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Great Plains Quarterly Great Plains Studies, Center for

Summer 2000

The Omaha Gospel Complex In Historical Perspective

Tom Jack College of Saint Mary

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Jack, Tom, "The Omaha Gospel Complex In Historical Perspective" (2000). Great Plains Quarterly. 2155. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/greatplainsquarterly/2155

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Great Plains Studies, Center for at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Great Plains Quarterly by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. THE OMAHA GOSPEL COMPLEX IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

TOM]ACK

In this article, I document the introduction the music's practitioners, an examination of and development of gospel music within the this genre at the local level will shed insight African-American Christian community of into the development and dissemination of Omaha, Nebraska. The 116 predominantly gospel music on the broader national scale. black congregations in Omaha represent Following an introduction to the gospel twenty-five percent of the churches in a city genre, the character of sacred music in where African-Americans comprise thirteen Omaha's African-American Christian insti­ percent of the overall population.l Within tutions prior to the appearance of gospel will these institutions the gospel music genre has be examined. Next, the city's male quartet been and continues to be a dynamic reflection practice will be considered. Factors that fa­ of African-American spiritual values and aes­ cilitated the adoption of gospel by "main­ thetic sensibilities. By focusing the research stream" congregations during the 1930s and on perceptions and descriptions provided by 1940s will then be addressed. In conclusion, the role of Salem Baptist Church as a focal point and instigator of musical change from the 1950s to the present will be described . . The accepted definition of the word "gos_ pel," as found in the Oxford English Dictionary, reads, "'the glad tidings (of the Kingdom of God)' announced to the world by Jesus Christ. Tom Jack is an adjunct faculty member at the College Hence, the body of religious doctrine taught of Saint Mary, Omaha and Lincoln, where he teaches by Christ and His apostles; the Christian rev­ courses in ethnomusicology and the history of jazz and elation, religion or dispensation." This defini­ rock & roll. tion also describes the word as "short for gospel music [italics in the original]."2 Gospel music in the tradition of black Christianity, the sub­ [GPQ 20 (Summer 2000): 225-341 ject of the effort at hand, has twice been given

225 226 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 2000 articulate and insightful definition by Afri­ Several of Watts's texts were incorporated can-American scholar Pearl Williams-Jones, for use in the spirituals, improvised hymns born who wrote, "The term 'Afro-American gospel of oral tradition and the first form of African­ music' is used to refer to a particular body of American musical expression to achieve contemporary black religious music which is worldwide recognition.8 Beginning in 1871, the sum total of our past and present socio­ black colleges choirs such as the Jubilee Sing­ economic and cultural traditions. Afro-Ameri­ ers of Fisk University performed programs can gospel music is characterized by its use of showcasing "arranged spirituals," formalized texts of poetic imagery, poly-rhythms with for the concert stage, to enthusiastic audiences strong emphasis upon syncopation, melodies in the United States and Europe.9 Professional based upon the traditional 'blues scales' (which singing troupes modeled after the college or­ consists of the lowered thirds, fifths, and sev­ ganizations later journeyed as far abroad as enths) and European harmonies."3 She elabo­ Africa, Australia, and Asia. 10 rated on the cultural ethos a few years later, Concurrent with the appearance of the saying, "Black gospel music, a synthesis of West college choirs, the tradition of male quartet African and Afro-American music, dance, harmonizing was a fixture of many African­ poetry and drama, is a body of urban contem­ American communities by the 1870s. "Jubilee porary black religious music of rural folk ori­ quartets" were featured as subgroups within gins which is a celebration of the Christian many of the Fisk Jubilee-type troupes, and by experience of salvation and hope. It is at the 1890 had surpassed these larger ensembles in same time a declaration of black selfhood popularity. 11 Usually performing a cappella, the which is expressed through the very personal quartets gradually moved from a polished, medium of music."4 homophonic texture toward a less restrained Gospel music today is the latest stage in a style that reflected vocal and rhythmic inde­ musical continuum whose foundation was in pendence more characteristic of the folk place over one hundred years ago. The first church aesthetic. The rapid proliferation of African-American denomination was the Af­ these "gospel quartets" at the local level is rican Methodist Episcopal Church (A.M.E.), attested to by the formalized quartet competi­ officially chartered in Philadelphia in 1816.5 tions that occurred during the 1920s and Its bishop, Richard Allen (1760-1831), had 1930sY earlier compiled A Collection of Spiritual Songs It is at this point that the impact of indi­ and Hymns Selected from Various Authors by viduals becomes most apparent in the gospel Richard Allen, African Minister (1801), the first repertoire. Jon Michael Spencer states that hymnal designed specifically for use by Afri­ the first original hymn collection of the Tran­ can-Americans.6 The formal worship service sitional Period, or Pre-Gospel Era (1900-30), of early African-American Protestantism re­ was published by Charles Price Jones in 1899.13 lied on, for the most part, the same repertoire Philadelphia pastor Charles Albert Tindley used in the white Protestant church. The works (1851-1933) has long been credited as fore­ of the English composer, Isaac Watts (1674- most of the early composers in the gospel tra­ 1748), for example, were particularly well re­ dition. 14 While Tindley compositions such as ceived, and to this day this body of hymns is "Stand By Me" and "The Storm is Passing simply referred to in the vernacular of the black Over" are standards in the contemporary gos­ church as the "Dr. Watts." The performance pel repertoire, the minister's most significant style was one of "lining-out," also called "surge­ contribution may be the inspiration be pro­ singing" or "long-meter," wherein a line of vided as a musical model for the man gener­ text is recited or sung by a leader and then ally considered to be "the father of gospel sung in response by the congregation.7 music," Thomas DorseyY THE OMAHA GOSPEL COMPLEX 227

Thomas Andrew Dorsey (1899-1993) was George Robinson Ricks has observed, "While born in the small rural community of Villa the use of instruments was forbidden in the Rica, Georgia. As a youth, Dorsey had consid­ orthodox Negro church, their introduction by erable exposure to sacred music. His father Holiness groups gave the music a 'different was an itinerant Baptist preacher and his sound than just handclapping."'21 The com­ mother a church organist. In spite of this reli­ monplace piano and organ might be joined by gious background, Dorsey attained initial no­ drums, guitar, saxophone, harmonica, or any toriety in the decidedly secular blues market number of instruments, the whole augmented of Chicago, accompanying and writing songs by the ubiquitous tambourines of the congre­ for such well-known performers as Gertrude gation.22 "Ma" Rainey and Tampa Red (Hudson Considering the diversified instrumenta­ Whittaker). By 1929 Dorsey had abandoned tion, the shadings of jazz and blues that per­ popular music to focus exclusively on sacred meated Pentecostal music is not surprising. compositions, imbued with musical sensibili­ Sanctified accompaniment was typified by the ties of blues and jazz, which he called gospel "stomping" approach of blind pianist Juanita songs. 16 Dorsey founded the Dorsey House of Arizona Dranes of Texas, whose sty Ie drew on Music in 1932 and became the first indepen­ barrelhouse and other secular traditions. 23 dent publisher of black gospel. That same year, Popular music elements were in fact so pro­ along with Magnolia Lewis Butts (ca. 1885- nounced that some saw Holiness music as "es­ 1949) and fellow Georgia native Sallie Mar­ sentially the sacred counterpart of the blues, tin (1896-1988), he established the National frequently the sacred text being the only dis­ Convention of Gospel Choirs and Choruses tinguishing element."24 Examining musical in Chicago, chartered in 1939 and the first change in black religious practice, John Wesley nationwide organization devoted to the Work singled out the Holiness church as the genre. 17 Aided greatly by the promotional ef­ place where "music is exploited to a degree forts of Martin, Dorsey's songs were introduced that probably is not attained in any other de­ not only into black churches from coast to nomination."25 Eventually, the aesthetic pref­ coast but "by 1939, four of Dorsey's composi­ erences of Sanctified musical expression tions were included in a songbook, printed in "moved beyond the boundaries of the Holi­ shape-notes, that was widely distribute in white ness-Pentecostal churches into many main­ [italics mine] evangelical congregations."IB line Black churches, ranging from Baptist to Beginning in the forties, "Dorsey" became a Catholic parishes. 26 generic term for any song in the gospel reper­ The First Territorial Census of Nebraska, toire. 19 taken in 1854, noted thirteen African-Ameri­ In addition to the quartet tradition and the cans among a total population of more than composition of new songs, a third element criti­ twenty-seven hundredY By 1860 the black cal to the development of gospel was the mu­ population in the new state had grown to sical practice found among the disparate eighty-two with roughly one-fourth residing congregations frequently grouped under the in Douglas County, the location of Omaha.2B rubric of Holiness or Sanctified churches.20 During the fall of 1865, a congregation of five Historically, the centrality of music within the members led by Reverend John M. Wilkerson Holiness service stands in sharp contrast to organized the state's first black church, St. mainstream Baptist and Methodist practices. John African Methodist Episcopa1. 29 Over the Pursuant to Pentecostal interpretation of following decades, immigration fueled by job Psalm 150, Holiness churches routinely in­ availability in the railroad and meat-packing corporated musical instruments in the lifting industries drove Nebraska's African-Ameri­ of praise, a practice too "worldly and secular" can population to more than ten thousand in for more institutionalized denominations. As 1920.30 By 1923, the year the foundation of 228 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 2000

the present St. John A.M.E. was laid, the when Pinkston found him improvising at a church that had begun with five people num­ lesson in the 1950s, "She everything but beat bered over twelve hundred members.3! me up .... She says, 'You're playing by ear and At the end of the 1930s, Omaha was home 1'm not gonna have it! "'39 Although for a short to at least forty-three African-American time Pinkston directed the choir at Pilgrim churches, most of which supported one choir Baptist, the bulk of her activities was concen­ that relied on a staple of hymns, anthems, and trated in the secular sphere. Her greatest im­ spirituals.32 Spirituals, in particular, were per­ pact came about through the numerous former ceived as both a standard of musical excel­ pupils who continue to influence music min­ lence and a source of ethnic pride. A review of istry throughout the city. a 1940 concert at Zion Baptist judged spiritu­ Not surprisely, the churches most noted for als "the songs most highly anticipated by the their music in the 1930s and 1940s were the large and enthusiastic audience."33 The an­ largest and longest established congregations. nouncement of an upcoming May Day festival Among the Baptists, the choirs of Zion, Pil­ that same year requested of the eleven partici­ grim, and Mount Moriah all had enviable repu­ pating churches: "In order that special em­ tations. However, no other music program of phasis may be place on Negro music all choir the time could match the notoriety of St. John directors are being urged to consider the use of A.M.E. The core of St. John's music program Negro Spirituals for their individual choir pre­ consisted of a Senior Choir directed by Pearl sentations."34 Commentaries of the period sug­ Gibson, a Men's Chorus and a Junior Chorus. gest that performances of spirituals in Omaha, Since the three sometimes united to perform as. elsewhere, were appraised from a perspec­ as a mass choir, the church in effect, featured tive reflective of the Western classical aes­ four choirs.40 A unique aspect of music at St. thetic. In a prime example, Flora Pinkston's John was the instrumental accompaniment assessment of a local performance by the Fisk furnished by "the orchestral part of the choir," Jubilee Singers in 1940 observed, "[The pia­ consisting of a full string section, flute, clari­ nist] played with the most artistic melodic ex­ net, trumpet, and saxophone, plus the church's pression that only a great artist could produce pipe organY in tone. The singers sang with trueness of tone Pearl Gibson and the Senior Choir gained from forte to pianisimo. The obligato parts citywide renown for their performances of were sung with great control, which in itself anthems, cantatas, and even operettas. Each produced beauty of tone."35 of the up to eighty singers in the Senior Choir Flora Pinkston was a model music instruc­ was able to read music. The annual Christmas tor of the time, referred to by the Federal performance of Handel's Messiah filled the Writers' Project as "Nebraska's foremost Ne­ spacious church to overflowing, and the repu­ gro teacher of piano and voice."36 One accom­ tation of the choir's a cappella renditions panist who assisted her during the 1930s and equaled that of the orchestral worksY Ap­ 1940s states flatly, "Everybody knew Flora pearing on radio and described in newspaper Pinkston was the best."37 A graduate of the accounts as "peerless," Pearl Gibson and the New England Conservatory of Music, she stud­ Senior Choir set a standard for black congre­ ied privately in Paris before opening the gations throughout the city.43 Pinkston School of Music in Omaha in 1908. For many years, the single most important The Pinkston motto was "Help me and I will annual musical event among the African­ help you," which meant they should adhere to American community was the Goodwill Spring a strict diet of European art music.38 Pinkston Musical, an interdenominational extravaganza sternly discouraged the improvisation and held annually from 1934 until 1946.44 Founder lively accompaniment characteristic to gos­ L[uther] L. McVay, a Pullman porter and mem­ pel. One current minister of music recalls that ber of St. John A.M.E., saw as the purpose of THE OMAHA GOSPEL COMPLEX 229 the musicals "the bringing about of a closer Evlondo Cooper and including two of his relationship between the churches, the choirs, brothers, they started out performing secular and the encouragement of the use of musical songs as the Cudahy Quartet. The name is talents, the realization of which greatly adds reference to Cudahy Packing Company where to the value and dignity of the church."45 all of the members, as well as their musical The Spring Musical was usually staged in trainer, were employed. Following their con­ late April, drawing crowds of several thousand version to a gospel repertoire and a name to the City Auditorium. With up to fifteen change in the early 1930s, the Loving Four Baptist and Methodist churches participating, toured throughout the South and from Texas the mass choir boasted as many as 350 singers. to Illinois, developing a reputation for emo­ Programs were devoted entirely to hymns, tionally charged performances. Bass singer Paul anthems, and spirituals learned from sheet Briggs, a former member of the famous Wings music and memorized for the performance. In Over Jordan ensemble, recalls, "The famous addition to pieces performed by the massed Cooper brothers were something else. . . . voices, the individual choirs normally rendered When you'd run into them out there on the one selection each. The soloists, accompanists, road, everywhere a group was appearing, if they and directors for the mass choir were the most happened to be passing through that section well know and respected in the city. Despite of the country at that time and they didn't the Christian theme of the assembly and the know who the Cooper brothers were, or the liturgical nature of the music, the Spring Mu­ Loving Four, you believe one thing: that when sical was viewed by many who took part as they left there they knew who they were."50 more of a civic or social event than a religious The group eventually located their base of one. In light of the biracial attendance, it also operations in New Orleans, where Evlondo provided the black community a forum for the heeded a call to the ministry and founded the presentation of ethnic identity. Loving Four Baptist Tabernacle sometime be­ The path by which gospel music attained fore 1942.51 the form of a distinct genre owes a large debt The Loving Four being an exception, most to a preexisting, often secular quartet tradi­ Omaha quartets limited their venues to area tion in place by the 1870s.46 Newspaper ac­ churches and meeting halls where quartet pro­ counts of the 1930s attest to the vitality of the grams were held regularly on Sunday after­ quartet practice in Omaha. Popular Southern noons or evenings. Relations between clergy groups such as the Soul Stirrers from Texas and quartets were frequently contentious, and and the Kings of Harmony from Alabama made rarely would a group be asked to sing at Sun­ visits there, influencing the twenty-five or day morning worship. Consultants report that more groups active locally. As one consultant some ministers questioned the motivation and recalls, "churches needing money for expan­ moral character of quartets. Financial concerns sion programs would bring these various other may have been a further consideration, since quartets of renown up and they would put on services involving a full choir allowed greater their programs, and then our quartets would participation and thereby larger attendance. catch on."47 As public appetite for quartet singing led Most important of the Omaha quartets was to more elaborate presentations oflocal groups, the Loving Four of Mount Calvary Commu­ church service organizations such as women's nity Church, whom scholar Horace Boyer calls and ushers' guilds staged occasional quartet "one of the first gospel groups to use guitar contests or "battles" where eight or ten units accompaniment."48 Gospel researcher Lynn would vie for a prize. 52 If the function was held Abbott declares the Loving Four "one of the at a church to help raise funds, a conventional earliest full-time independent professional collection was generally taken during inter­ traveling gospel quartets. "49 Formed by mission. Most of the money went to the 230 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 2000 church, with a nominal amount given to the and gathered momentum throughout the participating singers. The largest events, called 1940s. Appearances by gospel groups from "quartet jamborees," featured over a dozen outside the city won converts to the idiom groups in a single program lasting about three and provided necessary performance models hours and were often held at the YMCA or for local church musicians. As accompanist CIO Union Hall. At these programs, a differ­ Eleanor Luckey relates, "When a congrega­ ent procedure was followed. Knowing that each tion would hear these singers, this is when group had their own following, the jamboree they wanted to change over to the new gospel. sponsors would schedule the most popular Because it was electrifying. It was ... spirit­ quartets toward the end of the program in or­ filled, and they enjoyed that feeling."56 Meth­ der to hold the crowd. Audience response was odist adoption of the gospel repertoire lagged used as an indicator to choose two finalists far behind that of their Baptist counterparts. from among the participants. Two collection Yet even among the Baptist community, the tables would then be set up and the audience degree and manner of gospel's integration was would file past, donating to the plate of which­ often idiomatic to the institution. Initially ever group they preferred. The one that solic­ hindered by the genre's status as an imported ited the larger donation was declared the commodity and further fragmented by denomi­ winner. 53 national barriers, the acceptance of gospel Throughout the 1950s, quartet promoter music into the established liturgy was a multi­ Rowena Moore sponsored a series of noncom­ faceted process that drew upon resources to petitive jamborees know as Musical Fiestas. which a number of congregations had access. As a packing-house employee and secretary of The seminal gospel songs of Thomas Dorsey the' union local, Moore received free use of and others of the 1930s were first demonstrated the CIO Union Hall and thereby benefitted at the National Baptist Convention and Na­ from the workplace affiliation characteristic tional Convention of Gospel Choirs and Cho­ common to the quartet tradition. According ruses held in Chicago. There, choir directors to Moore, the name "fiesta" was intended to from throughout the country could learn songs recognize and appeal to the growing number and purchase sheet music for use in their own of Mexican immigrant in the packing plant churches. But few Omaha directors were able labor force. The Musical Fiestas featured as to attend these events and area music stores many as sixteen quartets, including female did not stock the new gospel. This need was groups. 54 met at the grassroots level by Reverend Willis By the 1960s the quartet practice in Omaha E. Fort of Salem Baptist Church and Roscoe was a shadow of what it had been a decade Knight of Zion Bapt1ct, each of whom sold earlier. Consultants blame the changing tastes gospel sheet music out of his home. Their ser­ of youth, whose preference shifted to secular vice made the music available locally and kept music and entertainers, and the rise of large the black church community apprised of trends gospel choirs for the quartets' decline in popu­ in Chicago and elsewhere. More importantly, larity.55 At present, the last remaining ves­ by selling to "whosoever will," as one consult­ tiges of quartet singing in Omaha are found in ant put it, they facilitated the spread of gospel the city's "male choruses." Most notable of to other Baptist congregations and, notably, these is the Hub of Harmony II of Sharon across denominational borders. Seventh-Day Adventist Church, an ensemble In the winter of 1938-39, an alliance of that draws primarily on the traditional quar­ four Methodist ministers conceived a commu­ tet repertoire and emulates the a cappella style nity wide worship service that would endure of performance. until the late 1950s. The Union SerVices, as The presentation of gospel music by full they were known, were held on Sunday eve­ choirs took root in Omaha during the 1930s nings from January to April. With attendance THE OMAHA GOSPEL COMPLEX 231 ranging from seven hundred to one thousand, largest of Omaha's black religious institu­ the location rotated among the largest tions. 59 The remarks of his daughter, Doretha churches in the city. Under the format em­ Wade-Wilkerson, shed some light on this stun­ ployed, the responsibility for each Union Ser­ ning growth. As she explains, "It's kind oflike vice was assumed by a church other than the two things that are important in the Black week's host institution, regardless of either's church. That's music and the Word .... First governing affiliation. In other words, a Union of all, is the preacher capable of giving me Service held at church A must be conducted what the Word says, and then, is the choir by the minister and choir of church B, or capable of giving me what I need to be up­ church C, etc. In an article with the subhead­ lifted? So those two things go hand in hand."60 ing "Denominational Bars Fall as Christendom Comments obtained in interviews confirm that Move Forward," the Omaha Star assessed the the content, style, and sheer power of Rever­ impact of this formula, saying, "The Union end Wade's oratory certainly held a strong Services ... have proved so popular that de­ appeal for many . Yet, Wade himself recog­ nominational bars have faded and we now find nized "They come for two reasons. Either ... a harmonious setting of Methodist, Baptist, they like his preaching, or they like the choir's and Presbyterian worshiping under one roof."57 singing."61 Contributors to this research confirm that in The success of Reverend Wade's evange­ addition to communal fellowship, the Union lism was abetted by this cognizance of music's Services were valued as an opportunity to ex­ high premium, in particular its potential for perience the worship music of other congrega­ attracting and holding youth to the church. A tions. In the context of the city's developing movement to capitalize on this awareness was gospel music complex, they represented a tem­ initiated almost immediately with the estab­ porary bridging of both intra- and, especially, lishment of a new teenaged Junior Choir prior interdenominational differences that opened to the close of World War II.62 Salem's next avenues for diffusion of the genre. ensemble, the Number 2 Choir composed of Salem Baptist Church was founded in 1922. young adults, was organized sometime during Before the mid-1940s, there was little to dis­ 1946 or 1947. Although an inspiring and per­ tinguish Salem from other churches of the ceptive minister, Reverend Wade was not him­ community. Attendance in no way rivaled that self a musician. His efforts to expand the music of St. John A.M.E. or the larger Baptist con­ program benefitted greatly in this respect from gregations at Zion, Mount Moriah, and Pil­ the vitality of Elma Wells, a musician at Sa­ grim. Never a regular participant in the Union lem since 1934 who chose a fresh and invigo­ Services, the Salem congregation maintained rating repertoire. Under her direction, the a schedule of three Sunday services with mu­ Number 2 Choir soon established itself as the sic furnished by the adult senior choir. A sec­ most contemporary choir in the city. ond ensemble, the children's Rosebud Chorus, In 1951 Reverend Wade founded what was added around 1938.58 The church was led would become Salem's premiere ensemble, the by a series of clergy with the aforementioned In~pirational Choir. His gifted daughter, music vendor Reverend Fort sometimes serv­ Doretha, assumed leadership of the group in ing as interim pastor. 1959 at the age of eighteen. The father-daugh­ Reverend J. C. Wade came to Salem in ter ties between cleric and choir director in­ 1944, having served the previous nine years sured a uniquely close communication that pastoring in Memphis, Tennessee. His first freed Reverend Wade from the distraction of sermon was delivered to a congregation of extraneous responsibility with the choirs. Elma eighty-eight people. At the time of his retire­ Wells recalls, "With the pastor approving of ment in 1988, the church boasted more than it, and her being interested in it, it just took thirty-two hundred members, making it the off like wildfire."63 232 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 2000

Seeking further musical complement to her sic of J ames Cleveland and other contempo­ father's ministry, about 1960 Doretha intro­ rary composers whose sheet music he pur­ duced complex choreography to the choir chased from Roscoe Knight. processionals that opened services. The choir Of Omaha's historically African-American began to tour to outlying communities in Methodist institutions, one of the last to in­ Nebraska. Through subsequent programs such corporate modern gospel was Clair Memorial as a 1967 concert appearance in predominantly United Methodist Church.6s As at Salem, white Crookson, Minnesota, the renown of where Reverend Wade had been a catalyst, the choir spread to regional proportions. The the "conversion" was motivated by a minister conventional instrumentation of piano and who came to Omaha from Memphis in 1971, Hammond organ expanded with the addition Reverend Charles Young. Revitalization of of a drummer about 1971, possibly the first use the music program became early on a priority of a trap set by an Omaha Baptist church. of his ministry. Under the direction of Rev­ Electric guitar, electric bass, and saxophone erend Young's wife, Marlene, a choir chris­ were all added over the next few years. A tened the Joyful Sounds debuted in 1972, vanity album was recorded in the Salem Bap­ complete with drums and a choreographed tist Church sanctuary in 1977.64 Further re­ processional. Remembering the initial re­ cording efforts of the Inspirational Choir sponse of many congregants charter member, benefitted from Reverend Wade's personal re­ Carolyn Solomon recalls, "They didn't like it. lationship with the late gospel superstar James I think that they were afraid of it.... It was Cleveland, with whom he had become ac­ like we were turning the church into a dance quainted in the 1970s. Cleveland was so im­ hall."69 In time, however, reservations about pressed by a performance in 1978 that he the Joyful Sounds' choreography and percus­ offered to record with them. The collabora­ sion were abandoned, and both the stylistic tion, "I Don't Feel No Ways Tired: James practices and expanded instrumentation be­ Cleveland Presents the Salem Inspirational came permanent fixtures of Clair services. Choir" (Savoy DBL 7024, 1978), was nomi­ Over the past two decades, performance of nated for a Grammy Award in 1979.65 gospel music in Omaha has extended beyond Stimulated by the example of Salem Bap­ the boundaries of church-specific organiza­ tist, the preference for contemporary gospel tions. Both Creighton University and the was evidenced in an increasingly greater num­ University of Nebraska at Omaha have spon­ ber of congregations throughout Omaha. sored gospel choirs, as have a few of the city's Speaking of the early 1960s, one prominent high schools. A half-dozen or so independent minister of music describes the Salem music ensembles appear regularly at special events program as "a focal point, as far as the direc­ such as church anniversary programs. At tion of music at that time .... Most people just present, the city's most conspicuous indepen­ decided they were either gonna get with it or dent exponent of gospel is the Omaha Mass die."66 Choir. Directed by Jay Terrell, the 150 mem­ "Getting with it" might have been espe­ bers of this ensemble represent at least twenty­ cially difficult for music programs such as that seven congregations, leaving no doubt that at St. John A.M.E., which under Pearl Gibson gospel music is alive, well, and widespread in had built a reputation on the strength of their Omaha.70 formal anthems.67 Perhaps it is only natural that after Gibson's passing in the late 1950s, it REFERENCES was a Baptist, Lester Corbin, who guided them 1. "Black Churches Celebrate Their Role," through the transition. Favoring a bolder type Omaha World-Herald, 16 February 1991,53-54. of gospel than that to which the church had 2. Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., s.v. been accustomed, Corbin introduced the mu- "gospel." THE OMAHA GOSPEL COMPLEX 233

3. Pearl Williams-Jones, "Afro-American Gos­ Music," The Black Perspective in Music 11, no. 2 pel Music: A Brief Historical and Analytical Sur­ (1983): 103-32 passim. vey (1930-1970)," in Development of Materials for a 15. Horace Clarence Boyer, "Tindley, Charles One-Year Course in African Music for the General Albert" in New Grove Dictionary of American Music Undergraduate Student, ed. Vada E. Butcher (Wash­ (note 9 above), 4: 395; J. Jefferson Cleveland, "A ington, D.C.: US Department of Health, Educa­ Historical Account of the Black Gospel Song," in tion, and Welfare, 1970), p. 202. Songs of Zion, ed. J. Jefferson Cleveland and Verolga 4. Pearl Williams-Jones, "Afro-American Gos­ Nix (Nashville: Abingdon, 1981), p. 172 [4 pp.]; pel Music: A Crystallization of the Black Aes­ Arna Bontemps, "Rock, Church, Rock," reprinted thetic," Ethnomusicology 19, no. 3 (1975): 376. in The Negro in Music and Art, ed. Lindsay Patterson 5. Eileen Southern, "Afro-American Music," (New York: Publishers Company, 1942), pp. 78- in New Grove Dictionary of American Music, ed. H. 8l. Wiley Hitchcock and Stanley Sadie (London: 16. Bernice Johnson Reagon, "Pioneering Afri­ Macmillan, 1986), vol. 1:14. can American Gospel Music Composers: A 6. Eileen Southern, The Music of Black Ameri­ Smithsonian Institution Research Project," in We'll cans: A History, 2d ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, Understand It Better By and By, ed. Bernice Johnson 1983), p. 75. Reagon (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institu­ 7. Paul Oliver, "Spirituals," in New Grove Gos­ tion, 1992), p. 15. pel, Blues and Jazz, by Paul Oliver, Max Harrison 17. Horace Clarence Boyer, "An Analysis of His and William Bolcom (New York: W. W. Norton, Contributions: Thomas A. Dorsey, 'Father of Gos­ 1986), p. 7; Paul Oliver, "Spiritual, §II, Black," in pel Music'," Black World 23, no. 9 (1974): 25-26. New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. 18. Anthony Heilbut, The Gospel Sound: Good Stanley Sadie (London: Macmillan, 1980), 18:4; News and Bad Times, rev. and updated (New York: William H. Tallmadge, "Dr. Watts and Mahalia Harper and Row, 1985), pp. 7-9; Heilbut, "The Jackson: The Development, Decline, and Survival Secularization of Black Gospel Music," in Folk of a Folk Style in America," Ethnomusicology 5, no. Music and Modern Sound, ed. William Ferris and 2 (1961): 95-99 passim. Mary L. Hart (Jackson, Miss.: University Press of 8. Dena J. Epstein, "Black Spirituals: Their Mississippi, 1982), p. 107. Emergence into Public Knowledge," Black Music 19. Boyer, "Analysis" (note 16 above), p. 28; Research Newsletter 8, no. 2 (1990): 5-8 passim; Richard Alan Waterman, "Gospel Hymns of a Southern, Music of Black Americans (note 6 above), Negro Church in Chicago," International Folk Mu­ p.227. sic Journal 3 (1953): 87-93; John Wesley Work, 9. Portia K. Maultsby, "Africanisms in African­ "Changing Patterns in Negro Folk Songs," Journal American Music," in Africanisms in African-Ameri­ of American Folklore 62, no. 244 (1949): 141-42. can Culture, ed. Joseph Holloway (Bloomington: 20. C. Eric Lincoln and Lawrence H. Mamiya, Indiana University Press, 1990), p. 186; Southern, The Black Church in the African American Experi­ ibid., p. 45l. ence (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1990), 10. John Lovell, Black Song: The Forge and the p. 77. Other denominations frequently considered Flame (1972: reprint, New York: Macmillan, 1986), Holiness churches include Pentecostal, Apostolic, pp. 402-22; Southern, "Afro-American Music," Spiritual, and Church of God in Christ. (note 5 above), pp. 13-2l. 21. George Robinson Ricks, Some Aspects of the 11. Doug Seroff, "On the Battlefield: Gospel Religious Music of the United States Negro (New York: Quartets in Jefferson County, Alabama," in Reper­ Arno Press, 1977), pp. 131-32. cussions: A Celebration of Afro-American Music, ed. 22. Oliver, Songsters and Saints: Vocal Traditions Geoffrey Haydon and Dennis Marks (London: on Race Records (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Uni­ Century Publishing, 1985), pp. 32-33. versity Press, 1984), pp. 173-197 passim; South­ 12. Ray Allen, "African-American Sacred Quar­ ern, Music (note 6 above), p. 448. tet Singing in New York City," New York Folklore 23. Oliver, ibid., pp. 176, 189. 14, nos. 3-4 (1988): 10; Horace Clarence Boyer, 24. Southern, (note 6 above), p. 449. "Tracking the Tradition: New Orleans Sacred 25. Work, "Changing" (note 18 above), p. 140. Music," Black Music ResearchJournal8, no. 1 (1988): 26. Portia K. Maultsby, "The Use and Perfor­ 138. mance of Hymnody, Spirituals and Gospels in the 13. Jon Michael Spencer, Protest and Praise: Sa­ Black Church," Western Journal of Black Studies 7, cred Music of Black Religion (Minneapolis: Fortress no. 3 (1983): 168. Press, 1990), p. 208. 27. Dorothy Devereux Dustin, Omaha and Dou­ 14. Horace Clarence Boyer, "Charles Albert glas County: A Panoramic History (Woodland Hills, Tindley: Progenitor of Black-American Gospel Calif.: Windsor Publications, 1980), p. 19. 234 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 2000

28. James D. Bish, "The Black Experience in graph, (New Orleans: Jean Lafitte National His­ Selected Nebraska Counties, 1854-1920" (thesis, torical Park, 1983), pp. 47-54. University of Nebraska at Omaha, 1989), p. 16. 50. Briggs interview (note 43 above). 29. "St. John AME Church 125th Anniversary," 51. Rev. J. C. Wade, interview with author, Omaha Star, 24 May 1990, 5. Omaha, Nebr., 1 August 1990; Historical Records 30. Lawrence H. Larsen and Barbara J. Cottrell, Survey, Directory of Churches and Religious Organi­ The Gate City: A History of Omaha (Boulder, Colo.: zations in New Orleans, prepared by Historical Pruett Publishing Company, 1982), p. 168. Records Survey, Division of Community Service 31. "Historical St. John AME Church," Omaha Programs, Works Progress Administration (Baton Star, 7 June 1990, 6. Rouge, La.: Louisiana State University, 1941), p. 32. Ida Madonna Rowland, "An Analysis of 28. Negro Ritualistic Ceremonies as Exemplified by 52. "The Freezers Club," Omaha Star, 5 August Negro Organizations in Omaha" (thesis, Munici­ 1939, 4. pal University of Omaha, 1938), p. 25. 53. Fred Knight, interview with author, Omaha, 33. "King Rich in Artisry" [sic], Omaha Star, 10 Nebr., 28 June 1991. May 1940, 5. 54. Rowena Moore, interview with author, 34. "Fourth Annual May Day Festival to Present Omaha, Nebr., 12 July 1991. Outstanding Youths in Music," Omaha Star, 26 55. Paul Briggs, interview with author, Omaha, April 1940, 1. Nebr., 24 July 1991; Dryver interview (note 41 35. "The Fisk Jubilee Singers," Omaha Star, 6 above). December 1940, 1. 56. Eleanor Luckey, interview with author, 36. Federal Writers' Project, Works Progress Ad­ Omaha, Nebr., 22 August 1990. ministration, The Negroes of Nebraska (Omaha: 57. "Union Services to Begin Again Sunday, Omaha Urban League Community Center), p. 43. January 4," Omaha Star, 2 January 1942, 1. 37. Bertha Young Meyers, interview with author, 58. Pauline Smith, interview with author, Omaha, Nebr., 6 August 1990. Omaha, Nebr., 11 July 1991; Pauline Smith, inter­ 38. "Assistant Teachers in Normal Department," view with author, Omaha, Nebr., 11 June 1990. Omaha Star, 4 October 1940, 1. 59. Wade interview (note 50 above). 39. Michael Dryver, interview with author, 60. Doretha Wade-Wilkerson, interview with Omaha, Nebr., 27 July 1990. author, Omaha, Nebr., 11 July 1991. 40. "Church Notices: St. John A.M.E. Church," 61. Wade interview (note 50 above). Omaha Star, 27 September 1940,3. 62. Ibid. 41. "Church Notices: St. John A.M.E. Church," 63. Elma Wells, interview with author, Omaha, Omaha Star, 4 November 1939, 3. Nebr., 27 June 1991. 42. Dryver interview (note 38 above); Michael 64. "Salem Baptist Church Inspirational Choir Dryver, interview with author, Omaha, Nebr., 30 History," frontispiece in "Salem Baptist Church July 1990. Inspirational Choir 40th Reunion 1951-91," com­ 43. "Business Support Imperative for Economic memorative booklet issued at Salem Inspirational Uplift," Omaha Star, 25 October 1940, 1; Meyers Choir's 40th Reunion-Anniversary Concert, 13 interview (note 36 above). July 1991; Mark Poindexter, interview with au­ 44. Paul Briggs, interview with author, Omaha, thor, Omaha, Nebr., 11 July 1990; Wade interview Nebr., 25 June 1991. (note 50 above). 45. "7,000 Expected to Witness Annual Spring 65. "21st Annual Grammy Awards Final Nomi- Musical," Omaha Star, 24 April 1942, 1. nations," Billboard, 20 January 1979, 122. 46. James Weldon Johnson and J. Rosamond 66. Dryver interview (note 38 above). Johnson, The Book of American Negro Spirituals 67. Wells interview (note 62 above). (New York: Viking Press, 1925-27), p. 35. 68. Pauline Smith, interview with author, 47. Raymore Davis, interview with author, Omaha, Nebr., 25 October 1991. Omaha, Nebr., 17 August 1990. 69. Caroline Solomon, interview with author, 48. Boyer, "Tracking" (note 11 above), p. 140. Omaha, Nebr., 22 August 1990. 49. Lynn Abbott, "The Soproco Spiritual Sing­ 70. Jason "Jay" Terrell, interview with author, ers: A New Orleans Quartet Family Tree," mono- Omaha, Nebr., 25 March 1999.