to the user group, in this case the residents of a particular community. This means balancing the need to have sufficient information available on a topic for local use and the need to have a small enough arnount of information available on that topic so that local users can realistically son through it and benefit from it. Our society is already drowning in information, unfiltered chaos whose worth or value we ofien have no way to judge. Even more disconcerting is that we are rapidly adding to this base of information at an increasing rate.. .. Network access must synthesize information for the benefit of the community and structure it to solve comrnunity problems and satisfy community needs. Equall y important1y, it should encourage al1 providers of inforrnation to think in like terrns. Being able to access the "right" or "relevant" inforrnation may, in the end, be the most important facet of access (Morino 1994, p. 1 7).

In most cases, placing limits on the amount of inforrnation that will be stored for a particular group in the comrnunity or on a particular topic of interest to the comrnunity will ensure such a balance. This approach will aiso mean that there is room for a greater variety of information topics and sources in the system. It is wise to provide each information provider and special interest group with a clear outline of the maximum inforrnation storage the CCN is willing to ailot to them, expressed in a fonn they cm understand. For the sake of the CCN's standing as a civil society organization, similar maximums should apply to al1 information sources, regardless of their power in the community or their value as organizational allies. It is, after dl, normally part of the mandate of a CCN to provide a "voice" to those in the community who might otherwise lack it. The Content and Technical Support cornmittee should work out an initial allotment of storage per information source. Feedback from users and changes in the technical structure cm be used to justify increasing or decreasing the allotment over time. A CCN with good information storage capacity does not necessarily have an immense amount of digital storage space. What it has is a carefully managed variety of information that is limited in quantity to ensure that it is more likely to be accessible to the users of the system. The quality of stored inforrnation is a subjective matter, but the CCN must find ways to increase the likelihood that residents of the community will find the information content of a CCN to be of value to them (Kirschner 1994). The most comrnonly cited characteristics of quality information are that it is up-to-date (or timely) and that it is relevant to locd conditions. Timeliness can be ensured by developing a set of criteria for content retention over time. Divide al1 information piaced on-line into three (or more if this seems indicated) categories based on its ability to retain value over time. Permanent submissions would be material that does not need to be updated to be of value. Exarnples might be a selection of stories about the area gathered from elders in the community or historical photographs. Long-tem submissions would be material that needs updating only rarely, usually about once in any six month period. The vast majority of information provided by community groups would fall into this category. Short-terrn submissions would be material that remains useful for only a bnef time. Examples would be calendars of events or job postings. A tagging system would make it easier for the Content committee to ensure that inforrnation gets updated when it should. information that will be displayed in a Web page format can be placed in a database readable by the semer that supports the pages on-line. The database wilt tell you when a particular page ha not been altered for a certain period of time. Let information providers design and upload their own web pages or other types of information. When intermediaries do this, providers seem to lose interest and tend to let their information stagnate. One good strategy for ensuring a basic level of timeliness is to set annual contributions of an amount of community information as part of the membership requirement for organizations (Sirianni, Friedland & Schuler 1995). Volunteers cm help train information providers in the upkeep of their information. Storage of transcripts of communications facilitated by the CCN. such as e-mail messages or forums, can and should be limited to a specified arnount of time, unless a special request is submitted and approved. The local relevance of information can be difficult to judge, but limits to system capacity require that someone make those judgements. The CCN can best address its goals if its stored information has a high level of local relevance. Increase the relevance of your networks by adding value to the oceans of unfiltered information that are out there - be more than a posting service or pas-through service. Gather information from outside sources and place it in a local context, making it relevant to the day-to-day lives of the people in the community you serve (Monno 1994. p. 15).

Most CCNs maintain a committee that decides what content is locally relevant. In a time when access to information confers social power, this committee can find itself in the midst of local political storrns. Once again, the local needs and resources assessment perforrned early on in the life of the CCN cm help to organize your response to the community. It can also help the organization defend its choices of what is locaily relevant and what is not. Many librarians receive training in developing local relevance in the collections of print, sound, and video that they maintain for the comrnunity and they can provide vaiuable help in this area of CCN management (Durrance undated). In information storage, connectivity refers to the extent to which related items of information are juxtaposed. Related topics or resources are linked so that you cm move between them quickly, greatly reducing the overall time spent in a search. Good connectivity also leads to a significant arnount of "serendipity" during information searches - the finding of relevant information which a person would not have known to look for. Much of the overwhelming success of the World Wide Web as a personal research tool arises from the connectivity it provides. It is also a good exarnple of the need to have ail three characteristics of stored information working well in your system. The capacity and quality of information on the Web often turns off users despite the excellent Ievel of connectivity between information items. They find themselves wasting time sorting through vast arnounts of information, much of which ha not been updated and so has become useless. When the capacity, quality, and connectivity of stored information are managed well, a networked system is a potent information tool for the community.

THE INTERNET ISSUE The shape taken by the technical and information structures of a CCN will be influenced by whether or not Internet access is going to be provided to the comrnunity, so a decision on this should be made fairly early on. The advantages and disadvantages of Internet access carry different weights in different communities. Looking at possible benefits and problems in the light of local conditions will heip ensure that CCN organizers make the choices that will best serve the interests of the community in the long term. The issue of internet access provision should be explored even if you already know that your CCN will opt for it, because awareness is the first step in the planning necessary to maximize the advantages, and minimize the disadvantages, involved. Internet access cm confer several benefits to residents of a community, any or al1 of which may influence quality of life. The advantages of Intemet access arise from: + non-local email; 4 online education;

4 research access;

4 specidty tools access;

4 specid interest group interactions. Local email is useful for supporting communications within the comrnunity, but most people are more interested in non-local email and Internet access is necessary to support it. in addition to allowing interactions between people despite different daily schedules and providing records of those interactions. email is much less costly to use than longdistance telephone lines. For personal use. non-local email makes it much easier to maintain or develop relationships with family or other people living far away. The ability to keep close contact with someone regardless of where they are is an advantage most people quickiy appreciate. Non-locai email is especiaily helpful to business people. A single global address can be given out to colleagues, customers, and suppliers, allowing mail to be received from almost anywhere and checked and responded to from almost anyw here. Al1 sorts of computer files, of srnali to moderate size, can be sent as attachments to a message. The ability to send spreadsheets, documents, pictures, and other files can help an independent business owner succeed or allow an employee to work from a location other than the office. With email, both parties cm refer back to previous messages and can maintain "strings" of messages representing their interactions over time. This is useful for developing contracts, invoicing, ensuring that exported or imported orders are correctly stated, and as a memory aid for characteristics of particular customers or suppliers. Techniques for filtering and sorting received email cm be used to keep the time spent reading messages down to a reasonable level. Most higher educational institutions now offer some of their distance education course offerings through computer networks. Some specialize in online education. With Internet access, community residents may be able to access a wide range of online courses that would otherwise be out of their reach due to time or distance constraints (Halseth 1997). There is a very good chance that an individual using the CCN can find at least a couple of courses available online which would either help them in their career or would contnbute to their personal development. The opportunity to research specific topics using the computer networks available globdly cm be very useful to community residents, especially if the CCN provides basic and advanced training in information retrievd- Librarians can help develop course materiai in this area (Durrance undated). Large quantities of potentially valuable information are available to those accessing the Intemet and can be used by individuals to attain personal and professionai goals. Almost ail CCN users will need sorne guidance as they learn how to search for and retrieve information effectively, however. The vast number of information sources and variety of ways in which stored information is organized cm be bewildering. The-consuming information searches and frustrated users are both potential problerns for the CCN which can be avoided by providing good user support. A wide range of specialty tools can be sampled or obtained outright through the Intemet. Often known as utilities, these are files, macros, or prograrns that have been made available to the public. Some are free (freeware) and others cm be sampled for a short time so that you cm decide whether or not to purchase the program (shareware). Specialty tooIs are an important benefit of Internet access because they cmconsiderably reduce the costs of maintaining and shaping persona1 computer systems and because they give individuals the opportunity to familiarize themselves with speciai techniques and shortcuts in computer management. Special interest groups (SIGs) open up a world of possibilities for individuals who rnight otherwise feel isolated. They are forrndized online gathering areas for people who share a passion or profession. With Internet connection, a CCN can offer its members a vast range of such groups to interact with. Some SIGs are purely recreational and play an important part in helping individuals release stress and explore their hobbies, but many have a serious intent. These can be used to keep up with recent developments in a field of interest, to debate issues particular to a certain profession, and to increase peer contacts. Another benefit of Internet connection is particular to the CCN organization itself. The Internet is held in much esteem by many granting agencies. Provision of Internet access to the community, as one part of a CCN's services, is likely to make it much easier to obtain grant funding during the start-up period. There are disadvantages to providing internet access and they are worth much consideration as they can have destructive effects on the organization. If we make analogy to the flow of vehicles on a highway system, Internet access can be used by people in such a way that it represents a bypass of the information and communications exchange within the comrnunity. The premise of most community systems is that the participants want to get local information.. .. But many users are primarily interested in getting out of town, that is, using resources Iocated around the world via the Internet. If the statistics show little local use because the sub~crikrsare spending time elsewhere and not in the local files and discussion areas, the local agencies and businesses may cease to maintain the data files, and the community system wili be like a dying mid-town shopping center where the tenants drift away to the suburbs (Morino 1995, p. 20).

A CCN has to ensure that it cannot be used as a mere Internet onramp. The focus must remain on supporting information flow within the community and this can be hard to achieve when Internet access is provided. Potential effects that make it very difficult for a CCN to meet its goals or sustain itself include:

4 lackofcommunitycontrolovercontent;

4 diminishment of local knowledge and interactions. The benefits of Internet connection tend to affect individual effectiveness while the disadvantages affect organizational effectiveness. Since Intemet access provision cm lead to differences between the best interests of the community as represented by the CCN and the interests of individual members of the CCN, it presents a major issue for planners. Most CCNs end up providing Internet access. Strategies do exist to encourage people to look at what is happening or is available in the cornmunity before they jump onto the global information highway. Most of these involve creation of virtual cul-de- sacs and other flow controls analogous to the techniques used in city planning to reduce traffic speed in sensitive areas and encourage pedestrian activity. Consultation with other CCN organizers on this topic is a good idea.

TOWARDS ORGANIZATIONAL MATURiTY The process of establishing a CCN is never quite the sarne in any community. The strength and effectiveness of the organization comes from its responsiveness to the community and each community is a unique thing. A well-designed CCN is shaped by the community as it develops and this means that its development will not follow any exact path. This thesis discusses particular steps in development as though they always occurred in the order given here and in the way described here only because that framework for discussion allows us to address the issues that do arise for al1 CCNs and identify trends in the strategies used by CCNs. When al1 the basic structures that form an organization are in place we tend to refer to it as king mature, although some argue that maturity is a matter of having sut-vived for a certain amount of time. It is essential that the people working together to sustain the CCN understand that the organization must always retain its flexibility and responsiveness to the community. There is no "resting stage" in the lifecycle of an effective non-profit organization. With this in mind, we will discuss some of the issues that mise for a CCN as it enters into maturity.

LAUNCHING THE CCN With the organizational, technical, and information structures of the CCN mostly in place, you are ready to open it to public use. The size and priority you give to your announcement that the network is available will depend on the confidence you hold in the site working to perfection on the announcement day. Computer systems suffer minor breakdowns regularly and there is nothing like a sudden increase in the amount of use to bring on a system failure. A small celebration for volunteers in a library or recreation centre might be best with press releases corning out after. Expect a lot of dial-ins rïght after the launch announcement. If you are unsure of your system's readiness, announce the availability of the network to a series of small groups in the community over tirne rather than alerting local papers, radio, or television broadcasters. This will give you a chance to see how the system responds to increasing usage and you are more likely to have enough time to correct any problems that arise. If you do decide to have a classic ri bbon-cutting opening Party.. .prepare for sudden and heavy use! Do not create high expectations in the community about what your community network can do for them during your launching. "There are few worse situations than an enormous build-up in interest that goes unsatisfied or, worse, is ineffectively addressed" (Morino 1994, p. 9). Several CCNs have raised expectations too high during their efforts to gather support and, after opening, lost many of their initial members to frustration and disappointment. A slow and cautious beginning is much better for long-terrn public relations. Make sure you distinguish yourself from Internet Service Providers operating for profit. Work on attracting members who will have realistic expectations of the CCN.

A launching is a great time CObring together al1 the volunteers who have worked to develop the CCN, including those who have stopped volunteering. Make no distinctions whatsoever between people who donated a couple of hours once and those who have been "breathing" CCN. The launch party is one of the best ways to say thank you and it may stimulate another bout of volunteering if group feelings are kept positive. The launch is when your CCN becomes real to al1 those in your community whom have not yet ken convinced or have not had a chance to become involved. Events and problems will happen more quickly now and will be more demanding than those that were dealt with during the organizing phase. Make sure there is ample support for al1 volunteers. It is not necessary to start ail aspects of a CCN ail at once. You need to leave room to grow into a multi-purpose institution. Start with provision of basic services and add functions on as local people and organizations develop the demand for them and you develop the resources to support them. New areas and conferences will grow out of old areas and conferences. For example a business conference may become very popular and then spin off an econornic development group and a tounsm group. The idea is to wait until there is need for a new aspect of the CCN before you develop it. At this point in the establishment of the CCN, the crucial thing is too avoid overextending the organization. Slow growth, occurring in response to the changing needs of the community, will lead to a sustainable and effective organization.

ACHIEVING CRITICAL MASS Critical mass is, stated simply, the idea that a communications medium cannot be effective unless it has sufficient people producing and exchanging messages within it. The number and variety of people interacting through a CCN affect both the quality of the information available on the network and the frequency of exposure to useful information. CN developers must aim for a critical mass of users - otherwise the CN will serve only the elite which would result in a small user-population which would, of necessity, limit the range and richness of content (Durrance undated, p. 5 of the Strategies for CN Information Professionals section).

The more people involved, the better, up until overall system capacity has been reached. This phenomenon has been observed since the very first CCNs started to operate, although critical mass theory arose from observations of earlier developments in mass communications. New users tend to judge the personal usefulness of a CCN by the user interface. They also judge it by the quality and quantity of stored information and communications contacts on-line, ail of which are affected by critical mass. Once a CCN has been made available tu the public, it needs to maintain a minimum momentum of growth in the population of users to be successful in meeting its goals. AJthough such growth can eventually ease off into a stable overall user population, it takes quite a bit of time for this to occur and there are no guarantees that it ever will. At a basic level, people will not join a new communications medium unless there are people to talk with, and if they do not join then other people do not have anyone to communicate with and will not join in their turn. Development of critical mass is a lot like stoking engine fires. With a slow and careful start, you can ensure that the cycle becomes almost self-perpetuating. A sloppy start can lead to a self-extinguishing cycle. The one strategy that is cited over and over for critical mass development is to "inject" the system with an artificid flarne - a group of people selected for their strong communications skilis and the quality (local relevance) of their information (Kirschner 1994). A relatively small group of committed and resourceful people tends to be the spark that ignites the cycle of user population growth (Marweli & Oliver 1993). Actively seek out candidates for this core group right from the beginning. In most cases, the sparks will corne from just bringing dynarnic individuals into contact with each other. If a tendency to form exclusive groups develops, try persuading members of the core group to take on mentoring roles with new volunteers. This will often provide sufficient new acquaintance to break up "cliques". A more subtIe strategy for ensuring critical mass is to set up your system so that the interface is not a formidable barrier to new users. Education programs are key here but also consider ways to make the CCN accessible to multilinguai communities and those with high levels of illiteracy. There are comrnunity networks that have taken up the challenge to overcome these barriers by having volunteers translate important information into the different languages of the comrnunity or having more graphics to illustrate crucial areas of information. Reach out to as many potential users as possible. Cm your network accommodate the special equipment needed by deaf, blind, or manually crippled community members? Try to extend your network service to people who would not normally participate. Create discussion forums for people of diverse ethnic, cultural or linguistic backgrounds. Do your best to provide technological and human resource solutions for providing services to physically challenged users. Prornote use by a diversity of people and you will increase the quality of learning and discovery that takes place on a network (Richardson & Searle 1995, p. 9).

There is a wealth of experience in the "disabled" population of a community which cm boost the quality of your information offerings. New technologies and an aggressive new breed of advocates specializing in overcoming communications barriers make it much more likely that your CCN cm benefit frorn the inclusion of residents who have traditiondly been left out of most community initiatives. Since the quality of the information anilable through the CCN affects critical mass, ensure that your information providers receive the training and support they need to post relevant, timely, and weII-organized information. Actively seek out sources for such information and make it easy for thern to provide it on a regular basis. There should be a range of physical access points to your comrnunity network so that a user does not have to own their own cornputer system. Most people still do not have a computer in their home and this is especially true in the communities that are most likely to benefit from having a CCN. Some people do not even have a home. The issues and perspectives that they can bring to a comrnunity dialogue are ofien novel to the larger community because such people have relatively Iimited access to other fonns of public debate. In cases where CCN public access points have enabled homeless people to engage in public debate, transfomative effects on local policy has occurred (Schmidtz, Rogers, Phillips & Paschai 1994). Think carefully about locations for public access sites. Public offices and shopping mails do not allow al1 types of people to spend time in them. They are places where selling, rather than learning, is the overail goai. Locations like community youth centres, boys and girls clubs, recreation centres and especially Iibraries make better places to locate a computer system with access to the CCN (Durrance undated). An intriguing extension of public access points via the local library has ken performed in one city, using bookmobiles to house computer terminais in addition to the usual circulating selection of books. These bookmobiles are then parked by certain power poles which are dispersed throughout the city and wired with speciai fibre optic cable outlets that provide high speed computer network access. The entire strategy was designed to improve senior citizen access to computer networking (Rogers 1996). With each new participant in a community network, the effectiveness of the CCN as a whole increases up until system capacity for information storage and communications support is met. Long waits for modem access, extremely slow download tirnes, and a feeling of king "lost in the crowd" will cause people to withdraw from the CCN. Use the feedback you receive from members and the observations of Technicai Support cornmittee members to tell you when system capacity upgrades are needed. Encourage extremely busy discussion areas to split off into more specific topics, if this is feasible. When an online community becomes too large, it naturally breaks into a community of cornmunities. Small groups work differently than large groups and optimal group sizes for different purposes make critical impacts on what cm be accomplished and the various viable formats for effective interaction (Odasz 1994, p. 4).

The ideal state is to maintain a balance between system idleness and capacity so that people logging on to the system have lots of interesting potential contacts without the frustration of long waits. RESPONSIVENESS TO THE COMMUNITY Once critical mass is achieved, CCN organizers may want to take a rest from planning activities but there is never really a good time to take a break from tailoring the organization to the needs of the comunity. The community network is best served by rnaintaining a continuous, if slow, effort to shape it. Those who manage a CCN are faced with constant small choices between making the effort to continue shaping the organization to meet comrnunity need, and not making that effort and so leaving the organization to stagnate. Organizational adaptability arises from careful planning so that al1 the structures that form the community network are built to dlow for future changes in the direction of the organization. Important issues in planning have been discussed throughout this document. The only constant for a CCN is that it will have to change if it is to remain useful to the community. Flexibility is a crucial characteristic for a CCN. The overail goal is to build an organization that can sustain itself without the rigid structures that tend to exclude some voices in the community, lead to local irrelevance, and eventuaily cause stagnation in the organization. Figure 6.3 outlines some of the decision points important in ensuring community relevance over time. The individual situation of each CCN means that there is no one way or set of ways to accomplish long terrn success. Only general recomrnendations, such as the need to remain responsive to changes in the community, cm be given. perception of unmet needs in the cornmunity

development of specific long-term goals

insufficient

organizational

goals and situation

translation of

ability to locate and counter problems quickly

Figure 6.3 Generaiized Organizational Lifecycle

One way to support organizational evolution is to actively seek out ideas and models. innovations in other communities or groups can be brought back and evaluated for local use. Organizers should keep aware of gatherings in the field. The major national and international conferences on cornmunity networking have been by far the most important source for information on effective strategies and crucial planning issues. Most have their proceedings published online, so that benefit of the ideas exchanged can pass on to those unable to attend. Traditional face-to-face conferences and online conferences are the best places to seek out new ideas for shaping a CCN to meet changing community needs and resources. Models for evolution may corne from other fields. Librarian's associations have passed on many useful ideas to community network organizers, as have operators of business incubators (Cisler 1994, Campbell 1995). Probably the most cornmon mode1 is extensive alliance with educational institutions. CCNs need to actively seek out ways to integrate information and communication services in the community, ways which allow them to sustain themselves and ensure that control over the infrastructure remains in the hands of average, unvested community members. Regular reassessments of community needs and resources can help a CCN ensure that the services they provide are likely to enhance local quality of life. Taxonomies that help organize this assessrnent process already exist and can be adapted to the specific purposes of the CCN (Doctor & Ankem 1996, Niederrnayer 1997). The coverage of CCN development issues in this thesis is biased towards the initial planning stages. Good planning, however, rneans having eyes open to probable futures for your organization. Only planning cm ensure that the flexibility necessary to organizational survival will be built into the structures that forrn that organization. There are many guides on how to operate an established non-profit organization so that it is both effective and sustainable. There are even college and university courses specializing in preparing people to take on administrative roles in non-profit organizations. The most valuable learning resource available, however, will always be those who have or are establishing CCNs in their community. If the people involved in a CCN initiative keep their senses truly open to what is happening (or not happening) in the community and maintain strong contacts with others who are striving towards similar goals, they will have the information needed to make the right choices while establishing a CCN. S UMMARY OF TECHNICAL/INFORMATIONAL STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT A CCN must be responsive to community needs and resources throughout its organizational, technical, and informational structures. Technical development should be undertaken with an eye to the network's sustainability over time. The ideal technical setup is adaptable and resistant to breakdowns, offenng useful, inexpensive communication tools and a simple but effective user interface that is tailored to the community's unique character. The development of the information structure should adhere to principles of capacity (balancing the need for information with easy accessibility), quality (providing information that is timely and relevant) and connectivity (linking rehted topics for efficient information retrieval). The decision to provide Intemet access should be made cautiously, as it has the potential to derail the comrnunity- oriented mandate of a CCN. The ideal development of a CCN begins with a srnaIl but steady core user group that can draw in greater diversity and numbers of community members over time. With ongoing cornmitment to meeting community needs and a positive, redistic approach to gathering community resources, a CCN cm sustain itself over time.

IMPLICATIONS FOR LOCAL CIVIL SOCIETY DEVELOPMENT This chapter reviewed the processes involved in developing the technical and informational structures of a CCN and in ensuring that those structures and the organizational structure are responsive over time to changes in community needs. These processes can influence civil society development in the local area through alteration of the attitudes and abilities of the volunteers active in the CCN initiative. Such alterations cm be expected for the reasons outlined below. + The selection of equipment to form the technical structure of the CCN will require that both short and long-term comrnunity needs are considered. lmprovements to volunteer abilities in ptanning for cornrnunity service provision will be transferable to other civil society work. + Maintenance of the technicai structure of the CCN will provide volunteers with valuable experience in the local adaptation of technology. Since telecommunications can confer significant competitive benefits, local ability to manage these tools cm assist the cornmuni ty in retaining decision-making power over economic and political issues in their area. + Development of the user interface is likely to increase awareness in both volunteers and CCN users of the diversity of needs and challenges present for individual comrnunity residents. Awareness of diversity is a necessary step towards taking steps to improve equdity of access to the resources of the community. + The development of the infonnational structure of the CCN is likely to enhance volunteer awareness of issues in information management. lncreases to volunteer ability to perceive and manipulate the usefulness of information will be transferable to other civil society work. + The process of making an informed decision on Internet access provision may increase volunteer awareness of the real and potential movements of ideas and other resources through the community. This can, in turn, improve local awareness of the need to establish diversions and flow controls to ensure that sucb vaiuable resources are not completely lost to the community. + Planning of the CCN launching can increase volunteer awareness of promotional strategies and of the importance of creating realistic expectations of service provision in the community. Abilities arising out of this experience are transferable to other civil society work. + The process of ensuring that the CCN organization has a sufficient number and diversity of users in the community provides volunteers with an awareness of critical mass management that is useful for other civil society work. + The overall process of planning the organizationai, technicai, and informational structures so that they can be adapted to changes in comrnunity needs over time increases volunteer awareness of the need for ongoing responsiveness in civil society organizations. In answer to the third thesis subquestion; "how does the process of estabiishing technical and informational structures for a CCN affect the development of local civil society?", increases in the managerial expertise of the human resource pool of the area can be expected. As with the creation of the organizationai structure, development of the technical and informational structures of a CCN can be expected to bring new awareness and abilities to the volunteers involved with them. These areas of increased expertise are both applicable and transferable to other civil society initiatives and represent an improvement to the capacity of the cornmunity to support civil society organizations. Chapter Seven CCN INFLUENCES ON LOCAL CIVIL SOCIETY

CHAPTER DESCRIPTION This chapter addresses the overall thesis question; "what role(s) do CCNs play in civil society development at the cornmunity level?", by bringing together the understandings established in Chapters Four, Five and Six. The discussion begins with reintroduction of the concepts of Chapcer One, reviewing the relationship between decentrdization of social power, the civil society aspect of social economy, and CCNs. The answers deveioped for the thesis subquestions are then reviewed and the study findings are presented. These findings, and the factors which may influence their generalizability, are described. The limitations of the CCN approach to provision of universal access to information technology and the significance of this study are discussed.

DECENTRALIZATION OF SOCIAL POWER, CiVIL SOCIETY, AND CCNS This thesis began with an exploration of the problems which new information technologies, such as computer networking, present in tenns of ongoing and accelerating inequalities of access to the benefits of their use. Both those individu& not already possessed of significant social power and organizations that fall into the civil society category tend to suffer from relatively iirnited access to these benefits. This generd trend has led to widespread expressions of concem over widening of the gap of opportunity that marks the 'haves' of Our society and our world from the 'have-nots'. It also has led to concerns that the civil sector wilI be unable to adequately fulfi11 its role as a cooperative counterbalance to government and commercial interests in capitalistic sozieties. Widening of opportunity gaps tends to occur in conjunction with the centralization of social power. People and groups who have relatively less access to means for transforrning their conditions of life are iikely to have decisions about their future made for them by other, more powerful groups. Decisions about expansions/reductions of a mil1 employing poorly educated, low-income cornmunity residents tend to be made by well-educated, wealthy individuals who often live outside the affected community, for example. The civil society component of the social economy revolves around the efforts of volunteers to meet social needs that would not be met or would be unlikely to be met effectiveiy if left to the responsibility of govemment or business interests. An active civil society sector represents a general decentralization of social power in the comrnunity involved because civil society initiatives are literally a 'taking back' of decision-making power over issues crucial to local quality of life. Like other communications technologies, computer networking cm contribute to either centralization or decentralization of social power. depending on how the technology is applied. The key to encouraging decentralizing effects is to provide means by which normal or underprivileged people can adapt the application of technology to meet the specific and sometimes unique needs of their own comrnunity. Where mass consumption of standardized and undterable communications technologies supports centralization of social power, numerous unique applications of communications technologies at the cornmunity Ievel supports decentralization of social power. The decentralization of sociai power is a fairly subtle phenomenon, but it cm be seen in increases in the vitality and effectiveness of the civil society sector of the economy. CCNs are examples of cornmunity-led local adaptations of technology and, as such, show considerable promise for counterïng the overall centralization effects of commercial provision of standardized computer networking access points and information. This chapter is intended to clarify how positive influences might be expected to occur, using information gleaned from the gathering together of CCN best practices to answer the thesis subquestions in Chapters Four, Five, and Six.

THE ROLE OF CCNS IN LOCAL CIVIL SOCIETY It has been noted in Chapters Four and Six that the process of developing the structures which make up the CCN is likely to alter the attitudes and abilities of CCN volunteers such that those individuals are more capable of managing a sustainable civil society organization. The skills and mindsets achieved through CCN volunteer work are both applicable and readily transferable to other civil society initiatives. The process of =oritheting resources for the CCN, reviewed in Chapter Five, has a wider range of potentiai effects on local civil society. This process can influence the behaviour of organizations and of individuals who are not volunteers of the CCN, in addition to having the effects on volunteers noted for structure development. Through the resource gathering process, organizations in the community are likely to become more aware of opportunities and procedures for cooperation and resource sharing. Individuals not involved with the CCN as volunteers are likely to have their awareness of how civil society organizations differ from other types improved. In addition, individuai residents may become more aware of the existence of personaily-relevant access barriers and of means by which they could overcome them. To sustain itself, a CCN needs to empower community members by unleashing their awareness of, and willingness to use, the abilities that are latent in them. The process of establishing a CCN as a sustainable community service can be expected to lead to increases in the empowerment of individuai residents of the area and, to a lesser extent, the Iikelihood of cooperation between organizations active on behalf of the cornmunity, From Figure 7.1. we can see that the process of developing comptent human resources and Iocal cooperation to support the goals of a CCN, occumng in the special context of the information storage and communication capabilities of a CCN, presents at least two potentiai triggers for enhanced levels of civil society effectiveness in the community. Individual empowerment through awareness of personal potentiai and access to opportunities for realizing that potential is a trigger for involvement in decisions conceming the future of the community. So too is the development of synergy, or collective mornentum and power, arising from the sharing of resources between similar- goai groups in the community that were previously working isolate from each other. TRIGGER POiNT f Individual Empowerment (increased confidence & resourcefulness through overcorning personai access bamers) 1 Self-led Leaming (improved knowledge and interest through ongoing explorations of the community) I TRiGGER POINT 2 Identificaüon of Shared Personal Goals Identification of Shared Organizational Goals (increased awareness of benefm and rnethods (increased awareness of benefits and methods of rcsource shriring through awareness of goals of resource sharing through awareness of _goals held in comrnon with other individuals) held in common with other organizations) 1 Development of Civil Society Organizsitions Synergy (increased civil sector effectiveness through (increased civil sector effectiveness cooperative alliances between individuals through cooperative alliances between active on behalf of the cornmunity) organizations active on behalf of the / cornrnunity)

Communal Empowerment (improved capacity to retain decision-making powers regarding the future of the community through development of the resources and the cooperation needed to address both rninor and major shared goals)

Figure 7.1 Steps leading to strengthening of locai civil society

CCNs, as cornmunity groups dedicated to local adaptation of a communications technology with potent user benefits, are likely to influence local civil society at both the individual and community group levels. The overall finding of this study is that the process of establishing and maintaining CCNs acts to increase both empowerment of the individuals involved with the CCN and cooperation between community groups in the area served by the CCN, both of which may lead to a more vital and sustainable civil society for the tocal area. CCNS AND INDIVIDUAL EMPOWERMENT The majority of positive effects on local civil society development are likely to occur in the area of individual empowerment. Empowerrnent is a vague terrn, so it is important that it is specified here what is meant by personal empowennent and how it is likely to influence civil society in the local area. Useful terminology for this discussion of empowerment has been adapted from a study of the empowennent potential of internet use (Lillie 1997). For our purposes, individual empowennent can be seen as falling into four closely-related categories: + enhanced self-perception; + increased knowledge, skills, and access to resources; + increased social participation; + increased political awareness and participation. Enhanced self-perception arises from increases to both self-esteem and self- efficacy. Esteem for the self is a natural result of overcoming access barriers, ski11 weakness areas, and other personai challenges. Self-efficacy is the power to produce an effect, or change, in oneself. Graduai mastering of the techniques of computer networking, starting with the procedures needed to access the network, increases confidence in personal leaming ability. Although a CCN usually has different forrns of support available to individuals who are teaching thernselves to use the system. this support is unobtrusive and there are minimal judgements fed back to the user concerning their rate of learning. CCN system use training may be an individuais first experience of non-judgmental, self-led learning. The communications tools made available by a CCN can be used in many different ways to support community interactions and leaming. A person who is involved in a comrnunity organization that uses a newsletter to share information rnight discover the ease of sending articles in to the newsletter editor by email, for example. Given greater awareness of the community and the opportunity to learn new communications techniques, individuals can explore new ways of doing things and become familiar with those that are truly useful to them. The challenges and interactions involved in the process of establishing a CCN provide many opportunities for increases to both self-esteem and self- efficacy for CCN volunteers. Those community residents who interact with others using the CCN may also experience positive self-perception changes. The most significant finding of this study is the predicted relationship between interactive use of the BBS and personal identity satisfaction, and the role of perceived social presence in that relationship. The interactive capability of political BBSs appears particularly suited for the satisfaction of personal identity needs (Garramone, Harris & Anderson 1986, p. 337).

The unique characteristics of cornputer-mediated communication allow for explorations and experiments in personal identity that can help an individual recognize, and appreciate, their own qualities. Positive self-perception changes are important in terrns of making local people more likely to involve themselves in projects for the bettement of conditions in their cornmunity. Individuals must feel that they have something to offer, and that they are Iikely to succeed with a challenge, before they will volunteer or involve themselves in other ways with civil society initiatives. Increased knowledge, skills, and access to resources is likely to arise when individuals take on challenges that involve the local adaptation of information and communications technologies. As Garth Graham points out, In freenets, the volunteers that participate in bringing a cornmunity online are investing their own time in learning new skills and roles, Freenets intensively collate community knowledge and experience.. .. [they] support citizens in sustaining communities that better meet their needs (1994, p. 11).

Al though the process of establishing a CCN provides volunteers with rnany opportunities for developing new abilities, attention should also be paid to the individual empowerment potential of the interactive communications and stored information Iinkages of a CCN. Sharing stories and ideas and concems online can increase both knowledge and personal social skills for individuals. The information linkages and comrnunity contacts provided by a CCN represent significant and easily-accessed resources for personal use. Knowledge, ability, and resource access on the part of individuals in the community increases the likelihood that they will be able to be effective volunteers for civil society initiatives, should they choose to involve themselves. They represent overall increases to the civil society organization support capacity of the people living in an area. Increased social participation can aise in individuals through either volunteer work for a CCN or use of a CCN. in fact, it is the single most likely empowerment effect of involvement with computer networking (Lillie 1997). Volunteer work for a CCN cm bring an individual into contact with many other residents they might otherwise never meet. Although theonsts predicted social withdrawal effects on individuals using computer networking when the technology was first made available to the public, the opposite effect has been found in that computer network use tends to increase the number of social contacts of users, and can lead to increased numbers of face-to-face social contacts if individuais contacted online live reasonably nearby (Garramone, Harris & Anderson 1986, Kirschner 1994). The special interest discussion areas of a CCN are a particularly nch source of new personal contacts for individuals, in part because the participants have already pre-selected themselves on the basis of a shared interest. individuals who maintain a large number of local social contacts are more likely to have both the awareness of issues and the motivation to act upon them that leads to involvement with civil society work. People care more about issues that are impacting on themselves, their families, their friends, or their acquaintances and are significantly more likely to take action in such cases than if an issue is impacting only upon strangers. Increased political participation cmoçcur when individuals involve themselves in either the development or the use of a cornrnunity network intended to meet local needs. The process of establishing a CCN requires that volunteers familiarize themselves with a range of basic "ways of doing things", or policies, and debate between themselves on which best suit the mandate and the resources of the organization. This is politics at a starter level. It introduces those involved to the basic skills and methods of setting and altering policies and does so in a context that is much less overwhelming than municipal, provincial, or national political arenas. The skills and, most importantly, awareness, that corne from direct involvement in setting policy make individuals more likely to be informed voters and to involve themselves in policy debates outside of the CCN. Use of the CCN is likely to bring individuals into contact with the diversity of organizations, issues, and opinions present in their comrnunity. Although this is not as direct an involvement as volunteer work, it also can increase political awareness. As noted by one author, the CCN "aids the individual in understanding his or her 'location in society'. Such an understanding, in tum, may decrease alienation and increase feelings of political efficacy" (Garramone, Harris & Anderson 1986, p. 337). Civil society initiatives are the expression of policy preferences on the part of citizenry. Community residents who understand the potential range and implications of policies are more likely to involve themselves in civil society work. This discussion of personal empowerment through CCN involvement highlights the fact that empowered individuals are more likely to volunteer or otherwise provide support to civil society initiatives in the local area. Relatively empowered individuals are also more likely to be effective in their provision of such support. The establishment of a CCN in a cornmunity cm have an overall influence on resident empowerrnent that leads to a greater likelihood of those residents supporting other civil society initiatives in the

CCNS AND COMMUNlTY ORGANIZATION SYNERGY A CCN can affect local civil society development by providing the contacts and information needed for cooperation between organizations. Effective civil society work occurs through organizations, rather than through individuals. This is, to a large degree, because most of the issues addressed in civil society work are on too large a scale for an individuai to tackle on their own. There are also issues important to local quality of life that are too large or too complex for any one organization to cope with. Civil society organizations can better address such needs in the cornrnunity through resource sharing and cooperation with other organizations. As William Dodge notes, Community leaders and citizens increasingly are recognizing that they must quickly develop collaborative, cost-effective strategies for addressing challenges or they will become less competitive in the emerging global economy, and thus experience a declining quality of life. This is especially the case for the complex intercornrnunity challenges that cut across communities and governmentai jurisdictions. and even entire regions (1992, p. 403).

The enhanced effectiveness that arises through organizational cooperation and resource sharing is known as synergy. It represents a significant enhancement of the ability of residents of an area to take back control over the decisions that affect their quality of life. The process of gathering resources for CCN establishment can stimulate and support synergy between comrnunity organizations. Three ways cm be identified in which CCN resource gathering contributes to organizational cooperation: + provision of visibility; alliance modeling; + communications support.

Before organizations can form cooperative alliances, they must know enough about each other to have found comrnon goals or resource needs. A CCN can increase organizational awareness of other organizations through the provision of visibility. Many community organizations cm afford only lirnited advertising and some can afford none at dl. This can make it hard for organizations to know about each other, even when goals and resource needs are similar. During the process of gathering resources for the CCN, volunteers will activeIy seek out organizations that act to benefit the community and will assist them in becoming information providers for the CCN. Information providers typically place information on the CCN that tells others about their mandate. When many organizations are sharing such information in an interlinked format such as a CCN, it becomes easier to see organizational similarities. Information providers also typicall y provide contact information, which can be very valuable for organizations seeking potential coilaborators. Once community organizations have found other organizations that could become prirtners in mutually beneficial projects, they have to bring about the partnership in a way that does not compromise either organization. A CCN cm help out at this stage by providing alliance modeling. The CCN, while allying itself with other organizations in the community, will ideally be using written alliance agreements and volunteer liaisons to ensure that clarity about the rights and responsibilities of alliance partners is maintained over time. Many organizations are shy about forrning partnerships, and rightly so. An organization can lose considerable resources and their reputation when an alliance sours through poor communication or misunderstandings about the rights and responsibilities of each partner. By providing both guideline documents for alliance agreements and modeling productive alliances, a CCN can reduce the fear and risk involved in forming inter-organizational alliances. After alliance parameters have been clarified and agreed on, a CCN can provide cornmunity organizations with communications support so that ongoing planning and resource - sharing activities cm occur more smoothly and easily. As an addition to email interactions, cooperating organizations can request website linkages and specialized discussion areas to make it easier for their staff and volunteers to share different kinds of information in different ways as this is needed. Working together with organizations already operating in the community, a CCN can help to support the communications and archives needed to organize widespread response to major local issues. Alliances for information and resource sharing between civil society, govemment, and business organizations present in the community cm help the residents of an area win decision-making powers regarding present and future conditions in their community. Such alliances commonly develop around CCNs, especially among clusters of information providers. The process of resource gathering for a CCN can be expected to make community organizations more aware of shared goals and resource needs by providing such organizations with greater visibility as CCN information providers. The resource gathering process also provides community organizations with a mode1 for stmctured rilIiances, helping them to reduce the risks of cooperation. Once awareness and motivation to cooperate exists, community organizations cm rely on the communications techniques supported by the CCN to make ongoing information exchange easier.

FACTORS AFFECTING FINDING GENERALIZABILITY This study has found that the process of establishing a CCN cm be expected to have a positive influence on local civil society through enhancements to individual empowerment and community organization synergy. This finding was based on practice recommendations by experienced CCN organizers and therein lies a significant weakness in terrns of generalizability. CCNs that are developed through processes that differ considerably from those described in Chapters Four, Five, and Six cannot necessarily be expected to have the same influence on local civil society. A cornparison of a particular CCN's practices to ail of the practices described in those chapters would be too resource-consuming to be useful to either CCN organizers or policy makers. To make it easier to determine whether a particular CCN cm be expected to have such a positive influence, four relevant criteria are described here. Each one centres on the ability of residents to adapt technoiogy to local needs, because this is fundamental to CCN potential for positive civil society influence. These criteria are: + comrnunity resident input into technoiogy application decisions; + a focus on human resources development; and + online presence of many diverse community organizations. The criteria will be discussed in the order given here because each one is generally influentid to the one following it. When area residents have direct and ongoing input into technoiogy application decisions, the actual needs present in the comrnunity are much more likely to be addressed by the CCN. A closer match between the needs of the cornmunity and the goals and practices of the CCN organization, in other words, iocai adaptation of computer networking technology, can be expected to occur. Many voices not normalIy heard from in a comrnunity have considerable information on the real conditions of the area. In the city of Santa Monica in the United States, for exarnple, homeless residents using CCN public access terrninals initiated discussions online that led to communal awareness of issues that had previously been overlooked, which in tum led to local municipal policy changes (Schrnitz. Rogers, Phillips & Paschal 1994). Since local adaptation requires information on how the community differs from or shares characteristics of other comrnunities, the reports and issues raised by individuals not normally heard from are crucial. We are accustomed to finding out about our communities from media sources which use standardized national and regional information. Most people have very little awareness of the actual realities of their own communities but, by sharing what they know with others, can develop a group picture that is much more accurate than media portrayals. Direct input gives individuals a chance to share their personal awareness of community conditions and when this is added to many other individual views, a clear picture of the community emerges that makes it possible to see where needs could be addressed by adapting the available technology. Residents of a comrnunity are unlikely to demand input into cornrnunity-affecting decisions unless they are brought to understand their own ability and right to do so. Individual attitudes present an important problem for achieving widespread input. Many people do not feel that they have any significant say in politics at any level. Underprivileged people especiaily may believe that there is no use in registering their opinion when decisions are being made about the cornmunity. They may have had good cause for developing this point of view, but the CCN needs to alter it. A CCN needs diverse community input in order to develop goals and strategies that are well suited to the real needs of the cornrnunity. People must be convinced, one by one, that their input will affect the organization. The ability to contribute information to decision-making groups is not enough to ensure local technology adaptations, however. People who represent others in a community usually have a persond stake in conserving current situations. Even if they accept diverse input regarding community conditions, they may well choose to ignore information that supports a change in those conditions. The people with the greatest stake in seeing that relatively accurate understandings of the community are applied to decisions about how the comrnunity will use technologies are those who are not part of current political and financial elite in the community and they must take decision-making into their own hands. Once established, many CCNs use a flattened hierarchicd organization structure to help ensure that the general membership has final say in major decisions about technology application. This is a good strategy but it is also vulnerable to being undermined. The Board of Directors of a non-profit organization cmeasily act in ways that limit membership awareness of, and thus member input into, the issues king decided. The membership must actively work to ensure that they have direct input into decisions. When mechanisms for ensuring that there are opportunities for al1 members of a community to contribute their ideas, concerns, and opinions to policy debates of the CCN, it is much more likely that the process of establishing the CCN will have a positive effect on local civil society. An ongoing focus on human resources development is necessary if a CCN is going to have the influence on civil society noted in the findings of this study. CCNs typically have few physicai or financial resources and depend heavily upon human resources donated by community residents (volunteer time and effort) in their attempts to üddress cornmunity needs. The key point, for our purposes, is that the CCN has to both access and transform those human resources in order to meet its needs. The strength of a CCN is in its volunteers and users, so the CCN cannot sustain itself as a passive cornmunity service. It must catalyze the individuds who corne in contact with it, changing their attitudes and abilities so that it develops a pool of active and skilled citizens to rely on when there is need. A CCN does not just draw from the current enthusiasm and skills of area residents, it works to alter the attitude and abilities of locals in ways chat make them capable of managing the local adaptation of technology for themselves and for others. The ability of the CCN to sustain itself as a non-profit with a grassroots focus is closely linked with empowerment of individuais in the community and this helps us understand the need for a human focus when exploring technologicai adaptation. "Itfseasy, arnong al1 the hype, to Iose sight of the goal - to help people - and in turn lose track of finding solutions that can fit the people rather than always trying to make people fit the solutions" (Dern 1993, p. 50). People alter technologies to suit their needs. Technologies cannot themselves cause change in people. This may seem to be cornmon sense, yet technological deterrninism, the idea that machines or methods can serve as agents of change, is a very prevalent view which frequently distorts planning and policy dcvelopment in the area of technology application. A clear-sighted view of technology adaptation is one which keeps firmly in mind the fact that it is the people who are creating change. To ensure CCN sustainability, it is important that there is ongoing ernphasis on the development of human resources. This has been a weakness for many CCNs. A recent Canadian study notes that Both users and potential users agree that there is a need for personnel with better interpersonal and management skills for continued success. if the Internet organizations do not attract more people-sensitive personnel, they are in danger of becoming 'closed' clubs catering to a very small segment of the local population (Halseth & Arnold 1997, p. 46). Community members must be treated with respect and, if they wish, provided with the training needed to become valuable volunteers, information providers, or users of the CCN. Although education an expensive process to maintain, it is a crucial part of a CCN that is functioning in line with its mandate. A CCN can be an example of effective local adaptation of technology to meet the needs of a particular community, but this potential cannot be reaiized without a core group of volunteers and a critical mass of diverse users. It is the people who use and alter the technology who fom the real network - a network of constantly chmging interactions that is much more significant than the network of electrical information transmissions that makes those human interactions possible. It is not that community member would not or could not interact without a CCN. A "technology only facilitates the operation of existing industrial and social networks as opposed to creating them" (Gibbs & Leach 1994, p.2 18, itaIics original). What a CCN can do is make it possible to interact in ways that are, in some cases, more convenient or effective (Hala1 1993). As individuals discover these ways and start to use them, they will also be in a position to take part in the collective process of adapting computer networking technology to the particulâr needs of their cornrnunity. A CCN needs members of the cornrnunity to corne forward and apply their ingenuity and persistence on behalf of the organization. This is another area where opinions about personal capability cm be a problem. Mass education and the mass media tend to do a better job of teaching people what they are not capable of than of showing them what they can do. People tend to absorb and hoId on to outside opinions about their abilities over time and by the tirne they are adult often believe that they are not capable of drawing, singing, writing, leading a group, or some other normal activity. They may argue that they are too old, too Young, undereducated, overworked, or not smart enough to take an active place in affecting the future of their comrnunity through volunteer work. Persona1 capabilities, however, are usually primarily limited by an individual's beliefs about them. When these beIiefs are altered, individuais cmachieve things they did not think possible and their uncovered abilities will improve their willingness ro try for even more. A CCN needs to gradually draw people into deeper and deeper levels of involvement with the organization and show them, through their own successes in the context of volunteer projects, that their capabilities are lirnited only if they choose to accept them as being so. In this way, a CCN can build a renewable pool of increasingly capable volunteers to manage the organization and ensure continued local adaptation of advanced information technologies. A CCN must place ongoing prionty on human resources development, rather than technical resources development. This can be hard to maintain, since many of those who corne fonvard to organize the CCN initiative will have done so because of an intense interest in the technology. Human resources, however, are the key to sustainable CCN developrnent and the development of those resources is the most potent way in which a CCN cm affect overall civil society in the area. A CCN needs ample human resources in order to successfully recruit a significant number of information providers. The online presence of many diverse community organizations is probably the easiest-to-measure indicator of successful outreach on the part of the CCN and is aiso an indicator of the likelihood that the CCN will play a strong role in the stimulation of synergy arnongst comrnunity organizations. When community organizations become information providers for the CCN, they are presenting two basic types of information: relevant, timely information about the community; and information about the organization itself. Both types of information can influence local civil society potentiai. Community organizations usually have a great deal of locally relevant information which couId be shared with the cornrnunity if doing so does not cost the organization too much in terms of money or staff and member tirne. By providing both a low or no money cost means for broadcasting information and assistance so that time costs are minimal, a CCN cm make it possible for comrnunity residents to hear from organizations that specialize in different issues important to the cornmunity. This is important in terms of civil society enhancement. When a household receives only s tandardized information about the community, that information has already been generalized and only major issues are presented to viewers and listeners- The problem with major issues is that it is very easy for an individual to feel that they can not influence them. When a household receives diverse and specific information about their own community, small issues and patterns of issues become apparent to them. These issues are much more likely to be of a scde and irnrnediacy that triggers persona1 involvement in addressing them. Provision of information about a community organization cm make it easier for other organizations to become aware of shared goals or resource needs and so can stimulate the process of alliance development between organizations. When alliances deveiop between organizations active on behalf of the community, synergy, or the ability to accomplish more through cooperation than through individuai organization efforts, boosts the overall ability of the community to address its own needs and to retain decision-making power over the policies that affect local quality of life. The criteria presented here make it possible to lwk at the operating styIe and achievements of a particular CCN and determine, without extensive comparison, whether they are Iikely to have the influences on local civil society described in the findings of this study. It must be noted that this can provide only a very general guideline, perhaps useful to those who must make policy and funding decisions that affect large numbers of initiatives. Since each CCN is, ideally, a reflection of the unique needs and resources of its community, no method of truly fair comparison is likely to be discovered.

LMITATIONS OF THE CCN APPROACH CCNs, like al1 other applications of technology, are greatly affected by their social context. The consumer ethic which has predorninated in most developed nations since the industrid Revolution presents a significant barrier to the creation of sustainable CCNs. The local empowerment and synergy effects that can result frorn the process of developing of a strong CCN are also necessary to sustain that CCN, so the process must be ongoing and will require that new human resources are regularly entering engagement with the organization. The majority of individuals face a considerable amount of learning in tems of network literacy, appropriate and efficient use of computer networking and, especially, citizenship roles before they will be ready to support a CCN. The overwhelming need for education about civilian potential is one of the weak links in the cycle that leads to CCN sustainability and positive civil society effects. Education is costly to administer, even with volunteers helping out. CCNs rarely have access to enough funding to pay for leadership training for the volunteers who will in turn train the users. Even if good training programs are put in place through strategic collaborations and leveraging of local talent, many people will resist further education, especiaily the low-income extended families or seniors who tend to need it most. The costs of home cornputers and modems have reduced so much during the course of this research that it is questionable if they still represent an access barrier to the majority of low-income households. Computer and modem units capable of accessing text-based and some graphic-based sites are widely available for less than two hundred dollars in 1999 in urban and suburban areas of North America. Telephone line usage costs have fluctuated considerably with the opening of this market to competition, but in most cases local cal1 costs have increased slightly and long distance costs have reduced dramatically. The cost of maintaining a home-based Iinkage to a CCN is still out of reach to some households, however, and the general drying up of grant funding to CCNs on this continent has impacted severely on the maintenance of public access sites. If not al1 groups in a community are in a position to benefit from and give input into the development of a CCN, the organization is not tmly addressing the overall mandate of universal access to the benefits of computer networking. Without tmly representative input, the CCN is also not likely to adapt the technology in ways that significantly enhance local civil society capacity. Individual CCNs must find innovative ways to raise funds to cover ongoing costs if they are to survive. The current general lack of grant funding has brought with it major reductions in the numbers of CCNs king initiated. The CCN movement as a whole is in considerable danger of lacking the critical mass necessary to influence national telecommunications policy so that public spaces are reserved in cyberspace.

S IGNFICANCE OF THIS STUDY An increasing sense of despair has been expressed among CCN activists regarding the sustainability of their initiatives and even the validity of the CCN approach to information technologies (Cisler 1995, Guy 1996). Mass marketing of standardized ways of accessing computer networking is already occumng and community residents who might have achieved personal empowerment and have worked towards communal goals while participating in local adaptations of computer networking technoiogy are increasingly likely to use forrns of access that reduce them to a passive consumer of predigested information. Although it is probable that enclosure of cyberspace will be achieved by business interests. with active government support, it must be kept in mind that the residents of a cornmunity only lose decision-making power when they fail to value and fight for it. Despite nationally-controlled infrastructures, powerful commercial lobby groups, and the econornies of scale of major industrial players, there is and aiways will be at feast some opportunities for focal communities to adapt the technology to their own needs. The greatest tool for achieving civil society goals is individual awareness of one's own political and practical power. Sharing of information on techniques for local adaptation of computer networking technology can inspire individuals to work towards taking back local resident control over computer network access. There is a need for clear, straightforward information on how and why CCNs cm benefit the local area so that people can understand that the ability to cake some control over the flow of information and social power in their community is within their grasp. General lack of clarity and consensus over goals and overall uncertainty about the CCN movernent has negatively influenced public opinion about CCNs (Guy 1996b) and has severely limited the funding and other resources made available for starting up and studying CCNs. Although the vast majority of actuai benefits of CCN use and development are subtle and personal, the trends which can be anticipated in them are both generalizable and potent in terrns of promoting the communal good. Widespread awareness of the role of CCNs in local civil society cm help people understand their own capacity to irnprove their individual and communal future. it is not enough to Say that the tool is useful. A straightforward idea of how it cm be used and what results can be expected from use is needed to ensure support for and participation in the development of CCNs. The goal of this study has been to provide such information.

SPACE, PLACE, AND CCNS

The immediate and direct benefits of CCN use tend to aise out of the timekpace convergence effects of computer network use. Reduction of distance friction to create new distance realities for users of the technology is useful even when those users are not scparated by large distances. Within a small community, attaching a file to an email message is still more convenient than driving or walking to drop a copy of that file off, for example. The message storage capabilities of a CCN allow local residents to Ieave messages for retrieval when convenient to the receiver. By making it possible for people to interact effectively, regardless of time constraints or differences in the spaces which they occupy, a CCN can have a positive influence on the success of local cooperative efforts. The effects of use of timelspace converging technologies such as CCNs have Iarger geographic implications for a comrnunity, however. As many common geographic models for human interaction patterns were developed with an assumption of the presence of distance friction, use of timelspace converging technologies in the population under study Cisorganizes them and causes them to lose much of their predictive value. For example, the diffusion of innovation through contagion can be expected to produce a reasonably predictive map pattern in the absence of strong timekpace converging technologies. Attempts to trace a pattern of diffusion in the context of computer network use, however, are deeply complicated and unlikely co produce clear patterns. The disruptive effects of CCN use on the concepts and patterns by which geographers organize their studies cm be seen even at the comrnunity level through exploration of the concept of place, which may be broken down into the component aspects of location, locale, and sense of place (Agnew 1987, quoted in Johnston, Gregory & Smith 1994, p. 442). Location is a familiar view of place for geographers, in which a place is defmed by the large-scale social and econornic processes surrounding it. Location arises out of regional and national contexts and is usually a description of position relative to political and economic centers. This idea has given us language such as urban versus rural and outlying versus hub. The relative nature of location is important because, if CCNs have potential for enhancing the ability of a comrnunity to retain decision-making powers, then CCN development may alter the centrality of a community and thus its location. Locale, or the context for social interaction, can be a difficult concept to describe here because its originator, Anthony Gibbons, has Ieft much ambiguity about its scope ( 1984). If we take the view that a community shares one locale, then development of a CCN is likely to provide refinements to the structure of that locale because new methods of interaction and entry points for interaction will be available to the population. If we see a community as king composed of several, sometimes related, locales encompassing the interactions of particular groups in the overall population, then development of a CCN is likely to add a new locale. in either scenario, CCN development can be expected to increase social interaction options for the inhabitants of the comrnunity. Sense of place refers to both the character of a place and the feelings which people hold in terms of that place (Johnston, Gregory & Smith 1994, p. 548). Both of these qualities of place are dependent upon human attitudes and are quite subject to alteration. CCN development cm have significant influence on the sense of place of that portion of the population which use the CCN because the organization actively promotes knowledge and discussion of physical and social features of the place in which it is developed. CCN development is an intriguing phenornenon for the geographer in that CCN provision of timekpace converging technologies to a community offers opportunities to explore local exarnples of the overall social trend towards dissociation of places and patterns of hurnan interaction from the physical landscape. Conversely, the focus of CCNs upon a particular physical site as the primary organizing element for the stored information and computer-mediated interactions they provide can be expected to "root" their users more firrnly into the physical landscape through enhanced sense of place. The potential of CCNs to mediate the social capital of a local area depends upon both aspects of this dialectic. Increased knowledge of, and feeling for, the physical site of the community is important for motivating and mobilizing local human resources. Freedom from time and spatial constraints increases the effectiveness of those human resources. The combination of physical focus and freedom from physicai constraints shows potcntial to alter both the community's centrdity in relation to regional, national, and global contexts and the range of social interaction options available to its inhabitants. Although the empowerment potential of CCNs is compromised by rapid closure of the window for adoption of this form of technology use, the lessons learnt from expIonng the phenornenon cm inforrn policy as we seek out ways to reduce increases in the gap between individual opportunities in the Age of Information. Appendix A COMMUNITY COMPUTER NETWORKING TIMELiNE

Dates are aligned with category headings tu rnake it easier to find particular seqrrences in the evolution of comrnuniiy computer networking. Bulletin Community Community Important Board Computer Networking Events & Servicesv Networksv Conferencesv Associationsv 1974 The world's first computer network system intended for community use was established in Berkley, California, USA by a group narned "Resource One". Called "Community Memory", this system supported the exchange of information from a variety of public locations including a record store, a public library, and a Laundromat. Participants could read discussion forums for free and add their cornrnents or create new discussions for a nominal fee (Felsenstein 1993).

1978 What was probably the first bulletin board service (BBS) in the world was established in Chicago by Ward Christensen and Randy Seuss.

1980 "Old Colorado City Electronic Cottage" was set up by Dave Hughes in Colorado, USA This community-based political action BBS had 50,000 calls by over 8000 people in the first three years of operation.

1984 "St. Silicon's Hospital and information Dispensary", a medical service BBS, was established by Tom Grundner in CIeveland, Ohio, USA

1985 "The Well", an influential BBS partially devoted to cornmunity issues was started in California, USA

1986 The first cornmunity computer network in the world, "Cleveland Free-Net", was established by Tom Grundner in Cleveland, Ohio, USA

1987 The second community computer network, "Youngstown Freenet" was established in Youngstown, Ohio, USA

1988 "Big Sky Telegraph" in western Montana, USA, is first CCN to link entire communities with each other. Bulletin Community Community Important Board Computer Networking Events & Servicesv Networksv Conferencesv Associationsv 1989 The first cornrnunity-wide network set up by a local government was "Santa Monica Pen", in Santa Monica, California, USA. Every member of the community with a computer and modem received free and direct access to municipal govemment staff and to discussion forums regarding local events and concerns.

1989 The National Public Telecomputing Network:(NPTN) was founded by Tom Grundner in the USA This non-profit organization was established to serve as a national advocate for community computer networks. It aiso sought to simplifi the start-up process of new networks and to develop a common content base. The organization put together an inexpensive package, cornplete with guidelines, that was intended to provide a community group with the basic equipment and knowledge to start a network. NPTN acquired member networks in severai countries. It also acquired special rights to the use of the phrase "Free-Net" by registering it as a service mark. Significant resistance arose to NPTN's demand that al1 community networks using the phrase in their narne pay fees to NPTN.

1990 The first BBS was established in the Soviet Union

1992 Canada's first community computer network, "Victoria Freenet" was established in British Columbia by Gareth Shearman The network was so popular that its technical structure nearly collapsed severd times in its first year due to overloads on system cornponents.

1992 New Zealand's first community network, "CityNet", was established in Wellington.

1993 The Netherlands' first community network, "The Digital City", was set-up as a 10 week experiment in Amsterdam. User demand was extremely high and resulted in a continuation of the project (Schalken & Tops 1994).

1993 Canada's second comrnunity network, "National Capital Freenet" was established in Ottawa. It presently has by far the most users of any Canadian community network. Bulletin Community Community Important Board Computer Networking Events & Servicesv Networksv Conferencesv Associationsv 1993 Germany's first community network, "Erlangen-Nurenburg Freenet*' was established.

1994 In Russia, an international initiative called Friends and Partners is estabIished on January 19Ih to support information exchange and, eventually, the development of Russian CCNs. The initiative is a cooperative project involving Russian, American, and European interests.

1994 The American "Ties That Bind: Building Comrnunity Networks" conference was held May 4'h to 6Ih in Cupertino. Califomia. The conference was hosted by the Apple Library of Tomorrow, part of Apple Cornputers Ltd., and was influentid in stimulating information sharing between peers in the North American comrnunity networking field. 1994 The first major Canadian gathering, the "Canadian Community Networùs" conference, was held August lsthto 17Ih in Ottawa, Ontario. Representatives from nearly al1 existing networks attended and voted in the first Board of Directors for Telecomrnunities Canada. 1994 Telecommunities Canada (TC), a nation-wide umbrella organization, was formed to lobby the national government on behalf of CCNs and to provide assistance to organizations starting up a community network.

1995 Industry Canada, a department of the Canadian national government, initiated a 3 year program cailed the "Comrnunity Access Prograrn" (CAP) intended to provide gant funding for the start-up of 1ûûû new public Internet access sites in communities across the nation. Some of these new networks will go beyond their initiai scope to operate as community networks.

1995 The American "Ties That Bind: Converging Communities" conference is held May 2nd to 5'h in Cupertino, Califomia.

1995 Telecommunities Canada sponsors "Telecommunities 95: Equity on the Internet", held in Victoria, British Columbia.

1996 The American "Community Networking '96: Bringing People Together" conference was held May 14Ih to 17~in Taos, New Mexico. Bulletin Community Community Important Board Computer Networking Events & Servicesv Networksv Conferencesv Associationsv 1996 NPTN files bankruptcy in the USA. Failure was probably affected by a lack of consensus among Arnerican networks that NPTN could speak on their behalf to the national government. Also, the inexpensive prepackaged community network system sold by the organization presented technicai problems in some communities (Stallings 1996).

1996 The "Telecornrnunities Canada '96" conference was held August 16'hto 19" in Edmonton, Alberta,

1997 Canada's "Vancouver CommunityNet" wins a case in the Supreme court against Revenue Canada, establishing the rïght of CCNs to apply for and receive tax status as charitable organizations (Guy 1997). This victory greatly affects fundraising ability and is a major step in ensuring that the community network movernent in Canada is sustainable.

1997 Japan's national association, the Conununity Area Networks Forum (CAN), hotds its inaugural meeting on May 29'h.

1997 First major European conference on community computer networking, "ECN '97", is held in Milano, Italy. Participants agree to work towards formation of a European association.

1997 A national association for the United Kingdorn, UK Communities Online (UKCO), holds its inaugural meeting July 7'h and 81h.

1997 The "Telecommunities Canada 1997: Partnerships" conference is held August 15" to 1 8'h in Halifax, Nova Scotia.

1997 Industry Canada's Comrnunity Access Program is extended through to 2001. The communities receiving grant funding to establish a site for public Intemet access increases to 5000 nation-wide. (Announced at the British Columbia Comrnunity Access Program adjudicator's meeting, August 26, 1997).

1998 The Australian Cornmunity Networking Alliance (ACNA) held its founding meeting in May. Bulletin Community Community Important Board Computer Networking Events & Servicesv Networksv Conferencesv Associationsv 1998 Second major European conference, "ECN198", is held July gthto 1 lthin Barcelona, Spain. A major focus of this conference is recognition of the changing context for CCNs and the need to establish partnerships and information sharing with those active in Smart Community or Telecity initiatives. Agreement is reached on specific actions that will formdize an European Alliance for Community Networking (Graham 1998).

1998 Emergence of an international Working Group of comrnunity network practitioners. Representatives of the national and European associations decided to support ongoing international peer contacts with the establishment of a listserver hosted by Ken Young of Australia. 1998 In the United States, the Association for Community Networking (AFCN), holds its first annual general meeting in July.

1998 Two major Canadian CCNs, based in Montreal and Toronto, fail. The fact that Montreal was going to be the site for the 1998 conference sponsored by Telecommunities Canada was likely a factor in the failure to hold the conference that year. Appendix B CCN DEVELOPMENTAL PRACTICES

Stage One: Developing Local Intent 4 Use a grassroots organizing approach to ensure input into priorities and practices from voices in the community that are not normally heard. + Keep meeting records and supptementai information well-organized and available for review so that ideas are retained and enthusiasm is sustained over time. + Assess the needs and the resources of the community in order to decide if a CCN would be useful and would be practicai. 4 Base initial organization goals upon community assessments to avoid redundancy or over extension.

Stage Two: Developing Organizational Structure Take on a recognized organizationai structure to ensure that the group is taken seriously by government and business interests and adapt the structure to ensure ongoing grassroots input. Break down organizational needs into logical divisions and provide volunteer groups with intemal support so that they can effectively work to gather specific types of resources to address those needs. Develop a working structure to ensure a clear understanding of how different groups contribute to the functioning of the organization. Develop organization-defining documents to conserve important concepts and practices over time and to assist in resource gathering. Register a legal structure to protect volunteers and staff and to assist in gathering resources. Apply for charitable organization tax status to improve resource gathering potential.

Stage Three: Developing Resource Gathering Capacity Treat organizational reputation as a key resource providing access to al1 other needs of the CCN. Anticipate potential antagonism towards the CCN initiative and work to address and reduce it. Implement practices and educational materials that encourage individuals to move towards providing deeper levels of support to the CCN over time. Disperse clear information that acts to de-mystify both computer networking technology and grassroots approaches to unmet social needs. Disperse clear information on ways in which a CCN can support retention of community heritage, vitaiity, and diversity. Work to develop mutually beneficiai organizational alliances, using alliance agreements to conserve relationship pararneters- Ensure that community residents know that the CCN needs their abilities and ideas and make it easy and pleasant for them to contribute. Take an open-minded approach to fundraising, in terms of both definitions of what is a valuable donation and strategies for obtaining donations. + Consider organizational goals and community needs before deciding on fees for CCN use. + Maintain a position of honesty and openness with the community and especially with volunteers. + Establish training prograrns for supporters, users, and volunteers before the CCN is made available to the public, emphasizing the special nature of CCNs and individual capacity to change local quality of life. Employ staff in roles crucial to maintaining overdl inflows of resources.

Stage Four: Developing Technical and Information Structures + Assess al1 equipment for long-terrn potential and suitability to CCN situations before incorporating it into the technical structure. + Establish clear priorities and policies for content going into the information structure. + Even when internet connection is not a choice for the CCN, explore potentiai disadvantages so that strategies can be implemented to control them.

Stage Five: Developing Responsiveness to the Community + Make the CCN available to the public slowly and quietly. + Plan to intervene if critical mas is tacking in public use of the CCN. + Establish several means for ongoing resident input into CCN management. Ensure board members and cornmittee leaders see CCN adaptation to changing community needs as a primary priority. Appendix C GEOGRAPHIC CONTEXTS OF SOURCES ON CCN PRACTICES

In the third, fourth, and fifth chapters of this thesis, practices recommended by experienced CCN managers are described. Although the very general nature of the final conclusions developed in this thesis make it allowable and even appropriate for practices drawn from widely different geographic contexts to be juxtaposed in discussion of CCN issues, it must be noted that the use of a CCN practice devetoped in a different geographic context is not always suitable or effective for a particular CCN. Organizers who are seeking information on best practices for their CCN must first benchmark their own organization, developing an understanding of its context and constraints so that there is a basis for comparing the situations of other CCNs. Benchmarking will provide the organization with crucial information on why a practice from another CCN organization must be adapted to the local situation and how adaptation can be achieved. The appropriateness of technoiogy, and technique, cannot be assessed without knowledge of both the local context and the context in which a practice was developed. This Appendix provides basic information on the sources of practice recommendations used in this thesis, referenced by the last narne of the authors. Where the auihor(s) used the experiences of more than one CCN organization to develop their recornmendations, the notation 'multiple sources' is used. No further information is given as there is no way to determine which practices arose from which sources in these cases. Where practice recommendations came from experience with an organization that does not qualify as a CCN under the definition used in the first chapter of this thesis, the notation 'non-CCN' is used. The first step in exploring the use of an apparently effective practice should be to learn more about the source context. In most cases, a search of the name of a CCN on the Worid Wide Web will lead to organizer contacts or further information about the geographic context of the network.

CCN in whicli tlie of the areu served ,y the CCN

devcluped Pairick & Bliick 1996 Nuiiorinl Cupiiiil Frec- Oiiûwri, Oiitiirio City and surroiinding area, urbnn wiih extensive 9 suburbs Pairick 1997 Nuiioiial Ciipiiiil Frcc- Ciiiiiidü O~iiiwn,Oiitiirio City iind surrounding arca, urban with cxteiisive Nct siibiirbs -- Raitano 1996 non-CCN Richardson & Scarlc 1995 Wcllingioii Coiiniy Guelph, Oninrio Siiinll rcgion, urbnn areas with suburbs and rural bands FrceSpuce Ragcrs 1996 non-CCN Schalkcn & Tons 1994 Digiial City Hollünd Aiiistcrdiiin Ciiy, urhaii urcu 1 Schniitz, Rogers, Phitlips & Sania Monica PEN U.S.A. Sriiiiü Monicü, Cnliforniu Ciiy, iirhan arcü with suburbs

niuliiple sources wiih City iind surrounding arca, urbun with cxtensivc Schuler IW6a Seaiile Coiiimunii y siiburbs Nctwork nriiiiarv Edmonton Frcciici City nnd surroiiiiding ma, urban core wiih surrouiiding suburhaii and rurnl areas Siallings 1996 muliiple sourccs Uiiçapher 199 1 Big Sky Tclegriipli U.S.A. Billiiigs, Moniuiia Siatc, priniiirily rural Vidic & Rogers 1995 muliiple sources Wrighi 1996 Runiai-Negcv lsrenl Rariiai-Negcv Region witti rural kibutz Wyllys 1995 Mciropoliiun Aiisiin U.S.A. Austin, Tcxas Ciiy, iirban arcii wiih suburbs Internc~ivr:Neiwork B IB LIOGRAPHY

Citations of electronicaily-sourced information use Universal Resource Locators (URLs) in this bibliography. The URLs given were ail accurate as of the time of access (noted in parentheses) but do tend to Iose vaiidity over time. If a document is unavailable through the URL pathway given for it, search for either the author or the publisher on-line and request a copy or an updated iink.

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Bakcr. Paul M.A. 1996. "Cornmunity Networks and Regional Development: The Potomac KnowlcdgeWay - An Inua-Regional Partnership." Paper prcsented to the Communiry Nctworking '96: Bringing People Together conference May 14-17 in Taos, New Mexico. URL: http://www.laplaza.~r~cn/l~~aybaker.html

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