Tracing the Path of Living Stones Local Christianity and the National Cause Issah Kassissieh

The question is the crux of the Middle East conflict, and a myriad of perspectives within that question have been duly explored. But the role of local Christianity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries has yet to have its day in the publishing houses. This paper is an introductory attempt to briefly shed light - not on those stones that bore witness to the coming of Jesus Christ - but on the living stones: caught in the crucible of an instable environment within the broader context of Arab nationalism.

Christian Influence in Nationalist Trends The Christian church was, in its earliest days, one undivided church. The process of fragmentation commenced well before the first Muslim entry into ; in 638 AD,

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October19.p65 59 09/08/24, 10:32 Õ a number of communities split from the central church. There was, however, still only one Jerusalem patriarch and it was he who negotiated with the Muslim conquerors on behalf of the Christian residents in the area. In subsequent periods, however, Christian history in Jerusalem is primarily a history of fluctuating status, rights, ownership and positioning between the Holy Land's various Christian communities. Somewhere near the start of the sixteenth century onwards, the Orthodox Church became generally more influential than the Latin Church, despite brief periods of reversion. The decades of Ottoman control saw the injection of international politics into the sectarian controversies surrounding Jerusalem and the holy sites. Thus, various countries (for example, France, Russia, England) claimed the right to protect subjects The Bible verse Luke 2:14, written in calligra- that shared their like beliefs. phy in the shape of a cross. For administrative purposes, the non-Muslim subjects of the were revival of Arab heritage. Christians played an organized into autonomous religious acknowledged role in this process. Hisham communities known as "millets". Their Sharabi writes that, "Christian intellectual leaders were chosen by the people of the movements…[were] the product of a social "millet", but that choice was subject to the and psychological process specific to the Ottoman Sultan's approval. The "millet" was experience of some Christian social classes in autonomous in spiritual matters and in certain Syria (including Lebanon and Palestine)." administrative and judicial affairs. To a large extent, this transformation resulted Consequently, this millet system aided from changes in Christian education in the foreign interventions that arrived as a result nineteenth century, and from a goal of social of Western expansion, the spreading of change forwarded by many Christians at that imperialism and the exploitation of local time. Those who expressed this best were resources and markets. The presence of the those most affected, i.e. the Christian various Christian groups and their sectoral "intellectuals". For example, we find in Najib axis motivated foreign interventions under Azouri's 1905 book published in French, Le the motto and guise of protecting Christianity. Réveil de la Nation Arabe (The Awakening of Through this interaction, Arab societies' the Arab Nation), an articulation of the contact with the West revived their existence of a single Arab nation that: liberationist heritage and the goal of building [E]qually includes Christians and a nationalism on the foundations of shared Muslims, and where the religious destiny and civilization, accomplishments in problems that crop up between the social and economic justice, achievements in followers of different religions are modern science and its application, and a really political problems artificially

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October19.p65 60 09/08/24, 10:32 Õ aroused by external powers for their number of as compared with own interests, and therefore it is the overall population, even excluding Jewish necessary that a purely Arab Christian immigrants, continued to shrink as a result of church be founded - that is, that an a lower birth rate and ongoing emigration. Arab Catholic church replace the many More Christians than Muslims sought to sects that currently practice worship in migrate in search of economic opportunities. Arabic. This spate of Christian emigration began in It might be said then, that from its outset the late nineteenth and early twentieth Arab nationalist awareness was indebted to centuries, and specifically affected the the efforts of Christian thinkers who urged for Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Ramallah regions the nationalization of Islamic history and of Palestine. The position of the Christian considered social unity the basis for the communities was fairly closely defined by concept of the Arab homeland. One of the the British Mandate and the 1922 Order in most prominent Arab nationalists was the Council. But within this framework, there famous writer, Sati al-Husari, who made a was still no legal provision to continue the deep impression on contemporary Arab network of privileges and immunities that thought in the decades following World War had been placed on various communities I. Al-Husari argued that, from a historical under Ottoman rule. The rights and privileges point of view, the growth of the Arab nation connected to the Holy Places, as defined in was closely linked to the development of Ottoman statutes, were laid down in the Islam and its civilization; however, he did not Status Quo of 1757 and confirmed again in think that the Arabs were at heart an Islamic 1852. Still, in the view of various Christian nation. "They remain Arabs even if they do communities, control of Palestine by the not remain Muslims," he wrote. British was better than Turkish control. In the era beginning with the last throes of the Given the official British commitment to Crimean War and the start of , facilitating the establishment of a Jewish there was a broad expansion of Christian national home in Palestine through the interests in Palestine. By 1880, over a , the Arabs of Palestine hundred schools scattered throughout the (Christians and Muslims) raised opposition to country were being run by various societies the Zionist project, thus creating widespread linked to foreign churches and countries. antagonism among Palestinian Arab Thus, missionaries flourished. Christians, who considered themselves part and parcel of the Arab nationalist movement, with its broader and overlapping claims. As In the Mandate Period such, one notable feature of the years of Before the Islamic conquest of Palestine, 1917-1920 was the organization of Muslim- Christians were the overwhelming majority Christian Societies in the leading towns of of the population, and of them, the majority Palestine, with the purpose of placing belonged to the Greek Orthodox Church in pressure on the Peace Conference and the Palestine until the later part of the nineteenth British government to abrogate the Balfour century. By the beginning of the British Declaration. The Muslim-Christian Societies, Mandate period, the Christian population in like the Arab nationalists, also demanded the Palestine was only 9.6 percent of the total inclusion of a united Syria. These activities population. In the 1931 census, it was emphasized a growing nationalism over reduced even further to 8.8 percent. The religious ties.

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October19.p65 61 09/08/24, 10:32 Õ Christian women sell olive oil in an etching by Chapuis made from a photograph. Source: Ard il-dhakarayat.

As the inhabitants of Palestine recognized appointment of two Christian vice-presidents Zionist designs on their country, Christian - Ya'qub Farraj (a Greek Orthodox from Arab involvement in the national struggle Jerusalem) and Tawfiq Abdallah (of Acre) - spanned active resistance, the formation of alongside the Muslim president of the Arab parties and political organizations and the Executive Council, Musa Kazim al-Husayni, responsibilities of leadership, the production demonstrates the leading role Arab Christians of written manuscripts, contributions to played during the years of the British education and national guidance, Mandate. campaigning for the cause of Palestine and Some authors have referred to an financing the national movement. At the apprehension on the part of local Christians Third Palestinian Congress in December concerning and the accompanying 1920, the Muslim-Christian Association threat of Jewish intellectual and economic (MCA) became the main organizational competition. Local Christians were, for the framework for the Palestinian Arab national most part, urban traders, craftsmen, movement. shopkeepers and public officials. They feared The MCA intended from the start to establish that the new Jewish immigrants would itself as a body representing the Palestinian deprive them of their social position. This Arab population, and to forge an instrument anxiety was bolstered by the hostility towards through which to implement a public stand on Zionism they observed from the local British the question of the country's future. The military administration, whose members

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October19.p65 62 09/08/24, 10:32 Õ encouraged the establishment of the MCA, Bethlehem, then a small town, had its own thus spurring on the anti-Zionist feelings of , Sawt el Sha'b (Voice of the the Christian leadership. Of course, leaders of People), published by Yousef el 'Araj and Issa the Muslim community rejoiced at this Bandak. Christian position. It was crucial that they be Educational institutions were a similar area of able to represent the anti-Zionist stand as one focus. In 1851, Bishop Gobat of the Anglican uniting the entire Arab population. They were Church established a school in his name that certainly aware that a stand taken by became known as the Bishop's School, while Palestinian Christians against Zionism would the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate established have an impact on Christian opinion in the Musalba School in 1855 that now has Britain and throughout the West. branches in Israel and the occupied territories. In 1879, the Catholic Order of St. Jean Baptiste de la Salle established their The Nascent State school in the heart of the Old City of To more fully understand the role of Arab Jerusalem, the College des Frères, which Christians of Palestine in this national expanded in Bethlehem and . Like other awakening, it is important to examine the educational institutions, the College was open institutions that Christians helped build. In to all students, Muslims, Jews and Christians the 1890s, Christians in Palestine were alike. This investment into education by the estimated at 13 percent of the entire Frères culminated in 1973 with the population of the country, but their presence establishment of Bethlehem University at the had a much broader effect on the nation's express desire of the Holy See. development. Birzeit University began with the pioneering Towards the mid-nineteenth century, various vision of the Nasser family, a Palestinian missions from European countries and Russia Anglican family from Birzeit village. In and the United States began showing a 1924, the late Moussa Nasser started the first growing interest in the Holy Land and in its school in his town; fifty years later Birzeit population. These missions resulted in the University is a leading institution of creation of what is referred to in modern Palestinian higher education. parlance as "infrastructure" of education, health and other community services. The Throughout Palestine, there are scores of effects of this "infrastructure" were first hospitals, clinics and specialized institutions manifested through the educational run by local Christian and achievements of the Christian population, churches, which catered over the years to where Palestinian Christians found a leading thousands of Palestinian patients, particularly role in specific sectors. A survey of the those with special needs. Associations and printing presses of this period shows that literary societies established by Palestinian Palestinian Christians dominated the Christians served the sick, poor and disabled. business. As early as 1908, Georgie Habib One such association was the Young Men's Hanania founded al-Quds newspaper in Christian Association (YMCA), which began Jerusalem and Bandali Elias Mushahwar in 1877 as a local branch of the London founded al-Insaf. Boulous Shehadeh YMCA. Around the same time, Greek published Mir'at at-Sharq in 1919 while Issa Orthodox youth set up their society and club. al-Issa and Youssef al-Issa published Women, too, were active in similar in 1911 in Jaffa and Wahbeh Tamari associations, particularly in the first two published Abu Shadouf in 1912. Even decades of the twentieth century. These 63

October19.p65 63 09/08/24, 10:32 Õ associations, especially the Orthodox refugees were Christians. The refugee Societies, became a political tool for experience has informed that of Christians as mobilizing the public behind the Palestinian a whole as they experienced the pressures of leadership. occupation and dispersal. Remarkable, too, were the activities of the The Beit Sahour Tax Revolt of 1989 is one Jami'at al-Adab al-Zahirah (The Society of example of Christian grassroots participation the Flourishing Arts), which specialized in in challenging the occupation. The village led promoting the Arabic language, its literature a civil disobedience campaign against Israeli and art. Established in 1898 by a group of authorities that was met with heavy Israeli Jerusalemites, its driving force was made up countermeasures. of young Christians: Daoud Sidawi, Farraj History has shown that local Christians Farrajallah, Eftim Mushabak, Shibli al-Jamal, tended to express their anger and frustration Nakhleh Tarazi, Khalil Sakakini and Jamil through peaceful means such as unarmed Khalidi. Many visitors to Palestine from demonstrations. At the time of the siege of neighbouring countries, poets and literary the Nativity Church, church leaders and their figures in particular, commented on the congregations organized a variety of activities of the society. demonstrations and prayer services, and held masses to call for a peaceful end to the siege of one of Christianity's holiest shrines. New Worries, Ongoing Commitment Given their early role in building Palestinian While Palestinian Christians are certainly infrastructure, Palestinian Christians continue among those imprisoned and martyred in the to contribute far more to the national current Intifada, perhaps the most marked community than their numbers initially impact of the occupation on the community suggest. This role is tied to a relatively high has been continued emigration. The numbers level of education, and to a tendency towards are dramatic: while at the turn of the liberal professions and white-collar nineteenth century Palestinian Christians occupations. made up 13 percent of the total population, today, according to church circles, their Worldwide, Palestinian Christians currently numbers have dwindled to less than 1.6 number 400,000 or 6.7 percent of the total percent. Political and economic instability are Palestinian population of six million. Fifty- major considerations as Christians decide to one thousand of these 400,000 Palestinian emigrate from the Holy Land. In one Christians live in the and Gaza example, as a result of the current Intifada, Strip, while another 114,000 Palestinian more that 2,400 Christians from the Christians live in Israel. This indigenous Bethlehem area (including Beit Sahour and Christian population numbers 165,000 or Beit Jala) have emigrated abroad. 41.3 percent of all Palestinian Christians worldwide. But of the entire population of the The rise of Islamic fundamentalism is also a West Bank and Gaza Strip, Christians today consideration as the community weighs the make up only 2.9 percent. In the records of prospects of coexistence, but it is not a the churches, that number is constantly sufficient enough worry to merit leaving the declining. country. Trends within political Islam place local Christians in the same category as the In 1948, with the creation of the State of "West", thus accusing them of being the Israel, over 714,0000 Palestinians became comprador or protégé of western powers. refugees. Seven percent or 50,000 of these This has resulted in the relative alienation of 64

October19.p65 64 09/08/24, 10:32 Õ Christians as they look for an exit. Sahour, Beit Jala, Zababdeh, Birzeit, Rafidya and others. In this context, a new generation of Christians is seeking to activate their role in certain The challenge of state-building in a aspects of Palestinian life by founding The transparent and professional manner and Laity Committee in the Holy Land. The main within the guidelines of democratic norms, goal of this committee is to reaffirm and thereby putting an end to the Israeli protect local Christian heritage and roots, in occupation and living peacefully with the addition to clarifying their positions in State of Israel is the primary goal of the support of the local church. As one of the Palestinian people today. For Palestinian members put it to me, "We intend to raise our Christians - represented in their churches, voice and make the point that it is no longer organizations and individuals - the birth of acceptable that the imams in the mosques the Palestinian state is a key element to marginalize or ignore the other half of the stopping the emigration of these "living equation." stones," and opening the door to encourage the Diaspora to return to shape a regional Christians insist on living in Palestine, not on future that is prosperous and tranquil and the basis of tolerance or protection by the ever-distant from exclusive and radical Muslim majority, but on the basis of equal trends. rights between people. As Palestinian reforms continue, including the drafting of a new constitution for the Palestinian state, Sources Palestinian Christians, while admitting In Arabic themselves a minority, continue to advocate for a secular, pluralist Palestinian society. Al-Kubaisi, Basil. On the History, Growth, and Development of the Arab Nationalists Movement They demand, as a matter of principle, that (Jerusalem). the constitution consider all citizens equal Antonious, George. The Arab Awakening before the law, with no discrimination on the (New York:1965). basis of religion, race, or colour. Their Sharabi, Hisham. The Arab Intellectuals and the West: position is supported by key Christian The Renaissance Age 1875-1914 (Beirut: 1978). representation in the Palestinian Authority, Zureik, Constantine. The Meaning of the Catastrophe and in non-governmental institutions. (Beirut: 1956). As of this writing (prior to the cabinet Hourani, Albert. Arab Thought in the Renaissance Age selections of Ahmad Qurei) there are two 1798-1939, Third edition (Beirut: 1977). Christian cabinet ministers, as well as Al-Husari, Sati'. The Growth of the Nationalist Idea Christian representation on the Palestine (Cairo: 1959). Liberation Organization Executive Al-Husari, Sati'. Selected Research on Arab National- Committee. Among the 86 Legislative ism (Cairo: 1964). Council members, six are Christian. Two Al-Arif, Arif. The Detailed History of Jerusalem (Jerusalem: 1961). major Palestinian factions are headed by Christians, namely, Popular Front for the Touma, Emil. The Roots of the Palestinian Question (Jerusalem: 1976). Liberation of Palestine head George Habash (now retired) and Democratic Front for the Zu'aiter, Akram. The Palestinian Question (Egypt: 1955). Liberation of Palestine head Nayef Hawatmeh. Moreover, the mayors of both In English Bethlehem and Ramallah are Christians, as Aburish, Said. The Forgotten Faithful: The Christians are the mayors of smaller villages like Beit of the Holy Land (London: Quarter Books, 1993).

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October19.p65 65 09/08/24, 10:32 Õ Habib, Gabriel. "Churches in the Middle East - Khalidi, Walid. From Haven to Conquest (Beirut: A Continuing Witness, MECC Perspectives (October Institute for Palestine Studies, 1971). 1986) 4-6. Porath, Yeshouhua. The Emergence of the Palestinian Sebella, Bernard. "Meaning of Emigration in Christian- Arab National Movement 1929 -1939: From Riot to ity," In the Arab Christian and Muslim Traditions in the Rebellion (London: Frank Cass and Co., Ltd, 1977). th Holy Land, 8 Conference (Jerusalem, The Center for Tsimmhoni, Daphne, Christian Communities in Religious Studies in the Holy Land, 1990). Jerusalem and the West Bank Since 1948 (Jerusalem: Schwarts, William E. "Towards Understanding The Harry Truman Research Institute - Hebrew Churches in the Middle East: A Western Evangelical University, 1993). Perspective," MECC Perspectives (1986) 43 - 45. Colbi, S.P. A History of the Christian Presence in the Holy Land (New York, Lanham, 1988).

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October19.p65 66 09/08/24, 10:32 Õ