History 7: Medieval Europe March 30 - April 3 Time Allotment: 30 Minutes Per Day

History 7: Medieval Europe March 30 - April 3 Time Allotment: 30 minutes per day

Student Name: ______Teacher Name: ______

History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3

Packet Overview

Date Objective(s) Page Number Monday, March 30 1. Explain why Charlemagne brought neighboring 2 barbarian tribes under Frankish dominion.

Tuesday, March 31 1. Contrast the causes and effects of Charlemagne’s 6 coronation by Pope Leo III.

Wednesday, April 1 1. Compare Charlemagne’s personal faith and 10

intellectual life with his reforms of the Catholic Church and the Education system.

Thursday, April 2 1. Construct an essay arguing about the motivations 14 for Charlemagne’s actions.

Friday, April 3 1. You will find it when you get there. Experience 16

wonder by not skipping ahead, but completing the packet in the order it is in. :)

Academic Honesty I certify that I completed this assignment I certify that my student completed this independently in accordance with the GHNO assignment independently in accordance with Academy Honor Code. the GHNO Academy Honor Code. Student signature: Parent signature:

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Additional Notes: Be sure to complete the packet in the proper order and not to skip around, as the order provided is intended to maximize WONDER!

History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3

Monday, March 30 History Unit: The Rise of the Frankish Kingdom Lesson 4: Charlemagne’s War with the Saxons (772-803)

Lesson 4 Socratic Guiding Question: Keep this question in mind as you study! Why was Charlemagne at war every spring with the Saxons?

Objective: Be able to do this by the end of this lesson. 1. Explain why Charlemagne brought neighboring barbarian tribes under Frankish dominion.

Introduction to Lesson 4 Charles the Great (Charlemagne) was the son of Pepin the Short and the most famous of the Carolingian Kings. During his reign as King of the Franks, Charlemagne waged war with neighboring tribes of Germanic barbarians in order to subdue them and create a larger kingdom to be ruled by the Franks. He was able to conquer the Visigoths in northern Spain, the Bavarians in the region of the upper Danube, and the Lombards in the Po Valley. The Saxons, however, proved a much tougher test. A fierce and obstinate group, the Saxons would agree to peace terms or flee only to become belligerent (war-like) once again the following year. From 772-803, Charlemagne engaged in at least eighteen campaigns against the resistant Saxons, who would first fight the Franks and then surrender or flee their enemy. Look at the map and read the account below.

Charlemagne’s War Against the Saxons Answer the following question based upon the map found below.

1. Highlight or circle the locations conquered by Charlemagne. Then list their names below. ______

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History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3

Directions: Read and answer the questions about the primary source below. Source—Einhard, Vita Caroli Magni, Chap. 7. No war ever undertaken by the Frankish nation was carried on with such persistence and bitterness, or cost so much labor, because the Saxons, like almost all the tribes of Germany, were a fierce people, given to the worship of devils and hostile to our religion, and did not consider it dishonorable to transgress and violate all law, human and divine. Then there were peculiar circumstances that tended to cause a breach of peace every day. Except in a few places, where large forests or mountain-ridges intervened and made the boundaries certain, the line between ourselves and the Saxons passed almost in its whole extent through an open country, so that there was no end to the murders, thefts, and arsons on both sides. In this way the Franks became so embittered that they at last resolved to make reprisals no longer, but to come to open war with the Saxons. Accordingly, war was begun against them, and was waged for thirty-three successive years with great fury; more, however, to the disadvantage of the Saxons than of the Franks. It could doubtless have been brought to an end sooner, had it not been for the faithlessness of the Saxons. It is hard to say how often they were conquered, and, humbly submitting to the king, promised to do what was enjoined upon them, gave without hesitation the required hostages, and received the officers sent them from the king. They were sometimes so much weakened and reduced that they promised to renounce the worship of devils and to adopt Christianity; but they were no less ready to violate these terms than prompt to accept them, so that it is impossible to tell which came easier to them to do; scarcely a year passed from the beginning of the war without such changes on their part. But the king did not suffer his high purpose and steadfastness—firm alike in good and evil fortune—to be wearied by any fickleness on their part, or to be turned from the task that he had undertaken; on the contrary, he never allowed their faithless behavior to go unpunished, but either took the field against them in person, or sent his counts with an army to wreak vengeance and exact righteous satisfaction. At last, after conquering and subduing all who had offered resistance, he took ten thousand of those who lived on the banks of the Elbe, and settled them, with their wives and children, in many different bodies here and there in Gaul and Germany. The war that had lasted so many years was at length ended by their acceding to (acceptance of) terms offered by the king, which were renunciation of their national religious customs and the worship of devils, acceptance of the sacraments of the Christian religion, and union with the Franks to form one people.

3. According to the biographer Einhard in his Vita Caroli Magni, who did the Saxons worship? ______

4. What does Einhard say was the cause of war?

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5. At the end of the reading, what does Einhard say were the three conditions which were demanded by the Franks and must be fulfilled by the Saxons to end the war? ______

History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3

______Concluding interpretive questions: Why did Charlemagne go to war with the Saxons? In what ways might it have been beneficial to the Franks for the Saxons to become Christians?

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History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3

Tuesday, March 31 History Unit: The Rise of the Frankish Kingdom Lesson 5: The Coronation of Charlemagne

Lesson 5 Socratic Guiding Question: Keep this question in mind as you study! What does it symbolically mean for a pope to crown an emperor? What are the advantages and disadvantages of having a united Church and State?

Objective: Be able to do this by the end of this lesson. 1. Explain the causes and effects of Charlemagne’s coronation by Pope Leo III.

Introduction to Lesson 5 By the late 700s, the pope in Rome was not only a spiritual leader, but he was also a political leader. He was the ruler of a small area in Italy called the Papal States, which you may remember had been given to him by Pepin the Short. “Papal” means “of or belonging to the pope”. The Papal States were being threatened by a group of barbarians in Northern Italy called the Lombards. The Lombards were Arians, so they did not like the pope. The pope is having great difficulty defending his land from the Lombards. What can he do? Let’s pause here and look at a map of Europe at the time.

Europe in the 8th Century Directions: Look at this map and answer the questions on the next page.

History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3

1. Describe the size and location of the Frankish Empire in 768:

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2. Where is the Kingdom of the Lombards located in relation to the Papal States?

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______The Pope turns to the Franks and not to the Byzantines Now back to the story: the Lombards are threatening the Papal States. What's so interesting is that the Pope would have traditionally looked to the Byzantine emperor for protection from people like the Lombards, but by the time the Lombards were threatening Rome, the Byzantine Empire was not strong enough to defend Rome. So instead, the pope looked North to the kingdom of the Franks. The pope looked to Charlemagne. Charlemagne came to the pope’s protection, fought off the Lombards, and actually became king over all the Lombard people in addition to being king of the Franks.

3. Why didn’t the pope turn to the Byzantine Emperor for protection from the Lombards?

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4. How would you describe the relationship between the papacy and the Frankish King?

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Pope Leo Crowns Charlemagne Emperor But how did Charlemagne end up being crowned not just king but Emperor in AD 800? To understand the answer to that question, we have to look one year earlier in AD 799. The pope at the time was Pope Leo III. Now, Pope Leo III was unlike his strong predecessor Pope Leo I, the Great who repulsed the Huns from the gates of Rome. No, Pope Leo III was a relatively weak pope who, in 799, was accused by two church officials of some very serious charges. These two officials even ambushed him and threatened to gouge out his eyes and cut off his tongue! When Pope Leo was thrown in prison, he contacted Charlemagne to ask him for help. Because Charlemagne had such unmatched influence and diplomatic skill, he set up a trial where the Pope had to swear to his innocence by oath. This oath satisfied many people, and Pope Leo was set free. Charlemagne has become the great protector of the pope.

History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3

When Charlemagne entered St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome in AD 800, Pope Leo was ready with a crown to make him Emperor.

Read this primary source account of Charlemagne’s coronation and answer the questions: From Vitae Pontificorum Romanorum “After these things, on the day of the birth of our Lord Jesus Christ, when all the people were assembled in the Church of the blessed St. Peter, the venerable and gracious Pope with his own hands crowned him [Charlemagne] with an exceedingly precious crown… Then the most holy high priest and pontiff anointed Charles with holy oil, and also his most excellent son to be king, upon the very day of the birth of our Lord Jesus Christ.”

5. What day was Charlemagne made emperor by Pope Leo in AD 800? ______Conclusion The crowning of Charlemagne as emperor by Pope Leo III benefitted both Charlemagne and Leo. Charlemagne was given the title of Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and Leo and the Church now had protection from the State. Here begins a new age of unity between the Church and State in Western Europe. In the East, Church and State had been united since Constantine, but now Church and State are working together under Charlemagne and the pope.

History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3

Wednesday, April 1 History Unit: The Rise of the Frankish Kingdom Lesson 6: Charlemagne’s Catholic Church and Educational Reforms; His Private Life

Lesson 6 Socratic Guiding Question: Keep this question in mind as you study! Why does Charlemagne take such a personal interest in the reform of the Catholic Church?

Objective: Be able to do this by the end of this lesson. 1. Compare Charlemagne’s personal faith and intellectual life with his reforms of the Catholic Church and the Education system.

Introduction to Lesson 6 After the Franks finally subdue the Saxons after 31 years of battles, Charlemagne establishes bishoprics and monasteries across Saxony. He also conquers the Lombards in 774 A.D. when asked to do so by Pope Hadrian I. Charlemagne then takes the title – King of the Lombards.

In the first half of his reign, Charlemagne acts as a warrior king. In the second half of his reign, the riches were flowing into the Frankish kingdom from other tribes conquered. No longer fighting wars, Charlemagne is busy receiving embassies. He is more of a statesman in the last two decades of his life. Religion and State form an interwoven culture of Charlemagne’s accomplishments. His anointing and power functions as a sort of ruling over Church and State.

Catholic Christian Reforms Similar to Constantine, (ruled 311-337) Charlemagne understands himself to be God's chosen one. He believes that an orderly Church is part of the general order. He considers himself to be God's representative. Charlemagne believes in a Christian society, and yet he also feels the need to control the Church. Charlemagne uses educated clergy to form a bureaucracy. He employs bishops and clergy to administrative roles in his various provinces and insists on having final approval over which clerics are chosen to be bishops. He also claims the right to veto someone proposed to be appointed bishop by ecclesial leaders. Charlemagne calls together various synods of bishops to implement various reforms. The reforms of Charlemagne include:

1. The reform of Preaching. Preaching from Biblical texts is encouraged. And not just material from Saints lives. Charlemagne orders books of sermons to be prepared. 2. The practice of Private Confession of sins, by an individual to a priest. This is a trend that is utilized, though not yet to be obligatory. The practice of Private Confession comes from the Irish Monks. 3. He raises the basic standards of Christian education. Every Christian should be able to - A. -recite the Lord's Prayer. B. -recite the Apostle's Creed. 4. He extends the system of Archbishoprics. At the beginning of his reign, the only Archbishopric in his domain is Mainz. By the end of his reign, there are 22 Archbishoprics in his empire. Bishops are now accountable for their own actions. They are responsible to Archbishops. Charlemagne wants frequent synods called.

History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3

Educational Reforms Charlemagne founds a school at his capital of Aachen. He searches for the best teachers for its faculty. Charlemagne handpicks and appoints Alcuin of York, a Benedictine monk, to teach the most talented students. Alcuin sets up two programs of learning based on Classical models.

Trivium Quadrivium Latin Grammar Music Logic Astronomy Rhetoric Geometry Math

Alcuin has a special love for Latin literature. He has manuscripts of Latin authors copied. He is in awe of Classical civilization as it has come down to him from Cicero and Virgil. Carolingian copyists preserve numerous Classical writers. They see the Classical period as a superior time in intellectual history. These copyists give us Carolingian miniscule. It is lowercase letters for handwriting. The script is much more legible. Charlemagne himself sat in on Alcuin's classes. Charlemagne tries to learn how to write. He can maybe read a little bit, but to write is very difficult and painstaking. Charlemagne asks for books from Pope Hadrian I. He receives a text of Canon Law and the Rule of St. Benedict. Later, Charlemagne's son will decree that the Rule of St. Benedict will become the standard Rule for all monasteries. Charlemagne is anxious to achieve liturgical uniformity and sought to promote the Roman Mass of the Latin Rite.

Private Life of Charlemagne: Read and Annotate Account from his biographer, Einhard, Vita Caroli Magni [“Life of Charles the Great’], Chaps. 22-27. Text in Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores (Pertz ed.), Vol. II., pp. 455-457. Adapted from translation by Samuel Epes Turner in “Harper’s School Classics’ (New York, 1880) pp. 56-65.

22. Charles was large and strong, and of lofty stature, though not excessively tall. The upper part of his head was round, his eyes very large and animated, nose a little long, hair auburn, and face laughing and merry. His appearance was always stately and dignified… His gait was firm, his whole carriage manly, and his voice clear, but not so strong as his size led one to expect…In accordance with the national custom, he took frequent exercise on horseback and in the chase, in which sports scarcely any people in the world can equal the Franks…

24. Charles was temperate in eating, and especially so in drinking, for he abhorred drunkenness in anybody, much more in himself and those of his household; but he could not easily abstain from food, and often complained that fasts injured his health…While at table, he listened to reading or music. The subjects of the readings were the stories and deeds of olden time. He was fond, too, of St. Augustine's books, and especially of the one entitled The City of God. He was so moderate in the use of wine and all sorts of drink that he rarely allowed himself more than three cups in the course of a meal…While he was dressing and putting on his shoes, he not only gave audience to his friends, but if the Count of the Palace told him of any suit in which his judgment was necessary, he had the parties brought before him forthwith, heard the case, and gave his decision, just as if he were sitting in the judgment-seat…

25. Charles had the gift of ready and fluent speech and could express whatever he had to say with the utmost clearness. He was not satisfied with ability to use his native language merely, but gave attention to the study of 9

History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3 foreign ones, and in particular was such a master of Latin that he could speak it as well as his native tongue; but he could understand Greek better than he could speak it. He was so eloquent, indeed, that he might have been taken for a teacher of oratory. He most zealously cherished the liberal arts, held those who taught them in great esteem, and conferred great honors upon them. He took lessons in grammar of the deacon Peter of Pisa, at that time an aged man. Another deacon, Albin of Britain, surnamed Alcuin, a man of Saxon birth, who was the greatest scholar of the day, was his teacher in other branches of learning. The king spent much time and labor with him studying rhetoric, dialectic, and especially astronomy. He learned to make calculations and used to investigate with much curiosity and intelligence the motions of the heavenly bodies. He also tried to write, and used to keep tablets and blanks in bed under his pillow, that at leisure hours he might accustom his hand to form the letters; however, as he began his efforts late in life, and not at the proper time, they met with little success.

26. He cherished with the greatest fervor and devotion the principles of the Christian religion, which had been instilled into him from infancy. Hence it was that he built the beautiful basilica at Aix-la-Chapelle, which he adorned with gold and silver and lamps, and with rails and doors of solid brass. He had the columns and marbles for this structure brought from Rome and Ravenna, for he could not find such as were suitable elsewhere. He was a constant worshipper at this church as long as his health permitted, going morning and evening, even after nightfall, besides attending mass. He took care that all the services there conducted should be held in the best possible manner, very often warning the sextons not to let any improper or unclean thing be brought into the building, or remain in it. He provided it with a number of sacred vessels of gold and silver, and with such a quantity of clerical robes that not even the door-keepers, who filled the humblest office in the church, were obliged to wear their everyday clothes when in the performance of their duties. He took great pains to improve the church reading and singing, for he was well skilled in both, although he neither read in public nor sing, except in a low tone and with others.

27. He was very active in aiding the poor, and in that open generosity which the Greeks call alms; so much so, indeed, that he not only made a point of giving in his own country and his own kingdom, but when he discovered that there were Christians living in poverty in Syria, Egypt, and Africa, at Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Carthage, he had compassion on their wants, and used to send money over the seas to them. The reason that he earnestly strove to make friends with the kings beyond seas was that he might get help and relief to the Christians living under their rule. He cared for the Church of St. Peter the Apostle at Rome above all other holy and sacred places and heaped high its treasury with a vast wealth of gold, silver, and precious stones. He sent great and countless gifts to the popes; and throughout his whole reign the wish that he had nearest his heart was to re-establish the ancient authority of the city of Rome under his care and by his influence, and to defend and protect the Church of St. Peter, and to beautify and enrich it out of his own store above all other churches. Nevertheless, although he held it in such veneration, only four times did he repair (travel) to Rome to pay his vows and make his supplications during the whole forty-seven years that he reigned.

1. Looking back to the first page of this lesson, what are some of the chief religious reforms implemented (put in place) by Charlemagne?

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History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3

2. Looking back to the second page of this lesson, what are some of the chief Educational reforms implemented by Charlemagne?

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3. Describe what Charlemagne enjoyed studying in school. (para. 25)

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4. Describe how Charlemagne was charitable to others outside his own kingdom. (para. 27)

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History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3

Thursday, March 26 History Unit: The Rise of the Frankish Kingdom Lesson 7: Essay on Charlemagne

Objective: Be able to do this by the end of this lesson. 1. Construct an essay arguing about the motivations for Charlemagne’s actions.

Introduction to Lesson 7

Some scholars argue that Charlemagne’s primary motivation was a militaristic desire to expand the Frankish empire, while others argue that his primary motivation was a religious desire to defend Christendom and create a space for Christian culture to flourish. By closely analyzing the primary sources we’ve read on Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday, construct an essay answering the question: What was Charlemagne’s primary motivation for his conquests: territorial gain or religious conviction? Write your thesis and an outline on the front side of the page and your one paragraph essay on the back. Your argument should include at least 3 reasons in support of your thesis that are directly related to part of a primary source. To facilitate this, you should go back to the primary sources and bracket at least 3 quotations of primary sources that you will use to support your argument and label them A, B, and C.

This essay will be taken as an assessment grade. You will be graded on: 1. Bracketing and labelling at least 3 primary source quotations 2. Completion of your outline 3. The quality of your essay

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History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3

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History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3

Friday, March 27

A: L’Anse aux Meadows B: Maeshowe C: The Hagia Sophia

What do these three locations have in common?

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History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3

Now here are images of the same locations from the previous page: A: L’Anse aux Meadows B: Maeshowe C: The Hagia Sophia B: A:

(The inscription above is inside the Hagia Sophia) (These two inscriptions are inside mound above)

Take a guess at what each place/image is. Then try once again to figure out what these three places have in common. ______

History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3

If you guessed the Vikings, you were correct! (“On the sea” would have also been a good answer for the first page.) The Vikings were great adventurers, sailing far and wide in their longships and left their mark on many locations around Europe. L’Anse aux Meadows (A) is the site of an excavation widely considered to have been a settlement established by Leif Erikson (son of Erik the Red), who journeyed from Iceland to Greenland to North America (modern-day Canada), as recorded in the Vinland Saga. There he explored and found grapes (hence naming it Vin-land) and a climate warm enough that cows could be left outside in Winter. He established a settlement and intended to begin a colony there; yet he was slain by Indians, which caused the explorers to abandon the mission and head back to Greenland.

Maeshowe (B) is an ancient burial mound on the Orkney Islands, just north of Scotland. Runes carved on the walls inside give its name and describe how it was used by Norse Crusaders: “Crusaders broke into Maeshowe. Lif the earl’s cook carved these runes. It was long ago that a great treasure was hidden here. Happy is he that might find that great treasure. Hakon alone bore treasure from this mound. Simon Sirith” This scant narrative is added to in the Orkneyinga Saga (Ch. 93), written in 1153 A.D.: “On the thirteenth day of Christmas they travelled on foot over to the Firth. During a Snowstorm they took shelter in Maeshowe and there two of them went insane, which slowed them down badly…”

Hagia Sophia Runes (C): From early times, the Scandinavian people had traded with the Byzantine Empire in Constantinople. Although the Vikings once tried to attack the Byzantines, they met with no success. Yet the Byzantines recognized their military skill and began to employ them as mercenaries1 in the personal bodyguard of the Byzantine emperor. This Scandinavian bodyguard became known as the Varangian guard, and there are many tales of their daring exploits. As told in Harald’s Saga, a certain Harald Hardrada (“Hard-ruler”) was part of the Varangian guard and went off to Sicily to fight with the emperor. However, tiring of the emperor’s slow movements and what he perceived to be insufficient military skill, Harald broke from the army, sailed off with a band of troops on his own, and began pillaging and plundering around the coastline of the Mediterranean. He did send much loot back to the Byzantine Emperor. Though the runic inscription in the Hagia Sophia was probably not made by him, we can imagine that some rogue Norseman like him was the one to write, “Halfdane carved these runes”, as the inscription likely reads—though it is only partially legible.

History Unit: The Vikings Lesson 1: Introduction to the Vikings

Lesson 1 Socratic Questions: Keep these questions in mind as you study this lesson! What are the advantages of raiding by sea as opposed to raiding by land? What areas would be most susceptible to Viking raids?

Objective: Be able to do this by the end of this lesson. 1. Explain how the Vikings threatened Christendom, and how the threat was averted. 2. Describe what kind of people the Vikings were.

1 Someone from one country or people group who is paid to fight for another country or people group. 16

History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3

Unit Overview: The Vikings

We saw in our last unit on the Frankish kingdom the transition away from barbarian invasions towards the unifying of barbarian peoples with Christianity, beginning with the baptism of Clovis. During the reign of Charlemagne, Western Europe began to develop a unified Christian culture, known as Christendom. Essential to this culture were the political tradition of the Roman Empire (especially Roman Law), the religious tradition of the Catholic Church, the intellectual tradition of classical learning (especially Greek philosophy), and the national traditions of the barbarian peoples. However, from approximately 800-1100, this young but growing Christendom would be threatened by invasions of the pagan Vikings, or “Northmen”, as the Franks called them. These “Northmen” terrorized Europe far and wide with their speedy longships and their deadly axes. They first appeared as traders, then they turned to raiding, and finally they established kingdoms in Europe. Their first attacks were on the coasts, especially those of Britain and Ireland, and they were initially temporary, usually during the Spring and Summer. But eventually, the Vikings established kingdoms over England and in the part of Northwest France which took its name from them—“Normandy”. Yet as they plundered, exacted tribute, and established dominion, the Vikings continuously came into contact with Christianity. As such, Scandinavia filled up with Christian wealth, Christian slaves, and Christian ideas. By the year 1000, Christianity had spread to the furthest corners of the North Atlantic world. The heat of the Norse rage cooled down, and the raids became less frequent. Alliances were made, and Europe was preserved from the Viking scourge. Instead of being destroyed by the threat of the Northmen, Christendom was expanded North to the British Isles (Britain and Ireland) and Scandinavia, and the unity of Europe grew.2

1. What 4 elements were essential to Christendom? (remember the stool diagram?) • • • • 2. What were the 3 phases of the Vikings’ contact with Christians to the South? • • • 3. How was the Viking threat averted? ______

The Vikings: Who were they?

“Between the years 800 and 1000, the entire North Sea area—Scandinavia, Britain, Ireland, and the shores of Continental Europe—was an immense ‘middle ground,’ in which Christians and pagans met, much as barbarians and Romans had once met in the ‘middle ground’ of the Roman frontier regions. It was an infinitely

2 Parts of this narrative are drawn from Peter Brown, The Rise of Western Christendom, Ch. 20. 17

History 7: Medieval Europe March 30-April 3 more extensive ‘middle ground’ than the frontiers of the Roman empire had ever been. Compared with the highly localized and slow-moving kingdoms of Continental Europe, the distances across which the Northmen moved with ease in their superb ships were unimaginable.”

The comparison between the Vikings and the barbarians is fitting because both groups began as pagans, invaded a Christian land to the South, and ended up becoming Christians themselves. The biggest difference, as suggested above, was that whereas the barbarians were “highly localized and slow-moving” because they traveled by land, the Vikings traveled by sea, and so their range of travel covered vast distances. The Vikings came from Scandinavia (modern day Norway, Sweden, and Denmark) by ship and were first traders. In the port towns of Northern Europe, yet also along rivers in Russia that emptied into the Black Sea and in Constantinople, they sold pelts, furs, and walrus-tusk ivory from the wild lands of the North to merchants of the Christian South. The Vikings were great opportunists, adapting themselves in whatever ways could gain them the most wealth and power: although they began as traders, they turned to raiding, and finally settled down to establish kingdoms. They were fiercely loyal to their many gods (especially Thor and Odin), who they believed brought victory in battle and gave a competitive edge over their many rivals.

1. Highlight or shade in the 3 countries which make up Scandinavia.

2. Describe what kind of people the Vikings were, including how they were similar to and different from the barbarians. ______

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