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SUPPORT ·-IHE U. S. S. R. I~ ITS· 'FIGHT ' . AGAINST N.AZI 'WAR ' I-... ' J . STATEMENT OF THE COMMUNIST PARTY, U.S.A . •

' · Y·ANKEE. IMPERIALISM GRABS FOR' .THE WESTERN HEMISPHF;RE ' WILLIAM Z. FO-STER ) '

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CONDITIONED REFLEXES AND PSYCH lATRY ~ I ~ By Ivan P. Pavlov r f I Together with his previously' published volume, Le~tures on Con- ' f ditioned Refl~xes, this new 0ook makes avarlable the results of ' thirty-five. years of research and study by the foremost-authbr"ty in the world in the sphere of conditioped reflexes. The _new volume 'contains the papers read by Pavlov before various international ' #congresses between t.he years 1928 and 1936, the year of his death. I ' Price $4.00

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\~ WE 'ARE MANY By Ella Reeve · ~loor , ~ - ~ . \/ Friend and co-worker of such outstaFlding figures as V. I. Lenin, Eugene- Debs, C~prles E. Ruthenberg, William z.. Fnster, E~rl Browder, "Big Bill" Haywood, ·Tom Manry, Sacco and ·Yanzetti, Clar~ Zetkin, and a host of qther:s, Mother Bloor's autobiograP-hY is th'e story of five decad{)s of strugg,le and . achievement the y';. in ( cause of ~abor and socialism. '- r · ' Price $2.25 1

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W 0 R K E,R S : LIBRA R'Y. PUB Ll SHE R S \ \I, 1 P. 0. Box 148, StationeD, Ne1~ '(ork, N.Y. VOL. XX, No. 7 JULY, 1941

~fHE COMMUNIST

A MAGAZINE OF THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MARXISM-LENINISM PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE COMMUNIST PARTY OF THE U.S.A. EDITOR: EARL BROWDER

CONTENTS

Support the U.S.S.R. in Its Fight Against Statement of the Com- the Nazi War munist Party, U.S.A. 579 Yankee Imperialism Grabs for the Western Hemisphere WilHam Z. Foster . 581 Browder's Contribution Toward Develop­ ing a Progressive Trade Unionism . Jack Johnstone 599 Professor Logan Is Ready for a Third World War!. Henry Winston 611 Colombia Faces the Imperialist Offensive Augusto Doran 619 The Further Development of Capitalism in United States Agriculture Erik Bert 623 The Treason of Reaction in America's Second War of Independence Frank Meyer and Robert Strong 635 Space and Time--Forms of the Existence of Matter George Kursa·nov 652

Entered as second ctass matter November 2, 1927, at the Post Office at New York, N.Y., under the Act of March- 3, 1879. Send checks, money orders and correspondence to THE COMMUNIST, P. 0. Box 148, Sta. D (50 East 13th Street), New York. Subscription rate: $2.00 a year; $1.00 for six months; foreign and Canada $2.50 a year. Single copies 20 cents.

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Wages and Profits in Wartime, by Labor Research Association $.05 Trade Unions and Negro Workers, by George Morris .03 Communism and Culture, by Earl Browder . .05 Trends in the Labor Movement, by Roy Hudson . .03 The Railroad Workers and the War, by William Z. Foster .03 The Communist Party of the U.S.A.: Its History, Role and Organization, by Earl Browder .05 Earl Browder Says .02 Old Jim Crow Has Got To Go, by Henry Winston. .01 The Negro in the Abolitionist Movement, by Herbert Aptheker . .15 Free Earl Browder!, by Robert Minor . .0 I The Path of Browder and Foster . .03 Socialism: The Road to Peace, Prosperity and Freedom, by William Z. Foster . .05 Bright and Morning Star, by Richard Wright . .15 The Hollow Men, by Michael Gold .25 The Constitution of the Communist Party of the U.S.A. .05 • Order from WORKERS LIBRARY PUBLISHERS P. 0. Box 148, Station D, New York, N.Y. SUPPORT THE U.S.S.R. IN ITS FIGHT AGAINST NAZI WAR!

(Statement of the Communist Party, U.S.A., June 22, 1941.)

HE armed assault by German The Soviet Union adopted and pur­ T fascism and its satellites against sued a consistent policy of neutrality the Soviet Union is an unprovoked toward both sides in the imperialist criminal attack upon the greatest war, a policy based upon rendering champion of peace, freedom and na­ aid to those nations that were wag­ tional independence-the land of ing a just struggle for national in­ socialism. This military aggression dependence and liberty. It aids the by the fascist rulers of Germany is Chinese people as it aided the also an attack upon the people of Spanish Republic. It liberated the Germany. It is an attack likewise peoples of the Western Ukraine, upon the peoples of the United White Russia, Bessarabia, and the States and of the entire world. Baltic states. It fought against the With the fullest support of all its extension and prolongation of the people, the Soviet Government is war. Thus it served the best inter- now waging a struggle not only in ests of the working class and peo­ defense of its socialist land but also ples of the entire world. in defense of the most vital interests The reactionaries and imperialists of the peoples in all countries. It is of both sides have opposed and con­ waging a just struggle for the cause spired against the peace and neu­ of the freedom of all nations and trality of the Soviet Union. They peoples. sought to drag the Soviet Union into Since its inception the Soviet the imperialist war. Union has consistently and courage­ Now the rulers of fascist Ger- ously fought for peace among the many, in their desperate struggle nations, for preventing war and with their imperialist rivals in Eng­ checking aggression. When the Mu­ land and the United States, and in nich conspirators secured the upper mortal fear of the oppressed masses hand in the ruling circles of the in Germany and in all the countries capitalist countries they destroyed ravaged and enslaved by Germany, existing possibilities for collective have seen fit to lay their criminal security, thereby making the second hands upon the Soviet Union. imperialist world war inevitable. Hitler is calling upon his friends 579 580 SUPPORT THE U.S.S.R. and supporters in all the capitalist ers, toiling farmers, the Negro countries to join hands in war masses, the middle classes-all those against the Soviet Union, in war who hate fascism and oppression against the working people and op­ and cherish peace and liberty, will pressed masses throughout the see in the cause of the Soviet Union world. The rulers of fascist Ger­ and its peoples the cause of all ad­ many are dangling before the impe­ vanced and progressive mankind. rialists of all countries, especially in They should defeat every attempt at England and the United States, the a new Munich conspiracy. They vision of a new Munich, a new con­ should strive for active friendship spiracy to redivide the world at the and fraternal solidarity with the expense of the peoples of all nations, peoples of the Soviet Union. to crush the Soviet Union, to ex­ terminate democracy in Europe and Down with the criminal war of to strengthen reaction throughout German fascism against the Sooiet the world. This was the message Union! Hess brouiht to England. The For full StUpport and cooperation friends of fascism in the United with the Soviet Union in its strug­ States and England are reaching out gle against Hitlerism! for this reactionary vision. The Against all those reactionaries of Scripps-Howard press, just before eveTy stripe who seek in any manner the attack of Hitler began, cynically to aid Hitler's attack against the declared, "That's one war we could Soviet Union! really favor.... " This is likewise For a people's peace based upon the position of the Social-Demo­ the liberation and independence of cratic lickspittles of big capital, who all nations! have long been demanding war WILLIAM Z. FOSTER, Chairman against the Soviet Union. ROBERT MINOR, Acting Secretary The American people--the work- Communist Party, U.S.A. YANKEE IMPERIALISM GRABS FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE

BY WILLIAM Z. FOSTER

The United States and the to the Soviet borders and is fighting World War for world hegemony. The French, Dutch and Belgian empires have HE present war constitutes a been decapitated and their rich col­ T violent redivision of the world onies exposed to imperialist sharks among the great imperialist pow- on the rampage. The British empire ers. The main motive power behind is fighting for its life, with its back the savage struggle for markets, to the wall. raw materials, colonies and strate- United States imperialism is up to its eyes in this bloody and ruthless gic positions is the ever-deepening struggle for empire. It is already in general crisis of the obsolete and the war economically, financially rotting world capitalist system. As- and diplomatically, and its Wall sertions that either group of the Street government is now watching warring powers is fighting for de- for a favorable opportunity to vio­ mocracy and civilization are an in- late the will to peace of the Amer­ sult to the people's intelligence. ican people by plunging the coun- In the war's saturnalia of rapine, try into the war fully as an active destruction and conquest the sev- belligerent. The strongest imperial­ era! capitalist great powers are tear- ist power, naturally the United ing one another's empires to pieces, States is setting itself no modest enslaving semi-colonial lands, sub- goals in the war. It, too, is fighting jugating hitherto independent small for world hegemony. This Henry capitalist countries, and maneuver- Luce, Senator Pepper and other ing to attack the greatest prize of outspoken imperialists are making ·all, the U.S.S.R. Old empires have increasingly clear, and President been shattered and new, jerry-built Roosevelt has told us of the "four ones are being constructed almost freedoms" that the United States is overnight. Japan has seized vast out to enforce upon the world. At areas of China and prepares to the moment United States imperial­ grab Indo-China, the Dutch East ism, in its fight for world empire, Indies, the Philippines and other finds it profitable to go along in choice morsels. Italy overran Ethio- alliance with Great Britain, but it pia, only to have it snatched away will undoubtedly make any other again by Great Britain. Germany is arrangements it may deem neces­ building a monstrous system of im- sary to further its imperialist perialist control over all Europe up interests. 581 582 GRABBING FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE Greedy-eyed, American imperial­ rivals and from the peoples it aims ists are now mulling over the most to enslave; but on the whole its im­ grandiose plans of world conquest. perialist offensive is registering dis­ Singapore, Dakar, the Azores, Aus­ tinct progress. Every country in the tralia, China, the Dutch East In­ Western Hemisphere confronts a dies and Greenland are some of the serious danger-to its national· in­ far-flung places which the Yankee dependence and to the general wel­ imperialists hope eventually to fare of its people-from the present bring under United States control. militant advance of United States But the basis of all their imperial­ imperialism. istic dreamings and schemings is the conquest of the Western Hemi­ The Strategy of Hemisphere sphere. From Hudson's Bay to Cape Conquest Horn, United States imperialism In its drive to transform the must rule unchallenged, declare whole Western Hemisphere into its these people. The three Americas main base, Yankee imperialism is are to be the special "lebensraum" not at the moment, within the of the United States, from which all Hemisphere countries proper, using other imperialist powers must keep the ruthless methods of military in­ their hands. To rule the Western vasion employed by rampant Jap­ Hemisphere as its very own is con­ anese imperialism in East Asia and sidered the God-given destiny of by German imperialism in Europe the United States. Within the camp and Africa. Its offensive is being of the American bourgeoisie there carried on by a system of "peace­ exist considerable differences as to ful" economic penetration and ex­ the wisdom of the war alliance with ternal political pressure, masked by Great Britain, but regarding the an elaborate propaganda of friendly conquest of the Western Hemi­ intentions. But behind all this looms sphere they stand almost unani­ the deadly threat of the gigantic and mous. On this question the "isola­ swiftly growing military, naval and tionists" Hoover, Lindbergh, La­ air forces of the Colossus of the Follette, Wheeler and Norman North. Thomas are tucked snugly in the Each of the many countries of the same political bed with the "inter­ two continents which Wall Street ventionists" Roosevelt, Willkie, claims as its very own presents an Hull, Knox, Pepper, Wallace, Green individual problem for the Yankee and Hillman. imperialists. Especially Ca111ada. Yankee imperialism, in its plans That country, with a population of for the conquest of the Western over 11,000,000, is a formally inde­ Hemisphere, has a twofold task-to pendent state, highly industrialized, drive out its chief imperialist rivals, an imperialist state in its own right England and Germany, and to force (having outstanding foreign invest­ the submission of the many Ameri­ ments of over two billion dollars), can peoples to its imperial will. and it is a pillar of the British Em­ Upon both aspects it is now dili­ pire. Its national independence, gently working. Resistance it is however, is considerably limited, meeting, both from its imperialist because the bulk of its vital in- GRABBING FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE 583 dustries are owned by American intensified its efforts to dominate all and British capitalists, its foreign of Latin America. At the Panama policy is largely formulated by (October, 1939) and Havana (July, the British Cabinet, and it lacks a 1941) conferences of the twenty-one navy and other armed forces capa­ American Republics (Canada ex­ ble of defending the country. The cepted) the broad outlines were aim of Wall Street is to shift the laid for this program of imperialist control of this important land into conquest. Briefly stated, the plan the hands of the Washington gov­ consists of lining up all the Latin ernment, in the guise of a sort of American countries in a bloc under junior (very junior) partner in the United States leadership, on the "New Order" that United States basis of policies of neutrality and imperialism hopes to set up in the peace, hemisphere defense, the ad­ Western Hemisphere. At the mo­ justment of inter-state quarrels, the ment, the Yankee imperialists have suppression of "subversive" activi­ an interest in keeping Canada with­ ties, and a cooperative handling of in the British Empire, since this the serious economic problems that helps to hold it in the war and also are harassing all the three Amer­ enables American capital invested icas. The whole program, stripped in Canada to get behind the Em­ of the sugary phrases of Roosevelt, pire's tariff barriers and to enjoy Hull and Wallace and. boiled down its protected trade. In the likely to reality, amounts to flinging the event, however, of the serious doors wide open for Yankee impe­ weakening or break-up of the Brit­ rialism to realize its objectives of ish Empire during this war, un­ subjugating the Latin American doubtedly the United States would countries by colonializing their take definite steps to bring Canada economies, dictating their internal under its "protecting" wing. political life, restricting their na­ The Latin American countries tional independence, exploiting also present many special problems. their peoples and natural resources, In general, however, the policy of and using these countries en bloc as Yankee imperialism is to reduce a great base to further its unfold­ them to the status of near-colonial ing warlike plans of world impe­ dependencies of the United States, rialist conquest. with special concentration upon se­ curing a firmer grip upon the coun­ The Drive for Military Domination tries north of the South American The main means for the proposed "bulge," particularly in the Carib­ Yankee conquest of the Western bean area. This conquest is being Hemisphere is the gigantic armed pushed by means of economic, polit­ force that the United States is now ical, ideological and military pene­ Swiftly building. This already dwarfs tration. that of any other country of the Hardly had the present world three Americas. The New York war begun than the United States, Post (May 26) in the spirit of bla­ seeing that its chief imperialist ri­ tant American imperialism, boasts vals were busy elsewhere, greatly that within one year the United 584 GRABBING FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE States is "going to be able to lick change for 50 "obsolete" naval de­ the world." That this great military stroyers, England was made to con­ establishment will be used, among cede the United States bases in its its other predatory purposes, to Western Hemisphere possessions, dominate the weaker American including Newfoundland, Bermuda, countries only the most naive can Jamaica, Trinidad, Antigua, Saint disbelieve. Lucia and British Guiana. The Among the products of the 40 United States Government now is billion dollars which the Roosevelt also busily bringing pressure to Administration is now recklessly bear upon various Latin American spending for armaments, is, first, countries for the establishment of the contemplated 4,000,000-man a tight ring of strategically situated mechanized army, which is specific­ air and naval bases to surround all ally authorized by law to operate in of Central and South America. Latin America. Then there is the At the present moment, under great two-ocean navy, which al­ the provisions of the so-called Act ready patrols and dominates all of Havana, which prohibits the Western Hemisphere waters, and transfer of American colonies from which is scheduled to be the most one European belligerent power to powerful navy in world history. another, after taking over Green­ Finally, there is the air force, now land, the United States is now con­ swiftly growing and planned even­ templating the seizure of the French tually to number a minimum of colonies of Martinique,· Guadaloupe, 50,000 of the most modem and pow­ St. Pierre and Miquelon, French erful airplanes. And all this vast Guiana and Clipperton Island. Fur­ armament is backed up by the thermore, the United States is mak­ great industries and huge man­ ing "mutual defense" pacts with power of the United States. neighboring American countries With this strong and growing (examples, Canada and Mexico) armed force the Roosevelt Govern­ which weaken the military position ment is proceeding rapidly to sur­ of these countries as against that of round the entire Western Hemi­ the United States. The Pan-Amer­ sphere with a network of air and ican Highway, the new road naval bases. At the same time the through Canada to Alaska, and the concept of what constitutes the securing of many American-con­ Western Hemisphere is stretched to trolled airlines in Latin America all Asia from one side and Europe and go in the same general direction of Africa on the other. The already es­ Yankee military mastery. tablished United States bases in This vast web of United States Hawaii, Alaska, Cuba, the Aleu­ armed bases and military works, de­ tian Islands, Guam, Wake and Sa­ signed at once to keep away rivals moa, as well as those along the of Yankee imperialism and to dom­ United States coasts have been inate Canada and the 20 Latin enormously strengthened. Bases are American republics, is being estab­ also undoubtedly contemplated for lished in the name of a joint hemi­ Greenland, the Azores, Dakar and sphere defense. Special stress is laid the Cape Verde Islands. In ex- upon the "joint" character of the GRABBING FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE 585 ••defense" by the Yankee imperial­ offensive to dominate it econom­ ists to hide their predatory pur­ ically. The general objectives of poses. Thus, the "defense pacts" this economic offensive are: (a) to with Canada and Mexico are for­ drive out British and German im­ mally two-sided, but with the Unit­ perialism from Latin American ed States possessing the over­ markets and economic life, and (b) whelmingly greater military might to colonialize the economies of the it is not hard to guess where the Latin American countries, so that deciding influence will lie. Thus, these lands should become suppliers also, the colonies taken over from of raw materials and buyers of fin­ belligerents (Martinique, for ex­ ished products from the industries ample) are supposed to be admin­ of the United States. Toward Can­ istered by representatives of all the ada the policy is more one of ab­ 21 American republics; but, as sorption into the United States in­ things now stand, in such situa­ dustrial system. tions, the United States vote (with The war has greatly facilitated its puppet supportersr would out­ the weakening economically of its weigh the rest. Then, too, the· air imperialist rivals in Latin America and naval bases in the Latin Amer­ by Yankee imperialism. Germany ican countries are to be nominally has been largely cut off and Eng­ the property and in the control of land, up to its neck in war in Eu­ the respective countries upon whose rope and Africa, cannot pay the soil they are situated, and they are closest attention to its Latin Amer­ to be used jointly by all the Amer­ ican interests. Also the Latin Amer­ ican republics. But with the United ican countries, weakened by the States furnishing the money to build loss of European markets and with them and having the mai.Il air and their economies badly disordered, naval forces to man them, who can are less able to resist the economic doubt that decisive control would pressure of the United States. So be exercised by the United States? Yankee imperialism has a relatively The Chilean Defense Minister, Ju­ clear field and is making the most venal Hernandez, was right in stat­ of it. ing that "The ceding of bases does The United States Government not imply cooperation but submis­ has set up a network of institutions sion." The present great drive of and activities with which to push the United States to surround the its economic conquest over the whole Western Hemisphere with an 125,000,000 Latin Americans. One iron ring of its armed forces is a important instrument is the Inter­ menacing threat to the national in­ American Financial and Economic dependence of every other country Advisory Committee, formed after in the two continents. the Panama Conference of October, 1939, composed of 21 economic ex­ The Economic Offensive perts from all the American repub­ Yankee imperialism's drive to lics, and with headquarters in dominate the Western Hemisphere Washington. The functions of this militarily is supported by a strong committee are to deal with the eco- 586 GRABBING FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE nomic problems of all the Amer­ In accordance with the principles icas--banking, currency, interna­ of colonial policy long since devel­ tional exchange, commercial rela­ oped by Great Britain, these loans tions, treaties, imports and exports, were primarily directed to the pur­ "customs and the development of poses of furthering United States new enterprises, credits and invest­ trade and the creation of raw ma­ ments. The committee is completely terial sources necessary for Amer­ dominated by agents of Yankee im­ ican .industries and non-competitive perialism. It has a permanent work­ with them. Thus the loans provide ing commission, known as the Inter­ that the agricultural preducts, rail­ American Development Commis­ way equipment, construction mate­ sion, significantly headed by Nelson rials, etc., should all be purchased A. Rockefeller. This whole appara­ in the United States and transport­ tus functions financially through the ed in its ships. The colonial char­ Inter-American Bank, which is acter of the United States loans to dominated by United States Gov­ Latin America was further made ernment agents and puppets. clear by the plan of inter-American To provide the blood stream for development, presented to the Eco­ its various schemes of economic nomic Advisory Committee by Car­ conquest, the United States Gov­ los Davila, former President of ernment has resumed and is stead­ Chile and a "warm friend" of the ily increasing the export of capital United States State Department. It to Latin America, which had vir­ is also explicitly stated by Mr. tually dried up during the 1930's Henry A. Wallace, Vice President, because of the chaotic economic in his book, The American Choice. conditions then prevailing. Credits Mr. Wallace would have Latin recently authorized up to December America produce "commodities 31, 1940, to Latin American coun­ which we need and are accUstomed tries by the Export-Import Bank, to import" and also tropical agri­ according to the Bulletin of the Na­ cultural products not grown in the tional Foreign Trade Council (Feb. United States. Such a scheme, to 1941), totaled $255,607,000, as fol­ make Latin American economy lows: "complementary" to United States Argentina ...... $62,670,000 economy and non-competitive with Brazil ...... 112,127,000 it, would deny the Latin American Chile ...... 19,425,000 countries the necessary rounded­ Colombia ...... 10,004,500 out industrialization. It would ren­ Costa Rica ...... 5,600,000 der them economically and polit­ Cuba ...... 4,000,000 ically subordinate to and dependent Dominican Republic ...... 3,000,000 upon the United States. This would Ecuador ...... 1,150,000 still further emphasize their present Haiti ...... 5,500,000 semi-colonial character. Mexico ...... 500,000 While advancing such colonial Nicaragua ...... 2,500,000 Panama ...... 4,500,000 schemes, the United States is also Paraguay ...... 3,500,000 conducting a militant trade drive Peru ...... 10,000,000 generally to capture the markets of Uruguay ...... 7,500,000 Latin America. A sample of the Venezuela ...... 3,600,000 methods used, reported exultantly GRABBING FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE 587 by Nelson A. Rockefeller to a Toward Canada the Yankee im­ group of New York business men perialists have, as already stated, a (The N. Y. Times, May 12), is to policy of absorption. Canada is al­ cut off trade relations between ready a highly industrialized coun­ United States business concerns and try. American investments there, Latin American companies that do totaling almost $4,000,000,000, are business with Axis firms. Said Mr. almost equal to the United States Rockefeller, "We have communi­ investments throughout all Latin cated with 17,000 companies inter­ America. Exports to Canada from ested in export trade and have re­ the United States in 1939 (now quested them to use care in taking enormously increased by the war on new representatives and ac­ boom) were five times as great as counts." United States exports to Brazil, One of the newest schemes to which has 41h times as large a pop­ corral the trade of Latin America ulation as Canada. While protecting for Yankee imperialists (N. Y. themselv:es by high tariffs from Times, May 29) is to establish a Canadian competition, the Ameri­ joint export control over "war ma­ can capitalists are increasing their terials" by the United States and financial grip upon Canadian econ­ the 20 Latin American republics. omy, while that of British impe­ Considering the predominant rialism is declining. This process strength of the United States, the has been going on fo~ ·many years effects of this agreement, if con­ and is now becoming more marked. summated, would be (a), to give British investments · in Canada this country a more solid grip upon (mostly in public utilities) reached Latin American export and import a maximum of 21h billions by 1914, trade, and (b), to force more def­ while United States investments initely the Latin American peoples (mostly in basic industries) only into the world war program of Yan­ getting under way by that date, kee imperialism. reached a high total of 4 billion By the same token, the so-called dollars by 1932. American Customs Union, adopted Now, with the war on, the gap by the American Conference of between British and United States Associations of Commerce and Pro­ investments in Canada is widening. duction at Montevideo, Jan. 3, 1941, Great Britain, to pay for her war would enormously favor United purchases in Canada, is being forced States trade as against that of its to liquidate large amounts of her imperialist rivals and of the rela­ financial holdings there. Since the tively weaker Latin American coun­ war began this liquidation amounts tries. to about $300,000,000. In 1941 her Fortune, organ of big business, in deficit on Canadian war orders its May number, boldly expresses is expected to total $1,150,000,000, the predatory purposes behind the which the Canadians are expected present American economic offen­ to meet on a "lend-lease" basis. sive in Latin America, stating, "The Meanwhile, the Yankee imperialists South American market must be are losing no opportunity to im­ closed; it must become an exclusive prove their trade and financial posi­ U. S. trade area." tion in Cuada. Says Tim Buck, in 588 GRABBING FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE

his articl~ in The Communist for ness. No electoral sovereignty or December, 1940: "The bourgeoisie internal democracy can be permit­ anticipates big loans from the United ted if it happens not to be pro­ States in the near future and the United States. Uncooperative gov­ ernments will find credits called financial press made no bones about and refused, markets closed, their the belief that Secretary Morgan­ -internal economies thrown into cri­ thau's recent 'vacation' in Canada sis, their political rivals publicly concerned such loans." smiled on, and perhaps privately subsidized." Political Pressure In Chile, through its instruments The United States Government, Davila, Grove and Schnake, Yan­ together with its growing military kee imperialism recently tried, un­ domination of the Western Hemi­ successfully, to break down the sphere and its attempts to control Popular Front and to secure a gov­ the economy of this vast and rich ernment more amenable to its de­ area, is also increasingly interfer­ mands. A loan was held out as a ing in the political life of the peo­ bait to the reactionaries for doing ples of the three Americas. This this work. In Cuba the recently at­ Yankee political interference takes tempted coup d'etat against Presi­ place with regard to the composi­ dent Batista was organized by tion of the governments of these Cuban reactionary elements and peoples, the character of t}J.e masses' United States intriguers, who hoped political discussion, the nature of that by ousting Batista the plans of their states' international trade re­ U. S. imperialism could be more lations, the disposition of specific readily executed. United States po­ legislation, and the general orien­ litical pressure against Mexico is tation of these countries toward also an old story. There were lately the vital questions of peace and the cases of silver and oil, as well ~ar. Innumerable examples might as the insolent attempt of the Dies be cited of this expanding tendency Committee to "investigate" Mexi­ of the United States to dictate po­ can internal affairs. And in the re­ litically to the rest of the countries cent national election U. S. plotters of the whole hemisphere, to the det­ worked openly to put into power riment of their welfare and free­ the near-fascist Almazan and now dom. they are busy taking the present Fortru.ne, in its May number, cyn­ President, Camacho, into camp. ically exposes the ruthlessness of Said Secretary Encina of the Com­ Yankee imperialist policy in this munist Party of Mexico at its re­ respect. It says: cent Congress:

"Those governments that will "The Yankee government and play ball with the United States bankers furthered the plans of Al­ can expect aid. . . . But those that mazan to organize an armed strug­ will not play ball can expect inter­ gle in order to assault the power vention of diverse degrees of sharp- of the state and to implant a reac- GRABBING FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE 589 tionary dictatorship, submissive to growing interference of the Yankee the orders and wishes of Wall imperialists in Canadian affairs oc­ Street." curred recently in connection with the national budget. Finance Min­ Similar examples of U. S. pres­ ister nsley had proposed to levy a sure are to be found in almost every tax of 15 per cent upon interest other Latin American country. By payments made to nationals of for­ the withholding or granting of eign countries. This hit the nearly loans, by refusing trade advantages, half billion dollars that United and by other means, weaker states States capitalists are sucking yearly are forced to make concessions. By out of the Canadian people, so they various forms of bribery corrupt made a big protest. Says Thomas C. politicians· are won for the service Sims in the InteT-Continent News of Yankee imperialism. Panama of May 13: "Ottawa, the capital of was "induced" to cede a new strip Canada, was invaded last week. of land for the Panama Canal; Bo­ They came by air, in special char­ livia was "encouraged" to yield on tered planes and in Pullman cars. Standard Oil Company properties They were not Germans, but Amer­ previously expropriated; Peru, upon icans, high-ranking representatives U. S. insistence, took over the Ger­ of J. P. Morgan and other Wall man Lufthansa; Colombia has can­ Street tycoons. Their object: to celed the German airline Scadta change the Canadian budget." And and replaced it by American planes they succeeded. Mr. Ilsley dropped and personnel; Nicaragua is now his proposal. being brought into line to cede a In the general Pan-American route for a new canal doubly to conferences the United States protect United States lines of com­ makes a great show of democracy, munication, etc., etc. Similar pres­ of dealing with the Latin American sure was generally exercised to countries as political equals. But have the Latin American govern­ this is window dressing. For the ments condemn the U.S.S.R. during most part the meetings of the Pan­ the Finnish war. Pressure was also American Union confine themselves used to get them to seize the Axis to broad political generalities. powers' ships in their harbors. When it comes to concrete action Upon Canada also United States the United States usually has its pressure is being exerted. The way by getting results through the Roosevelt Administration is defi­ various sub-committees which are nitely supporting the amenable Mac­ loaded up with its agents or pup­ kenzie King Government and urg­ pets, or, especially, by taking up ing it on to a greater war effort. such important matters as loans, What the Yankee imperialists really tariffs, air bases, etc., with the in­ think about Canadian national dividual countries, which are thus rights was expressed by Colonel placed at a huge disadvantage in Lindbergh when he insolently de­ dealing singly with the more pow­ nied the right of Canada to wage erful United States. Especially dic­ war without the consent of the tatorial is the attitude of the U.S. to­ United States. An instance of the ward the Caribbean countries. 590 GRABBING FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE Political pressure by the United convince the suspicious Latin States upon Latin America and Americans that the United States Canada now comes to a focus in means only good for their prosper­ the general plan of Yankee impe­ ity and national independence. rialism to use all these countries Vice President Wallace, on I Am en bloc to further its world plans an American Day, glibly spoke of "a of conquest. 'rhe Lima, Panama and super-citizenship in America, the Havana Conferences were all car­ Western Hemisphere, where nations ried on under heavy American earnestly try to settle their disputes pressure, directed to achieve this peacefully, without lying, treaty­ central purpose. The whole object breaking or aggression." Special ef­ has been to precipitate all the coun­ forts are being made to corrupt the tries of the Western Hemisphere in­ intellectuals of Latin America. to the war under United States This imperialist "educational" hegemony, despite the will to peace work is being conducted by that of their peoples. The latest step in outstanding defender of freedom, carrying out this grandiose impe­ Mr. Nelson A. Rockefeller. How his rialist scheme was President Roose­ committee works is indicated in an velt's "unlimited emergency" speech article by Ricardo M. Setaro of of May 27. Without in any way con­ Buenos Aires in the Inter-Continent sulting the Latin American people News, dated May 24: or their governments (even as he flouted the United States Congress "Simultaneously 360 daily news­ and the anti-war sentiments of the papers in Latin America began to American people) Mr. Roosevelt, publish weekly full page advertise­ ments inviting Latin Americans to speaking in the name of the whole visit the United States. . . . It is Western Hemisphere, outlined a estimated that this advertising cam­ · policy that constitutes virtually an paign will cost nearly $10,000,000. undeclared war against Germany This sum is being invested by the and dictatorially sought to commit committee headed by Nelson Rocke­ all the nations of the three Amer­ feller." icas to it. To line up the Latin American The Ideological Campaign countries behind the war program of the United States the central slo­ Supporting its program of mili­ gan is that of "Hemisphere de­ tary, economic and political expan­ fense." As the people of the United sion, the United States Government States are being tricked and pushed is also conducting an active ideo­ into the war by the Roosevelt Ad­ logical drive throughout the West­ ministration under pretenses of ern Hemisphere. In Latin America peace and national defense, so the this is based upon the so-called same general line is being followed Good Neighbor policy. Every effort to involve the peace-loving Latin is being made-through radio, mov­ American peoples. The Pan-Amer­ ies, press, diplomatic circles, busi­ ican Union, dominated by the ness channels, delegations to and United States, is pursuing a course from the United States, etc.-to that leads toward war. Its realized GRABBING FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE 591 or proposed policies of the conti­ American internal affairs is empha­ nental 300-mile safety belt, the sized by Mr. Wallace in his book, occupation of foreign-held colonies, The American Choice: the seizure of Axis ships, the con­ trol of exports, the establishment of "Our intentions toward all neigh­ United States controlled naval-air bors on this hemisphere are peace­ bases, the vigorous anti-Soviet and ful, but our swords and the Latin American neighbors' must be sharp anti-German propaganda cam­ enough to deal promptly with any paigns, are all measures not in the open or underhand effort to carry interest of peace, but of war and out on this hemisphere the methods Yankee imperialist expansion. that ruined Europe.'' The United States is putting teeth· into its ideological campaign for This rhetoric, translated· into life, the "Good Neighbor" policy and means Wall Street's Big Stick pol­ "Hemisphere defense" by direct icy for the hemisphere. pressure upon public opinion in The social-reformists are, in the Latin America. At the Havana Con­ main, serving as willing tools of ference, upon Secretary Hull's in­ Yankee imperialism in Latin Amer­ sistence, a resolution was adopted ica. The American Federation of providing for joint action against Labor leadership has resurrected "subversive" activities. Following the almost forgotten Pan-American this up, United States agents are Federation of Labor and is embark­ now to be found allied with local ing upon a campaign to break up reactionaries throughout Central Latin American trade union oppo­ and South America in every move­ sition to the plans of the Wall ment against the trade unions, the Street imperialists. The Socialist popular fronts, the Communist Par­ Parties in various Latin American ties, and the liberties generally of countries, with their characteristic the Latin American peoples. theory that United States imperial­ At present the Pan-American ism is "better" than German impe­ Union, upon U. S. initiation, is sub­ rialism, are also active instruments mitting a questionnaire to all the of the Yankee imperialists in un­ Latin American governments, in­ dermining the peoples' resistance. quiring minutely into "subversive" Thus, says Marmaduke Grove, out­ activities in their countries and re­ standing leader of the Socialist garding the measures that are being Party of Chile: "Between these two taken against them. This is obvi­ imperialisms, the Socialist Party of ously the prelude to an effort to Chile, having to make an agreement foist upon the Latin American peo­ that would permit the safeguarding ples a body of legislation restric­ of our independence and an imme­ tive of their liberties. It is an at­ diate economic adjustment of our tempt to make the United States future, considers the democratic Department of Justice into a sort imperialism as the most likely." of general supervisor over the po­ Canada, as well as Latin America, lice departments of the Latin Ameri­ is also undergoing heavy ideological can countries. The growing Amer­ pressure from the United States. ican interference with Latin The American radio, press, movies, 592 GRABBING FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE etc., are now carrying on an un­ has made Hemisphere advances, to precedented deluge of propaganda the detriment of Great Britain and in Canada, singing the praises of Germany. Through the Pan-Amer­ United States imperialism. This ican Union, which the United States propaganda, although somewhat controls and dominates, it has man­ less condescending in tone than that aged to secure, to its own great ad­ directed toward Latin America, vantage, some degree of unity, how­ has a "big brother" note in it that ever .shaky, of the 20 Latin Amer­ forecasts the minor role intended ic.an republics behind its imperial­ for Canada. In the campaign to ist plan of "Hemisphere defense." strengthen the Yankee grip upon In many Latin American countries, Canada, the American reformist Yankee influence over the corrupt leaders of the A. F. of L., Railroad ruling political circles has also been Brotherhoods, and C.I.O., who offi­ substantially increased. Especially cially control most of the Canadian is this true of the countries in the trade union movement, are doing Caribbean area. Moreover, an in­ their full part; while the Social­ crease of American political influ­ Democratic political organizations in ence in Canada is to be noted. Canada, by supporting the Anglo­ By their economic offensive the American war alliance, are also Yankee imperialists have also easing the march of the Wall Street strengthened themselves in the imperialists into Canada. markets of Latin America. The Labor Fact Book 5 (page 24) The Inter-Imperialist Struggle states that, "During the first year By means of all the maneuvers of the war U. S. exports to Latin and campaigns described above, America rose 42 per cent over the Yankee imperialism has greatly previous 12-month period." And strengthened its position in the Mr. Nelson A. Rockefeller (N. Y. Western Hemisphere at the ex­ Times, May 12) asserts, "In the pense of its chief imperialist rivals, first quarter of 1941 our purchases Great Britain and Germany, and [from Latin America] were 41 per also at the cost of the many Amer­ cent higher than in the first quarter ican peoples. The spreading of the of 1940." Meanwhile, England's great American Hemisphere mili­ trade in this vast area remains vir­ tary network has definitely given tually at stationary levels, while the United States a big advantage. that of Germany, because of the Especially has England's position British blockade, has been almost been weakened in the New World. completely wiped out. As R. P. Dutt says in the New Great Britain and Germany, how­ Masses (Dec. 17, 1940) regarding ever, are not standing idly by while the new American bases in British the United States strives to oust colonies in the Americas: "In spite them from this great and rich ter­ of all the anxious denials of any ritory. At the Lima, Panama· and change of sovereignty . . . the lease Havana conferences they tried to of ninety-nine years is equivalent block the path of Yankee imperial­ to cession." ism, but with no important success. Politically also, the United States Both of them, too, are resisting GRABBING FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE 593 every step to extend United States able to buy more than 50 per cent trade in Latin America. Even dur­ of their exportable commodities. ing the. war England has sent im­ The Resistance of the Peoples portant trade delegations into South America to strengthen its trade Throughout the Western Hemi­ sphere Yankee imperialism, with lines, and tried, ineffectively, a its program of war, conquest, en­ price-cutting trade war against the slavement and exploitation, is meet­ United States in Arg~ntina. Ger­ ing with increasing opposition from many, with its restricted means, the popular masses of the various also stubbornly resists Yankee pen­ countries. In Latin America espe­ etration, and Japan is carrying on cially, this opposition is acute and a big trade drive in the West Coast growing. It is also to be found in South· American countries. Canada and in the U. S. itself. In Canada, also, British imperial­ The national liberation move­ ism is stubbornly contesting the ment in Latin America has grown economic; and political encroach­ greatly in the last few years. The ments of Yankee imperialism. trade unions have become strong Despite its successes, however, (Mexico 600,000; Chile 350,000; the United States has by no means Cuba 300,000; Argentina 300,000); decisively defeated its imperialist the peasant movement has also rivals in the Western Hemisphere: made big strides; the students and Increasingly, Latin America will professionals have become active; become a rich stake and a battle­ and some sections of the native ground in the world struggle of the bourgeoisie have been drawn into imperialist powers. After the war the movement. The national liber­ this territory doubtless will be the ation struggle has reached its high­ scene of a fierce trade struggle; es­ est expression so far in the Popular pecially should the Nazis emerge Front movement of Chile, Mexico militarily victorious or semi-victor­ and Cuba, and in pronounced pro­ ious. The Nazis have their greedy gressive trends in Argentina, Co­ eyes fastened upon Latin America, lombia, Venezuela and other coun­ and if opportunity presents, will try tries. The Communist Parties are to impose upon it a slavery even playing a big role in all this demo­ worse than that which they have cratic development. More and more forced upon the occupied countries the vast popular forces are putting in Europe. Germany has a strong themselves athwart the path of ad­ trade organization and a powerful vancing Yankee imperialism. In­ grip upon the armies and govern­ creasingly the many peoples sense ments of many Latin American the danger of the active military, states; it also knows· how to utilize economic and political policies of demagogically the sentiments of the the United States and are making masses against Yankee imperialism; resistance to the maneuvers of the and, most important, it will exploit American imperialists. the fact that the Latin American The Latin American peoples do peoples are compelled to trade with not take kindly to the type of inter­ Europe, as the United States is un- American "unity" developed by the 594 GRABBING FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE Pan-American Union, despite the. America remember vividly that seeming unanimity of their politi­ between 1900 and 1929 United cal heads at the various confer­ States armed forces were used 36 ences of this body. They sense in times against their countries. So this so-called Pan-American unity far, despite heavy pressure, the de­ a developing United States domina­ sired bases have not been conoeded tion. Consequently, very few of by any countries outside of the Ca­ the decisions of the Pan-American ribbean area. Fortune (May) gives Union conferences have been rati­ an irikling of mass Latin American fied by the respective Latin resistance on this question: American governments. This is "Opposition to the bases among true of the vital resolutions the Argentine people is universal adopted by the Havana Conference. and unanimous. Most significant Alarmed at this situation, bour­ proof is that no political leader, geois leaders in Latin America are even one who is pro-U.S., has dared now demanding an immediate con­ come out openly in favor of them. ference of the various American It would be political suicide under Republics, "so that an emergency democratic procedure. . . . Across would not find this hemisphere as the Plata estuary they have had disunited as the Balkans were." (N. before their eyes an obvious object Y. Times, June 3.) lesson. President Baldomir of Uru­ guay, who publicly supported the The peoples of Latin America, bases, is fighting for his political sharing popular opinion in the life." United States and Canada, do not want the war that the Roosevelt The Latin American peoples are Government is trying to force them also resisting the political in­ into. A writer in Fortune (May) trigues of Yankee imperialism in says that in Argentina, "The their respective countries. Witness slogans of 'neutrality' and 'national how they defeated the putsch liberation' bring wild cheers from against Batista in Cuba, the pro­ audiences," and the same is also jected Almazan revolt in Mexico true in every other country of the and also the attempt to destroy Western Hemisphere. President the Chilean Popular Front. In the Roosevelt's belligerent "fireside same anti-imperialist spirit the chat" of May 27, in which, arbi­ peoples of Colombia and Venezuela trarily setting aside democratic have recently carried through pro­ processes, he undertook to outline a gressive national elections. Many war program for the hemisphere, similar anti-imperialist move­ was received coldly, even in official ments are to be noted in Argentina, circles, in the countries south of Bolivia, Peru, Puerto Rico, etc. the "bulge" that are least under Resistance to Yankee imperialism United States domination. is also found in the economic Latin American opinion also op­ sphere, as evidenced by the refqsal poses the establishment of air­ of Chile to accept an American loan naval bases with which the United upon the hard terms laid down, and States is trying to encircle the by the insistence by Brazil that it Hemisphere. The peoples of Latin be allowed to build a steel mill out GRABBING FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE 595 of its loan from the United States. common defense effort. The loom­ Symptomatic of the growing hos­ ing threat of United States domina­ tility in Latin America against tion is bound to play more and Yankee imperialism is the mass more of a role in Canadian politics. demand now sweeping these coun­ In the United States proper demo­ tries for the release of Earl Brow­ cratic opposition to Yankee impe­ der. Seeing in Comrade Browder a rialist conquest of the Western resolute fighter against imperialist Hemisphere is confused and not domination and linking up his name well organized. The workers and with Carlos Prestes, the trade farmers of the United States nat­ unions, peasant organizations, stu­ urally have no desire to oppress or dent bodies, liberal newspapers, etc., exploit the other peoples of the all over Latin America are insist­ Hemisphere, but they do not see ing that he be set free. The move­ clearly en masse that such domina­ ment has taken on such great pro­ tion, by strengthening reaction in portions that it has become a real the United States and by plunging thorn in the side of the American this country into endless wars, State Department. would also work against the peo­ In Canada anti-U.S. imperialist ple's interests in this country, as 11entiment is also rising. In spite of well as against those of the other the much boasted-of unfortified peoples of the Hemisphere. The frontier between the United States mass opposiiton in this country to and Canada, the Canadian people American imperialism takes on have long been suspicious of the rather the more general form of a good intentions of the Wall Street stubborn struggle against the policy moguls who have been so rapidly of plunging the United States into securing control over their most the war and against the policies of vital industries. This suspicion is dictatorship and exploitation of growing into alarm as the masses Yankee imperialism at home. Mean­ of the Canadian people observe the while, American Federation of La­ obvious steps of the United States bor leaders and C.I.O. leaders of the Government, aided by important Hillman brand are trying to utilize sections of the Canadian bour­ their trade unions to strengthen the geoisie, to bring Canada more and drive of Yankee imperialism in more under its influence. Thus, the Latin America, and "peace" advo­ Mutual Defense Pact and the Hyde cates such as Lindbergh, Wheeler, Park Pact have caused much popu­ Norman Thomas, etc., each with his lar uneasiness. And President own argumentation, definitely try to Roosevelt's condescending offers to lure the people into supporting a "defend" Canada provoked such an United States conquest of the unfavorable reaction in that coun­ Western Hemisphere. try that Prime Minister King, al­ though a close collaborator with The American Peoples Versus Roosevelt, felt called upon to state Yankee Imperialism publicly that what Canada wanted The many peoples of the three was no~ protection from the United Americas have a common interest States but to engage with it in a in preventing t.h~ ~~~~tiQn gf 596 GRABBING FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE Wall Street's "New Order" for the ening of the people's movement. Western Hemisphere. Yankee im­ Unity of program and action perialism, like British and German among the Latin American peoples imperialism, has nothing to offer is especially needed. The policy of the toiling masses of this Hemi­ these states of dealing one by one sphere, including the United States, with the United States on vital except poverty, exploitation, fas­ questions is disastrous. Only when cism and war. Throughout the they move in a bloc can they hope Hemisphere, therefore, the people's to present a sufficient counter­ forces of democracy, peace and weight to that of the United States. progress should unite to prevent Already there are many signs of the consummation of these disas­ a growing Latin American unity, ters. Especially should the peoples especially indicated by the estab­ of Canada and the United States lishment of the Latin American realize the necessity for collabora­ Confederation of Labor and the tion with the democratic masses of holding of many conferences among Latin America against the common the Latin-American peoples upon menace of Wall Street imperialism. various economic, political and cul­ To bring about such unity, how­ tural questions. One such confer­ ever, these great democratic forces ence was held recently in Monte­ must clearly understand that United video between representatives of States imperialism now definitely Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, Bo­ constitutes the most threatening livia and Brazil. Another took place imperialist danger to the Latin in Haiti, among the Caribbean American peoples; that President countries, including Colombia, Costa Roosevelt has long since abandoned Rica, Cuba, Mexico, Dominican Re­ his limited reform program and is public, San Salvador, Guatemala, now the chief spokesman for Wall Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua and Street; that his "Good Neighbor" Panama. Plans are also now going policy is only an ideological screen forward for an Amazon conference for an aggressive Yankee imperial­ of nations drained by that great ism; that the so-called Hemisphere river. All these Latin American defense policy in reality is an at­ conferences and unity develop­ tempt of the United States to estab­ ments are looked upon with hostil­ lish military hegemony over the ity by the U. S. State Department other American countries and to as infringements upon the role of swing them behind its war program the Pan-American Union, which it of world imperialist conquest; that dominates and controls. the developing economic and po­ The basis for a real Latin Amer­ litical "collaboration" between the ican unity, in the various countries United States and the rest of the and internationally, is the People's countries of the Hemisphere is tak­ Front, founded upon an alliance ing forms that are resulting in Wall between the workers and peasants. Street domination. Much confusion Considerable sections of the bour­ still exists among the anti-imperial­ geoisie usually support this anti­ ist forces upon all these questions, imperialist movement; but, because with the consequent serious weak- of the deepening economic crisis in GRABBING FOR THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE 597 their countries, the closing of for­ tarily dominating this Hemisphere. eign markets against them, the in­ There must be no United States air creased political and military pres­ and naval bases upon Latin Ameri­ sure from the imperialists, and can or Canadian soil, no military their fear of the growing demo­ "protection" of the other American cratic spirit of the people, many of countries by the United States. the native capitalists are inclined Democratically governed and united to yield to one group or another of among themselves, these countries the rival imperialists, especially will be well able to protect their those of Wall Street. peoples against imperialist aggres­ Everywhere the workers in Latin sion, whether it should come from America must be the leaders in the abroad or from within the Hemi­ struggle against imperialism. And sphere. only to the extent that they estab­ A halt must also be put to the lish democracy in their own coun­ political interference of Yankee im­ tries by breaking down the domina­ perialism in the life of the smaller tion of the many dictators of the American peoples. Full national Vargas and Trujillo type can they independence for all the states of hope to create an effective defense the Western Hemisphere should be against Yankee imperialism. a rallying cry for the anti-imperial­ The most urgent task now in ist forces throughout North, Central the Hemisphere anti-imperialist and South America. The establish­ struggle is the fight for peace. The ment of national independence has Latin American peoples should re­ long been an urgent issue through­ fuse to be a tail to the war plans out Latin America. Now the of Yankee imperialism. In the same strengthening and defense of its spirit the Canadian people are in­ national independence, especially as creasingly demanding that their against the advance of United States country withdraw from the war. In imperialism, is also becoming a ma­ the United States the slogan that jor issue in Canada. As the belea­ correctly expresses the people's guered British Empire weakens and sentiments is "Get out and stay its connections with its American out of the war." The Anglo-Ameri­ possessions loosen, and as the United can war alliance offers nothing to States reaches out to grab these the peoples of the Americas except dominions and colonies, the Cana­ endless slaughter and enslavement. dian people are finding it more and The correct orientation for the .na­ more necessary to defend them­ tions of this Hemisphere should be selves against their powerful neigh­ toward a people's peace, based upon bor to the South who is so anxious principles of no annexations and to "protect" them. The island col­ no indemnities, and put through in onies of France and other countries collaboration with the Soviet Union that may be "taken over" also must and the democratic masses of the not be allowed to become mere world. United States colonies, under pre­ Inseparable from this struggle for tenses of joint Pan-American con­ world peace is the necessity to pre­ trol, but should be granted the right vent Yankee imperialism from mili- of self-determination.

interests interests in in Latin Latin America America is is also also those those in in the the United United States. States.

held held by by U. U. S. S. and and other other imperialist imperialist has has . . a a greater greater responsibility responsibility thalll thalll

key key resources resources and and industries industries now now ing ing capitalists, capitalists, no no body body of of workers workers

trialization. trialization. The The nationalization nationalization of of enslaved enslaved by by reactionary, reactionary, war-mak­

necessary necessary fully-rounded-out fully-rounded-out indus­ keep keep our our Hemisphere Hemisphere from from being being

be be so so formulated formulated as as to to allow allow the the building building this this to to great great movement, movement,

States States industrial industrial system, system, but but should should of of organization organization and and program. program. In In

colonial colonial adjuncts adjuncts to to the the United United But But they they still still grievously grievously lack lack unity unity

duce duce the the latter's latter's economies economies into into are are potentially potentially by by far far the the stronger. stronger.

not not bear bear restrictions restrictions tending tending to to re­ democracy democracy and and progress progress the the latter latter

the the Latin Latin rialism rialism American American and and countries countries the the people's people's must must forces forces of of

themselves. themselves. United United States States loans loans to to Hemisphere Hemisphere between between Yankee Yankee impe­

freer freer trading trading relations relations amongst amongst developing developing throughout throughout the the Western Western

can can countries countries In In the the should should far-flung far-flung cultivate cultivate struggle struggle that that is is

the the United United posal posal States, States, in in the the their their Latin Latin many many Ameri­ organizations. organizations.

general general customs customs union, union, to to include include opportunities opportunities that that are are at at their their dis­

thermore, thermore, sphere sphere instead instead utilize utilize of of supporting supporting the the great great educational educational a a

United United States States anti-imperialist anti-imperialist interference. interference. forces forces Fur­ of of the the Hemi­

with with the the socialism. socialism. rest rest of of the the world, world, is is high high without without time time that that the the It It

sist sist upon upon ganda ganda the the right right for for to to peace, peace, trade trade democracy democracy freely freely and and

countries countries to to need need development development imperatively imperatively of of an an active active in­ propa­

materials," materials," and and other other devices. devices. These These sphere sphere should should be be countered countered by by the the

drives, drives, by by sure, sure, control control etc., etc., of of export export throughout throughout of of "war "war the the Hemi­

their their markets markets tions tions of of by by movie movie ruthless ruthless stars, stars, trade trade political political pres­

United United means means States States of of from from the the monopolizing monopolizing press, press, radio, radio, delega­

countries countries drive drive need need of of to to Yankee Yankee prevent prevent imperialism imperialism the the by by

must must have have its its economic economic base. base. These These The The present present vigorous vigorous ideological ideological

can can peoples peoples system system for for in in national national those those countries. countries. liberation liberation

The The struggle struggle imperative imperative of of the the for for Latin Latin a a Ameri­ sound sound economic economic

GRABBING GRABBING FOR FOR THE THE WESTERN WESTERN HEMISPHERE HEMISPHERE 598 598 BROWDER'S CONTRIBUTION TOWARD DEVELOPING A PROGRESSIVE TRADE UNIONISM

BY JACK JOHNSTONE

THE imprisonment of Earl Brow- President Wilson's chief lieutenant .l.der, General Secretary of the within the ranks of labor, to the Communist Party, a typical labor days when Hillman, now playing frame-up that the American bour- the same role for President Roose­ geoisie is famous for the world over, velt, collaborated with and pre­ also shows the weakness of Ameri- tended to believe in the program can capitalism, its fear of the masses, of the Trade Union Educational expressed in the underhanded at- League, led by Foster and Browder. tack by Roosevelt, who personally Browder, unlike Hillman, could not directed the frame-up. The war- be corrupted. Prison doors open to mongers feared to charge Browder receive leaders of the Browder type. and the Party he leads with The doors of the White House open his real "crime"-opposition to for leaders of the Hillman type. their war policy and the general Browder believes in what he says; attack against the living standards he practices what he preaches; he and working conditions of the has the courage needed in a work­ working class and against civil lib- ing class leader. He has never kept erties, as a means of forcing an silent on any vital issue, no matter unwilling people into the war. what the consequences for him. Browder has spent a lifetime of In 1912 Browder, a leading pro- struggle in the interests of the gressive trade unionist and Left­ working class, as a trade union wing Socialist in Kansas City, made leader, as the outstanding Com- his first acquaintance with William munist leader, as a tighter for Z. Foster. Foster was then on one democracy, for peace and for so- of his many tours in an effort to cialism. weld together the numerous local The hatred that Roosevelt and progressive forces within the the reactionary leaders of the trade A. F. of L., so that a serious strug­ unions have for Browder is not a gle could be carried on against the hatred that has developed only reactionary policy of the A. F. of L. since he became General Secretary bureaucracy, led by Samuel Gom­ of the Communist Party. This pers. Browder, a delegate to the hatred goes back to the days of the local central labor body of Kansas last Worlindustrial unionism, with the authority of the union be­ against class collaboration and for hind them, speed up production, labor's independent political action. reduce wages, eliminate waste, re­ The imprisonment of Earl Browder duce the cost of production and is therefore a direct attack, not eliminate undesirable workers and alone against Browder or the Com­ union rules that hamper efficiency in profit making." munist Party, but a blow struck at the working class. That was true then, and is true With the Red-baiting expulsion of today of similar agreements. How the Communists and militants from well this analysis fits Hillman's and the trade unions and the intensi­ Frey's 1941 model agreement which fication of the policy of class they are trying to force upon the collaboration, the complete bank­ shipyard workers! All that has to ruptcy of the A. F. of L. leadership be added to that paragraph is: "and became more and more apparent. conscript labor in the interests of All attempts of the progressive ele­ the war program of the Roosevelt ments led by the T.U.E.L. to break administration." through the reactionary strangle­ Today, however, the reactionary hold on the A. F. of L. unions, or class-collaborationist trade union to force the official leadership to leaders face a much more advanced adopt a policy of struggle and to trade union movement than they organize the workers in the basic did in the '20s when they put over industries, proved of no avail. With the B. & 0. plan, a trade union the cooperation of the Communist movement rooted in the basic in­ Party, the Trade Union Educa­ dustries of the country. Under the tional League was compelled inde­ C.I.O. the new militant industrial pendently to undertake the task of BROWDER AND PROGRESSIVE TRADE UNIONISM 1103 organizing the unorganized and of important role, which prepared the giving leadership to workers en­ ground and to a considerable extent gaged in strike struggles. It actually developed the forces that made pos­ began to function as an independent sible the historic advance of the trade union center, and in recogni­ of the C.I.O. tion of this fact it changed its name The new tu:rn in the American to Trade Union Unity League. labor movement since the formation The Trade Union Unity League labor movement began to take def­ became the national trade union inite shape at the ·55th Convention center to which were affiliated doz­ of the A. F. of L. in 1935. Despite ens of small but militant progres­ the fact that, at the time when the sive industrial unions in auto, steel, 55th convention of the A. F. of L. metal, mining, textile, marine, lum­ met, there were only four million ber, shoe, food, needle, etc., as well workers organized in the trade as rank-and-file progressive groups unions, and that the basic industries within the existing A. F. of L. craft were still unorganized, Browder unions. For a number of years the quickly recognized that this con­ Trade Union Unity League con­ vention, in spite of the domination ducted the only campaigns to or­ of the reactionary forces under the ganize the unorganized in the mass leadership of Green, marked a production industries, leading strike turning point in labor history. struggles for wage increases, better Browder declared: working conditions and for the right of collective bargaining against the "At the present time the Ameri­ can labor movement has reached labor-hating big corporations. the decisive turning point in. its In the early '30s, however, the history. The 55th Convention of trade union movement experienced the American Federation of Labor a vital change. Under the impact marked the beginning of a new era of the economic crisis, the militancy for the trade unions in this coun­ of the workers rose so high that it .try. The struggles that took place could no longer be blocked by the at the convention between the reac­ A. F. of L. bureaucracy. Under tionary leadership of Green, Woll, these conditions, the T.U.U.L., in­ Frey and Hutchinson, and the in­ dustrial union bloc, under the lead­ fluenced by the Communist Party ership of John L. Lewis, the head under Comrade Browder's leader­ of the United Mine Workers Union, ship, decided to give up its inde­ were among the most important in pendent existence. The membership the whole history of the American of its affiliates went into the Federation of Labor. The old pol­ A. F. of L., in many cases furnish­ icies of collaboration with the ing the nucleus for the new unions bosses, of refusing to organize the which later grew so powerful in mass production industries, of crip­ the C.I.O. pling the working class by keeping It was the persistent activities of it within the rigid mold of narrow craft u:nions, were under severe fire. the T.U.E.L. and T.U.U.L., in which The hope and desire of the work­ the contributions and leadership of ers for a strong labor movement, Comrade Browder played such an able to fight for their immediate 604 BROWDER AND PROGRESSIVE TRADE UNIONISM economic interests, and able to act the independent political movement as a powerful barrier against the among the workers throughout the growing menace of fascism, was country. Browder mobilized the reflected in the policies of the Communist Party's full strength industrial union bloc. . . ." throughout the country, in order to The illegal expulsion from the strengthen this political develop­ A. F. of L. of the industrial union ment and to weld the progressive bloc was a severe blow to labor forces into a united people's move­ unity, giving open encouragement ment, into a broad Farmer-Labor to monopoly capital to resist with Party, in preparation for the 1936 force and violence every effort Presidential elections. Analyzing the made to organize the mass produc­ issues and parties, he said: tion industries. The Greens, W olls and Freys very quickly labeled the "There are two chief and opposite directions of possible development C.I.O. as "red" and undertook to in American political life in the give full assistance to Big Business 1936 elections. All parties and in their effort to destroy the C.I.O. groups must be judged by their They followed the C.I.O. with their relation to two fundamental politi­ union-and-strike-breaking efforts in cal tendencies." (The People's Front, every campaign, from the first great International Publishers, New York, steel drive to the latest drive in p. 22.) Ford. In spite of these disruptive, "The two poles of this re-crystal­ splitting tactics, the trade unions, lization of our political life are, on the reactionary side, the forces since the 55th Convention of the gathered around Landon and Knox A. F. of L., have almost tripled -Hearst, the Liberty League, the their total membership. Jeffersonian Democrats, Wall Street, The C.I.O., from its inception, all the forces of organized wealth adopted a progressive program and monopoly; on the progressive based on the most burning needs side, all the mass organizations of of the workers and developed a the people, which are moving in the militant, successful, organizational direction of a new party, a Farmer­ campaign. At the same time, while Labor Party. basing its immediate political orien­ "Roosevelt and the Democratic Party do not represent either of tation on an alignment with the these sides in the basic realignment. New Deal wing in the Democratic Roosevelt tries to take the middle­ Party, it took the preliminary step of-the-road course, tries to satisfy toward mobilizing labor into an both sides of an irreconcilable independent political force by or­ struggle, and therefore satisfies ganizing the Labor's Non-Partisan neither. In the Solid South, tradi­ League. It was during this period, tional base of the Democratic after the failure of the N.R.A. to Party, the ruling class still votes curb labor, that Roosevelt changed Democratic but already prays Re­ publican. In the border states, the his tactics to a middle-of-the-road wealthy best families march openly policy. The rapid growth of the into the Landon camp bearing the C.I.O. accelerated the growth of banner of Jefferson. Senator Glass BROWDER AND PROGRESSIVE TRADE UNIONISM 605 announces that his own election on gave its full support to the confer­ the Democratic ticket will be a vic­ ence, its decisions and its platform. tory for the Republican Party. The It appeared as if here was a solid Democratic Party is a house divided, foundation upon which could be two souls struggling for one body, built a broad united Farmer-Labor a political Hamlet moving inexor­ Party capable of stopping the ably to its tragic end." (The Peo­ reactionary forces in America and ple's Front, pp. 81-2.) able, in the 1936 elections, to send Important advances were regis­ a bloc of true representatives of tered in the city and state elections the people to Congress. of 1934 and 1935 in the indepen­ However, the chains that had dent political action of labor in bound the trade unions to the two coalition with the farmers and old capitalist parties had not yet other groups, through local inde­ been broken. While the great ma­ pendent political organizations, in­ jority of the organizations that cluding the trade unions under the made up the Farmer-Labor Party leadership of the C.I.O., acting movement had broken away from principally through Labor's Non­ the two old parties, nevertheless, Partisan League. Needless to say, the C.I.O. and the progressive trade the Communist Party, as well as unions in the A. F. of L., although individual Communists, played an they had created Labor's Non­ important role in building this Partisan League as an independent growing united people's movement. political organization, decided to Browder had a far-reaching infiu­ support Roosevelt for re-election, ence in the efforts to crystallize and, in the main, to work within these rapidly growing local political the Democratic Party. While the united fronts into a powerful na­ Communist Party had serious dis­ tional Farmer-Labor Party. He agreements with this policy of worked closely with many trade dependence upon Roosevelt, and unionists, leaders and rank and file, put forward its own candidates with many leaders of the farmers, for President and Vice-President; etc., presenting for discussion a Browder and Ford, it fully cooper­ five-point program covering the ated with and participated in the most pressing needs of the people. efforts to promote independent pro­ The national Farmer-Labor Party gressive political formations of Conference held in Chicago in May, workers, farmers and city middle 1935, at the call of the Minnesota class strata. Comrade Browder con­ Farmer-Labor Party and Governor sistently endeavored to clarify the Floyd Olsen, adopted a progressive issues before the people, the role platform embodying the main prin­ of the parties and the Presidential ciples outlined in Browder's five­ candidates, Landon and Roosevelt. point program. The Chicago Con­ While concentrating his main fire ference received considerable sup­ on Landon as the standard-bearer port throughout the country. The of reactionary monopoly capital, he National Committee of our Party at the same time warned the toil- 606 BROWDER AND PROGRESSIVE TRADE UNIONISM ing masses against depending upon big business to redouble its attack Roosevelt. He said: against the working class. The at­ tack was greatly intensified after "Roosevelt's course has been a the election, having now the open series of retreats before the offen­ support of the Administration, as sive of reaction. His administration Roosevelt proceeded more and more is allowing itself to be dragged more and more onto the path of openly to drag the United States Hearst. into the war. In spite of the treach­ "It had long been the hope of erous efforts of the class collabora­ the Communist Party that we would tionist leaders labor has displayed go into the Presidential election this great militancy in meeting this at­ year (1936) with a Farmer-Labor tack. However, labor's role in the National Ticket. 1940 elections revealed its still ex­ "The Communist Party declares isting political immaturity. The that it is a fatal mistake to depend Farmer-Labor Party forces, which upon Roosevelt to check the attacks showed such great promise prior to of Wall Street, or advance the inter­ ests and demands of the masses of the 1936 elections, which placed the people." (Ibid., pp. 24-25.) so much confidence in Roosevelt, found themselves faced in the History has proved the correct­ 1940 elections with two candidates, ness of Browder's estimate of Roosevelt and Willkie, both of Roosevelt, and the costly error of whom represented the same Wall depending upon Roosevelt, made by Street war program, both of whom the progressive trade unions. favored conscription, talking of With the outbreak of the second peace and preparing for war. While imperialist war Roosevelt shaped many of the progressive trade his policy deliberately toward unions and their leaders were dis­ America's participation, in the in­ trustful of Roosevelt, and many of terest of American imperialism, to them refused to endorse him, they hew out of this war an American did not yet have a Farmer-Labor empire that would dominate the Party candidate in the field, and world. were not ready to support the Com­ Roosevelt proceeded to unite the munist Party candidate, Browder, bourgeoisie for this war program and the Communist Party election and to gather around him, particu­ platform. Labor remained a pris­ larly within the trade union move­ oner of the capitalist two-party ment, those leadPrs on whom he system. could rely for support in the efforts While John L. Lewis, during the to chain labor to the war program; election period, broke with Roose­ leaders who would use all their velt, the leader of the war party, influence to confuse the workers he fell captive for a moment, but ·. and the great majority of the people at the decisive moment, to the rival who were against war. candidate for leadership of the war Roosevelt's open break with party, Willkie. In a statement pub­ Lewis was the go~ahead signal for U~h~~ g~ gn t?gitq:r!g! mTM Sunday BROWDER AND PROGRESSIVE TRADE UNIONISM 607 Work.er on the eve of the election, The great influence and leader­ Browder, while taking issue with ship of Browder over large numbers Lewis on the endorsement of Will­ of workers in the trade unions and kie, again showed keen under­ progressive trade union leaders, standing in exposing the class­ helped to clarify the issues and the collaborationists who now unleashed role of the parties and, candidates. a sharp attack on Lewis as part of Roosevelt and his "labor" lieuten­ their effort to hitch labor to the ants saw in Browder a leader whose Roosevelt war machine. Browder influence among the masses was declared: growing rapidly, a man whose ideas and growing popularity were to be "With Lewis' scorching excoria­ feared, a candidate representing tion of the betrayal of Roosevelt, the only political party which was of his adventurous playing with the presenting to the people an elec­ welfare, lives, and peace of the people, a profound assent arises tion program that grew out of the from the masses, a deep-voiced needs of the people, and which, 'Amen.' That is a truth most neces­ if permitted freely to exercise the sary for the spokesmen of progres­ rights guaranteed to political par­ sive labor and the people to utter ties, was likely to succeed in win­ loudly and clearly.... ning a significant minority vote "But the unconditional endorse­ that would hamper Roosevelt's pro­ ment of Willkie, as the opposite of gram for the entrance of the United Roosevelt, flies in the face of truth States into the war. and common sense. It transcends even the moss-grown plausibilities The attacks led by Roosevelt and of the 'lesser evil' theory. It is in­ his "labor" lieutenants against the credible. It stri'kes no answering Communist Party were directed not chord among the masses. . . . only at the Communist Party but "There can be nothing but con­ at the entire working class; every tempt for the howls and caviling progressive trade union leader was against Lewis, which come from labeled "Communist," and e~ry the camp of Roosevelt's 'labor' lieu­ strike and struggle of the workers tenants. Among these Lilliputians, for better conditions was declared Lewis has stood forth as a giant. They have groveled at the feet of to be "Communist-led." the war machine and would deliver The struggle within the trade labor in chains for the reward of union movement today is on the Roosevelt's smile. Lewis has at least question of what kind of a trade tried to bargain for some definite union movement it shall be, what gain as the price of labor's vote, shall be its program, strategy and even though such bargain is dubi­ tactics. Shall it be based upon the ous and unsound and dangerous needs and interests of the working for the future. class, as expressed in the official "The Communists have no part or parcel with endorsement of Will­ policy of the C.I.O.? Or shall it be kie, unconditional or otherwise." a trade union movement based upon (The Way Out, International Pub­ the no-strike, compulsory arbitra­ lishers, New York, pp. 147-48.) tion policy, upon surrender to the

families, families, 30,000,000 30,000,000 people, people, that that in- The The struggles struggles of of the the trade trade unions unions

more more than than 8,000,000 8,000,000 working working class class the the trade trade union union movement. movement.

in in the the basic basic industries, industries, representing representing millions millions of of progressives progressives outside outside of of

movement movement 10,000,000 10,000,000 strong, strong, rooted rooted can can labor. labor. They They influence influence and and lead lead

class class to to deal deal with-a with-a trade trade union union were were before before in in the the history history of of Ameri­

more more politically politically advanced, advanced, working working are are stronger stronger today today than than they they ever ever

But But they they have have a a much much stronger, stronger, gressive gressive trade trade union union forces. forces. They They

vital vital right right of of the the workers workers by by force. force. mendously mendously strengthened strengthened the the pro­

they they are are trying trying to to suppress suppress this this working working conditions. conditions. This This has has tre­

the the right right to to strike strike by by consent. consent. Now Now obtaining obtaining wage wage increases increases and and better better

of of labor labor were were not not able able to to abolish abolish in in organizing organizing the the unorganized, unorganized, in in

their their lieutenants lieutenants within within the the ranks ranks great great achievements achievements were were registered registered

movement. movement. The The warmongers warmongers and and ticular ticular in in the the last last few few months months some some

membership membership of of the the trade trade union union before. before. In In the the last last year year and and in in par­

both both for for the the leadership leadership and and the the industries industries that that never never were were organized organized

has has only only begun. begun. This This is is a a new new test test leaped leaped ahead, ahead, particularly particularly in in those those

the the struggle struggle for for the the right right to to strike strike trade trade union union movement movement has has literally literally

w

remain, remain, and and their their demands demands will will be be In In the the few few short short years years that that the the

was was broken, broken, their their demands demands still still

brary brary Publishers, Publishers, New New York, York, p. p. 13.) 13.) While While the the aircraft aircraft workers' workers' strike strike

Workers Workers Li­ Browder Browder and and Foster, Foster, are are determined determined to to suppress. suppress.

tionship tionship

of of classes." classes." (The (The Path Path of of istration istration and and its its labor labor lieutenants lieutenants

a a fundamental fundamental change change in in the the rela­

nopolies, nopolies, that that the the Roosevelt Roosevelt admin­

participant participant on on the the stage stage of of history, history,

upon upon them them by by the the profit-mad profit-mad mo­

the the

working working

class class as as a a conscious conscious

to to strike strike when when strikes strikes are are forced forced

which which marks marks th.e th.e emergence emergence ity ity of of

collective collective

bargaining, bargaining, for for the the right right lions, lions, registers registers an an advance advance in in qual­

for for decent decent wages, wages, for for the the right right to to present present figure figure of of nine nine to to ten ten mil­

pany. pany. is is the the workers' workers' demands demands It It trade trade union union membership, membership, to to its its

nation. nation. The The growth growth in in of of votume votume Hillman, Hillman, Frankensteen Frankensteen and and com­

decisive decisive force force in in the the life life ·of ·of the the he he was was given given full full cooperation cooperation by by

as as a a mass mass phenomenon, phenomenon, as as ment ment a a of of Inglewood, Inglewood, California, California, in in which which

gence gence of of the the organized organized labor labor move­

the the strike strike of of the the aircraft aircraft workers workers

Second Second World World War, War, is is the the emer­

very very quickly quickly with with the the breaking breaking of of

when when the the U. U. S. S. has has entered entered the the

tional tional Emergency Emergency was was revealed revealed

First First World World War War down down to to today, today,

Declaration Declaration

of of an an Unlimited Unlimited Na­ life life in in the the period period reaching reaching from from the the

The The real real reason reason for for Roosevelt's Roosevelt's nificant nificant development development in in American American

democratic democratic progress progress and and peace. peace. "The "The most most far-reaching far-reaching and and sig­

war war and and reaction reaction and and the the forces forces of of

a a struggle struggle as as between between follows: follows: the the forces forces of of

is is the the question question at at issue issue today. today. is is It It of of this this new new trade trade union union movement; movement;

Hillman Hillman minority minority in in the the C.I.O. C.I.O. That That ship ship of of forces forces with with the the emergence emergence

bureaucracy, bureaucracy, which which is is shared shared by by the the that that has has taken taken place place in in the the relation­

official official policy policy of of the the A. A. F. F. of of L. L. has has pointed pointed out out the the great great change change

America America into into the the war? war? This This is is the the the the trade trade unions. unions. Comrade Comrade Browder Browder

Roosevelt Roosevelt program program of of plunging plunging fluences fluences millions millions of of people people outside outside

608 608 BROWDER BROWDER AND AND PROGRESSIVE PROGRESSIVE TRADE TRADE UNIONISM UNIONISM BROWDER AND PROGRESSIVE TRADE UNIONISM 609 today, in direct connection with capital against wages and living their economic demands upon the standards, against social legislation, employers, against anti-labor legis­ against civil liberties and demo­ lation, against all attempts to curb cratic rights for the masses. This by law the democratic rights of struggle will inevitably force a general recognition among the the people and the rights of the working class and the toiling .. trade unions, cannot but bring masses that the two old parties rep­ growing conscious understanding of resent their enemy, Wall Street, labor's need of its own independent monopoly capital, the economic political program. It must bring a royalists; . that it is necessary to realization that big business reac­ break completely with these parties, tion through their lawyer and poll­ and achieve political independence tax Congressmen have control of through a Labor Party or Farmer­ the government, that labor has been Labor Party." too long a prisoner of the tweedle­ One must .not, however, be lulled de-dee and tweedle-de-dum parties to sleep by the growing strength of of Wall Street. The labor movement the progressive movement. That is beginning to understand more would be particularly dangerous at than ever before the need of an this time. As Roosevelt speeds independent political party of labor. America's entrance into the war we The policies of the reactionary see the increasing boldness of the trade union leaders, with their Hillmanites in their efforts to hitch Red-baiting campaign against the labor to the imperialist war chariot. Communists for their removal from True, their boldness has increased office and expulsion from the un­ not because they have made any ions, inevitably weakens the unions. great headway among the workers, The Communists are loyal builders but rather because of their fear of of the unions and know that the the growing militancy of the work­ trade unions will be weak as long ers-and to the growing pressure as they depend upon either the upon them of their war-and-profit Republican Party or the Democratic intent masters to "deliver the Party, that labor will be stronger goods." Under these conditions the as it builds strong fighting unions Hillmanites and their klnd are and an independent political party, resorting more and more to Red­ whose main base should be the baiting as one of their main weap­ trade unions. Browder emphasizes ons to confuse the workers. this need in his book The Way Out. It is important in this connection He says: to remember that the Hillmanites gained a definite advantage-and "For the working classes and toil­ they are now doing everything in ing masses, therefore, the future is one of intensifying struggle to keep their power to capitalize on it--in out of war, and to bring the war the resolution passed at the C.I.O. to an end; of even broader and convention that lumped Nazism, more serious battles to defeat and Fascism and Communism together. throw back the attacks of monopoly It is a resolution that has no place 610 BROWDER AND PROGRESSIVE TRADE UNIONISM in any convention of progressive people is not the question of "the trade unionists. No one at that con­ Reds." It was not and is not Brow­ vention, including the sponsors of der versus the people. The issue the resolution, believed that Nazism, is reaction or progress, war or Fascism and Communism are the peace. It was Roosevelt and reac­ same, any more than Roosevelt tion that put Browder in prison; it does when he tries to include the will be the working class and the Soviet Union among the totalitarian progressive people that will set him states. The Communists are known free. Roosevelt and the reactionary by their deeds as devoted builders war camp may lead America into of the trade unions, as the bitterest the war-but it will be the people enemies of fascism. This "ism" reso­ led by the working class that will lution was the wedge needed by the end it. As Browder declares: Hillmanites and their reactionary masters. It was the only resolution "We know that the American passed at the C.I.O. convention that people will not forever and not long they really believed in. submit to this kind of system and The leadership of the C.I.O., if this kind of leadership. Our own it ever hopes to preserve and ruling class can launch us into this war but they cannot end it. The strengthen the C.I.O. and to put American people can end it; the into life the C.I.O. policy and pro­ American people will end it; and gram, and around them to unite the American people will find the the progressive leadership and mem­ way to this all the quicker because bership of the A. F. of L., must the American people have produced meet Red-baiting as an enemy tac­ already a Communist Party, a tic being used by the enemies of the party with roots among the masses, C.I.O. to destroy it and to shackle a party that can never be separated the workers to the no-strike, wage­ from the American masses, a party that will always be at work cutting, wage-freezing, war pro­ amongst the American masses, a gram of the Roosevelt Administra­ party that will organize and lead tion. the American people to peace and The issue facing labor and the to socialism." (The Way Out, p. 248.) PROFESSOR LOGAN IS READY FOR A THIRD WORLD \VAR!

BY HENRY WINSTON

NEW "prophet" of Negro "lib­ be able to walk in dignity wher­ A eration" has come upon the ever they choose." scene--Mr. Rayford Logan, Pro­ fessor of History at Howard Uni­ Logan, it appears, has a very versity. Where Walter White, T. guilty conscience, for in a shame­ Arnold Hill and A. Philip Randolph faced way he hastens to state that use the theory of the "lesser evil" he is no warmonger. Yet, in the to win the support of the Negro cited speech, comparing the plight people for the present criminal im­ of the Negro people during peace­ perialist war, Logan espouses, to time and wartime, he states: the same end, the theory of the "white man's distress as the Negro's "The highest economic position opportunity." Logan, indeed, has a for the colored group in the coun­ very difficult assignment. Over­ try was reached during the last zealous in proving his usefulness to war." the ruling class, he not only ap­ plauds the present conflict but, in And further: anticipation, expresses his readi­ ". . . during peacetime thousands ness to support a third imperialist of our group have been buried, war. To be sure, he does so in the without having a chance to earn a name of self-determination for the decent day's wage, and in the event colored peoples of the world. His of a flood, or an earthquake, or an position was thus expressed in his international war, our importance speech before the Negro teachers increases." of the Alabama State Teachers Association, as reported in The What is it that runs through Afro-American on March 29: these quotations other than the idea that the Negro people fare better "I am no warmonger, but if self­ under conditions of war than of determination for colored peoples necessitates a third world war, I peace? What other conclusion can say let it come by all means, so one draw than that the Negro peo­ that the millions of colored peoples ple must stak~ ~eir fu~tll"~ qn scattered ~1! Qve:J; tl1~ glMassachusetts Aircraft, whose profits have sky­ Institute of Technology Students.)" rocketed as a result of war orders, Imperialist war is chauvinism at has expressed the policy of dis­ its worst, and the Negro people are crimination most brazenly. Gerald the first victims of chauvinist pol­ Tuttle, industrial relations manager icy. Rather than lessening discrim­ of Vultee Aircraft, sent the follow­ ination, the present war drive by ing reply to the Executive Secretary the United States has given govern­ of the Los Angeles National Negro mental sanction to the policy of Congress: discrimination and has increased all the disabilities which affect the Ne­ "I regret to say that it is not the policy of this company to employ gro under "normal" conditions. It people other than those of the Cau­ is exactly this type of "importance," casian race. Consequently, we are Mr. Logan, that the Negro people not in a position to offer your peo­ are fighting against. ple employment at this time." (Jim Crowism in Industry. Pamphlet, Imperialist "Self-Determination" published by the National Negro Logan plays upon the deep-felt Congress, Los Angeles Council.) sympathy of the American Negroes The Glenn L. Martin Company, for the oppressed peoples in the with $322,000,000 in government colonies and semi-colonies by dem­ contracts, with 18,000 employed and agogically holding out the prospect 614 READY FOR A THIRD WORLD WAR of sell-determination as an element redivide the world. Today we in the present war. He attempts to have the same background." * do two things at once, namely, to Clear one would think-to every mobilize support for the imperial­ fighter for self-determina­ ist war at the same time professing genuin~ tion! The present war is widening, support for the right of self-deter­ drawing into its orbit ever larger mination. He betrays thereby a numbers of peoples and states. The complete lack of understanding of boitrgeoisie of · all the imperialist the character of the present war countries is responsible for this and falls into a position which is slaughter, is waging this war for hopelessly contradictory. Is it not imperialist aims-for colonies, for clear that imperialist war means sources of raw materials, for dom­ plunder, subjugation and exploita­ ination of sea routes, for the subju­ tion of peoples-while self-deter­ gation and exploitation of peoples. mination means the defeat of the When Logan supports the present imperialist oppressors and a fight war, it is this imperialism and not against imperialist war? It may be self-determination that he furthers. necessary for the oppressed peoples German imperialism, which was to wage a war for self-determina­ deprived of its colonies after the tion, for liberation, but Ruch a war first imperialist world war, is now will not be waged or led by the demanding a redivision of the colo­ i~perialist bourgeoisie; such a war nial booty. Great Britain has no would be anti-imperialist, a war intention of letting her huge pos­ directed against imperialist oppres­ sessions slip out of her hands; nor sion. Can Logan, by any stretch of has it any intention of giving inde­ the imagination, maintain that the pendence to any of the subjugated present war is being waged by Eng­ territories it may succeed in wrest­ land, Germany, or Japan for the ing from the Axis powers. The self-determination of the oppressed British war lords wish to hold sole peoples? How did the present war arise? domination. over the hundreds of millions of their colonial slaves, to As far back as 1936, in an inter­ view with Roy Howard, Comrade insure the possibilities of new con­ Stalin laid bare the fundamental quests, to enfeeble their rivals. This is the essence of the present basis for an understanding of the present war. conflict. That is why the Negro people are opposed to this war and "Howarc£.-What situation or condi­ join with all the peace-desiring tion, in your opinion, furnishes masses in America in the demand the chief war menace today? that the United States get out and Stalin-Capitalism. stay out of the war. Howarc£.-In which specific mani­ festation of capitalism? "One Dark Race, the Japanese ..." Stalin--Its imperialist, usurpatory manifestation. You remember Logan presents Japanese impe- how the first World War arose. * The Stalin~Howard Interview, International It arose out of the desire to Publishers, p. 6. READY FOR A THIRD WORLD WAR 615 rialism to the colored peoples of equally correct to state that the the world as a model, as being the overwhelming majority of the white friend of the darker peoples. This is toilers have been trampled under­ not original with him. It is well foot for centuries? But by whom known that, under conditions of have they been oppressed? Has it "peace," the Pan Pacific movement not been by the imperialists of propagated this idea. Under those Britain, Germany, France, Japan circumstances, the objective of this and the United States-in short, by slogan was to split the peace move­ the imperialists of all countries? ment, to direct the thinking of the Clear, one would think. But Logan, Negro masses into reactionary conveniently, makes no distinction channels, which could not but aid between the white toilers and the the forces driving toward war. imperialist bourgeoisie. But if, in the past, the idea of Is it not clear that not ·the white supporting Japanese imperialism toilers but the imperialist bour­ was designed to put a brake on the geois are the owners of the monopo­ peace movement, today it is brought lies and trusts and the banks, the forward as a means for furthering railroads, the factories, mines, mills, full participation in the second im­ ships, tanks, guns? Is it not clear perialist war. In Logan's words: from this that the white toilers are not oppressors but are themselves "For over 500 years the White oppressed? When Logan lumps to­ World has been trampling under its gether the white toilers and the im­ feet yellow coolies, red peons and perialist bourgeoisie, he hereby black slaves." helps to maintain imperialist op­ And he therefore concludes: pression of the "yellow coolies, red peons and black slaves;" as well as "For the first time in history, dur­ the white toilers. He shifts the bur­ ing the first world war, one dark den of the blame from the oppres­ race, the Japanese, found opportu­ sors to the oppressed in the so­ nity for equality, and if Mahatma called mother countries, shielding Gandhi has the intelligence that he the real enemies of the oppressed is supposed to have the 350,000,000 Indians will achieve their fight for peoples by failing to identify them self-determination in the present to the masses. The effect of this, conflict." if successful, would be to sunder the natural alliance of the laboring What confusion, if not downright people in the metropolitan countries deception! with the colonial people, an alliance It is true that "yellow coolies, red without which neither could hope peons and black slaves" have been to achieve its liberation. How then trampled underfoot for centuries. can Logan speak of national libera­ But what about white Ireland, Mr. tion and support of the present war? Logan, which has been struggling Logan travels from one absurdity for its freedom from England for to another. He hails the last world over seven hundred years? Is it not war because "one dark race, the 616 READY FOR A THIRD WORLD WAR Japanese, found an opportunity for tary rivalry for control of the equality," and concludes that, out Pacific. of this war, under the leadership of It would be a mistake, however, Mahatma Gandhi, the "350,000,000 to assume, as Logan does, that Indians will achieve their fight for Japan's development into an impe­ self-determination." Will the people rialist power "just happened" as a of India achieve self-determination result of the first world war. As by currying favor with their impe­ early as the end of the nineteenth rialist oppressors, by supporting century, the expansionist policy of them in the present war? Or will the ruling circles of Japan had they gain self-determination by manifested itself. Witness, for fighting their oppressors? Which is example, the Sino-Japanese war, the way to liberty for the Indians, the Russo-Japanese war, the strug­ Mr. Logan? The way to liberty for gle in 1904-5 over Korea. Japan's the Indian people is the way of participation then in the First World struggle against all imperialism, and War was but an extension of the in the first place against their direct expansionist policy of the Japanese oppressors-British imperialism. war lords. The seizure of North He is delighted that the Japanese China and Manchuria, and now the "found an opportunity for equality" struggle to conquer the whole of during the last war. What type of China, is a continuation of Japa­ equality is this which he applauds? nese imperialist struggle for the What has been its meaning for the subjugation and exploitation of the people of Japan and China? Chinese people and the mastery of Japanese imperialism displaced the Pacific. Germany in the important seaboard Thus, the equality which Mr; Lo­ province of China, Shantung, and gan speaks of is "parity" among imposed its infamous Twenty-One robbers, among fellow imperialist Demands. It thus, for the first time, states-which leads to war and in­ gained a firm foothold in China, tensified oppression of the colonial alongside of its imperialist allies­ peoples. Could there be a better rivals. It staked out its claim to an illustration of this fact than the equal, if not dominant, share in ravaging of China today by Japa­ plundering and oppressing "one nese imperialism? dark race," the Chinese people. And Logan rejoices at this "op­ Japanese imperialism emerged portunity for equality" for Japanese from the last world war in a much imperialism! improved position, as one of the But this "equality" does not major imperialist states. The signifi­ merely signify the waging by Japan cance of this was that Japanese im­ of an imperialist plunder war perialism had entered into the world abroad-it also signifies a most in­ arena of imperialist struggle for tense system of internal repression colonial subjugation. This could not of the Japanese toilers. The impe­ but lead to sharpened imperialist rialist war against China is strain­ antagonisms, to economic and mill- ing the country to the breaking READY FOR A THIRD WORLD WAR 617 point. The econcmic resources of Thus, the war conducted by this the country are at a very low ebb. "model" of Mr. Logan has brought The decline of industrial production, about intensified economic and so­ which began in 1938, continues cial oppression of its own toilers. apace. The constant reduction of This is the meaning of the "equal­ wages, increased taxation, the con­ ity" of "One dark race, the Japa­ stant rise in prices for consumer nese . . ." which Logan hails and goods intensify the economic op­ holds up for admiration to the pression of the Japanese workers. colored people of the world. But the Half of the home market consists Negro people, Mr. Logan, together of poverty-stricken peasants. The with the Chinese people, with the middle classes and· professionals Japanese working class, and with have been forced into a pauper­ the white toilers of the world, can like existence. The rationing of see this "model" Japanese impe­ sugar, charcoal and matches has rialism only as representative of all now been extended to the chief food oppressive, peace-destroying impe­ staple of the masses, rice. rialist states. In an attempt to whip up a Logan, to be sure, proclaims that chauvinistic spirit among the he is for self-determination. But masses for the war the Japanese the question is: how is self-determi­ Home Ministry instituted a "Nation­ nation to be achieved? Logan places al Spiritual Mobilization" campaign. this entire question on a "racial" Unable, however, to win support basis, instead of on a national lib­ among the masses for the war and eration, anti-imperialist basis. But to put a halt to the rising anger even so, why does he support Japa­ of the workers and peasants, the nese imperialism as opposed to the Japanese Diet outlawed all political Chinese people? Here he has a very parties. Under the supervision of clear choice between two "dark the Home Ministry the police carried races." He could support the Chi­ through hundreds of raids, arrest­ nese toilers in their heroic struggle ing not only militant workers and for national salvation from Japa­ peasants but liberals and pacifists. nese and world imperialism; or he This was followed by a "National could support Japanese imperialism. Mobilization Bill," which called for His choice is Japanese imperialism. compulsory allocation of workers to Why is this so? It is because Lo­ jobs; prohibited strikes; and fixed gan is not interested in real self­ wages, hours and working condi­ determination. Self-determination tions by government decree. with him becomes a means to cover All of these measures proved up his support for imperialist war, inadequate, however. In 1940 the and oppression of the Chinese and Home Ministry organized a National Japanese toilers. As against the Lo­ Spy system, the so-called "Near gans, we take our stand on the side Neighbor" groups, the aim of which of the Chinese people, and of the is to spy upon the activities of the oppressed toilers of Japan. workers and peasants. Logan further states that "the 618 READY FOR A THffiD WORLD WAR 350,000,000 Indians will achieve the white people and does not make their liberation if Mahatma Gandhi a distinction between the few white has the intelligence he is supposed imperialists and the vast majority to have." Undoubtedly the Indian of white toilers who, like the ma­ people will be victorious in their jority of mankind, are victims of fight for self-determination, but this imperialist oppression. This on the fight will not be decided by the "in­ one hand leads him to welcome and telligence" of a Mahatma Gandhi glorify Japanese imperialism. On Rather, it will be decided by the the other hand, he overlooks the Indian masses under the leadership fact that the Negro people has allies of the National Congress and the in the other victims of imperialist Communist Party. Such a struggle oppression. Logan's counsel serves will be directed, not only against only the imperialist oppressors. British imperialism but against the What is the correct position? compromisers with, and capitulators 1. The Negro people must tight to British imperialism within India. imperialism at all times and must Just as the Negro people in the intensify that struggle when im­ United States have their Logans, so perialism is in a crisis. the people in India have their 2. This struggle must be waged in Gandhis. Why is this so? Because alliance with all the anti-imperialist the fight for self-determination of forces, especially those forces which the Indian masses is a fight for na­ are inherently and consistently tional freedom, an anti-imperialist antagonists of imperialism-the fight. The struggle of the Indian working class and the Soviet Union. masses for self-determination is 3. The present imperialist war linked with that of the oppressed has brought and will increasingly Chinese people, who are waging a bring greater hardships and suffer­ just war against Japanese imperial­ ings to the oppressed masses, in­ ism, which has been "appeased" and cluding the Negro people. Therefore, abetted by British and American all the oppressed masses must wage imperialism. The Indian masses a united tight against the imperialist look more and more to the Soviet war. At the same time, the war Union as the only country in the signifies an acute inter-imperialist world which has liberated 200,000,- struggle, an acute crisis of world 000 people from imperialist war and imperialism. The oppressed must oppression. Thus, the question that we are dealing with is not in any take advantage of this to fight for sense a racial one, but a question their interests and to weaken their of the vast mass of humanity in mo­ imperialist enemy. tion against world imperialism. The plight of imperialism is the opportunity of the oppressed. The Conclusion road of liberation of the Negro peo­ Logan's "theory" is wrong be­ ple is the road of struggle against cause it identities imperialism with imperialism, against capitalism. COLOMBIA FACES THE IMPERIALIST OFFENSIVE

BY AUGUSTO DORAN General Secretary of the Communist Party of Colombia

HE consequences of the impe­ is to be found, not alone in the T rialist war have not beeri any increased volume of imports, but, the less harmful for Colombia than ?n the one hand, in the greater buy­ for any other Latin American coun­ tng of consumer goods and the gen­ try. In the case of Colombia, how­ eral rise in prices abroad, and, on the other hand, in the drop in price ever, the situation is aggravated by of coffee, bananas, leather and to­ United States control of our export bacco, along with the decrease in trade, as a result of the British the amounts exported of the th-ree blockade. Ninety-three per cent of last-named articles." Colombian exports (coffee, oil and bananas) are today under this con­ It must be pointed out that, al­ trol, which is the reason that, since though the first results of the coffee the outbreak of the war, the coun­ quota pact are favorable, upon the try has fallen into an even greater completion of the first year's quota degree of dependency on the "good in the coming month, overproduc­ ·neighbor" to the North. tion will begin to tell, and prices This obviously has a profound are b~und to drop considerably, effect on the foreign trade balance, rendermg the situation still worse. inasmuch as Yankee imperialism, Bananas have already dropped while buying Colombian exports at from 50 to 32 1/2 cents the bunch the lowest possible price, sells at and oil from $12.60 to $11.50 th~ ton. the highest possible price those goods which are imported into the The differential in the trade bal­ country. The Colombian economic ance is being covered with gold situation accordingly deserves care­ exports, a circumstance which, even ful analysis, with first of all the though Colombia is a gold-produc­ factor of commercial exchange ing country, cannot fail to affect taken into account. the national economy. In the years 1939-40 the deficit The government thinks it is going in the trade . balance was a large to solve its acute economic problems one. Seventy million, six hundred by having recourse to loans made thousand pesos, in all. Commenting in the United States. But loans are on this, the government organ El not an easy thing to obtain, in spite Tiempo, says: ' of all the talk of "economic co­ operation" that was heard from "The. cause of these trade deficits Mr. Cordell Hull at the diplomats' 619 620 COLOMBIA FACES IMPERIALIST DRIVE cOnference in Havana. One has but to secure a loan of $40,000,000: to glance at the situation in which "It is believed that attention wm this country finds itself at the pres­ be devoted, preferably, to the de­ ent time with respect to the North velopment of deep-water ports on American market Or rather: it is the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts; the easy enough to obtain loans, pro­ use of such ports, as AmbassadoT vided certain conditions are met. Turbay recently stated, win be the The · first time it was approached subject of discussion in aU the American nations, in the interest by President Santos for a loan, the of continental solidarity, when the United States government laid down opportune moment arrives." as its first condition the renewal of payments on the foreign debt, which It is a sign of the· times that, would mean a minimum annual along with the talk of loans, the disbursement of 15,000,000 pesos, imperialist-serving press has re­ and which could only result in a doubled its campaign of chauvin­ deepening of the economic and ism, making a great to-do about financial crisis. the dangers of a European inva­ The other conditions for loans sion. President Santos' brother, laid down by Mr. Roosevelt are not Caliban, who was recently enter­ known to the publi~; but it is an tained in the United States, where open secret that, owing to our he went to receive the Cabot award, proximity to the Panama Canal, is more imperialist than the impe­ and our ports upon both the Atlan­ rialists themselves, and exceeds the tic and the Pacific, the Roosevelt bounds of decency when he says, of today, relative of the Roosevelt in one of his latest published state­ who, back in 1903, dismembered the ments on this subject: state of the same name, has an "The heads of the United States interest in naval and territorial government see all this clearly bases in Colombia, for the defense enough. Meanwhile, precious time of the Canal. And it is certain that is being lost." there will be no loans for Colombia, What Senor Caliban means to unless concessions are made to say is that precious time is being Yankee imperialism; concessions, lost in declaring a state of war such as those of bases, which would for the country, and in repressing be injurious to the national sover­ the anti-imperialist movement. For eignty; and, what would be more while it is certain that the military injurious still, the construction or high command of the United States conditioning of those bases to suit is not interested in raising an ex­ the needs of North American fleets, peditionary force of Colombian sol­ out of the national treasury! diers, fever-ridden and inexperi­ In support of our argument, we enced in modern mechanized war­ herewith transcribe a United Press fare, nevertheless, by the declaration dispatch to the Colombian papers, of a state of war in fulfilment of following the return of Ambassador the obligations undertaken by the Turbay to Washington; it has ref­ Latin American governments at erence to the ambassador's efforts Havana, democratic liberties would COLOMBIA FACES IMPERIALIST DRIVE 621 be liquidated and the plunder and ers have responded militantly enslavement of the Colombian peo­ every time an attempt was made ple would be facilitated. to ignore the agreement signed with Colombian reactionaries and sell­ the shipping companies. ers-out of their country of the On May 1 last, great popular Caliban type are especially anxious demonstrations were held in all the to have the United States enter the principal cities of the country, led war before the convening of the by the banners of the Confedera­ next legislative chamber, in order tion of Colombian Workers (C.T.C.), that they may not only have the with slogans calling for The Unity opportunity to dictate statutes out­ of Workers and the People, for the lawing the Communist Party under defense of the national economy, pretext of its internationalist char­ for neutrality in the robber war, acter, but may be able more suc­ and for better living conditions for cessfully to exert pressure against the toiling masses. Many trade the "Lopistas" and thereby avoid unionists inscribed upon their the possible proclamation of Al­ streamers slogans calling for the fonso Lopez as president at the freedom of Earl Browder and Luis next National Liberal Convention. Carlos Prestes, this First of May. The imperialist war, ,meanwhile, in Bogota a Communist Party is becoming a flesh-and-blood re­ speaker, Comrade Juan Manuel ality for the Colombian people, and Valdelamar, leader of the river and the full meaning of it is dawning marine workers, made a long upon them: through wage-cuts, speech in which he outlined the mass firings and the lengthening peace policy of the Soviet Union. of the working day, to which both He was greeted with warm ap­ native and foreign employers re­ plause and cries of "Viva la U.R.S.S. sort in an effort to unload the [U.S.S.R.]," on the part of those burden of the crisis on the backs participating in the demonstration. of the workers. The minister of In struggling for the freedom of finance has announced a cut in the Browder and Prestes and the de­ national budget of 6,000,000 pesos. fense of the peace policy of the Payment of their last year's annual Soviet Union, Colombian workers bonus has been refused to more have registered an advance in the than 10,000 railway workers. In the spirit of proletarian international­ banana country, controlled by the ism; they have shown that they United Fruit Company, hundreds of understand what our great Comrade workers are trudging from one Stalin means when he says: "The farmhouse to another in a vain national question is a part of the search for work. general question of the proletarian The workers, however, are begin­ revolution. . . ." ning to react to this state of affairs. It is under such conditions as A strike of 1,000 brewery em­ these that the question of the ployees, for higher wages, in the B. presidential succession is being Avaria factories, met with some raised in our country at the present success. The Rio Magdalena work- moment. The appearance of Ex- 622 COLOMBIA FACES IMPERIALIST DRIVE President Alfonso Lopez, one of the Lopez himself has wavered some­ leaders of the government party, as what in his anti-imperialist posi­ a candidate, with a program which tion. But if Senor Lopez wavers, sets the question of the industriali­ the people of El Valle have re­ zation of the country and the de­ sponded to this criminal offensive fense of the national economy over on the part of the reactionary against the colonizing ambitions of coalitionists with huge demonstra­ the Yankee magnates, has led to a tions of protest and a twenty-four­ widespread movement in the candi­ hour strike on the Pacific Railway, date's favor, one in which the trade the largest in the country, thus unions are nearly everywhere tak­ giving their leaders to understand ing the lead. It is only natural to that they refuse to share their com­ suppose that such a program would plicity by keeping silent in the face meet with the. liveliest resistance· of such events. . on the part of the land-holding The Communist Party has oligarchy and the great commercial launched a slogan of struggle for importers within the country and the calling of a National People's the North American imperialists on Convention, representing the trade the outside. These forces, with the unions and trade union federations, powerful means of propaganda the rural leagues, the students and which they have at their disposal, progressive 'youth, the liberal com­ are bringing a terrific pressure to mittees and the Communist Party, bear upon the government, in order in order to agree upon a program to force it .to place the state power of anti-imperialist and anti-reac­ at the service of the opposition to tionary action, such a program as Lopez; they have partly succeeded. shall give voice to the most obvious It is to be noted that, in the first national aspirations of the Colom­ skirmishes between the opposing bian people. This convention should forces, at the last election for at the same time agree upon a can­ deputies and representatives, the didate for the presidency of the democratic masses won their initial Republic, since it is a foregone con­ victory, by gaining a majority over clusion that the National Liberal those Liberal candidates who are Convention, which meets in July, opposed to the ideas and program will not be able to do so. of Senor Lopez. It is under this slogan that the The reactionaries, on the other Party is now being mobilized; an hand, are not asleep, and are wait­ intensive agitation will be carried ing to strike at the opportune mo­ out in the trade unions and among ment. Following its defeat at the the masses of the people, as the polls, the Conservative-Liberal co­ one way out of the situation that alition, consisting of the Catholic has been created, and by way of Clerical Party and the extreme Lib­ lending impulse to the movement eral Right, replied with the assas­ for popular betterment, for the sination of outstanding "Lopista" defense of the national economy, leaders in the Department of El for neutrality, and for a fre~ ~Qq Valle; and as a result, Alfonso prosperous Colombia. THE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITAL­ ISM IN UNITED STATES AGRICULTURE*

BY ERIK BERT

"The foremost country of modern and large-scale production." (Ibid., capitalism is particularly interesting p. 242.) for the study of the social-economic structure and evolution of modern Recent Development of Technique agriculture. The United States is in Agriculture unequaled in rapidity of develop­ ~ERE has been a profound de­ ment of capitalism at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the .1. velopment of technique in agri­ twentieth century, in the high level culture during the past generation, . of development already attained, in including changes in machines, the vastness of its territory-on animals, plants and land use. which is employed the most up-to­ Two outstanding examples of the date technical equipment suitable raising of the technical level of agri­ for tke remarkable variety of natur­ culture are the development of hy­ al and historical conditions-and in brid corn (especially during the the degree of political freedom and past eight years) and the increased the cultural level of the masses of use of tractors and tractor powered the people. Indeed, this country is equipment (especially during the in many respects the model and past twenty years). ideal of our bourgeois civilization." (Lenin [1914-1915], "Theory of the The profound character of some Agrari.an Question," Volume XII of of the changes in technique are evi­ the Selected Works, Internati<>nal dent in: the change to hybrid com Publishers, New York, p. 190.) to the point where 75 per cent of the Iowa corn acreage (and 25 per cent " ... in all arguments on the sub­ of the national acreage) was plal\ted ject of the evolution of agriculture to hybrid com in 1939, in contrast and lts laws the discussion centers to practically nothing in 1933; and precisely on the question of small in the doubling of the tractors in • The present article is a . partial summary and use between 1930 and 1940. analysis of "Theory of the Agrarian Question" On the basis of present conditions by V. I. Lenin, Selected Works, Vol. XII; "Why Farmers Axe Poor:" by Anna Rochester; in agriculture it is estimated that and "Technology on the Farm" by U. S. Department of Agriculture. Unless otherwise in the next ten years there will be a:edited all factual material is from Anna a doubling of hybrid com acreage, Rochester's extremely valuable analysis of Ameri­ can agriculture. and an increase of between 30 and 623 624 UNITED STATES AGRICULTURE 50 per cent in the number of trac­ tenant farmer system the stimulus tors. The tendency of such develop­ to improvements, etc., becomes ments will be to aggravate sharply weaker." (Ibid., p. 38.) The devel­ all the existing contradictions in opment of capitalism has depressed American agriculture. this stimulus even among middle The advance of technique has re­ farmer owner-operators, who sacri­ sulted in an appreciable reduction fice permanent farm improvements in the man-hours required per unit for those investments which can be of product. translated into reduced production The degree to which tractor farm­ costs in a relatively shorter period ing· affects agriculture is seen in of time. Comparing the years 1936- the fact that while "in 1929, tractor 3'7 with the pre-crisis years of the farms were barely one-seventh ( 13.5 1920's we find that middle farmers per cent) of all farms in the coun­ spent more for farm machinery in try . . . they were producing more the latter period, less for fertilizer, than half of the commercial out­ and "very much less than formerly put" (51 per cent). At the other for farm improvements." "This extreme were the remaining six­ means a declining trend in general sevenths (86.5 per cent) which pro­ upkeep of the middle farmers' land duced less than half ( 49 per cent) and buildings." (Rochester, pp. 197- of the commercU1l output. 198.) In the effort to cut production The doubling of the number of costs through raising the technique tractors in use since 1929 has made of agriculture, primarily through mechanized equipment an even increased use of machinery, expen­ more potent factor in agriculture. ditures of a more permanent char­ acter are sacrificed. Technical Advance and Capital Investment Tenancy and Mortgage The advance in technique necessi­ " . mortgage and usury are, so tates an increase in the amount of to speak, forms in which capital capital invested, and establishes as overcame the obstacles which pri­ a pre•·equisite for successful opera­ vate property in land creates for the tion a larger investment per farm free penetration of capital into agri­ than was necessary previously. culture." (Lenin, p. 325.) " ... the process of the land becoming sep­ The advance in technique necessi­ arated from the farmer is expressed tates not only an increase in the in two forms: in the tenant farmer total amount of capital invested per system, and in mortgage debts." farm, but establishes as a prerequi­ (Lenin, p. 10.) site for successful operation a larger working capital than was previously While in England, where the necessary. Thus, the advance in landlord-tenant farmer system de­ technique is accompanied by a veloped early, qualitative change in agriculture, " ... the separation of land owner­ resulting in increased commercial­ ship from land cultivation is ob­ ization of the farm enterprise. vious" . . . "in all other capitalist Lenin points out that "under the countries . . . the same process of UNITED STATES AGRICULTURE 625 the separation of land ownership One consequence of the complete from land cultivation is taking expropriation of the farmer is that place, although in extremely varied the mortgage holder-borrower rela­ forms (leases, mortgages)." (Lenin, tionship of finance capital and the p. 66.) farmer is superseded by the land­ The degree to which capital has lord-tenant relationship. This in­ infiltrated into agriculture through volves certain new problems for tenancy and mortgages is concisely finance capital in caring for its stated in the report of (then) Sec­ property, closer supervision, and retary of Agriculture Wallace for an apparatus of supervisors of one 1938, (quoted by Rochester, p. 130): kind or another. An alternative consequence of "Farm land rented in 1938 con­ expropriation is for the process of stituted more than 45% of all the foreclosure-eviction to be followed farm land in the country as com­ by resale of the property to some pared with only 31% in 1900. Ten­ ants, including croppers, operated other farmer, to begin again the 42% of all the farms in 1935, as familiar mortgage holder-borrower compared with 25% in 1880. . . . relationship between finance capital Rent paid by farmers in the United and the farmer on this property. States to non-farmers in 1935 is Special factors of a sectional char­ estimated at $699,000,000 . . . and acter, and types of agriculture, are in 1937 at $829,000,000. important in determining which of "Mortgage debt constitutes an in­ the two methods are used in sepa­ creasing proportion of the value of rating the farmer from his land. farm real estate.... The debt load has about doubled during the last Large-Scale vs. Small-Scale quarter of a century. In 1880 the equity of farm operators in farm Production real estate in the United States as The data on farm income in the a whole was about 62% of the value United States give a striking reflec­ of all farm real estate. By 1930 the proportion had fallen to 41%, and tion of the social and economic: by 1935 to 39%.'' stratification on the countryside. On the basis of net income from all Alienation of the farmer from sources, including relief, we have the land, either directly in the form the following distribution of farm of tenancy or indirectly in the form families, in 1935-1936 (National of mortgages, is one of the out­ Resources Committee, quoted by standing features of the evolution Rochester, p. 12): of agriculture in the United States in the era of imperialism and in­ 3,825,800 farm families, or 56% creasing domination of finance capi­ of all, had less than $1,000; tal. This has as its corollary the 1,393,600 farm families, or 21% of increasing toll taken by finance all, had from $1,000 to $1,500; 1,073,000 farm families, or 16% of capital. "Payments for rent, mort­ all, had from $1,500 to $2,500; gage interest, taxes and bank cred­ 474,800 farm families, or 7% of it" amounted in 1929 to more than all, had over $2,500; $2,000,000,000. (Rochester, p. 79.) Less than 25,000, or about 4 farm 626 UNITED STATES AGRICULTURE families in every 1,000, had $10,000 two-thirds of the farms cannot use or over. such equipment competitively. The further use of tractors and In 1929 (the latest date for which tractor-equipment will be confined figures are available) 900,000 farm by and large to one-third of the families, or one out of seven, had farms. Two-thirds of the farms will less than $400 gross farm income. continue without tractor equipment Comparison of farms and farm and in competition with an in­ products sold (for 1929) shows that creased concentration of motor the development of capitalism in equipment on the other third. agriculture has induced a definite Characteristic of agriculture un­ polarization. Specifically: more than der capitalism is the existence of one-quarter of all farms (28.0%) millions of economically small produced about one thirtieth (3.4%) farms. of all farm products sold; more than four-fifths of all farms (80.8%) pro­ "The less productive half of the duced· less than two-fifths (38.5%) farms reported in the census in 1930 of all farm products sold. At the contributed only 11 per cent of the other end, less than one twenty-fifth value of farm products entering (3.9%) of all farms produced more commercial channels in 1929." than one-fourth (28.3%) of all farm (Technology on the Farm, p. 68.) products sold; and less than one­ fifth of all farms (19.2%) produced Displacement of Labor, more than three-fifths (61.5%) of and Expropriation all farm products sold. If we con­ "The effects of technological and trast the situation in 1929 with that related developments upon commer­ obtaining in 1899 we find: a marked cialization in agriculture ... will increase in the proportion of total tend to bring about a more com­ farm product coming from the larg­ mercial agriculture, and . . . de­ est farms; a decrease in the propor­ spite the larger acreage in com­ tion coming from the poorest and mercial production, fewer farmers smallest farms; and a corresponding will be engaged in production of decline in relative importance of marketable products." (Ibid., p. 69.) smaller farms of all sizes. Wage labor on the countryside "The main line of development means, not only that the capitalist of capitalist agriculture-which is farmers, especially the richest farm­ gradually becoming the main line ers, employ workers, but also that of development even in America" the poorest farmers are deprived is "the process of concentration of of their petty-bourgeois "indepen­ production in large farms" and the dence" and become when possible elimination of "small production." (Lenin, p. 282.) either part-time or full-time wage workers. In 1929 and 1934 therE' Approximately one-third of the were about two million farmers who farms are large ·enough from an were so badly off that they had to economic point of view to use work off their farms. In 1934, at motor equipment competitively- least three out of four of these UNITED STATES AGRICULTURE 62'7 farmers were doing non-agricultural less commercialized areas. . . . Such work. Further, in 1934 some 465,000 a movement would mean that the members of farm families living at agriculture of these areas will be­ home and included in the farm come even less commercialized than population brought in earnings from at present." (Technology on the Farm, p. 69.) non-farm occupations. Further evi­ dence of the proletarianization of Economically small or minute the poorest sections of the farm farms of a subsistence character population exists in the fact that are a characteristic development. about "three and a half million rural households, more than one "A large group, perhaps as many as one million farms, were [in 1930] out of four of the families on farms far down the scale in degree of and in villages, received assistance commercialization. Approximately from a public or private agency at one-half of these were farms clas­ some time during the years from sified as self-sufficing-that is, they 1930 to 1937 . . . [by] a conserva­ were farms upon which the value tive estimate." (Rochester, p. 11.) of the produce used in the home The technical level achieved at exceeded the value of the produce the present time and the amount of contributed to commercial chan­ capital required to operate at this nels." (Ibid., p. 68.) level exclude a large section of The advance of technique in agri­ farmers from even a fighting chance culture under capitalism has meant of surviving as "independent" com­ in the immediately past years the mercial producers. widespread uprooting and perma­ The recent development of capi­ nent displacement of tens of thou­ talism in agriculture is reflected in sands of farm families. The perspec­ an increase in non-commercial, sub­ tive for the future is for more up­ sistence, part-time farming. This rooting and wider displacement. development takes place against an In certain types of agriculture, for existing background of widespread example livestock breeding and subsistence and non-commercial dairying, the raising of technique farming. The economic forces which and the increase in capital invest­ today drive toward increased capi­ ment have not extended appreciably tal investment in agriculture, in­ the area of operations, but have creased mechanization, raising the intensified operations primarily by technical level of agriculture, drive applying more capital to the same tmtold millions also toward a farm­ acreage. to-mouth existence, deprived of The tendency of other technical even the barest competitively neces­ advances, particularly tractoriza­ iary equipment, depressing and de­ tion, is not only toward economic­ itroying the technical levels they ally larger farm units, but toward had previously achieved. larger land units: not alone to "Although the general tendency is greater capital investment but to toward a more commercial agricul­ increased acreage as well. This is ture, workers displaced by mechan­ particularly the case in the cash ization very often move toward the corn and major wheat areas. 628 UNITED STATES AGRICULTURE One process of "proletarianizing'' to the land in these same years of the farmers, said Lenin, is "the some 1,300,000 persons annually, growing divorcement of the peas­ who attempted to find on the land antry from the land, the expropria­ the security that they could not find tion of the rural population." Under in the cities even in the heyday the sway of finance capital this be­ of post-War capitalism. Because of comes a mass phenomenon. In just insecurity in either city or farm ten years' time, from 1925 to 1935, in the crisis years 1929 to 1933 the about thirty farms out of every number leaving and returning to hundred, throughout the entire the country was about equal. country, were put on the block Temporarily, in 1935, the number through foreclosures and other of farmers was greater by half a forced sales. million than it had been five years The Joads of The Grapes of earlier. But these new farmers were Wrath are today a national symbol in a most unstable position. And of the dispossessed and migrant preliminary returns from the 1940 victims of capitalism in agriculture census show a new sharp decline in the United States. in numbers of farms in every sec­ tion of the country. ". . . The increasing migration, The perspective for the future, as not only of the agricultural laborers a result of further raising of the but also of the peasants, from the technical level of agriculture, as country to the towns is in itself well as from the "unspent" conse­ striking evidence of this growing quences of past technical changes, proletarianization. But the peas­ ant's flight to the cities is inevitably is that hundreds of thousands of preceded by his ruin; and ruin is additional families will be uprooted preceded by a desperate fight for and permanently displaced. Esti­ economic independence." (Lenin, mates of 350,000 to 500,000 addition­ pp. 132-33.) al wage workers and farmers to be permanently displaced in the next Lenin pointed also to the "ob­ decade indicate the enormity of the vious connection between the flight attack. These are in addition to the of the population from the rural million and a half males of working districts and the ruin of the small age now on the farms who are producers" and to "the amount of totally or pprtially unemployed. privation, oppression and pauperi­ The significance of mechanization zation" that is reflected in this is not confined to the present results "flight." (Ibid., p. 264.) of past mechanization or to what "Privation, oppression, pauperiza­ can be estimated as to future mech­ tion" were the main factors in anization. Of great importance are driving annually 1,940,000 men, the results still to be expected from women and children from the farms past mechanization. The full social to the cities in the period between consequences of raising the technical the two post-War crises, 1920 and level to the present time have not 1929. A contrary movement of yet been felt. The dynamic force smaller proportions was the return of this advance is still "unspent." UNITED STATES AGRICULTURE 629 Finance Capital money from the capitalists; but the state itself can obtain this money Industry and banking, trustified only from the capitalists. Conse­ and monopolized under imperialism, quently, even under the best pos­ finance capital, drive persistently sible organization of state aid the to drain off all the benefits of tech­ domination of capital is not re­ nical progress from agriculture. The moved in the least" and the "cheap singleness of purpose and of organi­ loans and grants" by the capitalist state constitute just one of the zation that the farmers find in "possible forms of application of finance Ctlpital and its component capital to agriculture.'' (Lenin, parts stands in marked contrast to p. 325.) the millionfold atomization of the farmers. While finance capital tends The shifting of mortgage holdings to drain off the benefits of technical from private capitalist agencies to advance in general from agricul­ the federal government in the post- ture, its specific consequences are 1929-30 period meant·for the capi­ quite varied. The advance of tech­ talist class an exchange of indiv­ nique accentuates the economic dif­ idually insecure and "frozen" equi­ ferences within agriculture. While ties in agriculture for equities (in finance capital appropriates as the form of Land Bank bonds) much as possible from agriculture, secured by quasi-government guar­ the rich farmers at the same time antees and as liquid as the bond increase their profits. The poorest market, than which more could not and middle farmers who never be asked. The extraction of interest benefited from the advance in tech­ toll from the farmers was made a nique are drained to extinction in matter of state intervention. Inter­ the process of finance capital expro­ est rates were moderated from the priating from agriculture what bene­ inflated toll that could not be col­ fits flow from improved technique lected due to the crisis, to levels and increased capital investment. that could be extracted without facing the danger of having fore­ Government Loans closure and eviction struggles attain a higher pitch than in 1931-32. Lenin analyzed the question of The free and easy acceptance by government loans, which have as­ the capitalists of the fact that pri­ sumed such tremendous significance vate mortgage holdings and govern­ in the lives of the farmers of the ment mortgage holdings are basic­ United States. The Narodniki sup­ ally of the same stuff is evident not ported such advances in order to only in the transfer to government find an "out" to the question of holdings during the years of acute the development of capitalism in crisis but in recent tendencies to agriculture. Lenin analyzed instead reverse the process, since that now the "social-economic significance of appears to some of them. to be more all these 'cheap loans and grants.' " extractive. " ... The state can only serve as The intervention of the state in an intermediary in transferring the agricultural financing has not been 630 U:t-nTim STATES AGRICULTURE limited to refinancing mortgages. a nation where at least one third Short-term loans of one kind or are "ill-housed, ill-clothed and ill­ another were provided by one kind nourished." Exhaustion of the soil, or another of farm "relief" measure like exhaustion of the farm family, during the years of sharpest farm marks the trail of capitalism m crisis by the Roosevelt Administra­ agriculture. tion. Such loans were allocated for Ruination of our natural re­ the most part like any other bank sources is one of the normal conse­ loans--to the enterprises which pro­ quences of the capitalist develop­ vided the best guarantees for their ment of agriculture. repayment. In this way special sus­ Capitalism devastates not only tenance was provided to the upper the land but the people as well. sections of the farm population. Poverty and degradation are the lot Such special aid tended to of millions of the toiling population strengthen this section of the farm on the land. A vast supply of un­ population in contrast to, and used labor power is testimony of against, the poorest sections. It con­ the failure of capitalism to organize stitutes, of course, a further infil­ the labor of the people to fill their tration of finance capital into agri­ needs. Instead, wasted labor power, culture, albeit under the "New wasted land and privation are a Deal" and through government chronic consequence of the develop­ agencies. Such aid as was provided ment of capitalism in agriculture. for the poorest farmers was de­ signed not to strengthen them in the Agriculture in the South struggle for existence as competi­ In reviewing the agriculture of tors in the agricultural market, but the South, Lenin declared that "The to remove them from the competi­ farmers we are discussing are not tive market to subsistence, non­ tenants in the European, civilized, co~mercial vegetation. modern capitalist sense; they are mainly semi-feudal or-what is the Rural Retrogression same in the economic sens~semi­ slave sh;are tenants." (Lenin, p. 199.) The evolution of agriculture un­ The present situation in the South der capitalism cannot be evaluated can be summarized, in Rochester's properly unless the conditions of words, as follows: life of the small and poor farmers and their methods of production "More farmers are poor in the become a proper part of the survey. South than elsewhere. . . . Negro Exhaustion of family, soil and farmers, most of whom are in the animals, and deterioration of tools South, are the poorest of all. . . . characterize the lot of the small Sharecropping has remained the farmer. Housing is worse, under­ peculiarly characteristic form of nourishment greater, disease more labor exploitation in Southern agri­ culture.... Semi-feudal plantation widespread, medical aid less, edu­ farming has grown and persisted cational opportunities fewer, in the as the dominant form of operation rural areas than in the cities, in in cotton farming throughout the UNITED STATES AGRICULTURE 631 old South. . . . At the same time, tas of Arkansas and Mississippi) are a great mass of small poor farmers marked by a more rapid tractoriza­ are also operating outside of the tion than in any other group of sharecropping system. . . ." states in the entire country. What a capitalist future holds in "Plantation farming is quite def­ store for the people of the South initely a form of large-scale opera­ is evident in the estimate of experts tion" and has been penetrated by that 300,000 additional families will finance capital, through mortgages be displaced during the next ten and also complete expropriation. years, an average of 36,000 per year, "Plantations based on sharecropping as a result of the advance of tech­ and share tenancy have retarded nique. The development of the the development of large cotton cotton picker in a form which can farms on a completely capitalist effectively underbid even the miser­ basis." able conditions of the sharecroppers The incursion of tractors into and Southern wage workers will Southern agriculture recently shows aggravate still more the process of that the technical basis for agricul­ uprooting and displacement. ture there is changing. Motorized The combined exploitation of equipment produces cotton (aside imperialism and a semi-feudal sys­ from picking) at costs 60 per cent tem are evident in the inability of less than those of the unequipped the South, today, to provide for an sharecropper. adequate diet of the farm popula­ Summary figures for the South tion, in terms of crops sown. obscure the marked difference be­ In contrast to other parts of the tween the dominant old South and country the displacement of labor certain special areas. in the South is accompanied by a The backwardness of agriculture relative increase in the amount of in the old South under the semi­ hired, wage, labor. The tenure of feudal plantation system has re­ the sharecroppers is much less tarded technical progress in that secure than the tenure of either territory, particularly with regard tenants or owner-operators in the to mechanized equipment. The com­ other parts of the nation. Outside petitive advantages of tractorization the South, for the most part (ex­ have been less marked there, where cluding the corporation farms) the the brutal degradation of the living operating unit is still the individual standards of the sharecroppers. has "family" farm (ranging from the served to offset the competitive ad­ wealthiest farmers to the poorest). vantages of the tractor. The trac­ In the South the economic operating tor's advance has been retarded, for unit has been the plantation com­ one thing, by the degradation of the posed of cropper patches. The in­ living standards of the people. dividual cropper's patch has been In contrast to the general retarda­ a part, like that of his neighbors, tion of technical progress in the of the plantation as the main eco­ South we find that certain areas nomic unit. In the rest of the nation (western Texas, Oklahoma, the del- private property in land has existed

relentless relentless control control of of his his local local com- present present constituted constituted there there is is no no

ing ing from from the the inscrutable inscrutable him him and and population population that that as as things things are are at at

of of the the individual individual and and partially partially free­ among among large large sections sections of of the the farm farm

been been that that of of widening widening the the contacts contacts

development development is is the the realization realization

the the most most important important influence influence has has

tively tively different different and and more more recent recent

hood, hood,

and and the the community. community. Probably Probably

population population is is concerned. concerned. A A qualita­

ence ence upon upon the the family, family, the the neighbor­

whelming whelming majority majority of of the the farm farm in in rural rural areas areas have have had had their their influ­

farm farm worker, worker, as as far far as as the the over­ cialization, cialization, better better communications communications

dependent" dependent" farmer, farmer, or or tenant, tenant, or or "Technological "Technological changes, changes, commer­

individual individual advancement advancement of of the the "in­

security. security.

agriculture agriculture has has to to blocked blocked the the road road

yet yet of of the the possibilities possibilities of of a a genuine genuine

The The development development of of capitalism capitalism in in

there there is is no no general general appreciation appreciation

among among those those who who are are losing losing faith faith Ideological Ideological Change Change

being being

undermined undermined

even even

though though

garden garden disappears disappears in in a a sea sea of of cotton. cotton.

belief belief in in

capitalism capitalism

as as a a system system

is is

into into the the plantation plantation and and where where his his

farmer farmer

is is being being

undermined. undermined.

The The

the the sharecropper's sharecropper's patch patch is is merged merged

mal," mal,"

"independent," "independent,"

"individual," "individual,"

cases cases it it proceeds proceeds to to the the point point where where

which which

corresponded corresponded

to to

the the

"nor­

substitution substitution of of wage wage labor. labor. In In such such

The The

ideological ideological superstructure superstructure

not not result, result, as as yet, yet, in in the the complete complete

66.) 66.) p. p. being being pressed pressed even even where where it it does does

ticeable." ticeable." (Technology (Technology on on the the Farm, Farm, on on land land tenure. tenure. This This process process is is

tural tural ladder ladder has has become become more more no­ last last vestiges vestiges of of any any security security based based

at at particular particular levels levels of of the the agricul­

it it deprives deprives

the the farmer farmer

of of

even even

the the

dency dency for for American American farmers farmers to to stay stay

laborer laborer status status lies lies in in the the fact fact that that

accelerated, accelerated, and and third third ...... the the ten­

change change from from sharecropper sharecropper to to wage wage

loss loss of of the the farm farm entirely, entirely, has has been been

The The

major major

significance significance

in in

the the

reduction reduction in in status status as as tenant, tenant, or or

owners owners against against the the croppers. croppers. involving involving loss loss of of status status as as owner, owner,

petuate petuate the the rights rights of of the the plantation plantation ...... the the movement movement down down the the ladder, ladder,

plantation plantation economy, economy, serves serves to to per­ has has been been seriously seriously retarded; retarded; second second

laborer laborer and and tenant tenant to to that that of of owner, owner, poorest poorest farmers, farmers, in in the the semi-feudal semi-feudal

various various stages stages from from that that of of farm farm for for hundreds hundreds of of thousands thousands of of the the

ment ment up up the the ladder, ladder, through through the the of of democratic democratic rights rights in in the the South South

have have changed. changed...... First First ...... move­

other other

hand, hand,

the the virtual virtual

extinction extinction

the the so-called so-called 'agricultural 'agricultural ladder' ladder'

ants ants and and owner-operators. owner-operators. On On the the

phenomena phenomena formerly formerly associated associated with with

against against eviction eviction of of individual individual ten­

"During "During

the the

recent recent

years years

the the

crisis crisis years years of of 1931, 1931, 1932 1932 and and 1933 1933

Witness Witness the the bitter bitter struggle struggle in in the the under under capitalism. capitalism.

farm farm which which a a gave gave different different rise rise to to kind kind these these of of rights. rights. salvation-not salvation-not

fight fight to to ment ment maintain maintain of of a a the the positive positive independent independent realization realization of of

traditional traditional rights rights strengthens strengthens the the capitalism; capitalism; rather rather than than the the develop­

tenure tenure rights. rights. The The existence existence of of these these of of American American agriculture agriculture under under

This This has has loss loss of of formed formed confidence confidence the the basis basis in in the the for for traditions traditions

pendent," pendent," farm. farm. primarily primarily a a negative negative development-­

in in the the form form of of the the individual, individual, "inde­ individual individual salvation salvation for for them. them. is is It It

632 632 UNITED UNITED STATES STATES AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE UNITED STATES AGRICULTURE 633 munity. On the one hand, he has Middle Farmers: Provide them with been brought into closer contact a "stake in the land" which "might with and made dependent on the still be strong enough to give all town and city where he learns to the advantages [or at least illu­ question the older values and be­ .sions] of ownership." (Ibid., pp. liefs; and on the other hand, he 89, 90.) (3) Poor Farmers: Sub­ has been freed from the rigorous control of the rural community. sf'stl'!nce, non-commercial activity, Life, therefore, has become more self sufficiency, all at a primitive complex. He is given new desires level of technique. (4) Farm Work­ by association with people who ers: Subsistence. have many material things which The bourgeois agricultural ex­ he does not have, and he is not cer­ perts, in general, attempt to meet tain what reward or loss will be the glaring contradiction in agri­ forthcoming if he pursues a given cultural development by the con­ lin~ of action. His desires grow out tention that a stable development of all proportion to the means of satisfying them. Finding himself of agriculture under capitalism in frustrated by desires which cannot the United States can be assured be satisfied under old standards, by (1) "small," "family-sized," the sanctity of which is questioned, technically well-equipped, commer­ it is natural for him to disregard cial farms, and (2) smaller, tech­ old beliefs." (Ibid., p. 70.) nically retarded, self-sufficing, non­ commercial farms or plots. The Program of the Bourgeoisie The guarantees for the family­ sized farm, they declare, include A major aim of the bourgeoisie "family-sized" mechanization and is to cut production through cur­ equipment, in contrast to more­ tailment of one kind or another in than-family-sized technological ad­ order to forestall destruction of vances. This proposal to counter "surplus" production. A second aim the tendency toward larger farm is to maintain the base of operations units and to guarantee the "family­ of the rich and upper middle farm­ sized" farm is simply fraudulent. ers, to sustain their growth as Increased mechanization in these capitalists, and to plow under the terms means increased capital in­ poor and small farmers at near­ vestment. It means clearly enlarg­ subsistence levels at the other ing the economic size of the farm pole. unit even though the acreage--the The attitude of the bourgeois false criterion of the bourgeois farm experts to the various classes farm experts--remains the same. in the countryside may be summar­ Increased capital investment in­ ized as follows: (1) Rich farmers: evitably means greater infiltration Changes should not be "carried out of finance capital, greater dom­ to the point of alienating the sup­ ination of big capital over agri­ port of the larger producer because culture. Increased mechanization to do so would tend to defeat the means greater displacement of wage purpose of the Agricultural Adjust­ labor on the "family-sized" farm. ment Administration program." (2) Increased capital investment means 634- UNITED STATES AGRICULTURE lowered unit production costs and compatible with the interests of the inevitably aggravates the position toiling people either on the land or of those poorest sections of the in the cities. farm population who are unable to The further development of tech­ increase their capital investment. nique in agriculture under capital­ Such "family-sized" mechaniza­ ism will aggravate all the contra­ tion and greater "family-sized" dictions inherent in the capitalistic capital investment will mean, where development of agriculture. it succeeds, the raising of a few The further development of middle farmers into the upper­ agriculture under capitalism will middle brackets, while the great sharpen the contradictions within majority will find that the struggle agriculture, between technical prog­ for existence takes place on a ress and its effect on the welfare higher level of technique, at a more of the people, between the people intensified tempo. and finance capital. As far as the poorest sections The further development of agri­ of the farm population are con­ culture under capitalism will doom cerned the bourgeois agricultural millions of farm families to a fur­ experts propose to guarantee stabil­ ther deterioration of living stand­ ity through subsistence existence. ards, to privation and migration. This is to be achieved by the "de­ Only a people's government, velopment of rural industries," backed by the people, and leading "non-commercial" farms, training them in decisive struggle against for farm and non-farm jobs, self­ finance capital and monopoly, can help cooperatives, cooperative farm­ turn the direction of development ing, part-time jobs, etc., etc. (See from social decay and retrogression Technology on the Farm.) on the farms, to social progress, to Common to all such proposals are beneficent scientific advance, to the conviction that (1) a whole sec­ security for the rural toilers, and tion of our rural population is to prosperity for the toiling people. superfluous as far as agriculture is Only the uprooting of the ex­ concerned, (2) industry offers no ploiting and expropriating class, alternative productive activity for only the extinction of capitalism as those rendered superfluous in the development of agriculture, and (3) a system, only the unleashing of ways and means should be found the people's energies and of science, to subsist in the rural areas of the can set free the countryside, break country. These ways and means down the cultural barriers to the must be such as to exclude this cities, destroy the conflict between section of the rural population from country and city, and unite industry commercial activity. and agriculture into one common Conclusion social enterprise. Only socialism can release the nation from the Capitalism in agriculture is in- chains of a decaying order. THE TREASON OF REACTION IN AMERICA'S SECOND VVAR OF INDEPENDENCE

BY FRANK MEYER AND ROBERT STRONG

HE history of the period after artisans; the revolution threatened T the victory of the democratic to go beyond the limits within people's movement under the lead­ which its energies could be har­ ership of Thomas Jefferson in 1800, nessed to their own selfish class in­ a period which culminated in the terests. Headed by Alexander Ham­ War of 1812, is the history of the ilton and John Adams, this com­ completion of the struggle for inde­ mercial aristocracy formed the Fed­ pendence from Britain and against eralist Party with the aim of win­ Federalist reaction at home. It is a ning control of the national govern­ story rich in material for an under­ ment in order to utilize it further to standing of the development of the enrich themselves and increase their struggle for democracy-and par­ power at the expense of the people. ticularly rich in examples of the Within the now independent degeneracy of those representatives states a new struggle burst forth, of reaction who are the heroes of whose object was to guarantee and the Oliver Wiswell school of history, extend the democratic victories won spawned by decaying American im­ in the revolutionary war with Brit­ perialism. ain. It was a struggle for extended The surrender of Cornwallis at suffrage, civil liberties, destruction Yorktown signalized the victory of of the remnants of special privilege a broad alliance of the American hanging over from the past, and, people, of the unity of farmers and above all, free access to the land, artisans, merchants and planters, in the basic means of production of the Revolutionary War. the time. But, independence from Britain As Earl Browder has pointed out, once won, a section of this alliance, summarizing Jefferson's position: the aristocratic merchants and bankers, "the rich, the well-born "Governmental power, political power, can be built only upon a and the able," as they liked to call foundation of economic power, that themselves, became alarmed at the is, ownership, control, and opera­ continuation of the democratic mass tion of the basic economy of the movement of the small farmers and country, which is the foundation of 635

and and prevent prevent the the spread spread o"f o"f the the bour- independence, independence, a a struggle struggle to to which which

to to butcher butcher the the French French Revolution Revolution demanded demanded a a struggle struggle for for national national

time time leading leading the the forces forces of of reaction reaction ity ity producers, producers, the the petty petty bourgeoisie, bourgeoisie,

Great Great Britain, Britain, which which was was at at that that bourgeoisie bourgeoisie and and the the petty petty commod­

Revolution, Revolution, both both they they these these collaborated collaborated groups, groups, the the with with commercial commercial

Tories. Tories. Traitors Traitors mechants. mechants. to to In In the the 1776 1776 American American the the interests interests of of

masses masses of of manufacture manufacture the the U. U. S. S. which which the the British British had had moved moved the the to to

pendence pendence and and the the democratic democratic expand expand trade trade and and the the nascent nascent

eager eager to to betray betray the the national national inde­ as as it it was was the the compelling compelling necessity necessity to to

row, row, class class interests, interests, were were ready ready and and ers, ers, to to revolutionary revolutionary action action in in 1776, 1776,

vance vance their their own own immediate, immediate, nar­ of of the the population, population, the the small small farm­

speculators, speculators, the the Federalists, Federalists, to to ad­ which which had had impelled impelled the the great great mass mass

mercantile mercantile capitalists, capitalists, bankers bankers and and their their only only guarantee guarantee of of freedom, freedom,

ically ically small, small, the the but but control control powerful powerful of of which which group group they they of of saw saw as as

ealist ealist camp. camp. Representing Representing a a numer­ was was the the urgent urgent need need for for It It land, land,

treachery treachery fom fom the the reactionary reactionary Fed­ tional tional independence. independence.

States States now now and and was was parcel parcel confronted confronted of of this this struggle struggle with with for for na­

pendence pendence and and create create the the United United alist alist mercantile mercantile reaction reaction was was part part

had had defeated defeated Britain Britain to to win win inde­ States. States. The The struggle struggle against against Feder­

The The popular popular the the full full class class independence independence alliance alliance which which of of the the United United

in in sphere sphere after after sphere, sphere, to to recognize recognize

A A New New Stage Stage of of Struggle Struggle

tacks tacks upon upon the the border border and and refused, refused,

which which encouraged encouraged the the Indian Indian at­

a a heavy heavy

tax tax burden burden

on on the the farmers. farmers.

Northwest Northwest Territory. Territory. was was Britain Britain It It

their their own own speculations; speculations; and and

placing placing

treaty, treaty, of of military military posts posts in in the the

up up the the national national debt, debt, profitable profitable

to to

tenance, tenance, contrary contrary to to the the peace peace

speculation speculation in in these these lands; lands;

building building

advance advance to to the the West West by by its its main­

This This it it did did by by developing developing monopoly monopoly

still still stood stood in in the the way way of of the the

free free democratic democratic access access to to the the West. West.

was was Great Great Britain Britain which which It It

farmers farmers and and artisans artisans by by restricting restricting

Federalist Federalist camp. camp.

turn turn came came into into opposition opposition to to the the

of of the the democratic democratic masses masses against against the the

American American mercantile mercantile aristocracy aristocracy in in

only only be be advanced advanced in in sharp sharp conflict conflict

of of the the people people to to the the land. land. Now Now the the

independence independence against against Britain, Britain, could could

westward westward expansion, expansion, the the free free access access

tion tion of of the the struggle struggle for for national national

their their own own interests, interests, to to prevent prevent this this

terests terests of of the the country, country, the the continua­

classes classes of of Britain Britain had had sought, sought, in in

Henceforth, Henceforth, the the real real national national in­

Before Before the the Revolution, Revolution, the the ruling ruling

both both hemispheres. hemispheres.

pp. pp. 89-90.) 89-90.) national-liberation national-liberation revolutions revolutions in in

Workers Workers Library Library Publishers, Publishers, Front, Front, crush crush the the developing developing Socialist Socialist and and

or or cheap cheap lands." lands."

(The (The

Democratic Democratic

downfall downfall

of of the the

Soviet Soviet Union Union

and and to to

the the widespread widespread distribution distribution of of free free

abroad abroad to to try try and and bring bring about about the the

great great territories territories to to the the West, West, and and by by

collaborate collaborate with with imperialism imperialism

monopolies monopolies

and and

opening opening

up up the the

Hamilton, Hamilton, condemn condemn Jefferson, Jefferson, and and

breaking breaking up up the the great great colonial colonial land land

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TREASON TREASON OF OF 636 636 REACTION REACTION IN IN WAR WAR OF OF 1812 1812 TREASON OF REACTION IN WAR OF 1812 637 their potential mutual antagonism in character and caused contradic­ was largely subordinated. tions within it which, particularly But with the throwing off of the in the conduct of the War of 1812, British yoke, this antagonism came were to have very serious effects. to the fore. The development of the It was from this class, and partic­ United States of America as a nation ularly from among the small plan­ -the eventual full flowering of its tation owners of the hinterland, industrial forces of production­ that the agrarian democracy re­ demanded expansion Westward. ceive« many of its leaders. That so For the country to advance, a broad many of the leaders of the demo­ economy of independent farmers cratic movement were themselves was necessary-the only basis on slave-owners has made it easier for which the natural resources could the great majority of American his­ be exploited, the home market torians to ignore the fundamental widened and developed, opening the class character of the great mass gates for the growth of manufacture movement of that period. This is imd industry. true both of the older writers of the In this struggle the democratic traditional schools and of the "eco­ farmers and artisans found allies nomic determinists" and "muck­ among the Southern planters, par­ rakers" of more recent times. ticularly among the small and mid­ These historians have ignored the dle planters. The possibility of this fact that the driving force of the alliance arose from certain mutual whole democratic struggle under the interests and the common antago­ leadership of Jefferson was the small nisms to the mercantile aristocracy commodity producer, the farmer of the North. The financial policy and the artisan. The movement was of the Federalist Party, with its na­ a democratic people's movement tional bank, national debt, and its against reacton at home and abroad. taxes directed primarily against the agrarian communities, affected the The Federalist Reaction slave-owner as well as the small The Federalist Party, riding high farmer. Goaded by the exhaustion during the second administration of of the soil after many decades of Washington and the administration tobacco cultivation, the land-hun­ of John Adams, made a desperate gry planters looked to the West, effort to destroy this growing move­ finding common interest with the ment. In domestic policy this was farmers in opposition to the restric­ reflected in the Alien and Sedition tive land policies of Federalism. Acts-the "legal" persecution of the Allied with a progressive class, followers of Jefferson as "foreign they were often dragged further agents" and "subversive French along in a progressive direction than revolutionaries"-and the military the narrow consciousness of their suppression of the people's move­ own interests would have taken ments, as in the Whiskey Rebellion them. At the same time, however, of 1794 and Flies Rebellion of their essentially reactionary class 1799. Coupled with this was a nature made that alliance unstable foreign policy of subservience 638 TREASON OF REACTION IN WAR OF 1812 to the leader of world reaction, sippi and the Rocky Mountains to England, and bitter hostility to rev­ American settlement; the land laws olutionary France (for example, the of 1800 and 1804, which made much notorious "XYZ affair," an attempt easier the acquisition of land by the by the Federalist administration to small farmer; the Lewis and Clark provoke war against France in expedition, which blazed the way 1798). for tens of thousands of future set­ tlers from the Ohio to the Pacific. The Victory of the People Its financial policies curbed the But, united under the leadership power of the bankers and merchants of Thomas Jefferson, the democratic of Boston, New York and Philadel­ masses, after ten years of struggle, phia. It reduced the burden of defeated the new enemy at home. taxation which had fallen primarily Wresting control of the government upon the small producers and the from the hands of the Federalists, consumers-a burden so heavy that they elected Jefferson to the Presi­ it had led to such actions as the dency as candidate of the Demo­ Whiskey Rebellion. cratic-Republican Party in 1800. On the basis of these democratic This victory broke the strangle­ policies Jefferson was overwhelming­ hold of the reactionary forces upon ly re-elected to office in 1804. The all branches of the government, ex­ Federalists were able to carry only cept the judiciary, where Marshall two states-Delaware and Connecti­ and other Federalist judges, secure cut. Their power was broken. They in posts with life tenure, defied the had lost all popular support and, will of the people. It brought about therewith, all possibility of regain­ the revocation of the Alien and Se­ ing power through constitutional dition Acts, the pardoning of the means. Every year, every month, victims of these laws, and the res­ the democratic forces were strength­ toration of civil rights to the people. ened by the growing population of A popular wind swept through the the Western territories and states, land, bringing a greater measure of with their democratic frontier insti­ democracy into the state and local tutions based upon land ownership governments, clearing out to a con­ by tens of thousands of small farm­ siderable extent the debris of cus­ ers. The prosperity of the develop­ toms and institutions inherited from ing country under Jefferson's lead­ the old world, and curtailing the ership undermined even the old privileges of the so-called "aristoc­ strongholds of Federalism in New racy of wealth and talents," the bul­ England. wark of the Federalist Party. The Federalists Turn to Treason Economically, likewise, the meas­ ures of the Democratic-Republican But "the rich, the well-born and administration opened wide the pos­ the able" could not reconcile them­ iibilities of ownership of the land selves to the rule of the people. No by the people--the purchase of longer able to rule within an inde­ Louisiana, which opened the enor­ pendent United States, they saw mous territory between the Missis- their only hope of regaining power TREASON OF REACTION IN WAR OF 1812 639 in war and disruption, in the be­ Where else could they look? Like trayal of the very independence for the Trotskyite-Bukharinite conspir­ which they had once fought, in the ators in the Soviet Union, the lead­ disintegration of the Union. Oppo­ ership of the Federalists even lacked sition to the policies of the people's confidence in their ability to win movement became their sole guide the support of what remained of to action. For example, under Jef­ their own camp if they fully re­ ferson's first administration they at vealed their real aims. On March one time demanded war against 17, 1804, Stephen Higginson of Mas­ France, which had purchased Louis­ sachusetts writes to Timothy Pick­ iana -from Spain; a few months ering, the leader of the Federalists: later, when Jefferson had succeeded in peacefully obtaining this same "I have seen your letters to Mr. territory by purchase from Na- Cabot and Mr. Lyman on the ques­ poleon, they-the party that had tion of separation.... We all agree fought for a "strong national gov- that there can be no doubt of its ernment"-howled that the govern- being desirable; but of the expedi­ ment had no right to add to the ency of attempting it or discussing territory of the original Union. • it now at this moment, we are all Such unprincipled activity only very much in doubt. . . . Many even weakened their influence the more. of our own party have as much yet to unlearn as to learn. They have Unable to gain any ground through yet much of the Democratic taint open political activity, they turned about them; and with this nonsense to treasonous intrigue for secession in their brains ... we should be put and adherence to Britain. The pub- into the background, were we to lie activities of the Federalist Party make that question the subject of became the mask for conspiracy and free conversation." (Henry Adams, were directed solely toward aiding [ed.] Documents Relating to New that conspiracy through disrupting England Federalism, New York, and demoralizing the government. 1878, P· 361.) In 1804 they were implicated in In the guarded language of con- Aaron Burr's plot to dismember the spiracy, Pickering himself writes to United States with the aid of Brit- the British Minister, G. H. Rose, on ain and Spain. Right down to the March 13, 1808: outbreak of the War of 1812, and throughout its course, they func­ "I also know that . . . our own tioned as concealed enemies of the best citizens consider the interests very existence of the Amerl.can of the United States to be inter­ nation. And, like the Trotskyites woven with those of Great Britain, and Bukharinites in the Soviet and that our safety depends on hers. Men thus enlightened, could they Union, unable to find a base for control the measures of their own their aims among their own people, government, would give them a di­ they looked abroad for aid; they rection mutually beneficial to the became the real "foreign agents," two nations. Of the opinions and "fifth columnists," agents of the reasonings of such men, I wished tyranny and despotism of Britain. you to be possessed." 640 TREASON OF REACTION IN WAR OF 1812 This was but one instance in a Peters, Dec. 24, 1803. New England long history of intrigue with Brit­ Federalism [cited], p. 338.) ain. As far back as 1804 we find Eleven years later, Pickering Anthony Merry, an earlier British writes to Gouverneur Morris: Minister, reporting to the British Foreign Office: "For many years past I have said, 'Let the ship run aground! The shock "I am led to believe from the will throw the present pilots over­ language of some of the members board; and then competent naviga­ [of Congress] of this State [Massa­ tors will get her once more afloat, chusetts] that their anxiety on this and conduct her safely into port.'" head is so great [the discussion of a (Adams, History of the United boundary treaty with England] .. . States [cited], Vol. III, p. 210.) that the rejection ... would .. . The political principles of thi! prove to be a great exciting sabotage by the powerful Federalist banking and Jefferson Policy mercantile interests. Beginning with the Non-Importa­ Jefferson, expressing the will of tion Act of 1806, which forbade im­ the American people, steadfastly portation of certain British prod­ directed his policy against the aims ucts, but which was not enforced in of Britain and the Federalists. In the hope that its mere passage implementing his policy, he faced would cause Britain to give way, two alternatives-war or economic the Administration passed on to counter-pressure. more stringent action-the Embargo Jefferson was not a pacifist as Act of 1807, which forbade all some historians have asserted. He American ships to leave port and recognized that, under certain con­ barred all American exports to for­ ditions, resistance to tyranny and eign countries. oppression requires struggle. He These measures were directed wholeheartedly supported the Rev­ primarily against England, which olutionary War of 1776. When, at was dependent upon such American the time of his election in 1800, the products as wheat, cotton, beef, Federalist Party tried to deprive pork and lumber, and which, be­ the people of the fruits of their vic­ cause of her command of the sea, tory by a counter-revolutionary was in a position to prevent Ameri­ putsch, he stated that, if such a plot can products from reaching France were attempted, "the middle states in any case. The repeal of Napo­ will arm" and march on Washing­ leon's counter-measures to the Brit­ ton to enforce the will of the ma­ ish Orders in Council was also an jority of the people. object of this pressure. While the But he feared that war would central policy of the administrations lead to the enrichment of profiteers of Jefferson and Madison was di- and speculators; the impoverish­ . rected against England, at each ment of the people; the wiping out stage an attempt was made to take of a treasury surplus which could advantage of the antagonism be­ be used for public education, for the tween England and France. This construction of roads to the west, was done either by openly stating 644 TREASON OF REACTION IN WAR OF 1812 or diplomatically hinting that The embargo was, however, re­ American measures would be with­ pealed in 1809. This was due to the drawn with regard to that country combined pressure of the econo:nllc which first withdrew its restrictive distress caused by the embargo, its measures. lack of complete effectiveness due to Federalist sabotage and propa­ Sabotage by the Federalists ganda, together · with the factional The embargo, had it been en­ activities of representatives of sec­ forced, would have caused great tions of the Democratic-Republican commercial distress in the United Party itself. States; but it would unquestionably The embargo was followed by have been a potent weapon against other measures which attempted to Britain. As it was, every nerve of bring pressure to bear upon one or the Federalists was strained to another of the belligerents to re­ evade it. Federalist smugglers vio­ vise their policy. The administra­ lated it on every hand. Federalist tion of Madison, who succeeded governors and state officials refused Jefferson in 1809, made a series of to recognize it. Federalist judges diplomatic attempts to back up refused to enforce it. these acts. But the sabotage, which Throwing all pretense of patriot­ had made the embargo so largely ism to the winds, Federalist pamph­ ineffective, was even more success­ leteers even supported the British ful under these weaker measures. claim to "impress" American sea­ Th.e Second War of Independence men, a claim which had recently been put into effect by a British The only recourse left to the attack upon a United States war­ United States was war. ship, the Chesapeake, and the The growing sentiment for war slaughter of a number of American sprang primarily from the new sailors in American waters. frontier states and the Western sec­ Pickering openly stated: tions of the older states, whose population consisted predominantly "Although Great Britain and her of small farmers. They realized thousands of ships of war could that the economic power of the have destroyed our commerce, she merchants and bankers had pre­ has really done us no essential in­ vented effective, peaceful resis­ jury." tance to Britain. They suffered His Federalist colleague, John economically from the British mo­ Quincy Adams, Senator from Mas­ nopoly of the European market and sachusetts, repudiated this treason­ the depredations on American able position of his party: commerce, which had brought on the depression of 1811-1812, seri­ "Orders once submitted and car­ ously affecting the South and West. ried to the extent of their principle would not have left an inch of They suffered from the threat held American canvas upon the ocean over their heads of British-pro• but under British license and Brit­ voked Indian attack, inspired from ish taxation." Britain's base in Canada. They felt TREASON OF REACTION IN WAR OF 1812 645 that "the final expulsion of England tions on American . commerce, the from the American continent" (as impressment of American seamen, Jefferson put it in a letter to Duane, the driving of American commerce Aug. 4, 1812) was essential to the from off the seas, as basically irrele­ safety of the country. At the same vant to the outbreak of the war. time, the possession of the fertile Centering their attention on the and unsettled land of Canada, so merchants, whose immediate inter­ like the Northwest Territory in its ests seemed most directly affected suitability to the farming methods by these depredations, these his­ to which they were accustomed, torians fail to see that the issue of seemed equally necessary to eco­ American national existence was in­ nomic development. (Likewise, volved in these attacks. their planter allies saw in Spanish­ Certainly the merchants, who held Florida, with the constant formed the backbone of the Feder­ threat of English occupation, a simi­ alist Party, were actuated by the lar danger and a similar oppor­ interests of their class. But those tunity.) interests which were decisive in The small farmers, whose class determining the policy of that class interests coincided with the true na­ assumed the expression, first of all, tional interests of America, de­ of a desperate struggle to destroy manded a United States really free the power of the people, even at the and independent. They saw in war cost of temporary economic sacri­ against Britain the only remaining fices. The Federalist merchants means of guaranteeing the indepen­ could carry on their trade with dence won iri 1776 and democratic some discomfort under the British control of the state and the land, flag and the protection of the Brit­ upon ownership of which rested the ish navy. What· they hated a thou­ possibility of political freedom. sand times more than subservience to the British ruling class was the "Agricultural Imperialism" or War curbing of their power in the United of Independence? States by the growing strength of the popular movement. The narrow bourgeois vision of Speaking on the proposal to ad­ historians like Beard fails com­ mit another Western state, Louisi­ pletely to comprehend these basic ana, Josiah Quincy, of Massachu­ interests in their fullness. To them, setts, 'stated in the House of Repre­ the cause of the war is the "impe­ sentatives on Jan. 14, 1811 that, if rialist" desire of the Western farm­ the strength of the people expressed ers to seize Canada, and of the through the Western states was al­ Southern planters to seize Spanish lowed to grow, it would be the territory to the West and South. occasion for some of the states "to They disregard or underemphasize prepare definitely for a separation­ the significance of Britain's attack amicably if they can, violently if on American independence, all they must." This is the very lan­ along the line, on land and sea. guage of a later reactionary class, They regard the British depreda- the slave-owners of 1860, when 646 TREASON OF REACTION IN WAR OF 1812 they in turn were faced with the capitalists against the farmers of rising power of the progressive the newer frontier, represented by classes of their time determined to Jacksonian democracy.) make an end of the stranglehold of a minority of powerful aristocrats The FederaLists Undermine the War upon the life of the country. Preparations The Federalist merchants were content, so long as the popular With the country headed toward progressive forces were defeated, war, preparation was imperative. even if it meant victory for Britain. The army had less than 10,000 regu­ The Chinese of today have a phrase lars in addition to the militia of the for it: "Running dogs of the im­ different states. The navy had no perialists." more than half a dozen first-line American national interests on battleships. Yet, with the certainty the high seas, like the national in­ of war becoming clearer day by day, terests on the Western frontier, measure after measure for adequate found their champion in the small preparations was defeated in Con­ farmers and artisans, whose pro­ gress by the combined vote of the gressive democratic position made Federalists and factional groups them, at the same time, the van­ within the Democratic-Republican guard of the nation in its struggle Party. The Federalists voted for a for existence. five-year term of army enlistment Beard's utter failure to under­ because they felt that it would bring stand the real significance of the about great difficulties in the raising war is summed up in the title of the of troops. John Randolph, leader of chapter in which the war is dis­ an anti-administration faction, sabo­ cussed, "Agricultural Imperial­ taged preparedness by lining up ism" (!)-the "imperialism" of the Southerners against a provisiOn struggling democracy of the New enabling the President to use the World directed against "poor little state militias outside the United Britain"! States boundaries (that is, in Can­ The elections of 1810 returned the ada). He succeeded in this by tak­ so-called "Warhawk" Congress, in ing advantage of the differing which the determination of the interests of the slave-owner and farmers to resist the native and for­ farmer wings of the Democratic­ eign conspiracy against the inde­ Republican Party.* Provisions for pendence of the United States was an adequate tax program and for a expressed by such men as John Cal­ navy capable of defending the coasts houn of western South Carolina of the United States were defeated. and Henry Clay of Kentucky. (In A combination of the machinations passing, it is interesting to note that of the Federalists, and the unstable these two men, who in 1810 were character of the alliance which sup- spokesmen for the frontier, later, as * One of the considerations weighing heavily their regions developed economical­ with Randolph (a latge slave-holder) was feat of ly, became the spokesmen respec­ the slaves in case of war. This was a considerablr factor in developing Federalist sentiment in the tively of the slave-owners and the South. TRIDA.SON OF REACTION IN WAR OF 1812 647 ported Madison, sabotaged the prep­ selves thereon; . . . whereas, if we arations for war as the embargo pushed them to the edge of the had been sabotaged before. precipice by an unbending attitude, The desperate conspiracy of the that then they must be lost, either Federalists now reached astonishing by the disgrace of having nearly depths of villainy. The British IUined the trade of the United States and yet failed to reduce Great Minister at Washington, Augustus Britain by their system of commer­ John Foster, writing to his govern­ cial restrictions, or else by their in­ ment on Dec. 11, 1811, reported pro­ capacity to conduct the government posals made to him by responsible during the war. These gentlemen Federalist leaders, which showed declared they were for war rather that they were prepared to go to any than for the continuance of the re­ lengths to achieve their objective: strictory system, even if the war should last four years. . . . In short, "The Federal leaders make no they seemed to think that Great scruples of telling me that they Britain could by management bring mean to give their votes for war, the United States into any connec­ although they will remain silent in tion with her that she pleased." the debates; they add that it will be (Ibid., p. 174.) a short war of six or nine months As the election of 1812 ap­ ... telling me that they see no end to restrictions and non-importation proached, the Madison· Administra­ laws but in war; that war will turn tion, backed by the farmers and a out the Administration, and then section of the planters, carried they will have their own way, and through the declaration of war, make a solid peace with Great which passed the House of Repre­ Britain." (Adams, History of the sentatives by a vote of 79 to 49. The United States [cited], Vol. VI, p. opposition centered in the represen­ 172.) tatives of the commercial interests and in the anti-Administration fac­ On a later occasion Foster writes tion led by John Randolph. The war that on Feb. 1, 1812, two Federalist was opposed, not only by the mer­ leaders called upon him to urge the chants, but also by a section of the British Government not to make any planters who formed part of the concessions whatever to the United alliance that had carried Jefferson States, in order that war might be to power in 1800. Support for the provoked and the Administration war came mainly from the demo­ thereby defeated. cratic masses of small farmers. It is not within the scope of this "The sum of these suggestions," article to discuss in detail the con­ wrote Foster, "was that we should duct of the war. Suffice it to say neither revoke our Orders in Coun­ that, throughout the war, the great­ cil nor modify them in any manner. They said this Government would, est obstacle to its successful prose­ if we conceded, look upon our con­ cution was sabotage and open op­ cessions as being the effect of their position, particularly in Federalist own measures, and plume them- New England. Federalists in Con- 648 TREASON OF REACTION IN WAR OF .1812 gress continued to obstruct war within the class alliance supporting measures. Governors of New Eng­ Madison. Southern generals had land states, with the exception of little desire to win victories in Can­ New Hampshire, refused point ada which might add non-slave blank the request of the national territory to the Union. Besides, the government that their states supply army leadership ·was filled with in­ their quota of militia. The Governor competent "gentlemen," many from of Connecticut declared that "the the. 'ranks of the Southern slave­ State of Connecticut is a free, sov­ owners. Of these, the most nbtori­ ereign and independent state; that ous was Wilkinson, who had been the United States are a confederacy deeply involved in the Burr con­ of states," words to be echoed fifty spiracy as well as in several other years later by the representatives of conspiracies against the government Southern slavocracy. One member of the United States, but who had of the Massachusetts legislature de­ retained his commission by desert­ clared that he would rather have ing his confederates each time he the British constitution, "monarchy found the tide going against him. and all," than the American con­ In sharp contrast to the attitude stitution with embargoes. of ex-President Jefferson, who never The financing of the war was de­ approached a question from the liberately obstructed in Northern narrow class viewpoint of the financial centers. New England mer­ Southern slave-owners, the preju­ chants and bankers refused to buy dices and activities of political lead­ government bonds despite the fact ers and generals of the South made that $10,000,000 out of the country's a victorious expedition into Canada total cash, $17,000,000, was in New impossible. James Monroe, Secre­ England. Henry Adams estimates tary of State and acting Secretary that more New England money was of War, urged the peace commission invested in British than in Ameri­ abroad to sign a treaty with Eng­ can bonds. Extensive trade was land as soon as possible because he carried on with the enemy; and feared that his own armies would Great Britain, recognizing the New conquer Canada. He wrote: "Should England merchants as a valuable our troops enter Canada, you will "fifth column" ally, exempted the perceive the effect which success coasts of New England from block­ ... might have on the public mind ade during most of the war. So seri­ here, making it difficult to relinquish ous was this trading with the enemy territory which had been con­ that a British general reporting to quered." Jefferson wrote, on the England said that two-thirds of his other hand, "the cession of Canada armies in Canada were fed with . . . must be a sine qua non of a beef from across the border. treaty of peace." In addition to the sabotage of the Federalist "fifth column," great dif­ The Hartford Convention--a Con­ ficulties in the prosecution of the vention of Treason war arose from the contradictions But the basic responsibility for TREASON OF REACTION IN WAR OF 1812 649 the ineffectiveness of American not comply with these demands, a arms in the war lay with the Fed­ new convention should meet and eralists. The climax of their treach­ take "such powers and instructions ery was reached in 1914 when as the exigencies of a crisis so mo­ they succeeded in bringing about a mentous may require." It was the meeting of representatives of five opinion of advanced Democratic­ New England states at Hartford. It Republicans and of such patriotit.: was the hope of Federalist leaders Federalists as John Quincy Adams of the stamp of Pickering that this that the actions of the Hartford convention would take steps in the Convention, short though they fell direction of secession. of the real desires of the leaders, Though this was the desire of the nevertheless constituted an act of leaders of the Federalists, and treason. though they were able to gain 1a The progress of the war had good deal of mass support in New meanwhile reached a stalemate. England in opposition to some of the While in its earlier days America's government's policies, and even to privateers and its few naval vessels the war itself, they completely had achieved great success against lacked real mass support for their the supposedly invincible British fundamental aims. The Hartford fleet, as time passed the greater convention therefore had to restrict weight of the British navy made it­ itself to making a series of more self felt. On land, the treacherous moderate demands. It resolved that and incompetent conduct of Ameri­ the states represented should refuse can generals, together with the ac­ the use of their militia to the na­ tivities of the Federalists, led to a tional government and oppose con­ series of disasters, culminating in scription; and that each state should the burning of Washington by take care of its own defense. The British troops. convention demanded the passage of Nevertheless, it was clear that, a number of amendments to the even with the aid of their American Constitution, providing, for exam­ allies, the British Government could ple, that no new states should be not succeed in conquering the admitted without the agreement of United States, particularly at a time two-thirds of both houses of Con­ when in England itself a popular gress; the prohibition of all em­ movement was taking form against bargoes exceeding sixty days; no the mercantile-aristocratic combina­ interdiction of foreign intercourse tion which had ruled since 1688. or declaration of war without a After long negotiations a treaty of similar vote; denial to naturalized peace was signed in Ghent on De­ citizens of the right to hold office cember 24, 1814, a few days before in the United States (a continuation Andrew Jackson crushingly de­ of the anti-alien policy of the feated the British troops at New Adams Administration). Orleans in the one great American In conclusion, the convention de­ land victory of the war. Here clared that, if the government did Pakenham's crack troops were de- 650 TREASON OF REACTION IN WAR OF 1812 feated by the frontiersmen, Negro At the same time, the successful and white, of the South and West. outcome of the war dealt a death Louisiana was secured once and for blow to Britain's most powerful all, together with the Port of New force for the re-colonization of the Orleans, vital alike to the interests United States, the Federalist Party; of farmer and planter, the port and through their sacrifices· and without which the whole valley of struggles against enemies at home the Ohio and Mississippi could not and abroad, the American farmers export their produce economically. and their allies finally secured Here the dissension between the the victory of the American people South and the West, which led to over British oppression won in the such fiascos as the campaign against Revolutionary War and over the Canada, had no foundation, for both aristocratic Federalist merchants, were in agreement that New Or­ bankers and landowners won in leans had to be defended. 1800. The end of the war, together with Within a few years' time, so com­ Jackson's victory, cut away what­ plete was this victory, a Demo­ ever mass support the Hartford cratic-Republican, James Monroe, Convention might have had, and the was elected President of the United committee of the convention sent to States practically unanimously. The Washington to negotiate with the Federalists had passed forever from national government slipped out of American history, defeated, dis­ the city and was never heard of credited and despised. again. The treaty of peace, although New Alignments avoiding explicit settlement of the questions over which the war was The Embargo and the war, by fought, nevertheless signalized a cutting off European-manufactured decisive victory for American inde- . goods, had given powerful impetus pendence and democracy, a con­ to the development of industry in clusive proof that the United States the United States, bringing with it were not only formally, but in ac­ the development of new classes-­ tual fact, no colonies of Britain, but the industrial capitalists and the "free and independent states." working class. It is the beginning Louisiana and the entire West were of a long period of profound class in practice secured for the United realignment. The policies of J effer­ States. The American fiag achieved son and the Democratic-Republican full recognition on the high seas. Party:-based as they were upon the The challenge to Britain's claims interests of that class which was contained in the very declaration of developing the most advanced war and the carrying on of armed forces of production of the time, :for resistance for two years, irrespec­ the reasons indicated at the outset tive of future disputes on many of this article-of necessity laid the questions, once and for all estab­ basis for the further development lished the power of the United of those forces, fer the development States to protect its independence. of industry. TREASON OF REACTION IN WAR OF 1812 651 In fact, as early as the War of That is why the imperialists to­ 1812, some of the industrial capi­ day rake up and glorify the worst talists broke with their mercantile in the past of our country, and that cousins to support the war, though is why a true understanding of tl1.;; t the time was yet far off when their past becomes a potent weapon in the class would lead the coalition of the hands of the people. people against the slavocracy of the South in the second great revolu­ * tionary period in American history. * * The development of new and In 1812, the progressive develop­ more powerful forces of production ment of the United States demand­ foreshadowed the end of the lead­ ed the succesful prosecution of the ing role of the petty commodity war against England. The progres­ producer. However, allied with the sive classes of that day, the small nascent working class, they were to farmers and artisans, carried that carry forward one more struggle for struggle to a successful conclusion American democracy when, in the and smashed the party of reaction days of Jackson, they fought vic­ which stood in their way. toriously against merchant and in­ Then, reaction fought against the dustrial capitalists on the one hand prosecution of the war because it and their former slave-owner allies was a progressive war, a just war, on the other. But, with the further a war of national independence. To­ development of industry, they nec­ day, the forces of reaction are essarily lost their vanguard role. dragging our country more and The great tradition of Jefferson, more deeply into a very different invoked again at the Chicago Con­ kind of war, a war of imperialist vention of the Republican Party in conquest, an unjust, robber war. 1860 in the struggle against the slavocracy, has today passed to the Today, the American people, with working class as the leading force in the working class, the leading pro­ the struggle against monopoly capi­ gressive class of our time, at their talism. head, fights again as in 1812 for The Federalists have had many progress and freedom. But now that successors in our history-the slave­ fight demands a struggle against this owners of 1860, the imperialists of reactionary war. And as Tromas today. The slave-owners went down Jefferson's party stood in the van­ to defeat before the most advanced guard then, so the Communist Par­ class of their time just as the Fed­ ty, heir to its traditions, leads the eralists did and the monopoly capi­ way today, certain that now, as talists will. And, like the Federalists and slaveowners, the monopoly then, in the words of Browder, "the capitalists will stop at notliing in people are going io march forward their desperate effort to prevent that -and to the people will belong the inevitable defeat. victory." SPACE AND TIME-FORMS OF THE EXISTENCE OF l\tiATTER

BY GEORGE KURSANOV

IV. Space and Time as Discontinu- In this definition of Lenin's, space ous or Continuous* and time appear simultaneously dis­ continuous and continuous. The dis­ ATTER is unique and continu­ M continuity of time and space means ous, there are no "breaks" or their infinite divisibility, infinite "gaps" in it, it is a single, indissolu­ "punctuality." Space and time can ble whole; and at the same time be measured by infinitesimal por­ matter is discontinuous, it possesses tions. This property of theirs follows atomic structure, matter is infi­ correspondingly from the property nitely divisible. These properties of of the infinite divisibility of matter matter are what determine, respec­ and from the discontinuity of mo­ tively, the property of dicontinuity tion, wh1ch, of course, exists only in and continuity of space and time. unity with continuity. The discontinuity and continuity The discontinuity of motion char­ of space and time are directly dem­ acterizes but one side of it-the in­ onstrated in motion and, specifical­ finite number of separate moments ly, in the- single mechanical trans­ into which it can be mentally dif­ lation of bodies. Motion, as Lenin ferentiated. This discontinuity of states, is the essence of space and motion i~ what the discontinuity of time. The latter manifest themselves space ~.nd time reflects. in motion in close unity. Explaining Th~se infinite moments of motion this essenGe, Lenin states. are simultaneously spatial and tem­ "Two basic conceptions express poral in their close connection. In this essence: (infinite) continuity motion, space and time appear with and the 'punctuality' (=the nega­ their properties of discontinuity, in­ tion of continuity-discontinuity). finite divisibility, "punctuality." Motion is the unity of continuity Space and time are in the same (of time and space) and discon­ degree continuous. Their continuity tinuity (of time and space). Motion follows from the uniqueness and is a contradiction, a unity of con­ continuity of matter, from the con- tradictions."** tinuity of motion. · --;-:rhis is the concluding section of this essay, The material world is a unique the first three parts of which appeared in the April, May and June issues of THE CoMMUNIST. indissoluble whole. In the universal -Ed. space there are no voids, no blanks; •• V. I. Lenin, Philosophic Notebooks (Russ. .d.)' p. 267. the world is a world of continuous 652 SPACE AND TIME 653 matter in motion. The continuity of cuss dimensionality and connected­ matter, and of space and time, is ness. One of the most important of closely connected with their infinity. the topological properties of space The latter exists in connection -infinity (openness)-was exam­ with the continuity of matter­ ined in connection with the eternity whence the continuity of space of time. and time. The dimensionality (the number Continuity, in its turn, can be of dimensions) of space is its most thought of only in connection with general characteristic. In respect to ·the infinity of matter and the in­ real spatial objects, this property finity of space and time. Space ap­ determines whether these are linear pears as continuum. This is mani­ (of one dimension) or plane (of two fest in the continuous character of dimensions) or solid (of three di­ motion-the infinite moments of mentions). The dimensionality o:( motion are in close mutual unity; space is what expresses its char­ they cannot be divorced one from acter from this point of view, i.e., the other; motion is a continuous whether it is the image of surface process of discontinuous moments. or of volume. Time is also a continuous process of We emit here the mathematical the existence of matter. Time has no definition of dimensionality of space breaks or blank intervals, there is as having only technical interest. no existence out of time. Time flows What we are here concerned with is totally and continuously; matter too the characteristics of the dimen­ is continuous and has time as the sionality of real space. form of its existence. In relation to Engels states that real space is motion, time is just as continuous nothing else but an infinite number as space is. Motion is a process of of cubic meters, i.e., three-dimen­ continuous change of discontinuous sional. Dialectical materialism af­ moments, spatial and temporal. The firms that space is three-dimension­ continuity of time is closely bound al, i.e., that real space has three up with the continuity of space. dimensions. We have examined briefly the Space cannot be represented in fundamental general properties of the form only of a surface or a line; space and time. By these we have space possesses primarily the char­ in no way covered all the multi­ acter of a volume. A surface has formity of their properties. We shall two dimensions (in terms of ele­ now consider certain of the specific mentary geometry-length and properties of space and time. width) and it does not exhaust space; a solid body possesses three dimensir•ns (length, width, and Specific Prop&ties of Space height) and it fills completely a given portion of space. Infinite The most important and general space can be mentally filled by an properties of space are its topologic­ infinite number of solid, three­ al properties. Of these we shall dis- dimensional bodies. 654 SPACE AND TIME The three-dimensional character chanics replaces it. The space of the of real space is also confirmed by theory of relativity is however still the laws of motion of material the same three-dimensional space. bodies. Here the laws of the me­ Two things should be sharply dis­ chanical form of material motion are tinguished here: three-dimensional decisive, i.e., the laws of the spatial space and the conditional "four­ translation of bodies; for it is ab­ dimensional" space-time universe surd to think a motion is possible where time enters as a "fourth di­ in which mechanical translation oc­ mension," and space remains three­ curs in a three-dimensional space, dimensional in all cases. while, let us say, the electro­ With reference to the dimension­ magnetic transformations take place ality of space we must point out an­ in a space of five dimensions. other factor: In modern mathemat­ We are considering the motion of ics the theory of n-dimensional material bodies in three-dimension­ space (a space of more than three al real space. The position of a mov­ dimensions) has gained consider­ ing body in space at any, given mo­ able vogue. As a result, totally un­ ment of time in the process of mo­ founded conclusions are sometimes tion is determined in space by drawn as to the existence in three co-ordinates which are neces­ real space of four or more di­ sary and sufficient. And correspond­ mensions, a sufficient number of ingly, the motion of a material body idealistic speculations are current in space is described by three equa­ with regard to the fourth dimension, tions, which, in the final analysis, speculations which lead directly to reflect the actual character of space spiritism, as was noted by Engels in as three-dimensional. the article "Natural Science and Classical mechanics is based on the Spirit World."* equations derived from three-di­ In mathematics n-dimensional mensional space. Its test in the so­ space means not real space but any cial practice of man and in direct manifold of objects and their qual­ , experiments (for instance, the laws ities; for instance, bodies, planes, of classical celestial mechanics) es­ lines, colors, sounds, and these are tablish definitely the correctness in measured by properties common to principle of classical mechanics. Its them all. There may be, of course, inadequacy in point. of incomplete­ four, five and more of such proper­ ness and its approximate character, ties. It follows that the idealistic and which was proved by the mechanics spiritistic speculations are excluded, of the theory of relativity, in no since the matter under discussion way implies a denial of space as is not the dimensionality of the real three-dimensional. It is just a mat­ space but the properties of various ter of degrees of approximation to manifolds of fictitious mathematical the knowledge of laws of motion of spaces which in mathematics have material bodies in space. In this respect classical mechanics is but a • Frederick Engels, Dialectics of N ,zture. In· first step, while the relativity me- ternational Publishers, pp. 297·310. SPACE AND TIME 655 the value only of a definite mathe­ instance, · if some plane figure be matical instrument. projected on a plane by means of The next essential (topological) projection apparatus, this figure property of space is its connected­ would undergo a projective trans­ ness. In relation to real space, this formation in which the dimensions property of connectedness, being a of its parts, the proportions, the geometrical property, expresses the magnitudes of the angles change, physical continuity of space, and ac­ while the linear properties remain. cordingly is defined by it. Straight lines remain straight lines. The property of connectedness This property of preserving straight means the infinite proximity of all the lines in projection is the projective points of space. Geometrically, this property of the plane space. property is established on the basis The metric properties of space ex­ of the conception of the neighbor­ press quantitative relations of real hood of a given point. By the neigh­ spatial objects. The most important borhood of any point "a" is meant here are the characteristics and the the totality of all points lying at a corresponding mathematical expres­ distance from "a" less than any sions for the element of length. given positive number "e." For the plane space of Euclidean The connectedness of space is geometry, the element of length is therefore a geometrical (more expressed by the well-known theo­ specifically-topological) property rem of Pythagoras. For spaces of which expresses its physical con­ conslant curvature the element of tinuity as a form of the existence length is defined by the so-called of the unique and continuous fundamental quadratic form, which matter. Connectedness as a takes into account the difference in geometrical property has for its the nature of space in different parts physical content material space, and of it. A more precise expression of therefore it is logically bound up the element of length is achieved in with the concept (in physics) of ma­ the metric relations of Weyl's geom­ terial fields, with the consequent etry, where the variable curvature negation of action at a distance, and of different parts of space is ac­ with the conceptions of ether. counted for. Next, after the topological prop­ All this speaks clearly for the erties of space, in the degree of their richness and inexhaustibility of the generality and importance, follow quantitative relations of space which the projective, and then the metric, are defined by the properties of properties of space. matter itself. This fact was estab­ The projective properties of space lished by the theory of relativity are such properties of position of which proved the limitations of the spatial figures, as remain unchanged metric relations of the Euclidean under all transformations in which geometry. The metric relations of the magnitudes of angles, of lines real space are more complex, richer and of elements may change, while and finer than their expressions in linear properties are preserved. For any system of geometry. 656 SPACE AND TIME Specific Properties of Time cordingly an inalienable property of time and characterizes the irreversi­ We confine ourselves here to two bility of the life process in general. properties of time which are the In the strict physical sense, the most fundamental: time is one-di­ irreversibility of time is connected mensional and irreversible (or di­ with the phenomenon of increasing rected). It must be observed that entropy which characterizes all ir­ science has done exceedingly little reversible processes, i.e., energy to explain the nature of time. cannot flow from bodies with a lower Time is one-dimensional means level of energy to bodic;;s with a that it is fully described by a single higher level without receiving en­ coordinate, which is analogous with ergy from without the system. In the dimensionality of space. We can reality, the flow of heat from picture this as follows. warmer bodies to cooler ones is a The position of a moving body in process which proceeds always in a the space-time continuum is defined single definite direction; this con­ by three spatial co-ordinates and stitutes the physical basis for the one temporal co-ordinate. Two or irreversibility of time. more temporal co-ordinates at a The attempts to apply mechanical­ given moment of this motion cannot ly the law of entropy to the whole be given and one temporal co-ordi­ of the universe and the reactionary nate completely determines the mo­ deductions therefrom as to the tion of a body, while one or two "thermal death" of the universe spatial co-ordinates do not cor­ which, it is claimed, must be the con­ respondingly determine the mo­ sequence of "thermal equilibrium," tion of a body, but three are do not bear analysis. The Ger­ necessary. Time being one-dimen­ man physicist Ludwig Boltzmann, tional, therefore, a single measure­ and then Engels, showed convinc­ ment along the single temporal co­ ingly that an eternal cycle of matter ordinate fully defines the motion of and life proceeds in the universe; a material body in time. what is destroyed in one place, in­ The irreversibility of the time evitably reappears in another. The process is the property of the flow laws of the finite cannot be applied of time in a single and unique di­ to the infinite universe. rection. The life of matter is irre­ We have considered only the versible. History cannot turn back most important properties of space and start all over again. We dis­ and time, both the general and the tinguish past, present and future special. The properties of space and time, which proceed in a single and time are just as manifold and in­ definite direction and are not inter­ exhaustible as is matter. The con­ changeable. Life is the eternal de­ velopment of matter in one direc­ tinual discovery of new properties tion, and the irreversibility of time, of space and time is the task of sci­ as a form of the existence of mat­ ence, and is possible only on the ters, expresses this property of the granite basis of dialectical ma­ life of matter. Irreversibility is ac- terialism. PAMPHLETS OR IHTERHATIQHAL PROBLEMS < j I / Ireland ~ nd the War, by ,William Galla~her $-·.05 ln t~ rnati ~nal Solid~ r ity, by Wilhelm Pied ' . '. . 10_

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"I .. I ·BY EARL BROWDER /- r ~".0 ' . 1.., t "To the wo~i e r whp. wa ~k to under\tand the real fQr.c:es - which produced the prese 11t world war, and also to ,'learn ,~.- . ,•\; the ro ~ d to world peace, Earl Browder's boQk, THE 1 Jl A y ' O tJT, is a genuine tr~asure hduse of in form~tio~ ' \ - > I, - \ .nd analysis. In this book Brf>w'der has laid bare in- a . niash~rfuJ rrrrann-~ ~ the w6~kin9s of the bankrupt eap)talist :-.. . ' ' 'x , ' ) . , , system, both in thjs country and abroad. -He 4lso sn~s.. _ "' the path the workers 1 mu~t tread to end thi~ war's hlool ...- I ' f bath, and to avoid a repetitio~ of such ., imperialist ' slaughter.. ~ To r~\:1 and study. · this ,boQk"ir ~ veritable l ~ education in present-day politi9's. a ':ld . ~ co.{l ol'(li cs. " ·. !, ' f- I - ' I - William Z. Foster

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