Perspectives SINO-VATICAN FAITH DIPLOMACY: Mapping The Factors Aecting Bilateral Relations By Juyan Zhang CPD PERSPECTIVES ON PUBLIC DIPLOMACY Paper 2, 2017 Sino-Vatican Faith Diplomacy: Mapping the Factors Affecting Bilateral Relations Juyan Zhang April 2017 Figueroa Press Los Angeles SINO-VATICAN FAITH DIPLOMACY: MAPPING THE FACTORS AFFECTING BILATERAL RELATIONS by Juyan Zhang Published by FIGUEROA PRESS 840 Childs Way, 3rd Floor Los Angeles, CA 90089 Phone: (213) 743-4800 Fax: (213) 743-4804 www.figueroapress.com Figueroa Press is a division of the USC Bookstores Cover, text, and layout design by Produced by Crestec, Los Angeles, Inc. Printed in the United States of America Notice of Rights Copyright © 2017. All rights reserved. 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ISBN-13: 978-0-18-221704-5 ISBN-10: 0-18-221704-3 About the USC Center on Public Diplomacy The USC Center on Public Diplomacy (CPD) was established in 2003 as a partnership between the Annenberg School for Communication & Journalism and the School of International Relations at the University of Southern California. It is a research, analysis and professional education organization dedicated to furthering the study and practice of global public engagement and cultural relations. Since its inception, CPD has become a productive and recognized leader in the public diplomacy research and scholarship community. Having benefited from international support within academic, corporate, governmental, and public policy circles, it is now the definitive go-to destination for practitioners and international leaders in public diplomacy, while pursuing an innovative research agenda. USC received the 2008 Benjamin Franklin Award for Public Diplomacy from the U.S. State Department in recognition of the university’s teaching, training and research in public diplomacy. CPD’s Mission The USC Center on Public Diplomacy seeks to advance and enrich the study and practice of public diplomacy through research, professional education and public engagement. CPD Perspectives CPD Perspectives on Public Diplomacy is a periodic publication by the USC Center on Public Diplomacy (CPD), that highlights scholarship intended to stimulate critical thinking about the study and practice of public diplomacy. Designed for both the practitioner and the scholar, this series illustrates the breadth of public diplomacy—its role as an essential component of international relations and the intellectual challenges it presents to those seeking to understand this increasingly significant factor in global society. CPD Perspectives is available electronically in PDF form on CPD’s website (www.uscpublicdiplomacy.org) and in hard copy by request. For general inquiries and to request additional copies of this paper, please contact: USC Center on Public Diplomacy at the Annenberg School University of Southern California 3502 Watt Way, Suites 232-234 Los Angeles, CA 90089-0281 Tel: (213) 821-2078; Fax: (213) 821-0774 [email protected] Sino-Vatican Faith Diplomacy: Mapping the Factors Affecting Bilateral Relations Abstract Sino-Vatican relations have been in gridlock for more than half a century. Most observers believe that the stalemate has been caused by the so-called “Two Factors,” namely China’s “One China” policy and the Vatican’s universal authority over the Catholic Church. The current research proposes that a myriad of other factors also affect this bilateral relationship. The research maps more than fifty factors in seven clusters, including geopolitical factors, bishop-related factors, Chinese Patriotic Association-related factors, Vatican- related factors, Chinese government-related factors, and underground church-related factors. The research concludes that the nomination of bishops, the role of the United States, the growth of the Christian population in China, the active underground church, and Hong Kong weigh heavily in Sino-Vatican relations, while the influence of Taiwan has significantly decreased. In addition, many of these factors are perceived to be unfavorable to it by the Chinese government. Together, they push China towards advocacy instead of accommodation in the Sino-Vatican relations. The research suggests that a mixed model of bishop nomination may best serve the interests of China, the Vatican, and the Chinese Church. Keywords: Sino-Vatican relations; Catholic Church, China, underground church Juyan Zhang, Ph. D Associate Professor Department of Communication, UTSA 6 SINO-VATICAN FAITH DIPLOMACY Upon taking state power in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) promoted the Three-Self Movement (self- government, self-support and self-propagation) in an attempt to “free China’s Catholic Church of imperialist control.” The papal representative in China issued a pastoral letter addressed to the bishops and priests remaining in the country, urging them not to take part in the movement.1 In response, the CCP expelled the papal representative and foreign missionaries from China. It ordered the Catholic Church in China to break contact with the Vatican and set up as the new authority the Catholic Patriotic Association (CPA).2 After that point, China and the Vatican made no contact until the early 1980s. In 1980, the Chinese government released Dominic Tang Yee-ming, who was a titular bishop and apostolic administrator of the Canton (Guangzhou) diocese in 1951. Upon release, Tang was allowed to travel to Hong Kong.3 In February 1981, Pope John Paul II stated that the Vatican was ready for reconciliation with China. He sent Cardinal Agostino Casaroli, the Vatican’s Secretary of State, to Hong Kong to examine the possibilities of opening diplomatic relations with Beijing.4 Cardinal Casaroli conferred with Tang. The Vatican indicated that it would be prepared to acknowledge China’s Three-Self Principles and would consider establishing diplomatic ties. Soon after, Tang visited the Vatican. Pope John Paul II named him Archbishop of Guangzhou without first informing China. The Vatican’s move was denounced by the Chinese government and the CPA for “rudely interfering in the sovereign affairs of the Chinese Church.”5 From 1981 onward, there have been many attempts on the part of the Vatican to revive Catholicism and reestablish its diplomatic presence in China. The Chinese government has also shown some willingness toward improving relations with the Vatican. However, in more than thirty years, negotiations between the two have generated little progress. The Chinese SINO-VATICAN FAITH DIPLOMACY 7 government states that it is willing to build relations with the Vatican on two conditions: First, the Vatican must recognize that there is only “one China”; Second, the Vatican cannot interfere in China’s internal affairs. On the part of Vatican, it has suggested that if China fully acknowledges the supreme authority of the Pope as the head of the universal Church, other issues, including the “One China” problem, can be resolved through negotiations.6 The Vatican, the Chinese government, and international observers all seem to agree that these are the two issues (or “Two Factors”) over which bilateral relations have become stagnant. Although the “Two Factors” indeed significantly affect Sino-Vatican relations, recent events in China and elsewhere indicate that other factors beyond these two have also played an important role in bilateral relations. These include, but are not limited to, China’s domestic political climate and the perceived hegemonic role of the United States. When Beijing was gearing up to host the 2008 Olympic Games, there was a short period of détente between China and the Vatican.7 In 2007, Pope Benedict XVI issued an open letter to Chinese Catholics that sought to heal the rift between underground congregations loyal to the Vatican and state- approved Catholic churches in China. In May 2008, the China Philharmonic Orchestra performed Mozart’s Requiem with the Shanghai Opera House Chorus for Pope Benedict XVI. At the time, the performance was interpreted as a sign of a thaw in relations between China and the Vatican. But once the Olympic Games were over, relations between the two deteriorated once again. The United States appears to play an important role in Sino-Vatican relations. In 2015, Chinese President Xi Jinping and Pope Francis both paid visits to the United States on September 22. Pope Francis capped his visit with a mass for over one million people on Philadelphia’s grandest 8 SINO-VATICAN FAITH DIPLOMACY boulevard, where he talked about China: “I would very much like to go to China. I love the Chinese people, I love them very much. I hope that the possibility to have good relations exists. We have contacts, we talk, and we’re going forward.”8 Throughout the five