Singing African-American Spirituals: a Reflection on Racial Barriers In
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451_486_JOS May_June05 Features 3/27/05 5:59 PM Page 451 Lourin Plant Singing African-American Spirituals: A Reflection on Racial Barriers in Classical Vocal Music tive communication across historic complex racial legacy, African- racial dividing lines. American spirituals provide positive Although the world enjoys African- means to that end. The path to under- American solo spirituals everywhere, standing our nation’s racial legacy American singers in the last half cen- passes through our shared joys, pains, tury have found fewer occasions to and sorrows, not by painfully forget- sing or record them. This may be due ting or fearfully ignoring them. in part to the troubled racial history Learning to love, teach, and especially of the American performing stage, to sing solo spirituals brings us closer especially in the shadow of blackface to humbly reconciling the truth of minstrelsy, and in the larger realm of what we are, together. a nation struggling mightily with its racial legacy. With race and spiritu- PART ONE— als in mind, I explore the subject for A CALL TO REFLECTION Lourin Plant solo singers in two parts. Part One explores a combination of elements: “. the problem of the Twentieth Century INTRODUCTION the barrier of race in solo spirituals; is the problem of the color-line.”1 (W. E. white discomfort with Negro dialect B. DuBois) America witnessed the passing of and the conjuring ghosts of blackface More than one hundred years after three leading late twentieth century minstrelsy; possible rebuke by some DuBois raised the veil on his prophetic exponents of the African-American African-Americans who believe The Souls of Black Folk (1903), his spiritual within seven months of each America’s largely unaddressed racial thoughtful statement remains a sen- other: William Warfield, solo artist/ history creates an atmosphere of dis- tinel of American racial history and educator; Eileen Southern, Harvard trust of whites who sing these sacred again calls the nation to reflection. A University African-American musi- songs; or rebuke because it reminds call to reflection on race at the start cologist; Moses Hogan, pianist, con- them of a dark time best forgotten. of the twenty-first century is easier ductor, and arranger. Their deaths Part One invites reflection on reasons said than done. America’s history and coincided with the centenary anniver- why everyone should sing solo spiri- racial legacy are strangely intercon- sary of the publication of the The Souls tuals, although white Americans nected; together they frequently over- of Black Folk, by W. E. B. DuBois, the largely do not. Singing spirituals is whelm our best efforts to transcend great lover of spirituals, who wrote centrally important to our education their resulting difficulties. Such enor- our nation’s defining treatise on the and racial transcendence as a nation. mity stymies our collective abilities meaning of being black in America. Building on the affirmative premise to know how or where to begin—how Like DuBois, these three dedicated that solo African-American spiritu- to approach race issues that histori- much of their lives to the study and als are suitable literature for all on cally bind us together and, at the same celebration of the African-American the concert stage, I suggest that singing time, polarize us. Our struggle just to spiritual and its important role in the African-American spirituals could understand is immensely frustrating, life of our nation. Each knew that the bring blacks and whites intimately which complicates earnest attempts to spiritual provides a means for effec- closer together. Part Two identifies start and maintain an effective dia- important resources that can help logue on racial affairs. Journal of Singing, May/June 2005 make African-American spirituals an The esoteric world of musical arts Volume 61, No. 5, pp. 451–468 Copyright 2005 active part of our singing lives. As a contains considerable racial barriers. National Association of Teachers of Singing nation still coming to grips with its It also provides opportunities to MAY/JUNE 2005 451 451_486_JOS May_June05 Features 3/27/05 5:59 PM Page 452 Singing African-American Spirituals address some of America’s persistent Gershwin’s opera, Porgy and Bess, America’s preeminent bass baritone, and inescapable abiding racial con- there is no controlling directive from Samuel Ramey, who also has a lovely cerns. Such opportunities can touch any composer’s estate suggesting that collection of American music by Bar- our lives in profound ways. The mys- solo spirituals are only for blacks to ber, Copland, Foster, and Gershwin. tery of our shared racial legacy is a sing on stage; nevertheless, it seems A summary search of his seventy-two conundrum that is not easily unrav- that way. The legacy of race may for- titles revealed not a single spiritual. eled, yet remains such an opportu- ever interfere with the possibility for American music is beautifully repre- nity. The resilient power of music all Americans to sing this important sented in the recordings of Dawn provides for us a path to meaning, solo literature—unless concerned Upshaw—Ives, Copland, Glass, Reich, understanding, and healing—possi- musicians and other like-minded indi- Harbison, and Bernstein—yet in her bly the first appropriate steps to trans- viduals attempt to address it. fifty-five recordings, I found no spir- formation and definitive change in In my nearly half-century in music, ituals. With concern, I searched other our racial culture. I have heard hundreds of solo vocal artists’ collections and found many A primary example of how the recitals of almost every type. Except examples of the same. I wondered legacy of race erects barriers to shared for some of my own students, I hardly why? artistic expression lies within the ever have heard a white student or world of solo vocal classical music. professional solo vocalist sing a solo CENTRAL QUESTIONS ON RACE The current disposition of the solo African-American spiritual on the AND AFRICAN-AMERICAN African-American spiritual clearly recital stage. To be sure, I am aware SPIRITUALS illustrates both aspects of the perspec- of the Lawrence Tibbett perform- Is there a subtle racial dynamic in tive: our frozen inability to expres- ances, Robert Merrill performances, our classical performance tradition? sively communicate and our abiding spirituals sung by Marilyn Horne, Is a silent cultural movement taking need for understanding. Eileen Farrell (a moving “Deep place? Much of the evidence is scat- As an outgrowth of African enslave- River”), Nelson Eddy, and others from tered before us, yet because racial ment in America and Protestant Chris- earlier generations and during the issues are at the core, few are openly tianity, African-American spirituals civil rights activities of the 60s. There talking cross culturally about it. Do are a unique genre unlike any other is even the very hopeful modern anec- spirituals conjure up only the nega- developed on the African continent dote of Renée Fleming singing “This tive subject of slavery, to many the or anywhere else in the entire African Little Light of Mine” as an encore on third rail of American democracy? diaspora under slavery.2 African- a recent recital program. Beyond that, Do whites choose not to perform solo American spirituals represent one of however, is a considerable void. spirituals in recital out of discomfort our nation’s great cultural gifts to the I looked for spirituals in collections due in part to America’s negative world. Numbering more than 6000 of American vocal music recently racial legacy? Is a stigma attached to examples, they remain one of the recorded by America’s leading singers, performing with dialect? Do singers largest bodies of American folk song for example, the fabulous, enormously experience cultural feelings of inade- to reach the twenty-first century.3 accomplished and socially sensitive quacy, guilt, or shame when singing Spirituals open an important win- American baritone, Thomas Hamp- spirituals? In deference to African- dow of witness and understanding son. Barber, Copland, Ives, Adams, American artists, do white solo artists into America’s deeply emotional and and others appear prominently, but abandon this repertoire? Is there a perplexing racial past. Considering hardly any African-American spiri- perception that African-Americans the large number of spirituals and tuals are among his oeuvre. “Go tell it discourage whites from singing spir- their central role in American music on the Mountain” and “The Virgin ituals? Are spirituals outside the realm history, why are there so few modern Mary Had a Baby Boy” appear to be of or an affront to the dignity of our recordings of solo spirituals performed the only spirituals in the listing of his best white classical artists? Perhaps by white artists? Spirituals occupy an ninety-five titles on CDNow’s web whites sing solo spirituals, but those important place in the matrix of site, these on two separate Christmas performances seem far below the gen- American music, and yet since World CDs. He has a wonderful collection eral cultural radar of the recital stage. War II, it appears whites have cho- of Stephen Foster, but virtually no Is reluctance to perform solo spiritu- sen not to perform them. Unlike spirituals. I examined recordings of als attributed to the quality of the 452 JOURNAL OF SINGING 451_486_JOS May_June05 Features 3/27/05 6:00 PM Page 453 Lourin Plant music itself? Could that reluctance to save his white master.7 What was The opening part’s