1994 CSICOP Conference

Our coverage of the 1994 CSICOP conference in Seattle, Washington, June 23-26, begun in our last issue, continues. The Psychology of Belief 'art II: Perception, Memory and the Courtroom

TOM GENONI, JR.

How We Fool Ourselves: inventor Jerry Andrus. Based on the con- ly described the "rubber rulers" of per- Anomalies of Perception and cept that perceptions are easily altered by ception that humans stretch to fit their Interpretation expectations, Andrus has created many subjective measure of reality. "What we optical illusions and magic tricks that should be using, wherever possible, are the objective rulers of science that resist Introducing the session focusing on fool the observer. "Each person paints theirbein picturg stretchee of d realitor shruny witk ht o afit bruswhaht we how we fool ourselves, Barry dipped in the pigments of the past," he want it to be. These rulers may not be Beyerstein, a professor of psychology at said. with a simple demonstration using perfect, but unlike ours, are made not of Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, what appeared to be a deck of cards (but rubber, but of the laws of the universe." British Columbia, emphasized that which he revealed was really a thick piece "so-called simple perceptions are any- of Plexiglas), Andrus illustrated how the Susan Blackmore, senior lecturer in thing but simple" and that what we see assumptions we make about reality, psychology at the University of the is not always the true nature of reality. based on years of West of England, in Bristol, described Perception is a cre- ordinary, day-to-day some of the research she has conducted ative act that experiences, often on out-of-body and near-death experi- involves not only lead us to "see" ences. Blackmore contends that these the purely sensory things that do not phenomena reveal a great deal about apparatus of the exist. In another the way our minds operate. She brain but also such example of playing explained that when humans approach things as memory, with expectations, death, the brain releases endorphins, emotion, and our Andrus removed the which can produce a morphinelike hopes and fears. glasses he had been pleasure and a random firing of neu- Often we fill in our wearing since the rons. These physiological occurrences observations of real- beginning of his may result in the often reported tunnel ity with the way we talk, admitting: images, bright lights, and many other think tilings should "They contain no bizarre "out-of-body" effects. be, based on our glass. I wear con- Blackmore also posed questions expectations. And tacts." Accompanied about the nature of the self, which con- when these misper- Jerry Andrus amazes the audience by abundant laugh- structs a reality based on perception. ceptions become with his tricks and illusionster and. applause, Andrus continued his As the body shuts down, the mind is part of our memory, Beyerstein con- performance with a number of large rapidly unable to sustain a model of "I" cluded, they can affect new perceptions optical illusions that he manipulated to based on its usual conception of reality. and interpretations. produce further false perceptions. The out-of-body experience, Blackmore The idea that "so-called simple per- suggests, may be "a crude attempt by the brain to hang on to the idea of self." ceptions are anything but simple" was Andrus also read a short commen- dramatically illustrated by magician and tary, "How Sees the Mind?" It poetical- Elizabeth Loftus, a professor of psy-

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chology at me University of Washington, tice dilutes and trivializes the experience and action" because of his broad range in Seattle, is a well-known expert on eye- of true abuse survivors and increases of scientific study and knowledge, Carl witness testimony, and her recent work their suffering." Sagan, the astronomer and author, examining the malleability of memory has In addition to the scheduled speakers, focused his keynote address on the provided many insights into me repressed James Randi and his assistant, Jose importance of scientific understand- memory debate. (See her article Alvarez, played a videotaped segment of ing. Stressing the predictive power of "Remembering Dangerously" in this issue.) an Australian "60 Minutes" T V segment. science and the significant role it plays In some of her studies, Loftus said, she suc- As the host of the show explained, a chan- in so many aspects of our culture, ceeded in altering her subjects' memories nelcr named Jos£ had been making a Sagan affirmed our responsibility to of some details of scenes they had wit- name for himself by demonstrating his educate society about its function. "We have a civilization based on science and nessed, through the use apparent ability to technology and have cleverly arranged of misleading question- channel an ancient things so that almost no one under- ing misinformation, spirit named Carlos. stands science and technology," he and suggestion. Another Appearing with his said. He also warned that it "is a clear study, using a series of sleazy manager on prescription for disaster" if the circum- crime scenarios, revealed numerous TV talk- stances are not changed. an even larger fre- shows, Jose" would quency of false memo- enter a strange trance Sagan praised the role of CSICOP ries in her test groups. and begin to slouch and the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER in expos- But could a memory over. Just as his heart ing unfounded scientific claims but of an entire event that rate would slow to a cautioned skeptics against establishing never happened be near-death level (always an "us versus them" mentality by ridi- created using these being monitored by a culing and belittling paranormal tactics? Elizabeth Loftus reports her findings competent physician), believers. He also encouraged compas- in studies involving memory and Loftus attempted me exuberant spirit of sion for those who succumb to the eyewitness testimony. to create in the mind Carlos would dramat- tricks of pseudoscientific con-artists simply because they are not well versed of a teenage subject named Chris the ically e m e r g e t o offer his w o r d s o f wisdom. in science, magic, and skepticism. memory of being separated from his The Carlos mania culminated in an family in a mall ten years previously appearance to a near-capacity crowd at the Sagan also discussed the rigid stan- and being found by an older man. Sydney Opera House. dards of scientific scrutiny, the complex Chris entered this alleged incident in a As you may have guessed, Carlos is struggle of inquiry, the great rewards of daily journal and, gradually, he vividly not an ancient spirit. Carlos is a prod- discovery, and the vigorous and "remembered" and even expanded uct of James Randi's imagination, with uncompromising role of experimental upon the episode that Loftus had orig- a few tricks and some clever acting by testing in evaluating ideas. "And inally described to him. his good friend Jose" Alvarez. After Jose though it is no fun to be on the receiv- Regarding therapists and patients in would enter his trance and slow his ing end of skeptical questioning," clinical environments, Loftus said: "I pulse (by taping a small ball under his Sagan concluded, "it is the affordable price we pay for having such a powerful believe there is evidence that, in some biceps and then gently squeezing), tool as science." Sagan's keynote address cases, a significant amount of suggestion Randi would send the astounding was published in the January-February may be going o n . . . . Could this kind of words of Carlos to a tiny speaker in 5/as "Wonder and Skepticism." suggestion act in a way that is similar to Jose's ear via a remote mike. It may not the suggestion we sec here?" Loftus has have been surprising that the examined evidence gathered by private Australian public was so eager to listen, Memory: How Reliable Is It? investigators and others who secretly but the ease with which Jose" (and taped their sessions with a therapist. In Carlos) was able to get such attention, Carol Tavris, a psychologist and author one instance, a therapist diagnosed publicity, and access to the press was from Los Angeles, opened the session "incest survivor" at the first meeting. disturbing. called "Memory: How Reliable Is It?" Loftus has received many disturbing let- by answering: "Not very." Tavris has ters from families who have been torn Carl Sagan's Keynote Address recently examined the "pop-psych" apart after a member of the family books about recovered memory. She "recovered" abuse memories during Introduced to the standing-room-only found there was "no overlap" between therapy sessions. Loftus concluded: "I audience by CSICOP Chairman Paul what the books were promoting and think that this kind of activity and prac- Kurtz as a "Leonardo man of thought what the academic researchers were

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discovering. Tavris metaphorically year during the thirties, forties, and concluded: "Back in those old times it described memory as a putting togeth- fifties. "We are in the midst of a crisis," was really hard to convince some peo- er of tattered pieces that were initially Ofshe said. "[Therapists] are subject- ple that memory just isn't very reliable." experienced as seamless. ing people to the closest thing to the Stephen Ceci, a professor of psy- experience of rape and brutalization CSICOP and the Law chology at Cornell University, and the that can ever be done without actually sessions first speaker, was praised by touching them." He pointed out that At a luncheon talk, Brenton VetPloeg, Tavris for his extensive research on some of these harmful persuasion tech- an attorney with the Miami law firm of memory. Ceci cited some common niques are being used not only by Shuns and Bowen, provided a preview types of memory errors and their inter- recovered-memory therapists but also of the afternoon session on science in esting though sometimes sad results. in past-life therapy, alien-abduction the courtroom by pointing out the dif- He provided examples to illustrate how therapy, and during police interroga- ficulty of trying scientific cases in a remembrances of contemporaneous tions that, in some cases, have led to society with widespread scientific illit- events can frequently be mixed togeth- sincerely believed false confessions of eracy. He also discussed the various er, how experiences can occasionally be crimes, including murder. aspects of his representation of CSI- remembered in a self-serving way, and Ofshe said that prior to 1980 "no COP and Prometheus Books in a how highly emotional or aroused states human society has ever noted this sup- number of court cases involving Uri Geller. At one point in a recent libel 'Suggestive techniques work very well case initiated by Geller, VerPloeg said he attempted to require Geller to prove if there's something there to elicit. The his powers by filing a motion for "com- problem is the price you pay If there Isn't pulsory psychic examination." Geller, however, did not take the opportunity something there." to demonstrate his abilities.

can cause false recollections. posed ability to remove from con- Influencing Beliefs in the Ceci also described various studies sciousness vast amounts of informa- Courtroom: Rules of Law, in which the memories of numerous tion." He said that while there is no Expert Testimony, and Science children were altered by repeated sug- evidence for the existence of recovered gestive questioning. He pointed out memories, there is data establishing the Peter Huber, author of Galileo's that, according to national averages, dangers of hypnotherapy as well as the Revenge: Junk Science in the Courtroom, children in court cases will often ease with which therapists can produce and a member of the Manhattan receive three and a half to eleven for- false memories. Institute, opened the session on court- mal interviews prior to testifying. The Loren Pankratz, a clinical psycholo- room science, testimony, and law by number of informal, and possibly gist from Porland, Oregon, added a citing numerous cases illustrating the highly suggestive, discussions with historical anecdote. Pankratz told the problems of determining what quali- worried parents and therapists is story of a con-artist named Davey to fies as authentic expert testimony and unknown. Given the fact that between illustrate the perpetual unreliability of valid scientific evidence. "How many 18 and 28 percent of children testify- human perception. In the late 1880s, times are we going to let juries vote on ing in criminal and civil court cases are Davey was able to deceive even the best psychic powers?" Huber asked. He said of preschool age, Ceci believes the use critical minds using the spirit "chan- that despite often weak scientific evi- of children's memories in the courts is neling" method of slate writing. The dence in cases involving dubious potentially very dangerous. technique was widely popular for claims, the promise of large settlements "Suggestive techniques work very many years and, among those practic- often brings them into the judicial sys- well if there's something to elicit," Ceci ing it, Davey was respected as genuine tem. For instance, many suits have concluded. "The problem is the price and trustworthy. Research that later been brought against Merrell you pay if there isn't something there." exposed slate writing as fakery and dis- Pharmaceuticals by women who Richard Ofshe, professor of sociolo- missed the anecdotal evidence of believed that Bendectin, a drug the gy at the University of California at Davey's power as "worthless" prompted company had produced in the 1970s, Berkeley, compared the proliferation of one stubborn believer to say that caused birth defects—in spite of stud- recovered-memory therapists to the "Davey is actually a medium who is ies of the drug that have consistently grim lobotomy operations that deceiving the public and himself." produced evidence to the contrary. occurred at the rate of five thousand a With a degree of irony, Pankratz Huber discussed how the courts

10 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • MARCH/APRIL 1995 CSICOP .... JI*L. Conference have historically set standards for scien- acceptance by aligning themselves with of the 20 in the Alaskan accident tific evidence and addressed broader legitimate questioned-document exam- reported this symptom. Information conceptions of setting such standards. iners. Beyerstein pointed out that Rosen had gathered from the original One philosophy is to "let it all in." This would allow new ideas and dis- "Mew many times are we going to let furies coveries the chance to prove their legit- imacy without necessarily first having vote on psychic powers?" been widely accepted by the scientific community. On the other hand, "let- unlike graphologists, these examiners interviews and his own follow-up ting it all in" might permit juries to analyze evidence to determine the his- interviews of the Alaskan victims also legitimize a wide variety of frivolous torical authenticity of a given docu- revealed interesting facts. One plaintiff claims. Huber said: "There is a real ment, not to look for character traits. admitted that some victims had been possibility for mischief when false Some courts, however, have used coached on symptoms and that others claims of causality are peddled in the graphologists to select jurors, to coun- had been instructed to see a doctor courts, and I think we all have a stake sel parole boards, and even to decide because "it would be worth their in trying to make sure those risks arc the guilt or innocence of defendants. while." minimized." Despite his criticism of Beyerstein cited one case in which a Rosen believes that there are a num- the court system and past methods of Denver judge, apparently believing ber of problems with the way PTSD is evidence screening, Huber said he has that a change in writing style would being diagnosed, especially in the been heartened by recent trends. produce a change in behavior, made atmosphere of a court case. Primarily, Barry Beyerstein, of the Brain imposing a lighter sentence contingent the litigation can present incentives for Behavior Laboratory at Simon Fraser upon the defendant's signing up for victims to exaggerate their ailments. University, followed with a discussion of "graphotherapy." Rosen also said that the criteria for graphology. He explained that graphol- Gerald M. Rosen, a clinical associ- diagnosis of PTSD consist mostly of a ogy often appears to work because, as ate professor of psychology at the list of symptoms, and it is difficult for with astrology, subjects read their inter- University of Washington and modera- clinicians to separate actual symptoms pretations and expectations into what tor of the session, told of a court case from faked ones. Rosen concluded: are only vague descriptions. By examin- involving post-traumatic-stress disor- "Mainstream scientists are still subject ing the size, shape, style, and proportion der (PTSD) victims to illustrate how to significant bias effects. And when of the various loops and angles within bias effects can operate, particularly this comes into the courtroom, it can handwritten samples, he said, grapholo- among scientists involved with the lead to severely compromised results." gists claim they can judicial system. In Timothy Moore, associate professor ascertain a wide his research, Rosen of psychology at Glendon College, variety of personali- compared the infor- York University, in Toronto, addressed ty traits—from how mation from sur- the problem of "junk science" by dis- sexy you are to vivors of a recent cussing his participation in a case whether you are a Alaskan fishing- involving the heavy-metal band Judas potential pedophile. boat accident with Priest. In the summer of 1990, the Beyerstein noted the data from a band was brought to a Reno, Nevada, that, despite the similar San Fran- court on charges that it had included lack of scientific evi- cisco marine acci- subliminal messages in its recordings— dence establishing dent in 1957, not- messages that the plaintiffs said graphology as a use- ing that the former prompted two teenage boys to commit ful tool, grapholo- occurred after PTSD suicide. The defense denied that the was established as gists advise police Peter Huber discusses past and present band had ever used such messages and departments, credit courtroom standards for accepting evi- a genuine disorder. further contended that subliminal unions, marriage dence, and antestimonyd . Rosen found that the stimuli are not capable of compelling employers—and based on this evidence reported symptoms any behaviors, let alone suicidal ones. they make important decisions that can and diagnoses in the two cases varied However, as Moore pointed out, "The profoundly affect people's lives. substantially. For instance, among the pursuit of isolated, distant, and myste- 27 individuals from the San Francisco rious causes for various mishaps results In the criminal-justice system, incident, only 56 percent reported in a search for distant and mysterious graphologists have attempted to gain sleep disturbances, while 100 percent experts." One of these fringe experts,

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Wilson Key, has long been a supporter Despite the pseudoscientific testi- standing of the subliminal phenome- of the subliminal phenomenon and has mony in support of the plaintiffs, the non, Moore said, and the pendulum claimed to have found subliminal mes- judge eventually ruled in favor of the might have drifted to the side of junk sages in paintings by Michelangelo, in defense, and justice would seem to science. He concluded by urging Howard Johnson's menus, and on both have prevailed. Nevertheless, the deci- greater scientific literacy on the part of sides of Nabisco crackers. sion was not made with a clear under- the judicial system.

Conspiracy Theories: Searching for Sense Amid Senselessness

PORTER HENRY

eople like to believe in conspiracy describing Project Mogul. It involved 1. Coming so soon after Pearl theories. These beliefs give them the use of high-altitude balloons carry- Harbor, the possibility of an invasion Passurance that the world is a log- ing reflectors to beam back radar track- from outer space would cause the ical, predictable place, not some hap- ing rays. The reflectors were made of Army to alert all our military bases and hazard universe in which a lone kook balsa wood, parchment-like paper, and probably those of our Allies. This can assassinate a president and a hand- aluminum foil, held together with an warning, if known by millions, would ful of aluminum foil can be mistaken adhesive tape. have leaked out in days. for remnants of a crashed spaceship. Todd even located Charles T. 2. Ten years later, confronted with Moore, who had participated in Project the threat of Russian rockets, the U.S. Conspiracy theories surrounding those t w o events were dissected at one Mogul. Moore remembered the flower quickly devised an electronic defense session of the 1994 CSICOP Conference pattern on the tape, explaining that the to spot flying objects. If the Roswell in Seattle. Phillip J. Klass, noted UFO reflectors had been manufactured in a object had been a possibly threatening investigator, analyzed the theory that the loft in New York City formerly used for vehicle from outer space, such an elec- government is conspiring to conceal the making women's dresses. tronic screen would have been devel- fact that a spaceship crashed near After the Army explained, in 1947, oped at that time. Roswell, New Mexico, in 1947. that the wreckage was from a reflector, These insights at the CSICOP sym- Conspiracy theories surrounding the nothing more was heard of the Roswell posium came three months before the assassination of President John F. story until 30 years later. At that time Air Force issued its report in Kennedy were examined by Melanie pro-UFO researchers discovered September identifying a Project Mogul Klein, a student of that event, and Don retired Army Major Jesse Marcel, who balloon and instruments package as the Kates Jr., attorney and criminologist. in 1947 had brought the debris to the probable source of the debris found in At the time the Roswell wreckage Roswell Army Air Base. Marcel now 1947. (See "Air Force Report on the was discovered, Klass pointed out, it recalled that the foil had been so was described as about five pounds of tough it could not be bent with an light-weight wooden sticks, parch- 18-pound sledge hammer. Asks ment-like paper, aluminum foil, and Phil Klass: "Why would an Army an adhesive tape on which flower pat- intelligence officer, given bits of a terns were printed. True believers in flyin theg saucer fromalien outespacecrafr spacet theor, y have inter- preted those flowers as extraterrestrial attack it with a sledge hammer hieroglyphics. before turning it over to higher authorities?" Researcher Robert Todd of There are two logical reasons, Ardmore, Pennsylvania, obtained Klass pointed out, for believing through the Freedom of Information that the Army did not, in 1947, UFO researcher Philip Klass reports me findings Act once-secret military documents find parts of a space vehicle. from his investigation of the Roswell Incident.

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