Ic-Ensures), 2019

International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

1 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

IC-ENSURES 2019 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security, 2019

5th & 6th November 2019 Kuala Lumpur

PROCEEDINGS

i International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia

International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC- ENSURES 2019) 5th – 6th November 2019 ISBN 978-967-17605-0-5

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other non-commercial uses permitted by copyright law.

Distributed & Published by: Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security (IPASA) UTM Skudai, 81310, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia. Tel : +607 553 1578 Email : [email protected] / [email protected]

ii International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

PREFACE

The International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC- ENSURES) 2019 aims to become the leading annual conference in fields related to environmental sustainability, development and protection as well as resource security. IC- ENSURES 2019 covers broad topics such as climate resiliency, water and energy security, environmental health, ecosystem vitality, advanced treatment technology, cleaner production and sustainable production and consumption. This conference provides a platform for dissemination of environmental research and aiming to identify pathways towards a sustainable society.

The main themes of the conference are Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security. This proceeding records the full papers presented at the conference. The conference has solicited and gathered technical research submissions related to all aspects of major conference themes and tracks. Reviewing and initial selections were undertaken electronically. Align with enhancing the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), the goal of IC-ENSURES 2019 is to gather scholars from all over the world to present advances in the relevant fields and to foster an environment conducive to exchanging ideas and information. This conference also provides an ideal environment to develop new collaborations and meet experts on the fundamentals, applications, and products of the mentioned fields.

Selected papers will be published under the Special Issue of the participating journals. The conference embraces international keynote speakers from academia, industry and government institution. The conference Committee is itself quite diverse and international, with membership from different countries. We would like to thank the program chairs, advisor, technical committees and other committees for their cooperation and efforts to make this event a success. We hope that all the participants and other interested readers benefit scientifically from the proceedings and also find it stimulating in the process. Lastly, we would like to wish you success in your technical presentations and social networking.

With warmest regards,

The Organizing Committees IC-ENSURES 2019 5th-6th November 2019 Kuala Lumpur

iii International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Organizing Committees IC-ENSURES 2019

ADVISOR : Prof. Dr. Zulkifli Yusop

DIRECTOR I : Prof. Dr. Zainura Zainon Noor

DIREACTOR II : Prof. Dr. Azmi Aris

SECRETARIES : Dr. Kogila Vani Annammala Dr. Yong Ee Ling Dr. Nor Zaiha Arman

TREASURER : Ms. Juhaiza Talib @ Harun

TECHNICAL COMMITTEE : Prof. Dr. C. Shreeshinivadasan Chelliapan Prof. Ir. Dr. Md. Fadhil Md. Din Prof. Dr. Kasturi Devi Kanniah Prof. Dr. Pham Thi Hoa Dr. Hesam Kamyab Dr. Lakhveer Singh Dr. Paiboon Sreearunothai Dr. Ponraj Mohanadoss Dr. Baljit Singh Dr. Norazli Othman Pn. Nithiya Arumugam

COMMITTEE MEMBERS : Dr. Nor Eliza Alias Dr. Salmiati Dr. Norelyza Binti Hussein Dr. Myzairah Hamdzah Dr. Che Hafizan Bin Che Hassan Dr. Zulfaqar Bin Sa’adi Dr. Ihsan bin Wan Azelee Dr. Cindy Lee Ik Sing Dr. Neo Sau Mei Mr.Mohd Faiz Foze Ms. Nurliyana Mahpof Ms. Siti Hanna Elias Ms. Zainab Mat Lazim Ms. Ainul Syarmimi Rosli Mr. Mohamad Amirul Fitry bin Mohd Bahar Mr. Muhammad Wafiy Adli bin Ramli

iv International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

CONTENTS

Preface iii Organzing Committee iv Parallel Session 1 Determine Of Nutrient Status Of Coffee Trees In PNG 2-5 Kamal Kishore Goundar, Emma Kiup, Mark K Kenny, Ibuki Norihiko, Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan and Sathiabama T. Thirugnana

Determination Of Mass Transfer Resistance Of Boron Removal From Wastewater 6-10 By Electrocoagulation Ezerie H. Ezechi and Khalida Muda

Analysis Of Static And Dynamic Factors Of The Gravitational Flow Sewer Pipe In 11-15 Malaysia Afifa Safira A Gani, Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan, Samira Albati Kamaruddin and Nithiya Arumugam

Mass Transfer Resistance Of Textile Dye Decolorization On Magnetic Activated 16-20 Carbon Aerobic Granules Khalida Muda, Ahmad H. Omar, Ezerie H. Ezechi and Mohd H. Khamidun

A Mini Review: Artificial Intelligence Based Models For River Water Quality 21-27 Prediction For River In Tropical Climate Ariani Dwi Astuti, Azmi Bin Aris, Mohd Razman Bin Salim, Shamila Binti Azman, Mohd Ismid Bin Md Said and Salmiati

Parallel Session 2 Indoor Air Quality And The Risk Of Lower Respiratory Tract Infection Among 29-33 Young Children In A Mediterranean Climate Wesam A. Al Madhoun, Mohammad Khaled, Ashraf Eljedi, Hyunook Kim, Amanda Pomeroy Stevens and Faizah Che Ros

Habitat Suitability Index For Melaleuca Cajuputi In Setiu, Terengganu 34-38 N. Zafirah Ab.lah, Zulkifli Yusop and Mazlan Hashim

A Review Of Regionalization Methods For Ungauged Watershed In Swat Model 39-44 Ainul Syarmimi Rosli, Azmi Aris, Salmiati and Mohd Ridza Mohd Haniffah

Assessment Of Physical-Chemical Water Quality In The Environment: Current 45-50 State, Understudied Area And The Way Forward: Case Study Of The Lower Johor Straits, Malaysia Y.Q. Liang, K.V. Annammala, P.Martin, E.L. Yong, L.S. Mazilamani, M.Z.M. Najib

Parallel Session 3 Strategic Framework For Managing Sustainability Into The Construction 52-57 Industry Sector In Developing Countries

v International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Ayman Ahmed Hassan

Comparative Assessment Of Artificial Neural Network Based Baseline Energy 58-62 Model To Quantify Energy Savings Of Chiller System In Commercial Building Wan Nazirah Wan Md Adnan, Nofri Yenita Dahlan and Ismail Musirin

Hedonic Price Regression For Stratified Green Residential Building In Johor Bahru 63-67 Nur Amira Aina Zulkifli, Shazmin Shareena Ab. Azis, Nurul Hana Adi Maimun, Muhammad Najib Razali and Ibrahim Sipan

Rainwater Harvesting Dynamic Financial Model For Residential Properties 68-72 Muhammad Najib Razali, Shazmin Shahreena Ab Azis, Nurul Hana Adi Maimun and Zulkifli Yusop

Green Biosynthesis Of Silver Nanoparticles Using Muntingia Calabura Leaf 73-77 And Its Effectiveness Against Pathogenic Bacteria Mohd Azlan Ahmad and Salmiati

Not In My Backyard! A Hedonic Analysis On Heavy Industrial Site Proximity 78-82 Impacts On Malaysian House Prices Nuratikah Karunzaman, Nurul Hana Adi Maimun, Shazmin Shareena Ab. Azis, Muhammad Najib Razali, Azizah Ismail, Zakri Tarmidi And Sufi Pisol

Parallel Session 4 Ultrafine Palm Oil Fuel Ash As Stabilizer In Compressed Earth Brick 84-88 Yvonne W. T., Abdul K. M. and Hidayati A.

Characterization Of Eco-Processed Pozzolan As Pozzolanic Material 89-93 Raihana Farahiyah Abd Rahman, Hidayati Asrah, Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman and Abdul Karim Mirasa

Carbonization Of Excess Sewage Sludge By Using Super-Heated Water Vapor 94-98 To Make Fuel N.A. Haridan, H. Yoshida, M.A.M. Salleh and S. Izhar

Defining The Biogas Generation Potential And The Kinetics Of Biogas Generation 99-102 For House- Hold Generated Rice Cooking Wastewater S M Shabab Islam, Umme Farah Shakin Neha and Nadim Reza Khandaker

A Critical Review On The Current Technologies For Recovery Of Precious Metals 103-112 From Industrial Wastes Santhana Krishnan, Nor Syahidah Zulkapli, Ooi Theam Yiew, Mohd Fadhil Md Din, Zaiton Abd Majid, Iwao Kenzo, Yo Ichikawa, Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan, Hesam Kamyab

Parallel Session 5 A Novel Approach For Measuring Urban Form Sustainability: A Study Of Kano 114-118 Traditional City, Nigeria Abubakar Siddiq Usman, Dr. Wan Mohd Zakri Bin Wan Abdullah

vi International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Sustainable Development Concept Awareness Among Students In Higher Education 119-123 Florianna L. Michael, Helmi Sumilan, Nur Fatihah A. Bandar, Hana Hamidi, Sheilla L. O. Lim, Siti M. Abdullah, Abg Izhar A. Ahmad, Victoria Jonathan and Nik Norsyamimi M. Nor

A Structural Equations Modelling Approach To Measuring Urban Form 124-128 Sustainability: Conceptual Foundations And Methodological Framework Abubakar Siddiq Usman and Dr. Wan Mohd Zakri Bin Wan Abdullah

Sustainable Management And Conservation Of Peat Swamp Forest In Peninsular 129-140 Malaysia: A Forgotten Habitat Dato’ Mohd Ridza bin Awang, Dato’ Lim Kee Leng, Mohd Faris bin Sobri , Regina Mariah Jong

Parallel Session 6 Examination Of Malaysian River Water Quality Index By Some Selected Physico- 142-144 Chemical Parameters Suzanna Rosli Wong, Brittny Chars and Su Na Chin, Noraini Abdullah and Pak Yan Moh

Enhancement The Biodegradation Of Benzene By Pseudomonas Aeruginosa 145-149 Through Ultraviolet-Induced Mutation Fahruddin Fahruddin

Life Cycle Assessment Of Green Diesel Production 150-156 Che Hafizan, Zainura Zainon Noor and Norelyza Hussein

Quality And Environmental Conservation Of Coastal Ecosystems In Purworejo 157-161 Regency, Central Java, Indonesia Widodo B., Lupiyanto R., Nugrahayu Q., Widyastuti A, Harmawan F., Fauzi FM and, Galis A.

The Effect Of Type Of Boarding House On Solid Waste Generation And 162-166 Composition As A Model Of Solid Waste Management In Indonesia: A Case Study Of Yogyakarta Province Kasam, Eko Siswoyo and Fajri Mulya Iresha

Occurrence And Behaviour Of Antibiotics In Conventional Sewage Treatment Plant 167-171 C. X. Chen, A. Aris, E. L. Yong and Z. Z. Noor

Parallel Session 7 Food And Wood Waste Composting: Operational Perspective At Landfill 173-177 Yusouf Latif, Zamri Abdul Rahman, Hashim Wahab, Mohd Faizi Abu and Yusof Hassan

Optimization Of Municipal Solid Waste Conversion Technology Using Process 178-182 Network Synthesis R.A. Ali and N.N.L. Nik Ibrahim

vii International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Gracilaria changii: Seaweed Adding Value To Heavy Metals Removal From 183-188 Leachate Nithiya Arumugam, Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan, Zamri Abdul Rahman, Sathiabama T. Thirugnana, Imran Ahmad, Santhana Krishnan, Mohd Fadhil Md Din

Triclosan Removal By Combination Of Waste Biomass Activated Carbon And 189-194 Nylon 6,6 Membrane Nor Khoriha Eliysa Mohd Khori, Salmiati and Zulkifli Yusop

Parallel Session 8 Sequential Operation Of Acetogenic Followed By Aerobic Sequential Batch 196-200 Reactors For Textile Wastewater Treatment Nadim Reza Khandaker, Faisal Fahad Rio, Lina Sarkar and Ayesha Sharmin

Kinetics Study Of Phosphate Adsorption Onto Waste Mussel Shell 201-205 Nur Atikah Abdul Salim, Mohd Hafiz Puteh, Noorul Hudai Abdullah, Mohamad Ali Fulazzaky, Mohd A’ben Zulkarnain Rudie Arman, Mohd Hairul Khamidun, Abdull Rahim Mohd Yusoff and Muhammad Abbas Ahmad Zaini

Progress On Environmental Sustainability Implementation For Palm Oil Production 206-210 In Malaysia Siti Nur Atikah Binti Yahya, Norhayati Abdullah and Norasikin Ahmad Ludin

Start-Up Performance Of Modified Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (MABR) For The 211-215 Treatment Of Landfill Leachate Imran Ahmad, Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan, Norazli Othman, Norhayati Abdullah, Nithiya Arumugam and Zamri Abdul Rahman

Development Of Aerobic Granules For Actual Low-Medium Strength Domestic 216-220 Wastewater Treatment Under The Effect Of Static Mixer Angel Chyi En We, Azmi Aris and Nor Azimah Mohd Zain

Parallel Session 9 Influence Of Magnetic Field On Sludge Bulking Under Long Sludge Retention 222-226 Time Nur Syamimi Zaidi, Khalida Muda, Johan Sohaili, Liew Wai Loan and Norelyza Hussein

Enhancement Of Activated Sludge Process With Low Dissolved Oxygen Using 227-231 Electromagnetic Field Nulhazwany Abdul Malik, Khalida Muda, Nur Syamimi Zaidi and Mohamad Darwish

Removal Of Some Heavy Metals Using Fibrous Radiation Grafted Adsorbent 232-239 Containing Sulfonate Moiety Myzairah Hamdzah, Zaini Ujang, Mohamed Mahmoud Nasef, Teo Ming Ting

viii International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Parallel Session 10 Assessment Of Heterogeneous Mixing Of Meteorological Parameters On PM10 241-245 Concentration In Equatorial Region

Hamza Ahmad Isiyaka, Wesam A. Al Madhoun and Faizah Che Ros

Potential Use Of Plant-Based Natural Coagulants For Water Treatment 246-250 Nur Shahidah Aftar Ali, Khalida Muda, Ummu Nusaibah Abdullah and Ahmad Bazli Sahir

The Potential Of Napier Grass Leaves Fibre As An Acoustic Absorber 251-255 Z. Haron, K. Yahya, T. N. F. T. Mat, N. M. Fasli, N. Darus, W.A. W. A. Rahman, E.M. Taiwo and N. Che Din

Effectiveness Of Macrocomposites In Treating Public Wet Market Wastewater In 256-260 Pekan Pagoh, Johor Mohamed Zuhaili Mohamed Najib, Kogila Vani Annammala, Mohamad Darwish, Erwan Hafizi Kasiman, Muhamad Hanafi Samsuri, Mohd Arif Rosli and Zarizi Awang

Fouling Control Approaches In Recent Advance Membrane Bioreactor Systems 261-264 Treatingwastewater Rabialtu Sulihah Binti Ibrahim, Zainura Zainon Noor, Nurul Huda Baharuddin, and Noor Sabrina Ahmad Mutamim

Comparison Of Biosorbent Pretreatment Methods Of Bjerkandera Adusta On 265-270 Colour Removal Ariani Dwi Astuti and Khalida Muda

Parallel Session 11 Toxicity Of Silver Nanoparticle And Its Removal By Pytoremediation System In 272-277 Water Environment: An Overview Zainab Mat Lazim, Salmiati, Abdul Rahman Samaluddin, Mohd Razman Salim and Nor Zaiha Arman

Thermal Activation On Gonggong Shell Waste As An Adsorbent Material For 278-283 Cadmium Removal In Water Eko Siswoyo, Ciptaning Rini, Fiorizka Marisha Hadi and Kasam

The Development Of MIWABS Towards Water Demand Management In Malaysia 284-288 Nurul Sa’dah Bahar, Zainura Zainon Noor, Azmi Aris and Nurul Ashikeen Binti Kamaruzaman

Estimating Water Footprint Of Palm Oil Production: Case Study In Malaysia 289-293 Noor Salehan Mohammad Sabli, Zainura Zainon Noor, Kasturi Devi A/P Kanniah, Siti Nurhayati Kamaruddin and Nurul Sa’dah Bahar

Modelling Of Prevailing Water Distribution Network In Putrajaya, Malaysia 294-298 Nur Diyana Mohamad and Zulfa Hanan Ash’aari

ix International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Parallel Session 12 Trends Of Water Use Efficiency In Industrial Consumption 300-304 Siti Nurhayati Kamaruddin, Zainura Zainon Noor, Che Hafizan Che Hassan, Noor Salehan Mohammad Sabli and Nurul Sa’adah Bahar

Optimal Power Generation Mix Using Hybrid Dynamic Programming For 305-309 Improved Multi-Objective: Malaysia Electricity Supply Industry Case Siti Mariam Mohd Shokri, Nofri Yenita Dahlan and Mohamad Fani Sulaima

Effect Of Physico–Chemical Characteristic Of Water In Sub-Critical Condition 310-314 Towards Structural Conversion Of Mesocarp Fiber Sanggithapriya Mahandran, Hiroyuki Yoshida, Nordin Sabli and Shamsul Izhar

Performances Of Sandwich Membrane In Reclamation Of Water From Final 315-322 Discharged POME Nurul Ain Mazlan, Khairul Faezah Md Yunos, Mohd Nazli Mohd Naim, Azhari Samsu Baharuddin

x International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Disclaimer: The works reported in these proceedings were reviewed based on technical content, without extensive English editing

xi International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

Parallel Session 1

1 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

DETERMINE THE NUTRIENT STATUS OF COFFEE TREES IN PNG

Kamal Kishore Goundar*1, Emma Kiup2, Mark K Kenny2, Ibuki Norihiko1,

Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan3, Sathiabama T. Thirugnana3

1, MG Corporation, Shinjuku Park Tower N-30th 3-7-1, Nishi-Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, JAPAN 2 Research & Grower Services Division, Coffee Industry Corporation, EHP, PAPUA NEW GUINEA 3 Department of Engineering, Razak Faculty of Technology and Informatics, Level 7, Menara Razak UTM, 54100 Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA *[email protected]

ABSTRACT In Papua New Guinea (PNG) the population in the coffee growing area is growing faster than the area under cultivation. As a result, land use is being intensified and soil nutrient depletion may occur, resulting in nutrient deficiencies of coffee crops. Research focused on adequate nutrition of plants is essential in modern coffee production to increase yield. The purpose of this work is to estimate nutrient content of coffee crops to manage fertilizer application for sustained coffee production. ICP-OES was used to determine the concentration of several nutrients in coffee leaves. The samples from CIC plantation was found to have the highest level of nutrients compared to the other three plantations and this could be attributed to factors such as amount of fertilizer input, soil moisture and the ability of the coffee tree roots to absorb nutrients from the soil. However, the foliar nutrient level may vary depending on the time of leaf sampling because some nutrients can be translocated to other parts of the plant depending on the stage of the plant development cycle. Hence to better understand the nutritional requirements of the coffee tree, the leaf sampling should be done over a complete cycle of the crop development.

Keywords: Coffee crops, Nutrient deficiencies, foliar nutrient level, cultivation

INTRODUCTION Coffee contributes over K450 million annually to the national economy of PNG however production in the last 5 years has declined to an average of 47,000 tonnes per annum (CIC, 2017). About 89% of the Arabica coffee is produced by smallholder farmers, 8% is produced by block holders and the remaining 3% is produced by plantations (CIC, 2017). Smallholder coffee gardens are heavily shaded hence the average yield is around 500 kg green bean/ha/yr (Harding, 1994). Smallholder farmers maintain a low-input, low-output system but there has been a gradual decline in coffee yield over the years. Nutrients are lost from coffee system by the process of crop harvesting, soil erosion, leaching etc. Several studies show that when coffee cherry is exported out of the coffee system, 31-34 kg N, 2.18-2.49 kg P and 39.3-53.5 kg k per 1000 kg green bean is removed (Wichmann, 1992). These losses reflect the high K content of the coffee cherry.

For optimum growth and productivity, the coffee tree requires adequate nutrients. The amount of nutrients required by a coffee tree may be affected by the coffee species, soil type, climate, topography etc. Evaluation of the nutritional status of plants by leaf tissue analysis indicates the nutritional status of the plant at a given moment and allows detection of deficiency, sufficiency, of toxicity of nutrients. It will also serve us as a guide to adjust or redirect the fertilization program to correct nutritional imbalances to achieve higher crop yield.

2 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Researchers found that seasonal fluctuations in leaf nutrient levels are apparent in coffee trees (Carvjal et al., 1969; Cannell & Kimeu, 1971). The coffee tree has 3 main phases in its annual crop development cycle that affect the nutritional status of the tree hence fertilizer application is timed following this development cycle so that the nutritional requirements of the coffee tree are met so that higher yields are obtained (Harding, 1991).

Nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) are required in substantial amounts for the development cycle of the coffee tree. Potassium and nitrogen is essential during the fruit expansion phase of the coffee fruit so if the coffee tree is deficient in these nutrient it may be mobilized from the leaves, branches and flower buds to the fruits resulting in lower levels of N and K in those parts during that period (Lima Filho & Malavolta, 2003).

METHODS Sampling Sites The leaf samples were collected from four locations in the highlands of PNG. The four locations were, Aiyura, Gowli, Panga and CIC plantation blocks. At each location, coffee leaf samples were collected randomly from each of the coffee plantations.

Sample Preparation and Chemical analyses The leaf samples were cleaned with distilled water to remove any unwanted particles then dried in an oven at 103℃ for minimum of 8hrs before grinding. The finely ground leaf material was digested with nitric acid and analysed for macro and micro elements using the ICP-OS Method.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The rating score shows that the coffee tress in CIC coffee blocks had the highest nutritional status then the other 3 plantations (Table1). This may be due to the amount of fertilizer inputs, rainfall, soil moisture and ability of coffee roots to absorb nutrient from the soil in each of the plantations. Nitrogen content in the leaves in all plantations appears to be in the optimal level implying that the crop is receiving adequate amount of N for its growth and development (Table 2). However, potassium, calcium and zinc are insufficient and needs to be improved. The low content of K, Ca and Zn in coffee leaves may be related to the annual crop development cycle of the coffee tree. Lima Filho and Malavolta (2003) found that 54-64 % K in leaves is translocated to the fruits during the fruit expansion phase of a normal coffee tree whereas in deficient plants it increases to 63%-79%. Apart from the crop development cycle, rainfall also affects the nutrient level in coffee plants. Harding (1991) found that Fe and Mn levels in coffee leaves declined with increased rainfall whilst N, P, K, S, Zn and B levels increased.

On the other hand, this could be due to weak absorption from the acidic soil. Iron is in excess which is believed to be due to high absorption from acidic soil (Figure 1). Generally, a higher availability of an element in the soil translates into a greater concentration of that element in the plant. However, Kiup (2014) found that leaf nutrient concentration was not correlated with soil nutrient concentration hence the coffee nutrient status may be affected by other factors.

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Table 1. Nutritional status of coffee trees in the four plantations Rating Score Target Element Action Aiyura Gowli Panga Block Ave Min Max Nitrogen N 0.98 1.15 1.05 1.05 Week NPK-Mg 2.8% 2.6% 3.0% Phosphorus P 0.73 0.67 0.75 0.69 absorption NPK-Mg 0.2% 0.14% 0.17% Potassium K 0.21 0.12 0.22 0.24 from acid MOA 2.2% 1.9% 2.5% soil. Calcium Ca 0.65 0.73 0.65 0.78 Need pH 1.4% 1.2% 1.5% adjustment Zinc Zi 0.51 0.28 0.36 0.31 add AF301 >15ppm 15 15

Boron B 1.22 1.02 0.86 1.21 40.5ppm 31 50

High absorption from Iron Fe 3.32 0.75 1.03 1.34 51.5ppm 43 60 acid soil Manganese Mn 0.31 0.15 0.32 0.41 NPK-Mg <200ppm 200 200

Aluminum Al 0.62 0.16 0.14 0.24 <120ppm 120 120

Molybdenum Mo low low low low NA NA NA

Rating 4 2 3 1

Table 2. Mean concentration of macronutrient and micronutrients in coffee leaves Leaf Nutrients (% DM) Leaf Nutrients (ppm DM) Site N P K Ca Zn B Fe

Aiyura 2.7 0.11 0.46 0.88 7.6 49.4 171 Gowli 3.2 0.10 0.27 0.99 4.2 41.3 38.8 Panga 3.0 0.12 0.49 0.88 5.4 34.7 52.8 CIC Block 3.0 0.11 0.52 1.05 4.7 49.0 68.8

Mean 3.0 0.11 0.44 0.95 5.5 43.6 82.9

Optimum rangea 2.6-3.5 0.16-0.20 2.1-2.6 0.8-1.5 16-30 40-90 70-200 a According to Harding (1991)

Figure 1. Leaf nutrients of coffee trees in the four plantations

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CONCLUSION To get a better understanding of the coffee tree nutrient requirements, the timing of leaf sample collection should be considered as the nutrient content of coffee leaves is greatly affected by the development cycle of the coffee tree. Moreover, factors as such as temperature, humidity, soil moisture, and coffee tree disease also affect the uptake of the nutrients into the coffee tree and should be considered as well.

Acknowledgment: This work is partly supported by Ministry of Education, Malaysia, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) Grant Vot number Q.K130000.2540.20H27, Razak Faculty of Technology and Informatics, UTM.

REFERENCES

Cannell, M.G.R and Kimeu, B.S (1971). Uptake and distribution of macronutrients in trees of Coffea arabica L. Ann Appl Biol 64: 213-230 Carvajal, J.F, Acevedo, A. and Lopez, C.A (1969). Nutrient uptake by the coffee tree during a yearly cycle. Turrialba 19(1): 13-22. Coffee Industry Corporation (2017). PNG Coffee Production & Export Statistics Report. Industry Operations Division, PO BOX 137 , Eastern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea Harding, P (1991). Foliar nutrient level studies in smallholder coffee gardens in the Kainantu area of Papua New Guinea. Coffee Research Report No. 6. Papua New Guinea Coffee Research Institute. Harding, P (1994). A comparison of the nitrogen requirements of two coffee (Coffea arabica.L) management systems in PNG. PhD Thesis. Universtiy of Reading. Kiup, E. (2014). Nutrients in coffee, food crops and soil within the coffee-food gardens system in Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea. Project Dissertation, unpublished report. Lima Filho, O. F. d., & Malavolta, E. (2003). Studies on mineral nutrition of the coffee plant (Coffea arabica L. cv. Catuaí Vermelho): LXIV. Remobilization and re-utilization of nitrogen and potassium by normal and deficient plants. Brazilian Journal of Biology, 63(3), 481-490. Wichmann, W. (Ed.). (1992). IFA world fertilizer use manual. Germany: International Fertilizer Association.

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DETERMINATION OF MASS TRANSFER RESISTANCE OF BORON REMOVAL FROM WASTEWATER BY ELECTROCOAGULATION

Ezerie H. Ezechi*1 and Khalida Muda2

1, 2 Department of Water and Environmental Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT This study evaluated boron removal from aqueous solution by electrocoagulation in batch mode and determined the mass transfer resistance. Various initial boron concentrations of 10, 20 and 30 mg/L were used. Experiments were conducted under optimized conditions of pH and current density. The modified mass transfer factor (MMFT) model was applied to the experimental data to determine the mass transfer resistance. The results show that boron removal decreased from 98% to 82.6% with increasing boron concentration from 10 mg/L to 30 mg/L. Analysis of mass transfer resistance shows that the driving force (B) increased from 0.2607 to 0.9491 mg/g while the affinity between the adsorbate and the electro-coagulants increased from 1.164 to 1.1901 g.h.mg with increasing initial boron concentration from 10 mg/L to 30 mg/L. The variations of global [kLa]g, film mass transfer [kLa]f and porous diffusion [kLa]d relative to the percentage of outflow demonstrates that the mass transfer resistance of boron could depend on film mass transfer. This study demonstrates that electrocoagulation is a suitable technology for boron removal from wastewater at optimum combination of variables.

Key words: Boron, Electrocoagulation, Mass transfer resistance, Electrode, Concentration

INTRODUCTION The production of boron compounds has substantially increased due to increasing demand in nuclear technology, in rocket engines as fuels, in the production of heat resistant materials such as refractories and ceramics, high quality steel, heat-resistant polymers, catalysts, soaps, detergents, fertilizers, disinfectants and food preservatives (Fujita et al., 2005; Yılmaz et al., 2008). These anthropogenic activities generate boron contaminated wastewater. As a known drinking water contaminant, boron affects the reproductability of living organisms (Dydo et al., 2005). Therefore, effective treatment technologies are required to manage boron contaminated wastewater

Several approaches have been applied for boron removal from wastewater. Single stage reverse osmosis (RO) membranes produce effluent residual boron concentrations of about 0.9-1.8 mg/L due to the diffusion of boron through RO membranes in a non-ionic way (Hou et al., 2010; Sagiv & Semiat, 2004). Conventional ion exchange is also unsuitable due to poor ionization of boric acid (Melnyk et al., 2005). Conventional electrodialysis is only capable of removing about 42-75% of boron (Yazicigil & Oztekin, 2006).

Studies have shown that electrocoagulation has a wide range of efficiency in removing water contaminants. Electrocoagulation involves formulation of electro-coagulants by electrolytic oxidation of sacrificial anodes, destabilization of contaminants, particulate

6 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 suspension, breaking of emulsions and aggregation of destabilized phases to form a floc (Ezechi et al., 2015).

The mechanism of solute adsorption onto a porous material involves the transportation of the solute from the bulk solution to the film zone (Film mass transfer), diffusion of the solute on the film zone towards the acceptor sites of the solid surface (porous diffusion) and attachment of the adsorbed solute to the acceptor sites within the interior of the solid surface (Fulazzaky, 2012; Girish & Murty, 2016).

The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of initial boron concentration on boron adsorption during EC in a batch regime and determine the mass transfer resistance of boron on the electro-coagulants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Wastewater Preparation A stock solution of boric acid (H3BO3) was prepared in 1L of deionized water. Different parts of the sample was accurately measured, diluted and used for the experiment.

EC Setup The electrochemical setup consists of a 500 mL beaker with four aluminum plate electrodes of size 10 cm x 1 cm x 0.3 cm. The electrodes were placed at a distance of 0.5 cm from each other in a monopolar pattern. A digital DC power supply (Zhaoxin 303D) in the range of (3A-30V) was used to supply current. A multimeter was used to control the current and voltage respectively. A pH meter was used to measure sample pH and controlled using 1M NaOH and H2SO4.

Experimental Process Boron concentrations of 10, 20 and 30 mg/L were used under optimized conditions of pH (7), contact time (90 mins) and current density (12.5 mA/cm2) (Isa et al., 2014). Samples were collected for analysis at every 15 mins intervals. After each run of the experiments, the supernatants were collected and filtered. The used aluminum electrodes were chemically rinsed to remove surface impurities before reuse. Residual boron concentration was measured by the standard methods for water and wastewater treatment (Carmine method) using DR 2800 spectrophotometer. The percentage of boron removal was calculated using the expression:

� − � � = � � (1) ��

Mass transfer analyses The modified mass transfer factor (MMTF) model can give an understanding of the mass transfer resistance of boron (Fulazzaky et al., 2017). The driving force (B) and the affinity between the adsorbate and the electro-coagulants can be obtained from the intercept and slope of the plot of ln q vs ln t: 1 ln(�) = × ln(�) + � (2) �

The variations of global mass transfer (GMT), film mass transfer (FMT) and porous

7 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 diffusion (PD) relative to percentage of outflow can be obtained using the expressions below having obtained B and (Fulazzaky et al., 2013).

�� ln([��]�) − ln {ln (� )} �� = � = � (3) � −�×ln(�) �� = [��]� = [��]� × � (4) �� = [��]� = [��]� − [��]� (5)

Where E, Co and Cs are boron removal (%), initial concentration and concentration at any time (mg/L), B is mass transfer index related to driving force (mg/g), is affinity between -1 -1 sorbate and sorbent (g h mg ), t is reaction time, [kLa]g is global mass transfer factor (h ), -1 -1 [kLa]f is film mass transfer factor (h ),[kLa]d is the porous diffusion factor (h )

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Effect of concentration Figure 1 shows that boron removal efficiency at optimized conditions decreased with increasing concentration due to insufficient electro-coagulants. At fixed current density of 12.5 mA/cm2, the amount of charge generated at lower boron concentration of 10 mg/L was insufficient to treat wastewater of higher boron concentration (30 mg/L). Therefore, boron removal decreased from 98% to 82.6% with increasing boron concentration from 10 mg/L to 30 mg/L. These findings can be compared with the results of Demirçivi and Nasün-Saygılı (2008) in their study of boron removal from wastewaters by ion-exchange in a batch system. The authors noted that boron removal decreased with increasing concentrations from 20 mg/L to 60 mg/L.

Figure 1. Boron removal at different concentrations

Linear regression analyses The driving force and the affinity between boron and the electro-coagulants were obtained from the intercept (B) and slope (1/) of the straight line plot of ln q vs ln t (Figure not shown). The driving force of boron mass transfer were 0.2607, 0.8235 and 0.9491 mg/g while the affinity between the solute and the electrocoagulants were 1.164, 1.1504 and 1.1901 g.h.mg-1 with increasing boron concentration in the range of 10 mg/L, 20 mg/L and 30 mg/L, respectively. The increased affinity at higher boron concentration was due to the tendency of charges in suspension to interact with each other under the influence of a strong electric field and the surface complexation and electrostatic attraction forces of the insoluble metal hydroxides (Al(OH)3) (Ezechi et al., 2012). The correlation coefficients were high and reached 0.999 at all boron concentrations. These findings are in line with Fulazzaky (2011).

8 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Global Mass transfer The variations of [kLa]g decreased with increasing initial boron concentration from 10 mg/L to 30 mg/L. At boron concentration of 10 mg/L, the maximum [kLa]g rate at 3% outflow was 4.38 x 103 and decreased progressively to 1.27 x 103 with increasing percentage of outflow to 36%. At the initial stage, the potential mass transfer of boron was energetic for all boron concentrations, indicating that the decrease of mass transfer with increasing boron concentration was due to rapid accumulation of boron onto the electro- coagulants at the initial stage.

Film mass transfer Experimental data validation demonstrates that the variation of [kLa]f relative to the percentage of outflow increased progressively in all boron concentrations but decreased with increasing initial boron concentration. The maximum [kLa]f rate at 10 mg/L was 6.7 x 102 at 36% outflow but decreased progressively to 3.89 x 102 at 3% outflow. At 7%, 31% and 45% outflow, a breakthrough point appeared on 10 mg/L, 20 mg/L and 30 mg/L initial boron concentrations and progressively increased. The breakthrough point [kLa]f implies that the rate of film mass transfer increased, reached a maximum and then, attained zero mass transfer rate. The mass transfer resistance that occurred before the breakthrough point dependent on the film mass transfer due to the difficulty in the transport of solute from the bulk of the solution to the film zone based on the variations of [kLa]f. These findings are in agreement with Fulazzaky et al. (2013).

Porous diffusion Validation of experimental data demonstrates that the variation of [kLa]d relative to the percentage of outflow decreased with increasing boron concentration. The maximum 3 [kLa]d at boron concentration of 10 mg/L was 4.34 x 10 at 3% outflow but decreased 3 progressively to 1.21 x 10 at 36% outflow. At 20 mg/L and 30 mg/L, the maximum [kLa]d was 3.86 x 103 at 15% outflow and 3.41 x 103 at 21% outflow but decreased progressively with increasing percentage of outflow to 45% (1.55 x 103) and 53% (1.34 x 103), respectively.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that initial boron concentration can cause a decrease of boron removal during electrocoagulation. Boron removal decreased from 98% to 82% with increasing initial boron concentration from 10 mg/L to 30 mg/L. Application of the modified mass transfer factor model to the experimental demonstrated that boron mass transfer resistance could be controlled by film mass transfer. The resistance of mass transfer depends on film mass transfer and can control the transport of boron from the bulk of solution to the film zone in order to delay the diffusion of boron in pores. The study demonstrated that the modified mass transfer factor models suitably described boron adsorption mechanism onto the electro-coagulants relating to the global, external and internal mass transfer.

REFERENCES

Demirçivi, P., and Nasün-Saygılı, G. (2008). Removal of boron from waste waters by ion-exchange in a batch system. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 47. Dydo, P., Turek, M., Ciba, J., Trojanowska, J., & Kluczka, J. (2005). Boron removal from landfill leachate by means of nanofiltration and reverse osmosis. Desalination, 185(1-3), 131-137.

9 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Ezechi, E.H., Isa, M.H., bin Mohamed Kutty, S.R., & Ahmed, Z. (2015). Electrochemical removal of boron from produced water and recovery. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 3(3), 1962-1973. Ezechi, E.H., Isa, M.H., & Kutty, S.R.M. (2012). Removal of boron from produced water by electrocoagulation. Advances in Environment, Computational Chemistry and Bioscience, WSEAS LLC Staff (Ed.). Wseas LLC, New York, USA., ISBN-13, 1977508478, 87-92. Fujita, Y., Hata, T., Nakamaru, M., Iyo, T., Yoshino, T., & Shimamura, T. (2005). A study of boron adsorption onto activated sludge. Bioresource technology, 96(12), 1350-1356. Fulazzaky, M.A. (2011). Determining the resistance of mass transfer for adsorption of the surfactants onto granular activated carbons from hydrodynamic column. Chemical Engineering Journal, 166(3), 832- 840. Fulazzaky, M.A. (2012). Analysis of global and sequential mass transfers for the adsorption of atrazine and simazine onto granular activated carbons from a hydrodynamic column. Analytical Methods, 4(8), 2396-2403. Fulazzaky, M.A., Khamidun, M.H., & Omar, R. (2013). Understanding of mass transfer resistance for the adsorption of solute onto porous material from the modified mass transfer factor models. Chemical Engineering Journal, 228, 1023-1029. Fulazzaky, M.A., Nuid, M., Aris, A., & Muda, K. (2017). Kinetics and mass transfer studies on the biosorption of organic matter from palm oil mill effluent by aerobic granules before and after the addition of serratia marcescens sa30 in a sequencing batch reactor. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 107, 259-268. Girish, C., & Murty, V.R. (2016). Mass transfer studies on adsorption of phenol from wastewater using lantana camara, forest waste. International Journal of Chemical Engineering, 2016. Hou, D., Wang, J., Sun, X., Luan, Z., Zhao, C., & Ren, X. (2010). Boron removal from aqueous solution by direct contact membrane distillation. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 177(1-3), 613-619. Isa, M.H., Ezechi, E.H., Ahmed, Z., Magram, S.F., & Kutty, S.R.M. (2014). Boron removal by electrocoagulation and recovery. Water Research, 51, 113-123. Melnyk, L., Goncharuk, V., Butnyk, I., & Tsapiuk, E. (2005). Boron removal from natural and wastewaters using combined sorption/membrane process. Desalination, 185(1-3), 147-157. Sagiv, A., & Semiat, R. (2004). Analysis of parameters affecting boron permeation through reverse osmosis membranes. Journal of Membrane Science, 243(1), 79-87. Yazicigil, Z., & Oztekin, Y. (2006). Boron removal by electrodialysis with anion-exchange membranes. Desalination, 190(1-3), 71-78. Yılmaz, A.E., Boncukcuoğlu, R., Kocaker, M.M., & Kocadağistan, E. (2008). An empirical model for kinetics of boron removal from boroncontaining wastewaters by the electrocoagulation method in a batch reactor. Desalination, 230(1-3), 288-297.

10 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

ANALYSIS OF STATIC AND DYNAMIC FACTORS OF THE GRAVITATIONAL FLOW SEWER PIPE IN MALAYSIA

Afifa Safira A Gani*1,2, Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan2, Samira Albati Kamaruddin2

and Nithiya Arumugam2

1 Planning and Engineering Department, Indah Water Konsortium Sdn. Bhd., No.44, Jalan Dungun, Damansara Heights, 50490 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA *[email protected] 2 Department of Engineering, Razak Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, 54100, Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Closed-circuit television (CCTV) inspection was used to observe the structural defect in 225, 300 and 375 mm vitrified clay pipe (VCP) and 450 and 500 mm reinforced concrete pipe (RCP). These defects were classified using the Pipeline Assessment Certification Program (PACP) grading system before categorization into Grade 1 to 5. A total of 36.6 km of gravitational flow sewer pipe has been investigated with 703 defects have been detected. An average of 19 defects was found for every 100 m length for all the pipe type. The Category 1 to 9 were the combination of primary parameters of static and dynamic conditions, which 225 mm diameter VCP with less than 5,000 PE, 300 mm diameter VCP with less than 5,000 PE, 300 mm diameter VCP with between 5,000 to 10,000 PE, 375 mm diameter VCP with between 5,000 to 10,000 PE, 375 mm diameter VCP with between 10,000 to 20,000 PE, 450 mm diameter RCP with between 5,000 to 10,000 PE, 450 mm diameter RCP with between 10,000 to 20,000 PE, 500 mm diameter RCP with between 10,000 to 20,000 PE, and 500 mm diameter RCP with more than 20,000 PE, respectively. The probability weights were calculated based on the defect fraction obtained from the pipe depth, pipe gradient and pipe service period. The failure factor comprised the remaining factors of pipe size, pipe material and sewage flow.

Key words: Gravitational flow, sewer pipe, static and dynamic factors

INTRODUCTION

Unscheduled or reactive maintenance of sewer network (SN) occurred due to the lack of planning and a shortage of knowledge of sewer pipe. This problem leads to mismanagement of operational expenditure (OPEX) and disturbance to the company’s cash flow. Therefore, it is imperative to have a prediction tool for SN especially for the structural condition in a gravitational flow sewer pipe in order to ensure proactive maintenance method is being conducted by the sewerage operator. Due to the current economic status, to have a sustainable sewerage infrastructure is very crucial. Sewer pipe structural defects will lead to untimely sewer pipe collapse. To replace collapsed sewer pipe through an unscheduled maintenance or reactive maintenance will cost billions of ringgits and sometimes impossible due to the deep location of sewer pipe which usually be underneath of other utility lines within the public reserve’s path (Sen Gupta et al., 2001). This path is a public utility reserve which is usually located in the middle of a road. Sewer pipe collapse causes interruption to the sewerage service and affects other utility infrastructures surrounding the public reserve. It is also disturbing the primary usage of the road and causing road traffic safety, whereby the

11 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 condition of the underground sewer pipe causes sudden damage to the road surface (Fenner, 2000; Kuliczkowska, 2015). Moreover, additional expenses may incur during the road excavations due to the relocation of other utilities and structures. In the year 2016, IWK has spent more than RM 17 million to rehabilitate collapsed and broken sewer pipe (IWK, 2017). One of the reasons for collapse or broken sewer pipe is the static and dynamic factors of the sewer pipe. Static factor is the pipe criteria that will not change with time, meanwhile dynamic factor is the criteria that will change with time (Farmani et al., 2017).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study was conducted using sewer pipe properties which were gathered through a geographic information system (GIS) in Indah Water Konsortium Sdn. Bhd. (IWK) database. GIS is an electronic platform which combined the data gathered from developer’s construction information when the developers handing over their sewerage system to IWK for operation and maintenance purposes. Information such as pipe material, pipe size, pipe length, pipe depth and connected population equivalent (PE) were provided by the developers in accordance with requirement stated in Malaysian Sewerage Industry Guideline (MSIG). PE provided by the developers was translated into sewage flow whereby 1 PE is equivalent to 225 L/day (SPAN, 2009). Meanwhile for the pipe service period, the historical record in the GIS database was measured according to the year the system was built. For the purpose of this study, validation on ground was conducted whenever any inconsistencies detected between GIS database and CCTV inspection report.

A total of 703 samples were collected from the total of 36.6 km of defected VCP (30.0 km) with a diameter of 225, 300 and 375 mm and defected RCP (6.6 km) with a diameter of 450 and 500 mm were randomly sampled within the selected sites within the Klang Valley (KV) area. CCTV inspection was conducted at the selected sites to capture the internal images in video format of the sewer pipes. Grades from 1 to 5 based on PACP system were given to the structural defects captured in the CCTV images. Afterwards, sewer pipe data such as pipe diameter, pipe material, pipe depth, sewage flow and pipe service period were imported from IWK database.

Criteria of static and dynamic factors were selected for the pipe defects in gravitational flow sewer pipe were based on time-dependent (Farmani et al., 2017). The static factors selected were the criteria that will not change with time; diameter of pipe, material of pipe, depth of pipe and gradient of pipe. Meanwhile, the criteria that will change with time; sewage flow and period of pipe service were selected for the dynamic factors. These static and dynamic factors were later characterized into primary parameters (diameter and material of sewer pipe for static factor and flow of sewage for dynamic factor) and secondary parameters (depth of sewer pipe and gradient of sewer pipe for static factor and service period of sewer pipe for dynamic factor).

The combination of the sewer pipe type and sewage flow formed nine (9) categories as primary parameters of the static and dynamic conditions. These categories were investigated for the failure factor. The categories are as listed below: (a) Category 1 – 225 mm diameter VCP (< 5,000 PE), (b) Category 2 – 300 mm diameter VCP (< 5,000 PE), (c) Category 3 – 300 mm diameter VCP (5,000 - 10,000 PE), (d) Category 4 – 375 mm diameter VCP (5,000 - 10,000 PE), (e) Category 5 – 375 mm diameter VCP (10,000 - 20,000 PE),

12 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

(f) Category 6 – 450 mm diameter RCP (5,000 - 10,000 PE), (g) Category 7 – 450 mm diameter RCP (10,000 - 20,000 PE), (h) Category 8 – 500 mm diameter RCP (10,000 - 20,000 PE), and (i) Category 9 – 500 mm diameter RCP (> 20,000 PE).

These static and dynamic factors were further sub-categorized as secondary parameters of the static and dynamic factors which were the sewer pipe depth, sewer pipe gradient and sewer pipe service period, before being classified for their probability weight, as listed below:

(a) Pipe depth – less than 3 m, between 3 to 5 m and more than 5 m, (b) Pipe gradient – less than 1:200, between 1:200 to 1:400, between 1:400 to 1:600 and more than 1:600, and (c) Pipe service period – less than 5 years, 5 to 10 years, 10 to 20 years and more than 2 years.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The gravitational flow sewer pipe diameter of 225 mm with VCP formed the longest pipe length in this study with 17.3 km length as in Table 1. This was followed by 300 mm diameter VCP, 375 mm diameter VCP, 450 mm diameter RCP and 500 mm diameter RCP with length of 8.7 km, 3.6 km, 3.6 km and 2.9 km, respectively.

Table 1. CCTV inspection outcome for this study Total Pipe Length Defect Detected Defects every Pipe Type Investigated via CCTV (m) (nos.) 100m 225mm VCP 17,630.10 336 19 300mm VCP 8,706.80 173 20 375mm VCP 3,639.00 71 20 450mm RCP 3,631.80 74 20 500mm RCP 2,945.00 49 17 Total 36,552.70 703 19

The defect of every 100 m length was determine based on total length investigated and number of defects found within that investigated pipe. With the defect of every 100 m length in each pipe type was less than 10% different than the average defects in overall pipe, it can be assumed that the defects are proportional with pipe length for all pipe types. The identified defects were classified into Grade 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 as in Table 2. The grades were based on the structural condition; whereby higher grade number will have more severe structural defect. Grade 1 and 2 are acceptable defects, and sewer pipe remains operational. Grade 3, 4 or 5 have structural defects and shall be rehabilitated or replaced according to the given period (SPAN, 2009).

13 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Table 2. Defects description based on grades in Malaysia (SPAN, 2009) Defect Grades Descriptions used in MSIG Structural Estimate Time to Grade Volume III Condition Failure 1 Occurrences without damage and no cracks of Excellent: Unlikely in the pipe but only acceptable displacement on Minor Defects. foreseeable future joint where no visual infiltration can be observed.

2 Constructional and sewer product deficiencies Good: 20 years or more or occurrences with insignificant influence to Defects that have tightness, hydraulics or static pressure of not begun to pipe, etc. deteriorate. Examples: Joint displaced large, badly torched intakes, minor deformation of plastic pipes (<5%), minor erosions, infiltration seeping, cracks (joint, circumference, longitudinal), debris, silt (15%) and light encrustation.

3 Constructional, operational and maintenance Fair: 10 to 20 years deficiencies diminishing static, hydraulics, Moderate defects safety and tightness. that will continue Examples: Infiltration dripping, open joint, to deteriorate. untouched intakes, cracks, minor drainage obstructions such as calcite build ups, protruding laterals, minor damages to pipe wall, individual root penetrations, corroded pipe wall, flexible pipe deformation (>5%) and lining defect.

4 Constructional and structural damages with Poor: 5 to 10 years no sufficient static safety, hydraulics or Severe defects tightness. that will become Examples: Axial/ radial pipe bursts, visually grade 5 defects noticeable infiltration/ exfiltration, cavities in within the pipe-wall, severe protruding, laterals severe foreseeable root penetrations, severe corrosion of pipe future. wall, infiltration running, medium encrustation, minor deformation and flexible pipe deformation (>15%).

5 Major structural damaged where pipe is Immediate Has failed or will already or will shortly be impermeable. attention: likely fail within the Examples: Collapsed or collapsed eminent, Defects requiring next 5 years major deformation, deeply rooted pipe, any immediate drainage obstructions, pipe loses water or attention. danger of backwater in basements, etc.

Assessment of the probability weights of the pipe was carried out per factor and involved varying pipe grades (Sempewo & Kyokaali, 2016), which were depth, gradient and service period. A shallow pipe has a higher relative importance than the deeper pipe, a steeper pipe slope has a higher relative importance than the gentle pipe slope and an older pipe has a higher relative importance than the newer pipe. These factors were used as the first, second and third probability weights, respectively. The weightage was calculated based on the defect fraction obtained from this study for the pipe depth, pipe gradient and pipe service period, and thus allowing for the relative importance to be decided. Since pipe diameter, pipe material and pipe flow were used as the main static and dynamic factors in the development

14 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 of the prediction tool, the clustering technique was used for the remaining static and dynamic factors. These pipe factors were aggregated into groups based on the specific intrinsic properties (Farmani et al., 2017). The defect of gravitational flow sewer pipes was influenced by the static and dynamic factors of the sewer pipes. The calculation of probability weights had included the pipe depth, pipe gradient and pipe service period. Therefore, the failure factor should include the remaining factors of pipe diameter, pipe material and sewage flow.

CONCLUSION

This study was initiated with the primary aim to produce a prediction tool for the structural condition in gravitational flow sewer pipe based on the effects of static and dynamic factors that allows mitigation of the workplace problem of reactive maintenance. This prediction tool has the capability to assist the sewerage operator in conducting sewer pipe proactive maintenance. The preliminary investigation showed a successful implementation of CCTV inspection for the required static and dynamic factors. The characterisation of static and dynamic factors into primary and secondary parameters has demonstrated that the primary parameters were the dominator. It has been proven that the sewer pipe structure degradation works in a staging and proportional behaviours which can be translated into a calculation or formulation manner. This study also verified that these static and dynamic factors have the impact that moves together with a certain magnitude, with a different aggregating approach. It can be concluded that the selection of pipe category is crucial and should be more justified using much smaller aggregation.

Acknowledgment: Sincere thanks goes to the Management of IWK, who provided the authors an opportunity to conduct the study by providing access to the company’s data and facilities. Without their precious support, it would not be possible for the authors to conduct this study. The authors also thank Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and Ministry of Education Malaysia for funding the conference fee using the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) Vote Number R.K130000.7856.5F049.

REFERENCES

Farmani, R., Kakoudakis, K., Behzadian, K. and Butler, D. (2017). Pipe failure prediction in water distribution systems considering static and dynamic factors. Procedia Engineering, 186, 117-126. Fenner, R. (2000). Approaches to sewer maintenance: a review. Urban Water, 2(4), 343-356. Indah Water Konsortium Sdn. Bhd. (2017). Nationwide IWK Operational Expanses 2016. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: IWK. Kuliczkowska, E. (2015). Analysis of defects with a proposal of the method of establishing structural failure probability categories for concrete sewers. Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, 15(4), 1078- 1084. Sempewo, J. I. and Kyokaali, L. (2016). Prediction of the future condition of a water distribution network using a Markov based approach: A case study of Kampala Water. Procedia Engineering, 154, 374-383. Sen Gupta, B., Chandrasekaran, S. and Ibrahim, S. (2001). A survey of sewer rehabilitation in Malaysia: Application of trenchless technologies. Urban Water, 3(4), 309-315. Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara (2009). Malaysian Sewerage Industry Guidelines Volume III Sewer Networks and Pump Stations. 3rd edition. Cyberjaya, Malaysia: SPAN.

15 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

MASS TRANSFER RESISTANCE OF TEXTILE DYE DECOLORIZATION ON MAGNETIC ACTIVATED CARBON AEROBIC GRANULES

Khalida Muda*1, Ahmad H. Omar2, Ezerie H. Ezechi3 and Mohd H. Khamidun4

1, 2,3 Department of Water and Environmental Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 4 Department of Water and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn, MALAYSIA [email protected]

ABSTRACT This study evaluated the mass transfer resistance of dye decolorization on magnetic activated carbon aerobic granules (MACAG). MACAG was formed by two ways; first, the mixture of dye wastewater and sludge was magnetized at a static magnetic field (SMT) intensity of 15 mT and second, magnetic activated carbon (MAC) was added to the mixture in a sequencing batch reactor (SBR). A control bioreactor was operated with aerobic granules to compare the dye decolorization efficiency. Air bubbles were supplied into the reactors using air compressor at superficial air velocity of 1.49 cm/s. Results show that MACAG achieved higher dye decolorization than the control bioreactor. Dye decolorization in the MACAG and control bioreactor were 82% and 65%, respectively. Evaluation of mass transfer resistance shows that the driving force (B) of dye compounds was higher in MACAG (0.9473 mg g-1) than the control bioreactor (0.9385 mg g-1). The affinity of the dye for biodegradation was 3.0454 g h mg-1 and 3.8201 g h mg-1 in MACAG and control bioreactor, respectively. The variations of [kLa]g, [kLa]f and [kLa]d demonstrates that the resistance of mass transfer of dye on MACAG could depend on film diffusion.

Key words: Textile wastewater, Biogranules, Magnetic activated carbon, Static magnetic field, Mass transfer, Resistance

INTRODUCTION Annually, the textile industry generates large volume of wastewater due to the increasing demand of dyes in industrial applications. It is estimated that about 5000 tons of dyeing materials are discharged into the environment on annual basis (Pirkarami & Olya, 2017). Some of these dyes are recalcitrant and rarely degradable due to their complex aromatic structures and synthetic nature (Hayat et al., 2015). Improper disposal of poorly treated dye effluents can be deleterious to human health and environment.

Treatment of textile wastewater is a complex issue. Physico-chemical processes such as coagulation is associated with drawbacks such as large sludge production (Phugare et al., 2011). Several other drawbacks associated with primary dye degradation techniques include high capital and operation cost (Ezechi et al., 2015) and production of secondary pollutants (Idel-Aouad et al., 2011). These drawbacks require the development of technologies that can efficiently degrade textile dye wastewater. Biogranules are formed through self-immobilization and aggregation of microorganisms and are made up of diverse microbial zones consisting of millions of different bacteria

16 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 with specific metabolic functions (De Sousa Rollemberg et al., 2018). These microbial assemblages are robust, compact, spherical, dense and have good settling characteristics (Huang et al., 2018) which enhance their microbial activities and increase their shock resistance capacity (De Sousa Rollemberg et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2018).

The transport of solutes in physical, chemical and biological reactions can be controlled by several important mass transfer mechanisms. In biogranules, the transport of solutes can be influenced by external film coverage, transfer of solutes into the pores of the interior granular cores where anaerobic microorganisms dominate and transport of solute onto the external surface or exterior pores of the biogranules where aerobic microorganisms dominate (Fulazzaky, 2011; Yao & Chen, 2017). Therefore, it is important to verify the mechanism of dye mass transfer onto biogranules.

The objective of this work is to examine the mass transfer resistance of textile dye on magnetic activated carbon aerobic granules (MACAG) developed in this study. The global mass transfer (GMT), film mass transfer (FMT) and porous diffusion (PD) factors were used to examine the mass transfer resistance.

MATERIALS AND METHODS MACAG development MACAG was developed by placing a pair of magnet of size 50 x 50 x 5 cm beside a 2 L beaker containing a mixture of thoroughly mixed municipal and sewage sludge. The sludge was magnetized for two days at a fixed static magnetic field (SMF) intensity of 15 mT. Sample (1.5 L) was then added into the SBR and the system was operated for four for acclimatization. Magnetic activated carbon (MAC) was then added into the SBR system on the fifth day in order to develop Magnetic activated carbon aerobic granules (MACAG) at HRT of 6 hours. The magnetic field intensities were measured using TM-701 Tesla Meter, Kanetec.

Reactor operation The experiments were conducted using two sequencing batch reactors (SBR) with a working volume of 3 L. Two SBRs equipped with a programmable logic controller (PLC) were operated (control (R1) and MACAG (R2) under intermittent anaerobic and aerobic conditions at room temperature. The wastewater was applied into the reactor from the inlet at the bottom. Air compressor with a superficial air velocity of 1.49 cm/s was used to supply aeration to the reactors. A valve located at the middle of the column was used to decant wastewater at a volume exchange ratio of 50%. DO and pH meters (Horiba Ltd.) were fixed to the reactors for continuous monitoring.

� − � � = � � (1) ��

17 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

1 ln(�) = × ln(�) + � (2) �

The variations of global mass transfer (GMT), film mass transfer (FMT) and porous diffusion (PD) relative to percentage of outflow can be obtained using the expressions below having obtained B and (Fulazzaky et al., 2013).

�� ln([��]�) − ln {ln (� )} �� = � = � (3) � −�×ln(�) �� = [��]� = [��]� × � (4) �� = [��]� = [��]� − [��]� (5)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Dye decolorization The dye decoloration efficiency was monitored in MACAG bioreactor (R2) and compared with the controlled bioreactor (R1). The result in Figure 1 shows that dye decoloration was higher in R2 compared to R1. Dye decoloration in R2 was spontaneous and exceeded 70% on day 32 at OLR of 0.56 kg COD/m3. In R1, dye decoloration fluctuated at the initial stage but stabilized with time. On day 32, dye decoloration in R1 was about 65% at OLR of 0.56 kg COD/m3. The MACAG (R2) bioreactor demonstrated dye degradation stability when the OLR was increased from 0.56 kg COD/m3 to 0.84 kg COD/m3. Dye decoloration reached 82% on day 65 at OLR of 0.84 kg COD/m3 in R2. However, dye decoloration in R1 at OLR of 0.84 kg COD/m3 remained at 65% on day 65, indicating that the biomass was saturated with dye molecules. The results from both R1 and R2 bioreactors clearly demonstrate the dye decoloration potential of MACAG. The higher dye decolorization in R2 was due to the formation of granules possessing activated carbon particles as core nuclei. Dye decolorization occurred at the core of the granule which primarily contains anaerobic microorganisms. These anaerobic microorganisms decolorize dye compounds through biodegradation and biotransformation, generating aromatic amines which are toxic and cannot be degraded under anaerobic conditions. However, microorganisms on the exterior and outer layers of the granules degrade aromatic amines under aerobic conditions. These phenomenon suggest that biodegradation and adsorption of dyes onto the living or dead microbial cells were major mechanisms responsible for dye decolorization within the granules. A similar observation was made by Franca et al. (Franca et al., 2015) who noted that dye decolorization exceeded 90% in the anaerobic phase.

18 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Figure 1. Dye decoloration efficiency

Linear regression analyses The driving force of the dye compounds and the affinity between the dye compounds and MACAG was obtained from the intercept (B) and slope (1/) of plot of ln q vs ln t. The results indicates that the driving force of dye mass transfer on MACAG was higher (0.9473 mg g-1) than in the control bioreactor (0.9385 mg g-1) at HRT of 24 hours. A difference of 0.0088 mg.g-1 in driving force between MACAG (R2) and the control reactor (R1) differentiates the reaction process in both systems. The affinity (1/) of the dye on MACAG (R2) and the control reactor (R1) were 3.0454 g.h.mg-1 and 3.8201 g.h.mg-1, respectively. Lower adsorbate-adsorbent affinity in MACAG (R2) system was caused by delayed acclimatization of magnetized activated carbon (MAC) to the biogranules and the repulsive forces between the surface charges of MACAG and the adsorbate. The correlation coefficient (R2) for both systems exceeded 0.991, indicating the applicability of the regression analyses.

GMT, FMT and PD Validation of experimental data related to the variations of [kLa]g, [kLa]f and [kLa]d based on the percentage of outflow demonstrated that dye mass transfer resistance for MACAG (R2) depended on FMT while the control reactor (R1) depends on both FMT and PD. In both systems, [kLa]f rate increased from the region of low concentration to the region of 1 higher concentration. The maximum [kLa]f rate for R2 and R1 were 3.5 x 10 at 28% outflow and 8.7 x 101 at 40% outflow. In R2, a breakthrough point appeared at 27% outflow. Above this point, the [kLa]f progressed and equaled zero at saturation of the biogranules. A similar trend was noted in R1. A breakthrough point appeared at 34% outflow, ascended progressively to 41%, descended exponentially to 37% and finally ascended to 40% at the saturation of the bigoranules. These [kLa]f breakthrough points in both systems clearly indicate that the dye mass transfer resistance on R2 could depend on film mass transfer while in R1, film mass transfer and porous diffusion controlled dye mass transfer resistance.

CONCLUSION This study clearly shows that MACAG was suitable for dye decolorization. The driving force of mass transfer of dye on MACAG was higher than in the control bioreactor. The cell surface of MACAG degraded more dye compounds due to the presence of higher active sites arising from the porosity of magnetized activated carbon. The mass transfer resistance analyses obtained from the variations of the global, film and porous diffusion evaluations indicated that the presence of film diffusion on MACAG and while film

19 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 diffusion and porous diffusion controlled the mass transfer resistance in R1. The dye decolorization analyses shows that higher dye compounds were degraded by MACAG. This study therefore demonstrates that MACAG is a suitable biogranular structure for the decolorization of textile dyes.

Acknowledgment: The authors wish to thank Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI) and Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) for financial support for this research (Grant No. 03h91 and 4S029).

REFERENCES de Sousa Rollemberg, S.L., Barros, A.R.M., Firmino, P.I.M., & dos Santos, A.B. (2018). Aerobic granular sludge: Cultivation parameters and removal mechanisms. Bioresource Technology. Ezechi, E.H., bin Mohamed Kutty, S.R., Malakahmad, A., & Isa, M.H. (2015). Characterization and optimization of effluent dye removal using a new low cost adsorbent: Equilibrium, kinetics and thermodynamic study. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 98, 16-32. Franca, R.D., Vieira, A., Mata, A.M., Carvalho, G.S., Pinheiro, H.M., & Lourenço, N.D. (2015). Effect of an azo dye on the performance of an aerobic granular sludge sequencing batch reactor treating a simulated textile wastewater. Water Research, 85, 327-336. Fulazzaky, M.A. (2011). Determining the resistance of mass transfer for adsorption of the surfactants onto granular activated carbons from hydrodynamic column. Chemical Engineering Journal, 166(3), 832-840. Fulazzaky, M.A., Khamidun, M.H., & Omar, R. (2013). Understanding of mass transfer resistance for the adsorption of solute onto porous material from the modified mass transfer factor models. Chemical Engineering Journal, 228, 1023-1029. Fulazzaky, M.A., Nuid, M., Aris, A., & Muda, K. (2017). Kinetics and mass transfer studies on the biosorption of organic matter from palm oil mill effluent by aerobic granules before and after the addition of serratia marcescens sa30 in a sequencing batch reactor. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 107, 259-268. Hayat, H., Mahmood, Q., Pervez, A., Bhatti, Z.A., & Baig, S.A. (2015). Comparative decolorization of dyes in textile wastewater using biological and chemical treatment. Separation and Purification Technology, 154, 149-153. Huang, L., Li, M., Si, G., Wei, J., Ngo, H.H., Guo, W., . . . Wei, D. (2018). Assessment of microbial products in the biosorption process of cu (ii) onto aerobic granular sludge: Extracellular polymeric substances contribution and soluble microbial products release. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 527, 87-94. Idel-aouad, R., Valiente, M., Yaacoubi, A., Tanouti, B., & López-Mesas, M. (2011). Rapid decolourization and mineralization of the azo dye ci acid red 14 by heterogeneous fenton reaction. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 186(1), 745-750. Liu, L., Zeng, Z., Bee, M., Gibson, V., Wei, L., Huang, X., & Liu, C. (2018). Characteristics and performance of aerobic algae-bacteria granular consortia in a photo-sequencing batch reactor. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 349, 135- 142. Phugare, S.S., Kalyani, D.C., Surwase, S.N., & Jadhav, J.P. (2011). Ecofriendly degradation, decolorization and detoxification of textile effluent by a developed bacterial consortium. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 74(5), 1288-1296. Pirkarami, A., & Olya, M.E. (2017). Removal of dye from industrial wastewater with an emphasis on improving economic efficiency and degradation mechanism. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society, 21, S179-S186. Yao, C., & Chen, T. (2017). A film-diffusion-based adsorption kinetic equation and its application. Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 119, 87-92.

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A MINI REVIEW: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE BASED MODELS FOR RIVER WATER QUALITY PREDICTION FOR RIVER IN TROPICAL CLIMATE

Ariani Dwi Astuti1,3, Azmi Bin Aris1,2, Mohd Razman Bin Salim1,2, Shamila Binti Azman1,2, Mohd Ismid Bin Md Said1,2 and Salmiati1,2

1Department of Water and Environmental Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 2 Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security (IPASA), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA 3 Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Landscape Architecture and Environmental Technology, Universitas Trisakti, Jakarta, INDONESIA

ABSTRACT Precise forecast of the water quality time series can provide guidance for early warning of water pollution and water resource management decision-making. This prediction can estimate the proclivity of characteristic water quality following the latest water quality, shift, and transformation rule of pollutant in the river watershed. Predictability of traditional models was restricted owing to the uncertainty of water quality information including size and variability, complexity, obscurity, inaccuracy and non-stationary, and the non-linear interaction of water quality parameter. Artificial Intelligence (AI) methods have been able to bridge the gaps since the middle of the 20th century, simulate this behavior and complement the deficiency, and enhance the precision of the forecast models in terms of multiple analysis measures for better planning, design, application, and handling of multiple engineering systems. This article discusses the state-of-the-art application of AI in water quality prediction, concentrating on data-driven AI approaches, sort of AI approaches, techniques studied include knowledge-based system, as well as literature and their potential future implementation in water quality modeling and prediction. This mini-review also explores and presents for further advancement for several future directions for studies.

Keywords: Water quality simulation, Artificial intelligence, knowledge-based system, review

INTRODUCTION Chemical, physical and biological characteristics observed in water are generally referred to as water quality (Najah et al., 2013). Accurate and credible assessment of water quality through a surveillance program for water quality is very essential for decision-makers to learn, analyze and use this data to promote resource management practices (Behmel et al., 2016). Modeling of water quality parameters is a significant element of water systems analysis. It is necessary to predict surface water quality in order to properly manage the watershed so that appropriate measurements can be taken to avoid pollution from allowed concentrations. The lifeblood of ideal management of water resources is based on accurate, accurate and reliable estimates of future changes (Najah et al., 2013; Nourani et al., 2014; Ömer Faruk, 2010; Dogan et al., 2009).

QUAL2E, Water Quality Analysis Simulation, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ' Hydrological Engineering Center-5Q are several models commonly used in the managing of

21 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 wáter quality (Chen et al., 2003). These models, however, require a long time to run and expensive; either being insufficiently user-friendly, lacking knowledge transfer in model interpretation; therefore, cost-effective models need to be developed (Chau, 2006; Sattari et al., 2016). Several scientists noted the prediction of water quality impacted by various variables that have parameter-wide non-linear relationships. Conventional data processing cannot address this significant limitation (Zhao et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2009; Barzegar et al., 2016). And this situation also created big gaps between designers of model and professionals. Selecting a suitable numerical model is a challenging task for novice application users. The forecast precision of traditional models was restricted, given the uncertainty of water quality information, including unpredictability, obscurity, inaccuracy, and non-stationary. Progress in artificial intelligence (AI) has made it possible over the past decade to integrate developments in computational modeling systems to bridge the gaps (Chau, 2006). Artificial Intelligence (AI) methods are currently capable of mimicking this behavior and complementing the defect, improving the precision of forecast models in terms of multiple assessment measures for better planning, design, operation, and management of distinct engineering systems (Olyaie et al., 2017; Najah et al., 2012). The significant contributions of the present review article are to categorize AI methods comprehensively and to recite their advanced application in wáter quality modeling and prediction along with their benefits.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE BASED MODEL FOR RIVER WATER QUALITY SIMULATION By incorporating descriptive understanding, procedural knowledge, and reasoning, AI methods enabled when problem-solving to simulate human knowledge in clearly defined domains. Advances in AI techniques have enabled the creation of intelligent management systems through the use of shells under established platform kinds such as MathLab, Visual Basic and C++ (Freeman and Skapura, 1994; Chau, 2006)

Recently, AI has achieved significant progress in multiple programs such as autonomous driving, big data, information processing, smart search, image understanding, automatic software development, robotics, and human-computer games, which will have a significant effect on human society. AI instruments primarily include artificial neural networks (ANNs), support vector machine (SVM), random forest (RF), genetic algorithm (GA), enhanced regression tree (BRT), Monte Carlo simulation (MCS), simulated annealing (SA), particle swarm optimization (PSO), immune algorithm (IA), ant colony algorithm (ACA), imperialist competitive algorithm (ICA) and decision tree (DT). AI methods were also associated with experimental design (e.g., response surface methodology, and standardized design) to improve the precision of the optimal solution prediction (Fan et al., 2018).

Advances in data science and data mining techniques such as neural networks (NNs), fuzzy inference techniques, supporting vector machines (SVMs), and k-nearest neighbors (k-NN) have enabled complicated high-dimensional issues to be solved (Figure 1). The overall concept behind these techniques is to explore hidden interactions in big quantities of information and to create models that represent physical procedures that govern the system being studied. A model derived from data reflects a correlation between variables of input and output. Such a model can be extremely precise because it conveys all kinds of interactions expressed in the information, including fundamental physics and chemistry (Sattari et al., 2016).

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Several studies that explored water quality modeling issues using AI methods have revealed encouraging outcomes in latest decades (Table 1) (Diamantopoulou et al., 2005; Palani et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2009; Dogan et al., 2009; Najah et al., 2011; Kim and Seo, 2015; Sarkar and Pandey, 2015; Salami Shahid and Ehteshami, 2016). The monthly water quality parameters were used in many of these research to simulate water quality parameters (Diamantopoulou et al., 2005; Palani et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2009; Dogan et al., 2009; Najah et al., 2011; Kim and Seo, 2015; Sarkar and Pandey, 2015; Salami Shahid and Ehteshami, 2016; Ömer Faruk, 2010; Wen et al., 2013; Chang et al., 2015; Barzegar et al., 2016; Kisi and Parmar, 2016; Ay and Kişi, 2017; Raheli et al., 2017; Ahmed, 2017; Khaled et al., 2018).

Figure 1. Classification Tree of AI Techniques for River Water Quality

Table 1. Artificial Intelligence Application in Water Quality Type of Output Methods River Authors Approach Parameter Artificial Back COD, DO, Dahan River, Taiwan; Zhao et al., (2007); Xu and Neural Propagation NH3, Sediment Jishan Lake, China; River Liu, (2013); Chang et al., Network neural network Suktel, India Yuqiao (2015); Ghose and (ANN) reservoir in Tianjin Samantaray, (2018) Wavelet Neural DO Jishan Lake, China Xu and Liu, (2013) Network Generalized COD Cark Creek, Turkey Ay and Kisi, (2014) Regression Neural Network Radial Basic COD, DO, Surma River, Bangladesh; Ahmed, (2017); Basis et Neural Network NH3, TDS, Yangtze River, China; al., (2014); Najah et al., Turbidity, Johor River, Malaysia; (2013); Ay and Kisi, Suspended Cark Creek, Turkey; (2014); Kumar et al., sediment Kopili River, India (2016) Feed Forward BOD, DO, Gomti river, India; Melen Singh et al., (2009); Dogan Neural Network Total River, Turkey; Surma et al., (2009) Ahmed, Nitrogen, River, Bangladesh; 59 (2017); He et al., (2011); Temperature, river in Japan; Kinta River, Gazzaz et al., (2012) WQI Malaysia; Multi-layer BOD, DO, pH Melen River, Turkey; Dogan et al., (2009); Kim Feed Forward Temperature, Nakdong River, South and Seo, (2015); Ömer Neural Network Turbidity, TN, Korean; Buyuk Menderes Faruk, (2010); TP, Boron river, Turkey

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Type of Output Methods River Authors Approach Parameter Multi-layer WQI, DO, Johor River, Malaysia; Najah et al., (2011, 2013); Preceptron BOD, COD, Heihe River, China; Cark Gazzaz et al., (2012); Wen Neural Network TDS, Creek, Turkey; Langat et al., (2013); Ay and Kişi, Turbidity, River, Malaysia; Aji-Chay (2014, 2017); Raheli et al., Electrical River, Iran (2017); Keshtegar and conductivity Heddam, (2018); Zhang et al., (2019); Barzegar et al., (2016) Support Vector Machine DO, BOD, Johor River, Malaysia; Najah et al., (2011); Wang (SVM) COD, CODMn, Weihe River, China; et al., (2011); Noori et al., NH3–N, BOD5 Sefidrood River, Iran; (2012); Liu and Lu, Yamuna River, India; (2014); Kisi and Parmar, Changle River, China; (2016); Kumar et al., Kopili River, India; Wen- (2016); Ji et al., (2017); Li Rui Tang River, China; et al., (2018); Fijani et al., Small Prespa Lake, (2019); Macedonia, Greece; Pond at Dongying city, China Adaptive Network-Based BOD5 Yangtze River, China; Deng et al., (2015); Fuzzy Inference System Beas River, Hong Kong; Barzegar et al., (2016); (ANFIS) Surma River, Bangladesh; Ahmed and Shah, (2017); Aji-Chay River, Iran; Khaled et al., (2018) Ouizert Reservoir, Algeria k-nearest neighbors TDS, EC Lighvan Chay River, Iran Sattari et al., (2016) ANN-ARIMA DO, Yangtze River, China; Ömer Faruk, (2010); Basis temperature, Buyuk Menderes river, et al., (2014) NH3-N, Boron Turkey Wavelet-ANFIS TDS, EC, Johor River, Malaysia; Najah et al., (2012); Turbidity Aji-Chay River, Iran Barzegar et al., (2016) Wavelet-ANN EC Aji-Chay River, Iran Barzegar et al., (2016)

ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK MODELLING IN RIVER WATER QUALITY MONITORING The theory of artificial neurons was first launched in 1943, with the implementation of the back-propagation practice (BP) algorithm for feedforward ANNs in 1986 (Palani et al., 2008). The artificial neural network is a recent method with a versatile mathematical structure that can identify complicated non-linear interactions between input and output information comparable to other conventional modeling methods (Najah et al., 2013).

RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Another promising strategy is the hybrid combination of two or more of the above techniques to create a further flexible modeling scheme for water quality. Besides, progress in AI is produced in two fields in parallel: fundamental tool capabilities and, actual implementations in solving water quality issues. Research is presently ongoing to develop better AI instruments that can provide better representational knowledge systems, alternative analysis methods, and alternate processes to address unsure or insufficient information. Better and more user-friendly implementation of database management systems, visual displays, and knowledge improvement modules will improve the accuracy of actual-world modeling systems. In this context, as simulation systems are being developed, there will be increased requirements for better AI tools, which in turn may lead to better implementation techniques for AI technology. Most importantly, the simulation systems will move out of the laboratory

24 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 and into real practice. Ongoing research will enhance the technology and implementation of AI in water quality modeling.

CONCLUSION Existing water quality models are not user-friendly enough and often result in substantial restrictions on their uses. Selecting a suitable numerical model is a challenging task for novice application users. The incorporation of current heuristic understanding of model manipulation and the intellectual manipulation of calibration parameters are therefore instrumental. The latest progress in AI techniques offers a way to bridge the current gap between the designer and the professional of the model. This article examined the present state of the art and the progress made in integrating AI into water quality modeling. The ANN method can contribute in distinct ways to the embedded model and may not be mutually exclusive. This can provide significant help to novice users of these algorithmic models to evaluate whether or not numerical modelling produced digital sets represent actual phenomena. Some future directions are investigated and submitted for further advancement and their potential. It is expected that further innovation of numerical modeling in this direction will be promising with the ever-increasing capacity of AI technologies.

Acknowledgment: The authors wish to thank Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for the financial supports of this research (High Impact Research Grant Research No. PY/2018/02893).

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ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

Parallel Session 2

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INDOOR AIR QUALITY AND THE RISK OF LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION AMONG YOUNG CHILDREN IN A MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE.

Wesam A. Al Madhoun*1,2, Mohammad Khaled3, Ashraf Eljedi3 , Hyunook Kim4 ,Amanda Pomeroy Stevens5 ,Faizah Che Ros2

1Civil Engineering Depertment, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, 32610 Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan, MALAYSIA 2Department of Environmental Engineering & Green Technology, Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Kuala Lumpur, 54100 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA *[email protected] 3Earth and Environment Science Department, The Islamic University of Gaza, Gaza, PALESTINE 4Department of Environmental Engineering, University of Seoul, Seoul 130-743, Korea 5JSI Research & Training Institute, Inc., USA

ABSTRACT A cross-sectional descriptive study was performed to investigate the indoor air quality (IAQ) exposure of children under 6 years with lower respiratory tract infection in Gaza, Palestine. The study population included 83 children out of 90 cases who were diagnosed with lower respiratory tract infection and were admitted to Al Aqsa hospital. A modified questionnaire of the American Thoracic Society (1978) was computed by guardians, and a study technician measured relative humidity, temperature, CO2 and CO in a home visit. Air quality measurements were carried out at each dwelling for a minimum of a half-hour in the morning while the windows of the dwelling were closed. Mean relative humidity was 69.3% which exceeded the standard of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). The mean temperature of 20.1oC and carbon monoxide level of 3.51 ppm complied with the ASHREA standards Questionnaire results revealed that 60.2% of the children lived in households with 5-10 family members, and 22.9% lived in households of more than 10 residents. These households had many risks for lower respiratory tract infections including 50.6% with smokers present, 68.7% with mold or fungi, 39.8% located by the roadside, and 24.1% used wood stove in winter for heating.

Key words: Humidity, Indoor Air, Lower Respiratory Tract Infection, Temperature.

INTRODUCTION The quality of air inside homes, offices, schools, day-care centers, public buildings and health care facilities where people spend a significant part of their time, which is an essential determinant of healthy life and people’s well-being. Hazardous substances released from buildings, construction materials and indoor equipment or due to human activities indoors, such as combustion of fuels for cooking or heating, lead to a broad range of health problems and may even be fatal (WHO, 2010). Air pollutants may cause health problems such as sore eyes, burning in the nose and throat, headaches, or fatigue. Other pollutants cause or worsen allergies, respiratory illnesses (such as asthma), heart disease, cancer, and other serious long-term conditions. Sometimes individual pollutants at high concentrations, such as carbon monoxide, cause death (EPA, 2008). Household air pollution increases the risk of childhood acute lower respiratory tract infection by 78% (Jary et al. 2016; Mehta et al, 2013), furthermore 1.5 million people die

29 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 annually due to respiratory infections were attributable to the environment factors, including at least 42% of lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) and 24% of upper respiratory infections in developing countries (WHO, 2006). Acute lower respiratory infections remain the single most important cause of death globally in children under 5 years and it account for around 2 million deaths annually in this age group. There are several studies in Least Developed Countries (LDCs) which reported the association between indoor air pollution exposure and acute lower respiratory infections (Albalak et al (2000). Humidity necessary for our comfort and health, but too much or too little humidity can produce a host of difficulties for householders (EC, 2011).

The aim of this study is to examine indoor air quality and investigate its relationship with lower respiratory tract infection in Gaza strip, Palestine. This research is among the very few studies which assess the relationship between indoor air quality and lower respiratory tract infection in children of less than 6 years in Gaza strip, Palestine

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Population Study population consists of each child less than 6 years of age who were admitted with lower respiratory tract infection in Al Aqsa hospital, throughout the study period between December 2012 and March 2013.

Study Setting The study was performed at Al Aqsa hospital in the governorate of Middle Gaza which is one of the seven government hospitals in Gaza Strip, established in 2001 on an area of 4000 m2, provides secondary services to the province of Deir al-Balah including Pediatric, medical, surgical, obstetrics services and dialysis unit. The total number of beds are 103 beds, and serves the segment of the population living in the province of central Gaza, and with a population of 205,535 people, and the number of hospital staff in all specialties is 392 employees.

Devices and Tools CO2 and CO concentrations were measured in part per million (ppm) by Kanomax Handheld IAQ Monitor Model 2211. Temperature was measured in Celcius and humidity was measured as percentage using Digital Multimeter MASTECH MS8209.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Pollutants and weather parameter trend The results in Table (1) revealed that the total mean of relative humidity was 69.3% which exceeded the standards of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air- Conditioning Engineers (ASHREA, 2013).

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Table 1. Environmental and weather parameters compared to ASHREA standard or EPA

Readings of the study ASHREA or EPA standard

Variable

nimum Std. Mean Mi Deviation Maximum No more than about 700 ppm CO2ppm 300. 1177.0 591.1 152.0 over outdoor ambient (ASHREA) 9 ppm for average of 8 hours Co ppm 0.40 7.60 3.51 1.17 35 ppm for average of 1 hour (EPA) Relative Humidity 50.0 76.5 69.3 5.27 30% to 65% (ASHREA) % Temperat Winter 68 to 74.5°F 17.9 24.2 20.1 1.32 ure 20.0 oC-23.6 oC (ASHREA) ppm: part per million

Child health conditions Moreover, the results show that 41.0% from the children has been diagnosed with lower respiratory tract infection by hospital doctor in the previous 12 months at January, 24.1% at December, 21.7% at February, 1.2% at May, 1.2% at September, 1.2% at June, 1.2% at October, 4.8 % at March, 2.4% at November, and 1.2 % at April. Regarding death of children under 5 years old, the results show that only 4.8 % from the sample has children under 5 years who died in this household. Regarding death of children under 5 years old, the results show that only 4.8 % from the sample has children under 5 years who died in this household. However, the mortality rate in Palestine under five years was 2.5 per 1000 live births between 2005 and 2010 (PCBS, 2011). This is because all children are vaccinated against infectious diseases according to child immunization schedule which is given free from The United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA).

Family health conditions The results in Table (2) shows that 9.6% from the siblings had bronchitis, 13.3% had asthma, and 6.0% had pneumonia. Furthermore, 1.2% from the mothers had bronchitis, 3.6% had asthma, and 4.8% had Pneumonia. However, 1.2% from the fathers had bronchitis, 6.0% had asthma, and 2.4% had pneumonia. These results show that adults are less exposed to lower respiratory tract infection and they have strong immunity.

Table 2. Summary of the morbidity of family members

Bronchitis Asthma Pneumonia Indicators Frequency Percentages Frequency Percentages Frequency Percentages Morbidity of siblings Yes 8 9.6 11 13.3 5 6.0 No 70 84.3 70 84.3 74 89.2 Don’t know 5 6.0 2 2.4 4 4.8 Total 83 100.0 83 100.0 83 100.0 Morbidity of mother Yes 1 1.2 3 3.6 4 4.8

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No 79 95.2 79 95.2 78 94.0 Don’t know 3 3.6 1 1.2 1 1.2 Total 83 100.0 83 100.0 83 100.0 Morbidity of Father Yes 1 1.2 5 6.0 2 2.4 No 81 97.6 77 92.8 80 96.4 Don’t know 1 1.2 1 1.2 1 1.2 Total 83 100.0 83 100.0 83 100.0

Housing Characteristics of Children The results show that 51.8% of the infected children were living in reinforced concrete homes, 10.8 % lives in homes covered by metals sheet, 2.4% lives in homes built by mud, and 34.9% lives in homes covered by asbestos. Furthermore, 30.1% from the sample lives in homes that were built in the less than 10 years, whereas 39.8% lives in homes that built longer than10 years but less than 20 years. However, 30.1% lives in homes that built were built over on longer than 20 years. Regarding number of rooms in the patients’ home, Table 3 shows that 12.0 % of the sample has one room, 33.7% has two rooms, 27.7% has three rooms and 26.5% has 4 rooms or more.

Domestic Activities For Pollution Emission In terms of cooking,79% of the sample were using gas cylinder, 13.3% were using wood and 6% use electricity and 1.2% were using kerosene for cooking. Furthermore, 24.1% of the sample were using wood stove for heating and 16.9% used electrical heater. Regarding smoking status, smokers were present in 50.6% of the households: 83.3% had 1 smoke among the family members, while 49.4% had 3 smokers, and 7.1% had 4 smoking members. Furthermore, 68.7% of the households had mold or fungi, 39.8% from the sample households was surrounded by busy street movement and 50.6% of the households; frequently washed the child room is few times a week.

CONCLUSION This research suggests to disseminate information to the community on the public health risks associated with indoor environments, promote community awareness to reduce over population and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in houses are essential and further education about the importance of houses ventilation and exposing to the sun.

REFERENCES

Albalak R, Bruce N, and Perez-Padilla R, (2000) Indoor air pollution in developing countries: a major environmental and public health challenge. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 78(9). American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). 2013.https://www.ashrae.org/standards-research--technology/standards—guidelines. Environment Canada, (2011) Air-Environment and Economy, accessed in 25/02/2011.from: http://www.ec.gc.ca/Air/default.asp?lang=En&n=FB272709-1. Environment Canada, (2011) Air-Environment and Economy, accessed in 25/02/2011.from: http://www.ec.gc.ca/Air/default.asp?lang=En&n=FB272709-1. Environmental protection agency (EPA), (2008) Care for Your Air: A Guide to indoor Air Quality. September. Jary, H Simpson, D Havens, G Manda, D Pope, N Bruce, K Mortimer (2016) Household air pollution and acute lower respiratory infections in adults: a systematic review. PloS one 11 (12). Mehta S, Shin H, Burnett R, North T, Cohen AJ, (2013) Ambient particulate air pollution and acute lower respiratory infections: a systematic review and implications for estimating the global burden of disease. Air Qual Atmos Health (2013) 6: 69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-011-0146-3.

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Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), (2011) Issued Child Statistics Report on the Eve of Palestinian Children’s Day April 5. World Health Organ World Health Organization, (2010) Guidelines for indoor air quality. Selected pollutants ization, (2010) Guidelines for indoor air quality. Selected pollutants. World Health Organization, (2006) Preventing disease through healthy environments- towards an estimate of the environmental burden of disease.

33 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

HABITAT SUITABILITY INDEX FOR MELALEUCA CAJUPUTI IN SETIU, TERENGGANU

N. Zafirah Ab.lah*1, Zulkifli Yusop2 and Mazlan Hashim3

1, 2 Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security (IPASA) , Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected] 3 RISE, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA [email protected]

ABSTRACT The Melaleuca cajuputi species (known in Malaysia as Gelam) is well known globally of its significant in supporting local economy and its role in coastal environment which been highlighted in many previous papers. In Terengganu, Setiu has the largest Gelam forest in Peninsular Malaysia and there has been reported the Gelam forest being degraded due to anthropogenic activities and unmonitored. This species has been described as highly resilient and can grows in various environment conditions, thus understanding the relationship between landscape, climate properties and M. cajuputi locations is limited. This paper presents the Gelam species distribution in Setiu, the species habitat suitability response to the environmental variables. This species distribution map could help in forest management and coastal management to produce the species distribution map with better accuracy.

Key words: Melaleuca cajuputi, Species Distribution Model, Habitat Suitability.

INTRODUCTION There are 260 species of Melaleuca genus that was found and recorded globally such as Australia, Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam and Indonesia (Craven, 1999). The Melaleuca cajuputi or known as Gelam in Malaysia is a multipurpose tree where its stem, leaves, fruits, and flowers are useful. The significant of the Gelam forest is known for its role in coastal ecosystem and local economy. Referring to previous study (Erwin, 2009), the Melaleuca swamp forest are also threatened by the climate change effect where the sea level rise causes flooding in the Mekong River Delta in Vietnam. Other study reported that all the botanical aspects and phenology of the Melaleuca species demonstrate highly resilient to the climate change (Tran et al., 2013). However, in previous study they were experimenting with several Melaleuca species other than M. cajuputi, so some Melaleuca species may adapt to increased inundation, while others might be killed. Hence, need more study to understand their adaptive capacity so that the swamp forest can easily be manage.

Previous study reported that the Gelam forest was degraded 20% between year 2008 and 2011 for intensive aquaculture activities or reclaimed for settlements (Mohd Salim et al., 2015). High resolution satellite image for the study area is very limited due to cloud cover and coverage available for every year is hard to obtain. Therefore, for mapping the landuse changes or deforestation rate is quite difficult especially for the M. cajuputi species because there is no historical records or continuous monitoring.

It is a very widespread ecological implementation of GIS to identify species habitat preferences. The species distribution model (SDM) or habitat suitability model (HSM) can

34 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 predict the distribution of the species on the basis of the presence or absence of the species sample location and the environmental factor that influences the geolocation of the species (Brooks, 2016). There are many types of species distribution model, such as MaxEnt (Phillips et al., 2004), BIOCLIM (Busby, 1991), DOMAIN (Carpenter et al., 1993), BIOMAPPER (Hirzel and Guisan, 2002) and others. In this study we choose to use the Maximum entropy (MaxEnt) modelling because of its advantages where the presence-only data were used for modelling. This paper explores the influence of bioclimatic, topographic and soil properties factors on M. cajuputi distribution patterns in Terengganu.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study area The Setiu district is located North of the Terengganu state (102.59041-102.999478°E, 5.725449 -5.186613°N) and especially known for its 14km of lagoon parallel to its coastline. Setiu district covers major wetland ecosystems of marine, fresh and brackish water. In Terengganu, the M. cajuputi was found naturally grown along the coastal of Setiu (North Terengganu) and Jambu Bongkok, Marang (South Terengganu) (Jamilah et al., 2015). Both areas have Beach Ridges Interspersed with Swales (BRIS) soil ecosystem, but slightly different climate during monsoon months and affect its phenology.

Data compilation The Gelam (M. cajuputi) data were recorded during multisite survey in April 2018, October 2018 and April 2019. The presence of the species in Setiu, Marang to Dungun district were recorded where the Gelam stand is more like a clump, most of the point sampling is pure stand and some are mixed. We also use the secondary data of Gelam location from previous study (Saberioon, 2009). Total of 164 site survey points were recorded with presence of species.

In defining the plant species niche, bioclimatic variables, topographic (altitude) and soil properties are important variables. The environmental data used in this study consist of elevation from ASTER GDEM, Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM), and the climate data consist of Bio-climatic variables 1-19 at 30 arc-second spatial resolution (~1km spatial resolution) from WorldClim version 2 as the present climate, it has average monthly climate data for minimum, mean, and maximum temperature and precipitation for years 1970-2000. The soil properties information was extracted from Harmonized World Soil Database (HWSD). After several jackknife testing and modelling with all the 19 bioclimatic variables, the topographic and 9 soil properties variables, we have selected 14 variables to be used in the final model considering the variables respond with the training and testing gain (Table 1).

Table 1. The selected environment variables for modelling the habitat suitability distribution of M. cajuputi. Downloadable climate data from http:/worldclim.org (Fick, S.E. and R.J. Hijmans, 2017. Worldclim 2) Data source Category Variables Abbreviations Units SRTM Topographic Elevation DEM m WorldClim Bioclimatic Max temperature of warmest month Bio5 °C

Min temperature of coldest month Bio6 °C Mean temperature of wettest quarter (3 Bio8 °C months)

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Data source Category Variables Abbreviations Units Mean temperature of driest quarter (3 Bio9 °C months) Mean temperature of warmest quarter Bio10 °C

Mean temperature of coldest quarter Bio11 °C

Precipitation of wettest month Bio13 mm Precipitation of driest month Bio14 mm Precipitation of driest quarter Bio17 mm Precipitation of warmest quarter Bio18 mm HWSD Soil Drainage class (0-0.5% slope) drainage - Topsoil sand fraction sand % Topsoil USDA Texture Classification Soiltex -

Model simulation First, all the variables were set to the same extent and cell size using ArcGIS 10.5. Then convert the raster files into ascii. All the variables used are continuous type. The MaxEnt theory allows a probability distribution of maximum entropy to be calculated for the modelled target based on a set of environment variables (Phillips et al., 2004). After several iteration of training, we run the jackknife test to know which variables matter most for the species. The jackknife test identify or distinguish the variables that making the greatest contribution to the model or most important. In this test each variable is excluded in turn, and a model created with the remaining variables. Then a model is created using each variable in isolation. Finally, the calculated the area under the ROC curve (AUC) shows the receiver operating curve for both training and test data. The statistical analysis of the AUC shows how well the model performed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Model training There are 140 presence records used for training and 24 for testing. We used the species records for the Terengganu state because to model the M.cajuputi species distribution only in Setiu, it will be bias as the soil properties and micro climate between Setiu and Marang district is different. The regularization types used in the MaxEnt modeling is the hinge product linear quadratic. The types of the algorithm used were based on the numbers of presence sample used for the training. The AUC values of the model, where training data AUC is 0.993 and for the test data AUC is 0.991. An AUC value of 0.5 indicates that the performance of the model is no better than random, while values closer to 1.0 indicate better performance.

Response of Habitat Suitability to input variables From the jackknife test, we can see the training data responds to each of the variables makes it easier to interpret which variables is the most important in the model. The environmental variable with highest gain when used in isolation is bio6, which therefore appears to have the most useful information by itself. The environmental variable that decreases the gain the most when it is omitted is bio13, which therefore appears to have the most information that isn't present in the other variables. The two variables are the minimum temperature of the coldest month and the precipitation of wettest month (Bio6 and bio13, respectively). The value presented as the most suitable

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(HSI > 0.5) in the response curve of Bio6 is 21.8°C and 760-790 mm for Bio13. Note that the HSI value closer to 1 indicate the most suitable and closer to 0 is not suitable. Bio18 variable seems to decrease the gain when it is omitted, but not give much information by itself when being used in isolation (420-430 mm range of HSI >5.0).

Figure 1. Habitat suitability map of M.cajuputi distribution in a) Terengganu and b) Setiu

Finally, the map of habitat suitability for Melaleuca cajuputi or Gelam species is presented in Figure 2. Overall, the prediction of the habitat suitability less dependent on soil properties compared to the bioclimatic variables. The list of suitable value for each variables indicating the suitable habitat value for M.cajuputi species most likely prefer moist and wet condition of the climate, where bio17 and bio14 is suitable when at high value. This relation can be supported by the field observation and previous study where the M.cajuputi grows well in waterlogged area. The percentage of sand fraction explain the preference of the species in BRIS soil system. The soil texture of 12 and 13 refers to loamy sand and sand, respectively. The drainage value refers to the class where its have good and excellent drainage to the soil.

CONCLUSION In conclusion, the bioclimatic variables shows that the M.cajuputi species distribution in Terengganu does slightly affected by the climate change but topographic variables are less important to the M.cajuputi species distribution factor. This result support the previous study of M. cajuputi which stated the species can grow in various condition of topography. The model can be improved if the soil properties such as salinity can be obtained, using the HSWD data for local prediction did not give much variation in the values, which is expected due to the global coverage data. However, the alternative of using remote sensing such as soil salinity index could be used in the future. HSI map for Gelam forest can help in future research for costal landscape management in Terengganu, forest debt modelling or predicting the forest loss by integrating the HSI with the remote sensing technique.

Acknowledgment: This research is funded by Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM)

37 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 grant collaboration with Ecotone Worldwide Sdn Bhd under vot number QJ130000250920H46.

REFERENCES

Brooks, R.P., 2016. Improving habitat suitability index models. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 25(1), pp.163– 167. Busby, J.R., 1991. A bioclimate analysis and prediction system. Plant Prot. Q., 6, pp.8–9. Carpenter, G., Gillison, A. and Winter, J., 1993. DOMAIN:A flexible modelling procedure for mapping potential distributions of plants and animals. Biodiversity Conservation, 6(2), pp.67–80. Craven, L.A., 1999. Behind the names: the botany of tea tree, Cajuput and Niaouli, OPA (Overseas Publishers Association). Erwin, K.L., 2009. Wetlands and global climate change: The role of wetland restoration in a changing world. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 1(17), pp.71–84. Hirzel, A. and Guisan, A., 2002. Which is the optimal sampling stategy for habitat suitablility modeling. Ecological Modelling, 3(157), pp.31–41. Jamilah, M.S., Faridah, M. and Rohani, S., 2015. Setiu: More than a Wetland. Setiu Wetlands: Species, Ecosystem and Livelihoods, (January 2015), pp.87–100. Mohd Salim, J., Mohamad, F., Mohd Jani, J. and Shahrudin, R., 2015. Managing Setiu Wetlands for Ecosystem Services, Penerbit Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Terengganu. Phillips, S.J., Dudík, M. and Schapire, R.E., 2004. A Maximum entropy approach to species distribution modeling. Proceedings of the Twentieth-first International Conference on Machine Learning. 2004 pp. 655–662. Saberioon, M.M., 2009. Fusion SPOT-5 & Radarsat-1 Images for Mapping Major Bee Plants in Marang District , Malaysia. European Journal of Scientific Research, 38(3), pp.465–473. Tran, D.B., Dargusch, P., Moss, P. and Hoang, T. V., 2013. An assessment of potential responses of Melaleuca genus to global climate change. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 18(6), pp.851–867.

38 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

A REVIEW OF REGIONALIZATION METHODS FOR UNGAUGED WATERSHED IN SWAT MODEL

Ainul Syarmimi Rosli*1, Azmi Aris 1,2, Salmiati1,2 and Mohd Ridza Mohd

Haniffah1

1 School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, UTM Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA 2Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security (IPASA), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, UTM Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected], [email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT There are various ongoing researches on topics related to ungauged watershed to overcome challenging issues in hydrology and water quality modelling. One of the approaches in making estimates at ungauged watersheds is regionalization. Regionalization is a process of transferring hydrological responses data from gauged (donor) to ungauged (receiver) or poorly gauged watersheds to compute several hydrological processes taking place within the ungauged watersheds. In this paper, we provide an overview of regionalization approaches (i.e. spatial proximity, physical similarity methods, regression methods, and ratio method) that have been developed and practised in simulating model parameters in ungauged watersheds. This includes the discussion of different regionalization approaches and identifies the best performance in regionalization approaches to transfer the model parameters. The reliability of regionalization approaches are different in different areas due to the effect of regional climate, the scale of the watershed, watershed attribute, and human intervention. The catchment attributes that are usually used in regionalization studies are meteorological information and physiographic attribute. Finally, we highlight the best performance for each regionalization approaches to predict ungauged watershed in various regions that depend on the variability of regional climate and physical attributes.

Keywords: SWAT model, ungauged watershed, Regionalization Methods INTRODUCTION Reliable hydrological and water quality models are the most important tools to stimulate and predict hydrological process and water pollution. In particular, predictions of streamflow is decisive for water resources management, flood forecasting, environmental management and planning. In addition, the hydrological process make an impact on the mobilization and transport of most contaminants in water quality modelling and therefore, an estimate of accurate streamflow contributions is necessary (Mockler & Bruen, 2013).

Prediction in ungauged basins is a crucial challenge for hydrologists. Both models often face the problem of requiring a large number of parameters but yet limited available data. According to Gitau & Chaubey (2010), there are many basins in the world with very little (poorly gauged) or no data available (ungauged) especially observed hydrologic data (e.g., streamflow) and therefore, requires an appropriate method for parameter estimation.

There are various ongoing researches on topics related to ungauged basins to overcome challenging issues in hydrology and water quality models (Razavi & Coulibaly, 2013;

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Emmerik et al., 2015; Arsenault et al., 2016; Ballav Swain & Charan Patra, 2017; Tran et al., 2018; Pagliero et al., 2019) and most of the research in this field is aimed at solving this problem. Regionalization approach is one of the common and well-recognized approaches that has been used to predict the parameters of hydrological models in ungauged basins. The regionalization approaches in hydrology model have undergone a long period of development since the International Association of Hydrological Sciences, (IAHS) introducing the Prediction in Ungauged Basins (PUB) initiative (2003-2013) to enhance scientific understanding and estimation of hydrological behaviour of ungauged basins.

Estimate hydrological parameters such as streamflow either in gauged or ungauged basins are presently predicted by using empirical model [e.g., ANN model (Devi, Ganasri, & Dwarakish, 2015), conceptual model [e.g., HBV model, IHACRES (Javeed & Apoorva, 2015), TOPMODEL, HSMI model (Arsenault et al., 2016) and WASMOD (Yang, Magnusson, & Xu, 2019)] and physical-based model [e.g., MIKE-SHE model and SWAT(Gitau & Chaubey, 2010)]. In this paper, only regionalization approaches that used SWAT model as a platform are reviewed. In practices, SWAT is a model that enables a connection between the land and water management and outputs parameters that simulate in range of hydrological and water quality parameters (Pagliero et al., 2019).

REGIONALIZATION APPROACHES A lot of regionalization approaches used in hydrological models have been suggested in the literature. All these rely on the concept of transfer of hydrological responses data (e. g., model parameters and hydrological variables) from gauged to ungauged or poorly gauged to compute several hydrological processes (e.g., streamflow values) taking place inside ungauged watersheds. As Chang & Rubin (2019) has noted, the reliability of regionalization approaches is based on the watershed that has seemingly identical in physical characteristics which are identical in hydrological behaviour (e.g., watershed characteristic, climate input) and the approach which information is transferred (e.g., see Table 1). Type of watersheds characteristics or attributes obtained for regionalization differ from study to another. Razavi & Coulibaly (2013) was summarized that the most often data attributes used in regionalization studies are physiographic data (e.g., watershed area, land use, soil slope, and elevation of basins) and meteorological aspects (e.g., daily or monthly of rainfall, temperature, wind velocity, and humidity).

Regionalization approaches had made enormous progress from single regionalization approach (Ballav Swain & Charan Patra, 2017) to multiple (combine) regionalization approaches. More than 50 regionalization approaches in different hydrological models have been developed until now. There are different types of regionalization approaches have been practiced, using SWAT model, as a platform including spatial proximity (Ballav Swain & Charan Patra, 2017), regression methods (J. Parajka, R. Merz & Bloschl, 2005), physical similarity (Ballav Swain & Charan Patra, 2017) and ratio method (Emam et al., 2016; Mohammed et al., 2019). The differences between approaches depend within the type of data being transferred, the transfer technique and the catchments properties used to measure the similarity. (see Table 1).

Spatial Proximity Method In the spatial proximity approach, parameters from gauged (donor) is transferred to ungauged (receiver) based on geographical distance between catchment centroid (Ballav

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Swain & Charan Patra, 2017). Accuracy of the result depends on the density of gauged` catchment networks (Oudin et al., 2008; Ballav Swain and Charan Patra, 2017). There are three methods in spatial proximity including Inverse Distance Weight (IDW), Kriging and Global Mean. (Gitau & Chaubey, 2010), for example, used the global average of SWAT model parameters in ungauged watershed to regionalize model parameters in 8 watersheds in Arkansas to simulate daily streamflow. In this method, the values of the model parameter for the ungauged catchment were measured as the arithmetic mean of the gauged watershed model parameters

Regression Method Regression method is the most typical approach for determining functional relationships between the characteristics of the watershed and the parameters of model calibration (Gitau & Chaubey, 2010). The selection of watersheds characteristics was based on consideration of the interaction in the study area between the runoff, climate, physiography and data accessibility. For example, Ballav Swain & Charan Patra (2017) applied a regression method to the 18 parameters of SWAT model and physical catchment attribute (Table 1) on 32 catchments to produce streamflow that provided to compare with other methods including spatial proximity and physical similarity method. However, despite the regression approach generally used, this method has major limitation. (Pagliero et al., 2019) found that the model parameter may not be closely associated with measurable characteristics or attributes. Moreover, interdependence parameters often are too complicated to adequately covered or ignored to achieve satisfactory regression.

Physical Similarity The third method is a physical similarity that is based on recognizing similar catchments based on their attributes where gauged (donor) catchments and ungauged (receiver) catchments are in that would have similar hydrologic responses (Parajka et al., 2005; Oudin et al., 2008; Samuel et al., 2011; Razavi and Coulibaly, 2012; Ballav Swain & Charan Patra, 2017). For instance, Mengistu et al. (2019) applied physical similarity in two ungauged catchments at Northern Cape, South Africa to estimated streamflow and E.coli discharge (Table 1). In this method, catchments are classified in group based on similar physiographic and climatic characteristics with similar hydrologic responses. Hence, during the calibration process in the SWAT model, parameters transferred from a calibrated gauged (donor) catchment to ungauged (receiver) catchments.

Ratio Method Ratio method transfers measured parameters data gauged (donor) watershed from nearby area to ungauged (target) watershed with the same physical characteristics. Emam et al. (2016) and Mohammed et al. (2019) applied the area ratio method in SWAT model by transferring observed flow data from donor (gauged) watershed to the study area (target ungauged watershed). The model was calibrated first in the gauged basin before the simulated flow is transferred to the ungauged basin. After that, the transferred flow was validated with the simulated flows in the ungauged stream.

41 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Table 1. Studies on Regionalization Approahes used in SWAT model

Regionalization References Study area Climate Objectives Attributes Methods Gitau & 7 watershed, Cold Evaluation of two Watershed Characteristic Global Average Chaubey Poteau River Temperature types of (size), Physical variable Regression (2010) Arkansas regionalization (land use, climate, slope, methods slope ) Sang et al. 3 basins, Warm Impact of droughts Climate, streamflow, Spatial (2015) San Saba Temperature on sediment yields temperature; land use Proximity River, Texas in two ungauged basin Emam et al. 1 watershed, Tropical Forecast the river Hydrometric Station, Ratio methods (2016) North Aluoi Climate discharge at the Streamflow nearby area district outlet of the ungauged basin of Aluoi district Ballav 32 Mid-late Streamflow The topography (slope, Spatial Swain & catchments, Holocene estimation using elevation, area) and Proximity, Charan Rushikulya, climate two regionalization geographical Climate, Regression & Patra India approaches in Hydrological variable Physical (2017) ungauged basins. (discharge, drainage Similarity density) Emam et al. 1 watershed, Tropical Assessments of Physical (area, slope, Physical (2017) North Aluoi Climate surface runoff, and elevation, land use, soil, similarity district soil erosion in length/width catchment) ungauged Climate (climate, rainfall watershed station) Pagliero et 462 watershed Dry and Compare Physiographic watershed Partial Least al. (2019) Rhine to Warm approaches from variables (slope, soil, Squares Vilaine river, temperature small watershed up land use, elevation) & Regression & Western to continental discharge variables, Similarity Europe scales Climate variables method Mohammed Brusdalsvatnet Four Model the water Topography, soil, land Ratio method et al. Lake, west Climate flow and E. coli use, rainfall, and (2019) coast of discharges from temperature, spatial and Norway ungauged streams. meteorological characteristics Ballav et al. 32 Mid-late Impact of The topography (slope, Spatial (2019) catchments, Holocene watershed elevation, area) and Proximity – Rushikulya, climate classification on geographical Climate, IDW, Global India regionalization of Hydrological variable Mean & Kriging streamflow in (discharge, drainage ungauged density) catchments Mengistu et 2 catchments Arid Model flow & E. physical attributes Physical al. (2019) Northern climate. coli in ungauged (physiography, geology similarity Cape, South catchment using and soils, climate and Africa physical similarity. natural vegetation)

DISCUSSIONS

Ballav et al. (2017) have compared the three regionalization approaches, namely spatial proximity, regression and physical similarity at 32 catchments of Rushikulya, India. The study, however, did not reach any clear conclusion due to the variety of watersheds sets, climate situations, donor watershed information and hydrological models, involved and comparisons were not made on the same ground. However, the results reported that, among all the regionalization approaches implemented in the research, the global mean method produced poor outcomes. Contrarily, the other two regionalization approached used under the spatial proximity method were Inverse Distance Weight (IDW) and Kriging which produced better outcomes compared to other methods. The result shows that the

42 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

NSE median values for IDW and Kriging during calibration process were respectively 0.58 and 0.59. In addition, Ballav et al. (2019) examined three methods based on spatial proximity, which was the Inverse Distance Weight (IDW) method, the kriging method and global mean methods at 32 catchments of Rushikulya, India case study (refer Table 1). They found that the IDW and kriging methods produced the competitive result and outperformed to global mean method outcomes.

Emam et al. (2016) reported the use of the ratio method of regionalization in order to forecast the streamflow of the river in Aluoi ungauged basin. They suggested the use of other regionalization methods to transfer parameters from the donor (gauged) to target (ungauged) basin to forecast river discharge information in future studies due to unsatisfactory outcomes. More recently, Mohammed et al. (2019) reported that the use of the ratio method to simulate peak flow periods did not produce high accuracy. This may be due to factors such as climate data deficiencies, the flow regionalization process, and the specific characteristics of the donor and target watershed.

CONCLUSION In general, regionalization approaches are very important to estimate the hydrological process in ungauged basins in modelling work. Many regionalization approaches had been applied and developed since the initiative of Prediction in Ungauged Basins (PUB). Four regionalization approaches were reviewed using the SWAT model as a platform. Although model performances were generally deemed good, it has been observed that the most frequently accessible watershed characteristics (e.g., physiographic data and climate data) are not always satisfactory, and additional information should ideally be included. In addition, the performance of generalization approaches are affected by differences in data types, the difference in the selected watershed characteristic and difference model structures between the donor (gauged watershed) and the target (ungauged watershed).

Acknowledgement: The authors would like to acknowledge and thanks to the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) Malaysia and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) for granting us financial support for this project under High Impact research Grant [VOT No. Q.J130000.2422.04G24].

REFERENCES Arsenault, R., Brissette, F., & Arsenault, R. (2016). Analysis of continuous streamflow regionalization methods within a virtual setting Analysis of continuous streamflow regionalization methods within a virtual setting. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 61(15), 2680–2693. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2016.1154557 Ballav, J., Kanhu, S., & Patra, C. (2019). Impact of catchment classification on streamflow regionalization in ungauged catchments. SN Applied Sciences, 1(5), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-0476-6 Ballav Swain, J., & Charan Patra, K. (2017). Streamflow estimation in ungauged catchments using regionalization techniques. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.08.054 Chang, C., & Rubin, Y. (2019). Regionalization with hierarchical hydrologic similarity and ex-situ data in the context of groundwater recharge estimation at ungauged watersheds, 2417–2438. Devi, G. K., Ganasri, B. P., & Dwarakish, G. S. (2015). A Review on Hydrological Models. In Aquatic Procedia (Vol. 4, pp. 1001–1007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqpro.2015.02.126 Emam, A. R., Kappas, M., Hoang, L., Nguyen, K., & Renchin, T. (2016). Hydrological Modeling in an Ungauged Basin of Central Vietnam Using SWAT Model. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 1– 33. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2016-44 Emam, A. R., Kappas, M., Khang Linh, N. H., & Renchin, T. (2017). Hydrological Modeling and Runoff Mitigation in an Ungauged Basin of Central Vietnam Using. Hydrology, 4(16), 1–17.

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https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology4010016 Emmerik, T. Van, Mulder, G., Eilander, D., Piet, M., & Savenije, H. (2015). Predicting the ungauged basin : model validation and realism assessment, 3, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2015.00062 Gitau, M. W., & Chaubey, I. (2010). Regionalization of SWAT Model Parameters for Use in Ungauged Watersheds, 2, 849–871. https://doi.org/10.3390/w2040849 J. Parajka, R. Merz, G., & Bloschl. (2005). A comparison of regionalisation methods for catchment model parameters, (April). https://doi.org/10.5194/hessd-2-509-2005 Javeed, Y., & Apoorva, K. V. (2015). Flow Regionalization Under Limited Data Availability - Application of IHACRES in the Western Ghats. Aquatic Procedia, 4, 933–941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqpro.2015.02.117 Mengistu, A. G., Rensburg, L. D. Van, & Woyessa, Y. E. (2019). Techniques for calibration and validation of SWAT model in data scarce arid and semi-arid catchments in South Africa. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 25, 100621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2019.100621 Mockler, E. V. A., & Bruen, M. (2013). Parameterizing dynamic water quality models in ungauged basins : issues and solutions. In Proceedings of H04, IAHS-IAPSO-IASPEI Assembly, Gothenburg, Sweden, (pp. 235–242). Mohammed, H., Tveten, A., & Seidu, R. (2019). Modelling the impact of climate change on fl ow and E . coli concentration in the catchment of an ungauged drinking water source in Norway. Journal of Hydrology, 573, 676–687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.04.021 Pagliero, L., Bouraoui, F., Diels, J., Willems, P., & Mcintyre, N. (2019). Investigating regionalization techniques for large-scale hydrological modelling. Journal of Hydrology, 570, 220–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.12.071 Razavi, T., & Coulibaly, P. (2013). Streamflow Prediction in Ungauged Basins: Review of Regionalization Methods. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 18(8), 958–975. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0000690 Sang, J. K., Allen, P. M., Dunbar, J. A., Arnold, J. G., & White, J. D. (2015). Sediment Yield Dynamics during the 1950s Multi-Year Droughts from Two Ungauged Basins in the Edwards Plateau , Texas. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, (7), 1345–1362. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2015.716109 Tran, N. A., Batyrov, A., Kuzmin, V., Sokolova, D., Dang, D., Pivovarova, I., & Shemanaev, K. (2018). Method of Prediction the Stream Flows in Poorly Gauged and Ungauged Basins. Journal of Ecological Engineering, 20(1), 180–187. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/94915 Yang, X., Magnusson, J., & Xu, C. (2019). Transferability of regionalization methods under changing climate. Journal of Hydrology, 568(August 2018), 67–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.10.030

44 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

ASSESSMENT OF PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL WATER QUALITY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: CURRENT STATE, UNDERSTUDIED AREA AND THE WAY FORWARD: CASE STUDY OF THE LOWER JOHOR STRAITS, MALAYSIA

Y.Q. Liang1, K.V. Annammala1,2*, P.Martin3, E.L. Yong1, L.S. Mazilamani1, M.Z.M. Najib1

1, Department of Water and Environmental Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, 2, Centre of Environmental Sustainability & Water Security (IPASA) 3Asian School of the Environment, Nanyang Technological University *[email protected]

ABSTRACT Fresh water is regarded as a limited resource and surface fresh water resource management and protection are very crucial. Different anthropogenic activities are carried out along the Johor River due to urban population expansion, consequently bringing potential risk to fresh water quality. The aim of this study is to quantify the physical-chemical water quality and heavy metal concentration at 11 sampling sites along the Johor River. Nine water quality parameters were determined and 10 selected heavy metals were determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). The findings revealed that TSS concentration and pH of the water samples satisfied Class II outlined in the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM). However, the range of certain elements such as Fe (1.75 ppm to 6.90 ppm), Cu (0.06 ppm to 1.34 ppm) and As (0.01 ppm to 0.29 ppm) were found to exceed the Class II standard at all stations. The strong relationships between TSS, As and Cu concentrations that were found may be due to Cu and As carried along by suspended sediment from the anthropogenic sources into this catchment. The results indicate that the river water quality is very sensitive to the local landuse and practices.

Key words: Water Quality, Heavy Metal, Water Quality Index

INTRODUCTION The deterioration of water quality in river is often serious in developing country due to the industrialization and economic growth (Villa-Achupallas et al., 2018; Sun et al., 2019). Therefore, the water quality evaluation is important as the scientific proof for the water resource management to control the pollution and better management and planning (Zhang, 2014). The water quality in river is often affected by sediment runoff, nutrient inputs and other harmful chemical pollutants which originate from land use activities around the catchment area. The spatial variation of physiochemical parameters can be used to evaluate the pollution status of the river (Sun et al., 2019). The heavy metal pollution in comparison to other pollution is more alarming due to the non-biodegradable characteristic of heavy metal with bio-accumulative behaviour in system (Bhaskar & Dixit, 2013). Therefore, the physiochemical parameter and heavy metals concentrations were measured to evaluate the water quality.

Many previous studies stated that improper land use increases the risk of water pollution (Xu et al., 2019). The Johor River is the main river in Johor State which is an important

45 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 source of freshwater supply, not only for Johor State but also for neighbouring country, Singapore (Tan et al., 2015). There are various anthropogenic activities along the Johor River, and the end of the estuarine is close to the neighbouring country Singapore. Thus the water quality of Johor River is of regional concerning interest to control the water pollution and to ensure the water supply and quality control to be safe for both countries (CNA, 2019). The main purpose of this study was to quantify the physical-chemical water quality and heavy metals concentrations at eleven sampling sites along Johor River and to access the current quality of the river system. Therefore, the objectives of this study were: 1) To compare the water quality status and concentration of heavy metal in Johor River based on Class II outlined in the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM), 2) To study the relationship between the water quality and heavy metal concentration in Johor River in relation to major land uses within catchment area. The Class II outline in NWQSM was used as the comparison because there are villages confined within the system, such as kampong Berangan. River is being used for recreational purposes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Area Johor River basin is the study area for this research is located in Peninsular Malaysia Johor (Figure 1). The catchment area is around 2636 km2 and the main stream length is around 122.7 km. The river originates from Muara River, Telok Sengat take in the Sayong Pinang (MDKT, 2018). The mean discharge rate of the Johor River is 37.5m3/s. The annual mean rainfall intensity in this region is about 2360 mm with mean temperature is around 27 °C.

Figure 1. Study area and the water sampling stations of Johor River

Sampling Collection and Analysis Eleven water sampling stations were selected from Johor River (Figure 1). Surface water samples were collected in pre-cleaned bottles. Three physiochemical properties of water (temperature, salinity, and pH) were determined on site by in-situ water quality checker (Horiba U-50 multiparameter checker). Water samples for dissolved inorganic nutrient concentrations (NOx, nitrite, phosphate, and ammonia) were syringe-filtered (0.2 µm pore- size Acrodisc filters) into polypropylene centrifuge tubes, frozen in a liquid nitrogen dry shipper in the field, and stored at -20ºC until analysis on a SEAL AA3 segmented-flow autoanalyser system using SEAL methods for seawater analysis. Concentrations for all nutrients are reported in µmol/L. For TSS measurements, 1L of surface river water was

46 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 collected from each station and filtered through a pre-weighed 25-mm diameter Whatman GF/F filter and stored at -20ºC until transport back to the laboratory. Samples were then dried for 24 h at 75ºC and re-weighed on a Mettler-Toledo microbalance, and are expressed in mg/L.

A total of 11 surface water samples were collected from the sampling stations to determine the heavy metals concentration. The water samples were digested by following the standard methods APHA 3030K Microwave-Assisted Digested and were analysed by ICP- MS following the standard methods APHA 3120B. Ten most commonly reported heavy metal elements namely Fe, Cu, As, Mn, Ag, Zn, Ni, Pb, Al, and Cr were selected, analysed and presented in this paper (Wuana & Okieimen, 2011). The correlations coefficients for all the water parameters were calculated to determine the relationship within physiochemical water quality parameter and heavy metals concentrations.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The results of the physicochemical parameter of water samples are presented in Table 1. The physiochemical water parameters included temperature, salinity, pH, TSS concentration, phosphate, nitrite, nitrate, NOx and ammonia concentration.

Table 1. The physicochemical parameters of water sample in Johor River Temp TSS Phosphat Nitrate Nitrite NOx Ammoni Sampling Salinit . pH (mg/L e (µmol/L (µmol/L (µmol/L a point y (°C) ) (µmol/L) ) ) ) (µmol/L) S 01 28.3 1 6.8 29 0.20 53 1 54 34.1 S 02 29.2 11 7.3 9 0.12 28 9 37 11.4 S 03 29.6 13 6.9 8 0.10 17 8 26 9.5 S 04 29.8 17 7.3 2 0.15 18 10.3 29 3.3 S 05 29.9 22 7.5 4 0.29 12 9.6 24 BDL S 06 29.6 22 7.2 19 0.19 14 9 22 BDL S 07 30.2 24 7.3 16 0.27 12 9 22 BDL S 08 30.0 24 7.3 17 0.18 13 8 21 1.0 S 09 29.9 25 7.3 44 0.31 12 8 19 0.9 S 10 29.4 24 7.3 31 0.10 13 8 21 2.3 S 11 29.9 27 7.5 7 0.39 10 8 18 BDL ** BDL：Below Detection Limit

The temperature range of the water samples were between 28.3°C to 30.2°C which satisfied Class II outlined in the NWQSM (normal +2°C). The pH range of the water samples were between 6.8 to 7.5 which is within the range for class II outline of NWQSM (6 to 9). The TSS concentrations ranged between 2.1 mg/L to 44.4 mg/L ( similar to average TSS reported by Yusop et al,2017), which is less than 50 mg/L and satisfied Class II outlined in the NWQSM.

There are no permissible limits for nutrient (phosphate, nitrate, nitrite and NOx) concentrations given in NWQSM. The phosphate concentrations were between 0.1 to 0.387 µmol/L. The highest phosphate concentration was found at the last sampling station (S 11). It is tentatively hypothesised that it could originate through surface run-off from rock weathering and agricultural product such as fertilizer, however more detailed research is recommended to validate this (Jeremiah et al., 2013). The concentration of nitrate and

47 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 nitrite are considered quite low. The ammonia concentration guidelines for Class II is 21.4 µmol/L, where station S01 exceeded the threshold level (34.1 µmol/L) whereas the other stations were still within the acceptable limit, ranged from BDL to 11.4 µmol/L. However, the level observed herein are lower compared to Yusop et al. (2017) in Kota Tinggi ( near S01) town (NH3N ranged from 204.3 –BDL μmol/L).

The heavy metal concentrations in river water were determined (Table 2). The heavy metal concentration of iron (Fe) and copper (Cu) of all sampling stations were found to be exceeding the Class II outlined NWQSM, similar to arsenic (As) concentration at all sampling stations except S 02. The detected Fe concentrations ranged from 1.75 - 6.9 ppm which is more than allowable limit of 1 ppm. Cu concentrations ranged from 0.06 - 1.34 ppm also exceed the acceptable threshold of 0.02 ppm. Similar observation for As concentrations (0.01-0.29 ppm) which is more than the limit allowed in the guidelines (0.05 mg/L). The Zn, Cd, Ni and Pb concentrations from all sampling stations were below the Class II outlined in the NWQSM. The Ag concentration satisfied Class II outlined in the NWQSM except several stations.

Table 2. The heavy metal element concentration in surface water of the sampling station Sampling Heavy metal element concentration (ppm) point Fe Cu As Mn Ag Zn Ni Pd Al Cr S 01 3.81 0.90 0.25 0.05 0.03 0.14 0.02 0.00 4.00 0.02 S 02 4.59 0.06 0.01 0.15 0.05 0.15 0.01 0.00 8.20 0.01 S 03 1.75 0.08 0.09 0.07 0.02 0.07 0.02 0.01 6.29 0.03 S 04 2.10 0.27 0.14 0.06 0.03 0.08 0.01 0.00 5.26 0.01 S 05 2.93 0.30 0.14 0.07 0.02 0.14 0.02 0.00 3.61 0.02 S 06 3.40 1.02 0.25 0.03 0.02 0.15 0.02 0.00 1.71 0.02 S 07 3.79 1.12 0.27 0.07 0.01 0.12 0.03 0.01 3.60 0.02 S 08 6.88 1.29 0.25 0.09 0.00 0.13 0.01 0.01 14.20 0.09 S 09 6.90 1.34 0.29 0.05 0.02 0.07 0.02 0.00 7.95 0.03 S 10 4.23 1.33 0.28 0.03 0.01 0.10 0.03 0.00 3.63 0.02 S 11 5.69 0.39 0.18 0.04 0.00 0.10 0.01 0.02 5.85 0.08

Based on Table 2, the highest Fe, Cu and As concentration was detected at S 09 where the concentration are 6.9, 1.34 and 0.29 ppm respectively. Fe have been reported to be present in significant amount in soil and rock (Ekstrom et al., 2016). The Fe and Cu could enter the stream through surface run-off from the oil palm plantation. Manan et al. (2018) stated that high Cu concentration was found in oil palm plantation area because the Cu is one of the micronutrient for plant and also as the main composition for chemical fertilisers. Based on previous study, the input of arsenical herbicides and insecticide could contribute to As traces in receiving river system (Lim et al, 2012; Wuana & Okieimen, 2011). There are about 172 herbicides brands in Malaysia which are glyphosphate-based herbicides, containing Arsenic (StarOnline, 2016; Defarge et al., 2017). Therefore, Cu and As are hypothesized to originate from adjacent oil palm plantation area S 09.

There is strong relationship between TSS concentration and Cu and As (correlation coefficient of 0.8 and 0.73 respectively). According to Bhaskar & Dixit (2013), the heavy metals are carried along with organic load or/and sediment. Therefore, this probably due to the suspended sediment brought along the Cu and As into the channel through surface runoff.

48 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Manganese (Mn) and silver (Ag) concentrations from most of the stations were less than Class II outlined in the NWQSM (0.1 and 0.05 respectively) except at S 02 where the concentrations are 0.15 ppm and 0.05 ppm respectively. Mn is commonly found in rocks and sediments and transported into water through surface runoff (Munger et al., 2016). Tesi et al. (2019) and Ako et al. (2014) stated that the Mn and Ag concentration could be influenced by the sand mining as observed to be present at the this sampling sites. This can be concluded that the large amount of Mg and Ag were found could be highly possible to be related to the sand mining activities around S 02.

CONCLUSION The findings revealed that TSS concentration and pH of the water samples satisfied Class II outlined in the NWQSM. The range of certain elements such as Fe (1.75 ppm to 6.90 ppm), Cu (0.06 ppm to 1.34 ppm) and As (0.01 ppm to 0.29 ppm) were found to be exceeding the Class II standard at all stations. The highest Fe, Cu and As concentration were found from S 09 (Tenom River) which is mainly dominated by oil palm plantation area. Most of the heavy metals concentrations show that the most possible sources of heavy metals are non-point source run-off from anthropogenic sources. The strong positive relationship between As, Cu and TSS concentration were detected which may infer due to the Cu and As being carried by suspended sediments into adjacent water body. Further detailed research especially the concentration of the elements in relation to impact of stormwater could be the next research focus. Proper execution of erosion and sediment control plans could ensure the river health from further deteriorating.

REFERENCES

Ako, T. A., Onoduku, U. S., Oke, S. A., Idris, F. N., Umar, A. N., Ahmed, A. A., Abba, F. M. 2014. Environmental Effects of Sand and Gravel Mining on Land and soil in Luku, North Central Nigeria. Global Journal of Science Frontier Research: H Environment and Earth Science, 14(2): 7-15. Bhaskar, M. & Dixit, A. K. 2013. Water Quality Appraisal of Hasdeo River at Korba in Chhattisgarh, India. International Journal of Science and Research. 1252-1258. CNA, 2019. Singapore raises concerns over Johor River, seeks sustainable water supply for both countries. At: https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/leaders-retreat-singapore-concerns-johor-river- water-supply-11425074 Defarge, N., Vendomois, J. S., Seralini, G. E. 2018. Toxicity of Formulants and Heavy Metals in Glyphosate- based Herbicides and Other Pesticides. Toxicology Reports. 5: 156-163. Ekstrom, S. M., Regnell, O., Reader, H. E., Nilsson, P.A., Lofgren, S., Kritzberg, E. S. 2016. Increasing Concentration of Iron in Surface Water as a Consequence of Reducing Conditions in the Catchment Area. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 121(2). Jeremiah, M. O., Ruth, W., Jane, M., Charles, O. 2013. A Comparison of the Levels of Nitrate, Nitrite and Phosphate in Homemade brews, Spirits, in Water and Raw Materials in Nairobi County Using UV- Visible spectroscopy. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research. 4 (12): 329-344. Lim, W.Y., Aris, A.Z., Zakaria, M.P. 2012. Spatial Variability of Metals in Surface Water and Sediment in the Langat River and Geochemical Factors that Influence their Water-Sediment Interactions. Scientific World Journal. Manan, W.N.A., Sulaiman, F.R., Alias, R., Laiman, R. 2018. Determination of selected Heavy Metal Concentration in an Coil Palm Plantation Soil. Journal of Physical Science, 29(3): 63-70. MDKT, 2018. Sejarah Sungai Johor. Portal Rasmi Majlis Daerah Kota Tinggi. http://www.mdkt.gov.my/ms/pelawat/sejarah-sungai-johor Munger, Z. W. 2016. The Sources and Cycle of Iron and Manganese in Surface Water Supplies. Dissertation submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Accessed on https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/bitstream/handle/10919/82347/Munger_ZW_D_2016.pdf?sequence=1 Muscutt, A. D., Reynolds, B., Wheater, H. S. 1993. Source and Controls of Aluminium in Storm Runoff from a Head Water Catchment in Mid-Wales. Journal of Hydrology, 142(1-4): 409-425.Villa- Achupallas, M., Rosada, D., Aguilar, S., Galindo-Riano, M. D. 2018. Water Quality in the Tropical

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Andes hotspot: The Yaciambi river (southeastern Ecuador). Science of the Total Environment. 633: 50- 58. StarOnline, 2016. ‘Ban Herbicides that contain glyphosate’. At: https://www.thestar.com.my/metro/community/2016/06/17/ban-herbicides-that-contain-glyphosate- research-links-weed-killer-to-kidney-failure-says-cap Sun, X., Zhang, H., Zhong, M., Wang, Z., Liang, X., Huang, T., Huang, H. 2019, Analyses on the Temporal and Spatial Characteristics of Water Quality in a Seagoing River Using Multivariate Statistical Techniques: A Case Study in the Duliujian River, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public and Health. 16,1020: 1-18 Zhang, X. H. 2014. A Study on the Water Environmental Quality Assessment of Fenjiang River in Taan City of Sichuan Province in China. IERI Procedia. 9: 102-109. Tan, M. L., Ibrahim, A. L., Yusof, Z., Zheng, D., Ling. 2015. Impacts of Land-use and Climate Variability on Hydrological Component in the Johor River Basin Malaysia. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 60: 873-889. Tesi, G. O., Tesi, J. A., Ogluta, A. A., Iniaghe, P. O., Enete, C. I. 2019. Assessment to Effect of Sand Mining Activities on Physiocochemical properties and Metal Concentrations of Surface Water of Warri River, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Journal of Science, 3 (1): 72-83. Wuana, R. A., Okieimen, F. E. 2011. Heavy Metals in Contaminated Soils: A Review of Sources, Chemistry, Risks and Best Available Strategies for Remediation. EcologyXu, G., Li, P., Lu, K., Zhan, T., Ren, Z., Wang, X., Yu, K., Shi, P., Cheng, Y. 2019. Seasonal Changes in Water Quality and its Main Influencing Factors in the Dan River Basin. Catena. 173: 131-140. Yusop, Z. Kadir, A. A., Noor, Z. Z. 2017. Benthic Macroinvertebrate Composition and Water Quality Status in Sungai Johor, Johor, Malaysia. Chemical Engineering Transactions. 56.

50 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

RESOURCE SECURITY

Parallel Session 3

51 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK FOR MANAGING SUSTAINABILITY INTO THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY SECTOR IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

PHD Student-Architect / Ayman Ahmed Hassan*1, MBA, B.Sc. A.

1 Azman Hashim International Business School, UTM, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA *[email protected]

ABSTRACT Sustainability/Sustainable Development is continuous ongoing set of processes targeting to achieve best use of current resources and sustain them without affecting the chance of future generations. Sustainable Development based on three pillars, Economic Development, Social Development and Environmental Protection. Construction Industry is one of complicated industries; its internal/external processes are interacting with the three pillars in different aspects and levels, it has important role in economy of Developed/Developing Countries, and is one of largest consumers of energy, material resources, water consumption, and considered one of main sources of pollution. The 2030 agenda declared/published by UN in Sept. 2015 is a plan of action for people; planet and prosperity, where all Countries signed the agenda will work to shift World onto a sustainable resilient path by 2030. The purpose of the paper is to highlight the importance of having framework for managing sustainability into Construction Industry in Developing Countries, and to provide knowledge on the proposed framework elements/variables. The paper depended on quantitative data collection method, based on information gathered in earlier stage. The results of the paper can be summarized in the knowledge provided for the frame work elements/variables, and how they are interacting together. The conclusion reveals the importance and benefits of having sustainable construction industry, managed by a certain frame work to ensure sustainability processes are applied.

Keywords: Sustainability, Construction Industry, Developing Countries.

INTRODUCTION Sustainability as defined by Bruntland Report for (WCED) (1992), is a continues development processes that aims to achieve current needs without jeopardizing future needs of future generations. Sustainability/Sustainable Development supported on three pillars as described on (2005) World Summit on Social Development, which defines these three pillars as Economic Development, Social Development and Environmental Protection. The 2030 agenda declared/published by UN in Sept. 2015, is a plan of action for people, planet and prosperity, where all Countries signed the agenda will work to shift the World on to a sustainable resilient path by 2030. Construction Industry in Developing/Developed Countries is one of industries touching and interacting with the three pillars in different aspects and levels. Goals number nine and eleven in 2030 agenda discusses the worldwide future vision of 2030 for Construction Industry. Construction Industry is an important division of any country economy and has obvious impact on surrounding environment. Especially in Developing Countries, it is considered the main backbone of the economy, because of its size and interactions with other industries, it is one of largest consumers of energy, material resources, water consumption, and is a major source of pollution, as it consumes about 40% of resources and produces about 40% of

52 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 waste including greenhouse gas emissions. To achieve the goal of sustainable construction, the industry stakeholders are required to integrate/adopt a strategic framework to ensure that 2030 Sustainability goals achieved successfully. This framework shall be adopted/adjusted accordingly by Governments and Worldwide Organizations to ensure that application of the framework get a wide range of implantation and support. The industry stakeholders are now more alerted and focused to environmental damage caused by the industry activities, in addition to economical and social impacts, they have an opportunity to adopt a framework which will decrease the impact on environment various resources; this shall be adopted and implemented over the whole industry life cycle.

MATERIALS AND METHODS 1. DEFINITIONS: 1.1 Sustainability: Is defined by Bruntland Report for (WCED), (1992) as continues development processes that aim to achieve current needs without jeopardizing future generation's needs. It is supported on three pillars as described in World Summit on Social Development (2005), which defines these pillars as Economic Development, Social Development and Environmental Protection.

Figure 1. Sustainability Three Pillars

Sustainable Development: Is "The Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". This is considered the most comprehensive definition for sustainable development, which has a wide range of agreement, it was developed by (WCED), (Brundtland Commission, 1992).

1.2 United Nation Vision 2030: Or as described by UN "The Agenda 2030", is a worldwide agenda developed by UN, it is a plan of action for people, planet and prosperity. It invites all stakeholders to act in collaborative partnership strategy. Through 17 sustainable development goals and 169 targets, UN aims to demonstrate the scale and ambition of 2030 agenda, the goals and targets are integrated and balanced through the three dimensions of sustainability: the economic, social and environmental. (UN, 2015).

1.3 Construction Industry: As per International Standard Industrial Classification for construction industry, it is defined as: The branch of manufacture and trade based on the building, maintaining, and repairing structures, includes drilling and solid mineral exploration. It is categorized into the following: Building Construction: General contractors/operative builders engaged in construction of residential, farm, industrial, commercial, or other buildings. Heavy Construction: General contractors engaged in heavy construction other than building, such as highways and streets, bridges, sewers, railroads, irrigation project, and flood control and marine construction. (Standard Industrial Classification, United Nations, 2008).

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Sustainable Construction: Is construction activities, stages and process that are environmentally/economically responsible and resources efficient throughout building or structure life cycle, from design stage through construction stage then operation stage, ending with re-use or demolition stage. It is also construction activities that meet needs of present stakeholders without compromising future stakeholders to meet their future needs.

1.4 Building Life Cycle: Is consideration of building/structure over its entire life, to observe it along different stages from design, construction, operation, and demolition or reuse, including disposal of waste/treatments. Kotaji, (2003).

1.5 Stakeholders: The term is one of most popular terms in management of different industries; however, there is no agreed definition for “stakeholders”. According to Freeman (1984) "Stakeholders are any group or individual who can affect or are affected by the achievement of the cooperation’s purpose". The Project Management Institute (PMI 2001) describes project stakeholders as, "The individuals and organizations who are actively involved in the project, or whose interests may be positively or negatively affected as a result of project execution or successful project completion".

1.6 Developing Countries: There is no agreed definition for Developing Countries, or agreement on which Countries lies under this term. A developing country can be defined as low or middle income country, with less developed economy, this economy has less developed industries, these countries has low Human Development Index. Developing Countries have high growth rates than developed ones. O'Sullivan A, Sheffrin SM (2003).

2. FRAME WORK ELEMENTS & VARIABLES: The frame work elements for managing sustainability into construction industry are divided into three main groups, Sustainability and its sub divisions, Construction Industry and its sub divisions including Stakeholders needs and relations, and Developing Countries and its characteristics. These sub divisions are changing from time to time, based on knowledge development and researchers publications.

2.1 Sustainability: Economic Development: Is managing available resources in a manner that they will not be depleted and will remain available for future generations. (G. Shawn, 2016). Social Development: As per Western Australia Council of Social Services (2018), it occurs when formal and informal processes; systems; structures; and relationships actively support the capacity of current and future generations to create healthy and liveable communities. Environmental Protection: As per Boston College Centre for Corporate Citizenship (2108), it is increasing attention to environmental issues, providing incentive for business to assess environmental impact, like usage of natural resources and carbon footprint.

2.2 Construction Industry and Stakeholders: Technology: Business sectors must consider new technologies; it may affect needs of direct/indirect stakeholders. In developed countries, it is easier to achieve and maintain high technical consistency levels, while it is not the same in developing countries. (http://smallbusiness.chron.com/macroenvironmental-forces-affecting-marketing 71632.html, Accessed Aug. 2019). Level of Information: Expert power is derived from possessing expertise in particular area. Individuals with expert power perform critical tasks, the opinions, ideas and

54 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 decisions of people with expert power are highly regarded by other employees and influence their actions. (http://smallbusiness.chron.com/5-sources-power-organizations- 14467.html, Accessed Feb. 2017).

Industry Stages: Kickoff: Is first stage, meeting for discussion occurring to determine client requirements, goals, and objectives of the project. Also include discussions on overall budget. Conceptualization: Based on kickoff, initial conceptual is prepared, to show layouts, building inner spaces and 3D model, this will give idea about the outer look of building, material and colours, to be presented to client for his opinion and comments. Design Development: It will have outputs from conceptualization stage, after client approval, basic plans are prepared; all inputs from engineering are added, like structural columns, foundations, HVAC, Plumbing, Electrical power and lighting distribution, and bill of quantities.

Documents and Procurement: Submission to Local Authorities: After client approval, documents required for authorities are prepared including drawings showing building systems, based on authorities requirements. Documents for Construction: After authority's approval, documents/drawings for bidding are prepared to distribute to contractors for pricing. Contract: After getting a successful bidder; contract to be made to illustrate work obligations towards the project, specific time schedule, and invoicing terms. The site is then handed over to contractor. The contractor to contact local authorities to get approvals on works permissions and utilities connection. Project Close Out: Is last stage, where building/structure is built and contractor finished all stages, including connections to utilities. All building systems shall be working efficiently; a certificate of work completion is issued accordingly. Now the building can be utilized by end user. Time: Before starting business line, to determine best time to get product into market, companies that deal and produce revolutionary products and new technological ideas are facing challenge, of when to put their products into market, the product may be more advanced than time introduced to market, this is a potential risk. (http://smallbusiness.chron.com/time-factor-starting-business-25026.html, Accessed Feb. 2017).

Stakeholders: Qualification and Major: It affects choice of adopting new ideas and techniques into construction industry. The higher the qualification and more specialized, the more the opportunity to adopt new trend/techniques into industry. Major is an important parameter, technological majors like engineers are most likely to accept new technologies, while the architectural majors are most likely to adopt philosophical new trends among them the idea of environmental preservation. Organization Nature and Business Sector: Nature of organizations differs based on its vision towards project area; organization can be owner of project, contractor executing project, designer designing project, and organization responsible for operating project. Each has its own perspective and interest, and this affects choice of adopting and integrating sustainability into industry. Position and Place in Organization Hierarchy: The more the leading role in the organization, the more the effect of stakeholder on the final decision. The more the

55 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 involvement and seniority of stakeholder, the more his effect to adopt, integrate or promote new ideas or technological trends.

2.3 Developing Countries: Government Policy and Regulations: Governments establish rules/regulations to guide businesses, owners normally change the way they operate when government changes these rules/regulations. Government economic policy and market regulations have influence on competitiveness and profitability. (http://smallbusiness.chron.com/effects-government- policies-businesses-65214.html, Assessed Feb. 2017). Behavioural and Organizational: There are factors which influence the behaviour inside organizations, the structure, the policies, the procedures, the management, and the interactions between employees are among factors that influence these behaviours. (http://smallbusiness.chron.com/impacts-organizational-behavior-business-48407.html, Accessed Feb. 2017). Market Level and Market Related: Business sectors are affected by market factors; they are responsible of increase or decrease demand on products. Financial and Cost: Successful business decision is built on analysis of cost and benefits, this analysis will point out possible risks and highlight benefits. Without this analysis, business is at risk of doing product with no such expected benefit coming out of it. (http://smallbusiness.chron.com/cost-benefit-analysis-important-75211.html, Accessed Feb. 2017).

2.4 Data collection and Analysis: Data were collected/analysed during an earlier study, were dependent/independent variables were examined and analysed. Data were collected by quantitative techniques (questionnaire); the questionnaire target population included various construction industry stakeholders. Data were collected through primary survey process and were analysed using SPSS analyzing tool. The questionnaire total number of respondents were 166, 118 respondents completed full questionnaire with completion ratio of 71%.

2.5 Proposed Frame Work: Below diagram represents a proposed frame work consisting of the above mentioned elements and variables.

Figure 2. Proposed Frame Work

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3. BENEFITS OF SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION Environmental Benefits: Construction has important role in keeping Earth’s resources, it is consuming half of Earth’s resources. (B. Edwards, 2001) - Cited in Kin-sun, (2004). The emission of CO2 by construction industry contributed to global warming and weather change. Thus needs to follow sustainable path. Economic Benefits: There is a common understanding that sustainable construction leads to high construction cost. Sustainable construction needs a higher initial cost than tradition construction, which can be compensated by savings in energy and running costs of building. Social Benefits: Low level living conditions has impacts on residents; on their health (mentally and physically). Sustainable construction offers high health benefits, such as warm, well-ventilated and healthier indoor environments, with fewer toxic substances and less air pollution, these results in increasing productivity and raise quality of life. Kin-sun, (2004).

4. BENEFITS OF APPLYING A FRAME WORK The frame work puts all variables, parameters and elements in one main relationship, where roles are defined and process including inputs and outputs exist. Sustainability and construction industry are complicated enough due to number of process and interactions of operations in various levels. The benefit of having a frame work appears as it summaries and explain the interactions and control the flow of operations.

CONCLUSION

A Sustainability and Construction Industry internal/external processes are complicated and interacting with each other on different areas and levels. B Developing Countries need to follow a sustainable path, while developing their Constriction Industry sector, as this industry is one of their economy backbones. C There is a deep need when dealing with sustainability in developing counties to apply certain frame work to understand and manage sustainability into economic sectors and specially construction. D This paper opens the door for future researches to develop more the frame works through more elements and variables.

REFERENCES

Freeman, R. Edward (1984). Strategic Management: A stakeholder approach. Boston: Pitman/Ballinger. Grimsley, Shawn (2016). What Is Sustainable Economic Growth Kin-sun, T. (2004). Sustainable construction in Hong Kong. University of Hong Kong. Kotaji, S. (2003). Life-cycle assessment in building and construction: a state-of-the-art report, 2003. Pensacola, FL: Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. O'Sullivan A, Sheffrin SM (2003). Economics: Principles in Action. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 471. ISBN 978-0-13-063085-8. Standard Industrial Classification, United Nations, 2008. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, 2015 The World Summit on Social Development, (2005). World Commission on Environment and Development, (1992). http://smallbusiness.chron.com/cost-benefit-analysis-important-75211.html, Accessed Feb. 2017 http://smallbusiness.chron.com/macroenvironmental-forces-affecting-marketing-71632.html, Accessed Aug. 2019

57 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK BASED BASELINE ENERGY MODEL TO QUANTIFY ENERGY SAVINGS OF CHILLER SYSTEM IN COMMERCIAL BUILDING

Wan Nazirah Wan Md Adnan*1, Nofri Yenita Dahlan2 and Ismail Musirin3

1 Faculty of Engineering and Life Sciences, Universiti Selangor, Selangor, MALAYSIA *[email protected] 2, 3 Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, MALAYSIA [email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT This paper proposes an accurate baseline energy model of a chiller system for the Measurement and Verification (M&V) activity. The baseline energy has been modelled using linear regression (LR) in finding the correlation between input and output variables. Linear regression model is less suitable for non-linear characteristics systems. Therefore, a more accurate M&V baseline energy model was proposed using the Artificial Neural Network (ANN). Three optimization techniques, Evolutionary Programming (EP), Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) are hybridized with ANN in optimizing the training process and selecting the optimal values of ANN initial weights and biases. The coefficient of correlation (R) was used as an objective function to minimize the training error. Three inputs that were affecting the energy consumption of a chiller system are selected; which were operating time, refrigerant tonnage and differential temperature. Meanwhile, the output was energy consumption of the building’s chiller system. These three Hybrid ANN (HANN) techniques were then compared with ANN and LR. The results revealed that Artificial Bee Colony Hybrid with ANN (ABCHANN) offered better accuracy. This ABCHANN was further used to quantify the chiller system retrofitting energy saving. The avoided energy obtained from ABCHANN model was 165,478.46 kWh.

Key words: Artificial Neural Network, Measurement and Verification, Evolutionary Programming, Particle Swarm Optimization, Artificial Bee Colony.

INTRODUCTION Malaysia is one of the successful developing countries in Asia. Malaysia’s economy is projected to grow over the next years. The number of commercial and residential areas also increased as well as the demand and supply for energy. Commercial and residential sectors contribute 53.5% of the total electricity consumption in Malaysia (Malaysian Energy Commission, 2015). Electricity cost is the largest contributor to the total operating cost of a building. Nowadays, the major usage of electricity in commercial sector comes from the chiller plant and contribute to more than 24% of the energy used (Progress Energy, n.d.). This situation has prompted the Malaysian government to take several actions including Energy Efficiency (EE) to reduce the power demand and assist in overall energy used. M&V activities are implemented to provide accurate and consistent evaluations to determine energy saving. M&V is the process of using measurements to reliably determine actual savings created in relative to the baseline energy. There are several protocols for M&V but the most widely used is International Performance

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Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP). Figure 2 presents the M&V framework. The baseline energy model is first developed to determine the relationship between energy use (output) and independent variables (inputs). The baseline energy model is used to estimate how much energy would have used if there had been no ECM implementation. This estimation refers to the adjusted baseline energy. This adjusted baseline energy is compared with the energy use in the post-retrofit phase to determine savings.

Figure 2. M&V Conceptual Framework

Recently, linear regression analysis is the most common method used in formulating the baseline energy model (Aris et al., 2015; Dahlan et al., 2013). However, this technique is less accurate especially for the non-linear characteristic as it may contribute to a large error in savings. Therefore, predicting the energy consumption using an accurate baseline energy model is crucial which forms the major focus of this paper. For this reason, some researchers have attempted to model the baseline energy using ANN. ANN is an accurate prediction tool that used to predict or forecast future output based on previous data (Rishabh, 2012). ANN has been successfully applied to forecast the building energy consumption (Shilin et al., 2010; Adnan et al., 2017). In other works, the ANN was compared with multiple linear regressions and Energy Plus to predict energy forecast building energy consumption (Kialashaki & Reisel, 2013; Neto & Fiorelli, 2008). Most of the mentioned researchers implemented the trial and error techniques to determine optimum ANN parameters.

Therefore, to get a better accuracy of ANN prediction in developing the baseline energy model, appropriate ANN synaptic weights and biases parameters selection using the optimisation technique need to be formulated as opposed to the trial and error technique. The structure of this paper is organized as follows: next section briefly explains the materials and methods. This is followed by a presentation of the result and discussion of the proposed methods. Finally, the conclusion is summarized in the last section.

MATERIALS AND METHODS In this study, data were collected from an automated centralized control of building’s air- conditioning system, Building Automation System (BAS) in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. There were two types of data: 4 months baseline data and 3 months post-retrofit data. Three input variables were measured; operating hours, refrigerant tonnage and differential temperature. These parameters were assigned as ANN input and the output was the hourly electrical energy consumption.

59 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

There were two main phases in M&V energy model development, baseline energy model development and post-retrofit saving calculation phase as illustrated in Figure 3. In the baseline energy model, three baseline energy models, evolutionary programming hybrid artificial neural network (EPHANN), particle swarm optimisation hybrid artificial neural network (PSOHANN), and artificial bee colony hybrid artificial neural network (ABCHANN) were developed using ANN with three optimisation techniques: EP, PSO, and ABC. EP is a search heuristic that mimics natural evolutionary processes (Fogel et al., 1997). PSO is a swarm inspired population-based optimisation technique, introduced by Kennedy and Eberhart in 1995 (Zhou et al., 2017). ABC is also a swarm-based optimisation technique, inspired by the foraging behaviour of bees and proposed by Karaboga and Ozturk (Karaboga, 2005).

Figure 3. M&V Energy Model Development flowchart

The main idea of the proposed methods is optimising the ANN synaptic weights and biases to maximise the objective function. Optimisation techniques were used at the initialisation of ANN to automatically generate the initial synaptic weights and biases. The suitable synaptic weights and biases were determined heuristically and once initiated, these values were used to train the neural network for the prediction of hourly baseline energy consumption as well as to optimise the objective function. The role of ANN is to predict the energy consumption and the optimisation techniques were implemented to find the optimal synaptic weights and biases, hence maximise the coefficient of correlation for better predicting ability and higher baseline energy model accuracy. The ANN parameter setting as per Table 1. R was used as the performance function used to evaluate the HANN models. The high R indicates the strong correlation between the targeted and the predicted output. The performance of these three HANN baseline energy models were also compared with ANN and LR to verify the proposed model. The most accurate M&V baseline energy model was then used in the post-retrofit saving calculation phase. In this

60 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 phase, the post-retrofit data were used to determine the adjusted baseline to quantify savings.

Table 1. ANN Parameter Setting Parameter Value

Number of nodes in hidden layer 5-20 Training Algorithm trainlm Data division function 70/15/15 Transfer function – hidden layer logsig Transfer function – output layer purelin

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Sixteen models were constructed for each technique and the total of 48 models were evaluated with different combinations of neurons in the hidden layer. The results obtained using EPHANN, PSOHANN, and ABCHANN are presented in Figure 4. Among these three HANN methods, ABCHANN produced higher R than EPHANN and PSOHANN in most of the neurons in the hidden layer. The higher the value of R, the better the model performance.

Figure 4. Coefficient of Correlation, R of EPHANN, PSOHANN and ABCHANN models The best performance for three HANN methods was selected and compared with the LR and ANN methods as in Table 2. The R for all structures were higher than 0.95 which is acceptable by the IPMVP. The results obtained indicate that all methods could be used for developing the baseline energy model. However, the HANN model offers higher prediction results and more accurate in the prediction baseline energy consumption. The ABCHANN model achieved the highest performance, followed by PSOHANN, EPHANN, ANN and LR. The ABCHANN-baseline energy model was applied to the post-retrofit data to calculate the adjusted baseline, hence to determine energy savings. The total energy consumption for post-retrofit was 9,657,719.51 kWh and for the adjusted baseline was 9,492,241.05 kWh. Therefore, the energy savings or avoided energy obtained was 165,478.46 kWh.

Table 2. Performance Comparison for LR, ANN, EPHANN, PSOHANN and ABCHANN. LR ANN EPHANN PSOHANN ABCHANN Number of neurons N/A 16 19 17 18 in hidden layer R 0.95863 0.98038 0.98140 0.98165 0.98173

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CONCLUSION This work is devoted to develop an accurate baseline energy model to predict electrical energy consumption and to determine savings. In this study, baseline energy models for a chiller was developed using HANN with three optimisation techniques to optimise the ANN initial weights and biases. The results of these HANN were compared with ANN and LR. This study has shown that ABCHANN with the combination of 18 neurons in the hidden layer was the best baseline energy model and was applied for the post-retrofit phase in determining the savings. For future works, other optimization techniques are suggested to be compared and considered to obtain an accurate baseline energy model.

Acknowledgment: Our utmost gratitude goes to Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA(UiTM) Shah Alam, Selangor.

REFERENCES

Adnan, W. N. W. M., Dahlan, N. Y., & Musirin, I. (2017). Modeling baseline electrical energy use of chiller system by artificial neural network. In PECON 2016 - 2016 IEEE 6th International Conference on Power and Energy, Conference Proceeding (pp. 500–505). Akinsooto, O., Canha, D. De, & Pretorius, J. H. C. (2014). Energy Savings Reporting and Uncertainty in Measurement & Verification. In Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference, AUPEC 2014, Curtin University, Perth, Australia (pp. 1–5). Aris, S. M., Dahlan, N. Y., Nawi, M. N. M., Nizam, T. A., & Tahir, M. Z. (2015). Quantifying Energy Savings for Retrofit Centralized HVAC Systems at Selangor State Secretary Complex. Jurnal Teknologi, 77(5), 93–100. Dahlan, N. Y., Shaari, M. S., Putra, T. A. N. T., Mohd Shokri, S. M., & Mohammad, H. (2013). Energy and environmental audit for Bangunan Menara Seri Wilayah and Bangunan Kastam, Putrajaya: Analysis and recommendations. In CEAT 2013 - 2013 IEEE Conference on Clean Energy and Technology (pp. 500–505). Fogel, D. B., Wasson, E. C., Boughton, E. M., & Porto, V. W. (1997). A step toward computer-assisted mammography using evolutionary programming and neural networks. Cancer Letters, 119(1), 93–97. Karaboga, D. (2005). An Idea Based on Honey Bee Swarm for Numerical Optimization. Kialashaki, A., & Reisel, J. R. (2013). Modeling of the energy demand of the residential sector in the United States using regression models and artificial neural networks. Applied Energy, 108, 271–280. Malaysian Energy Commission. (2015). National Energy Balance. Neto, A. H., & Fiorelli, F. A. S. (2008). Comparison between detailed model simulation and artificial neural network for forecasting building energy consumption. Energy and Buildings, 40(12), 2169–2176. Progress Energy. (n.d.). Chiller Optimization and Energy Efficient Chillers. Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy. Rishabh, A. (2012). Neural Networks. Shilin, Q., Zhifeng, S., Huifang, F., & Kun, L. (2010). BP Neural Network for the Prediction of Urban Building Energy Consumption Based on Matlab and its Application. In Second International Conference on Computer Modeling and Simulation (Vol. 2, pp. 263–267). Zhou, J., Ren, J., & Yao, C. (2017). Multi-objective optimization of multi-axis ball-end milling Inconel 718 via grey relational analysis coupled with RBF neural network and PSO algorithm. Measurement, 102, 271–285.

62 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

HEDONIC PRICE REGRESSION FOR STRATIFIED GREEN RESIDENTIAL BUILDING IN JOHOR BAHRU

1 2 Nur Amira Aina Zulkifli , Shazmin Shareena Ab. Azis* , Nurul Hana Adi Maimun3, Muhammad Najib Razali4 and Ibrahim Sipan5

1,2,3,4Real Estate, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81200 Skudai, Johor, MALAYSIA 5,4Center for Real Estate Studies (CRES), Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81200 Skudai, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected], *[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRACT Green building is designed for the purpose of saving energy and resources, and eventually minimize the emission of toxic substances of a building and also to improve the quality of human life whilst maintain the capacity of the ecosystem. Green building coveys tremendous economic, environment and social benefits. From economical aspect, studies have proved green residential value are higher than non-green residential value. However, studies that were conducted in Malaysia mainly relies on perception data to identify the individual effect of green attributes on green building value. Therefore, this study aims to statistically measure the effect of each green attribute on green residential value using empirical data. This study is conducted on few selected stratified green residential buildings in Johor Bahru. This study adopted hedonic price regression analysis. The finding shows the value of stratified green residential building is 24% higher than stratified non-green residential building. The study has empirically proved the integration of green roof and green wall provide positive value increment at 13% and 43% respectively. This study is significant for Malaysia valuation industry as it provide information and monetary evidence in valuing the worth of green building.

Key words: green building, hedonic pricing, green components, value

INTRODUCTION The Government of Malaysia has listed green growth as one of the agenda in eleventh Malaysian Plan (2016 – 2020). According to the mid-term review of eleventh Malaysia plan, the new priorities for 2018 to 2020 has included green building under enhancing environmental sustainability through green growth as 5th out of six policy pillars (Ministry of Economic Affairs, 2018). The Urban Land Institute (2005) defines green building as the practice of increasing the efficiency with which buildings use resources, while at the same time reducing their impact on human health and the environment, throughout the building’s lifecycle. This can be achieved at the siting, design, construction, operation, maintenance and removal stages. Green building is described by Muldavin (2010) as an outcome of building performance that determined by green features, strategies and green certification. A report published by Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, RICS (2005) has clearly stated that there is a relationship emerges between the market value of a building and its green features and related performance. Further, Meins et al. (2010) added that green components are expected to contribute to property value. Lorenzo and Lutzkendorf (2008) also agreed that green features have positive impact on a building worth and market value.

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Several studies have proved that green building has higher value than conventional (non- green) building value (Salvi et al., 2008). According to several empirical studies on green residential building, it was reported that the value of green residential buildings are up to 10% higher compared to non-green residential building (Brounen et al., 2009; Deng and Wu, 2014; Yang, 2013; Jayantha and Man, 2013; Popescu et al., 2012). Over decades, numerous studies have been conducted to investigate the relationship between green building and property value. However, studies that were conducted in Malaysia mainly relies on perception data to identify the individual effect of green attributes on green building value (Shazmin et al, 2017). Therefore, this study aims to statistically measure the effect of each green attribute on green residential value through determining the factors effecting green building value and to develop hedonic pricing model for green residential building. This study is conducted among multiple stratified residential building in Johor Bahru. This study contributes in changing the landscape of property valuation in Malaysia through justifying the effect of green building value.

MATERIALS AND METHODS This study has selected three stratified residential buildings in Taman Molek, Johor Bahru consisting of green and non-green building as case studies. Molek Pine 4 condominium and Ponderosa Lakeside condominium are selected as green residential building while Molek Pine condominium is selected as a non-green residential building. Firstly, rigorous literature reviews were conducted to determine factors affecting green building value. The data were analyzed using meta-analysis. Then, the market transaction data of units within the selected case studies were collected from Valuation and Property Services Department, Johor Bahru. The data contains unit details including transaction price, date of transaction, built up area, tenure, and unit level. Then, inspection and interview with building manager were conducted to identify the available facilities and green components integrated with the buildings. This study perform hedonic price regression analysis on total of 124 units of stratified residential buildings using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Hedonic price regression is used to estimate the effects of energy performance certification on home sales prices that are recorded by the real estate transaction data. The descriptive statistic data is present in table below.

Table 1. Descriptive Statistic Dependent Variable N Unit Min Max Mean Std. Deviation Price 124 RM 370000 880000 622298.23 153790.31342 Independent Variable N Unit Min Max Mean Std. Deviation Unit level 124 No. 3.00 28.00 11.7419 6.57647 Date 124 Year 1.00 4.00 2.6613 0.76389 Built up Area 124 Sq. Ft. 1044.96 2346.532 1461.10 287.310886 Taman Ponderosa 124 Dummy 0 1 0.1774 0.38357 Green Building 124 Dummy 0 1 0.5 0.50203 Basketball and 124 Dummy 0 1 0.6774 0.46936 Badminton Court Solar Photovoltaic 124 Dummy 0 1 0.50 0.502 Green Roof 124 Dummy 0 1 0.37 0.485 Green Wall 124 Dummy 0 1 0.55 0.500 Reuse Material Metal 124 Dummy 0 1 0.50 0.502 Formwork Sustainable Timber 124 Dummy 0 1 0.32 0.469 Open Space Building 124 Dummy 0 1 0.18 0.384 Design Regenerate Lift 124 Dummy 0 1 0.32 0.469

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

First Model The first model performed regression on common factors, facilities and green building variables. Transaction price is the dependent variable. Meanwhile unit level, date, built up area, Taman Ponderosa, and green building are independent variables. The first model was purposely to measure the effect of green building on property price. Overall, based on the statistical test, the first model shows a good performance. The mathematical equation model for the first model extracted from the regression as below;

Y = 39585.83 + 2757.33UnitLevel + 50493.37Date + 240.21BuiltupArea – 22415.59TamanPonderosa + 137907.13Green Building (1)

This model shows that green building as well as unit level, date of transaction, and built up area have positive effect on property price. Based on the evident, it shows that green building provide approximately RM 138 000 price increment compared to non-green building. This shows that the market are willing to bid higher price for green property. The result in Table 4 has statistically proved that green stratified residential building price is 24% higher than non-green stratified residential building.

Table 2. Summary of Model 1 Adjuste Std. Error Change Statistics R Model R d R of the R Square F Sig. F Square df1 df2 Square Estimate Change Change Change 1 .734a 0.539 0.519 106623.81521 0.539 27.578 5 118 0.000 a. Predictors: (Constant), Green Building, Unit level, Date, Built up Area, Taman Ponderosa

Table 3. Regression analysis for Model 1 Model 1 Linear Semi-log (Constant) 39585.83* 12.36** (0.56) (103.86) Unit level 2757.33* 0.004* (1.77) (1.60) Date 50493.37** 0.078** (3.79) (3.45) Built up Area 240.21** 0.000** (6.25) (6.08) Taman Ponderosa -22415.59* -0.021* (-0.72) (-0.39) Green Building 137907.13** 0.235** (5.41) (5.47) *p value less than 0.01, **p value less than 0.05

Second Model The second model performed regression on common factors, facilities and green component variables. Transaction price is the dependent variable. Meanwhile unit level, date, built up area, Taman Ponderosa, green roof, green wall, and regenerated lift are independent variables. There are three green components included in the model including green roof, green wall, and regenerated lift. The second model is a continuation from the first model which is to measure green components that have effect on property price.

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Overall, based on the statistical test, the second model shows a good performance. The mathematical equation model for the second model extracted from the regression as below;

Y = 151900.82 + 2504.05UnitLevel + 16126.43Date + 212.53Built-upArea – 151910.95TamanPonderosa + 93559.33GreenRoof + 264162.54GreenWall – 201718.46Regenerated Lift (2)

This model shows that green component encompasses of green roof and green wall have positive effect on property price at RM 94,000 and RM 260,000 respectively. This result proved that the market are willing to bid higher price for green building when the building is integrated with green roof and green wall. The integration of green roof able and green wall able to provide 13% and 43% increment on property price.

Table 5. Summary of Model 2 Change Statistics Std. Error R Adjusted R Model R of the F Sig. F Square R Square Square df1 df2 Estimate Change Change Change 2 .809a 0.655 0.634 93024.73081 0.655 31.454 7 116 0.000 a. Predictors: (Constant), Taman Ponderosa, Date, Green Roof, Unit level, Built up Area, Green Wall, Regenerate Lift

Table 3. Regression analysis for Model 2 Model 1 Linear Semi-log (Constant) 151900.82* 12.54** (2.36) (114.03) Unit level 2504.05* 0.004* (1.83) (1.60) Date 16126.63* 0.023* (1.25) (1.03) Built up Area 212.53** 0.000** (6.27) (6.01) Green Roof 93559.33* 0.133* (2.03) (1.690) Green Wall 264162.54** 0.427** (6.04) (5.69) Regenerate Lift -201718.46* -0.295* (-2.949) (-2.51) Taman Ponderosa -151910.95** -0.213** (-3.11) (-2.54) *p value less than 0.01, **p value less than 0.05

CONCLUSION To conclude, this study has statistically proved that in Malaysia, the price of green building is higher than non-green building at 24%. The hedonic price regression has identified among green components that contributes to the increment of green building price is green roof and green wall. The integration of green roof able to provide 13% price increment. This shows that the market is willing to pay 13% more in green building when the building integrated with green roof. Meanwhile the integration of green wall provides even higher price increment at 43%. Therefore, this study has proved that green building has significant price increment compared to non-green building. Therefore, green building development should be encourage at local and national level to prosper the nation economic activity and assisting in achieving the global sustainable development goals.

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Acknowledgment: This research was partially supported by UTM –TRG 1.0 UTM Asset Income Optimization in Higher Education Institution, Grant Number: R.J130000.7352.4J348 by Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

REFERENCES

Brounen, D., Kok, N. and Menne, J. (2009), “Energy performance certification in the housing market. implementation and valuation in the European Union. European Centre for cooperate engagement”, Maastricht University, Maastricht, available at: www.fdewb.unimaas.nl/finance/news/energy.pdf (accessed April 2018). Deng, Y. and Wu, J. (2014), “Economic returns to residential green building investment: the developers’ perspective”, Regional Science an Urban Economics, Vol. 47, pp. 35-44. Jayantha, W.M. and Man, W.S. (2013), “Effect of green labelling on residential property price: a case study in Hong Kong”, Journal of Facilities Management, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 31-51. Lorenz, D. and Lützkendorf, T. (2008), “Sustainability in property valuation – theory and practice”, Journal of Property Investment & Finance, Vol. 26 No. 6, pp. 482-521. Meins, E., Wallbaum, H., Hardziewski, R. and Feige, A. (2010), “Sustainability and property valuation: a risk – based approach”, Building Research and Information, Vol. 38 No. 3, pp. 280-300. Muldavin, S.R. (2010), Value Beyond Cost Saving: How to Underwrite Sustainable Properties, Green Building FC, San Rafael, CA. Popescu, D., Bienert, S., Schutzenhofer, C. and Boazu, R. (2012), “Impact of energy efficiency measures on the economic value of buildings”, Applied Energy, Vol. 89, pp. 454-463. RICS (2005), Green Value-Green Buildings, Growing Assets, Green Value, Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, London. Salvi, M., Horejajova, A., Muri, R. and Minergie, M.S.B. (2008), “Report from Centre for Corporate Responsibility and Sustainability”, University of Zurich, Zürich, available at: http://minergie.ch/ tl_files/download/ZKB_MINERGIE_Studies_2008.pdf Shazmin Shareena Ab. Azis, Ibrahim Sipan, Maimunah Sapri, Rohaya Abdul Jalil, Izran Sarrazin Mohammad, (2017) "The effect of green envelope components on green building value", Property Management, Vol. 35 Issue: 2, pp.181-201. Urban Land Institute (2005) Green Office Buildings: A Practical Guide to Development. Washington, D.C. Yang, X. (2013), “Measuring the effect of environmental certification on residential porperty valuesevidence from the green condominium in Portland, US”, Paper No. 1113, dissertation and thesis. Portland State University, Oregon.

67 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

RAINWATER HARVESTING DYNAMIC FINANCIAL MODEL FOR RESIDENTIAL PROPERTIES

Muhammad Najib Razali1, Shazmin Shahreena Ab Azis1, Nurul Hana Adi Maimun1, Zulkifli Yusop1

1 Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor MALAYSIA [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT This study attempts to develop a dynamic financial model for rainwater harvesting by taking into account economic factors. Rainwater harvesting is considered to be an efficient alternative to the freshwater supply for sustainable growth. This is due to the high demand of water contributed by many factors such as high population, climate change, natural disasters and pollution. Therefore the demand for alternative water resources in order to meet the current and future demand is highly necessary. Based on the case study in Pengerang Malaysia, the financial aspects of rainwater harvesting has been examined to highlight the dynamic financial model. This is important as it highly correlates with system operations and maintenance as well as return on investment (ROI). The methodology is based on the attributes that need to be identified from the water asset economy aspect. Data related to construction costs of the asset is based on the per cost item. The findings of this study will inform stakeholders in terms of the decision making process to ensure that sustainably goals are able to be achieved from the financial point of view.

Key words: Dynamic, Financial, Malaysia, Rainwater, Harvesting, Pengerang

INTRODUCTION Rainwater harvesting system (RHS) has been widely implemented in several countries such as India, China, Australia and Brazil. These countries have taken proactive measures in order to ensure sustainability of their water supply. Furthermore, several factors such urbanisation, pollution, natural disasters, global warming and sustainability have required several countries to find alternative resources of water. Nevertheless, to establish new systems in water resources other factors need to be taken into account, such as financial and economic factors. This is to ensure the installation of new equipment will ease the burden for stakeholders relating to water management and assets.

The components of RHS need to be identified quantitatively in terms of the significance of systematic water management, particularly for residential properties specifically for the purpose to utilise rainwater harvesting. Being economically sufficient is important in water management to reflect on the full cost of providing services. Water services are deemed public goods due to the public health and environmental externalities. Consequently, this will have an implication for stakeholders as they will need to consider affordability when setting user fees. The challenges in a rainwater harvesting system are to rejuvenate existing infrastructure assets in meeting with demand of new growth development, maintaining acceptable levels of service, complying with financial self-sustainability and other regulatory requirements.

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LITERATURE REVIEW

RHS saves potable water usage as evident in several studies. Several countries have been actively promoting RHS, such as Australia, India, Brazil and China. According to UN- Habitat (2005), in India, it is mandatory to have RHS for new buildings in order to obtain approval from local authorities. Developed countries have studied the potential for RHS several decades ago. This has been evident from studies conducted in the UK (Chilton et al. 2000; Fewkes 1999; Vaes & Berlamont 2001) and Australia (Coombes & Kuczera 2003; Eroksuz & Rahman 2010; Khastagir & Jayarusia 2010; Matos et al. 2015; Muthukumaran 2011), Spain (Angrill et al. 2011; Domenech & Sauri 2011; Morales- Pinzon et al. 2012), Japan (Zaizen et al. 2013), and Germany (UNEP 2002). Therefore, the RHS concept as an alternative for fresh water is not a new thing as several countries have already established the system, in particular for residential properties. RHS has been seen as a practical way in reducing the reliance on potable water for water demand. It is also a practical way to save water consumption.

Prior to the installation of RHS, a feasibility study is required as the RHS involves several components. Previous studies have investigated the feasibility performance of RHS. For instance Gilroy and McCuen (2009) examined the effectiveness of installing RHS and the results showed that it was able to reduce runoff in volumes. Similar studies have also been conducted by Walsh et al. (2014) and Debusk et al. (2013) in residential areas in California. There are many benefits of RHS also being studied from different perspectives, such as from an energy saving point of view. For instance Malinowski et al. (2015) examined the potential of energy saving of RHS and the findings revealed RHS could replace potable water. Vieira et al. (2014) and Wang and Zimmerman (2015) also revealed similar findings, although the findings stressed that local characteristics needs to be taken into account.

It has been proven in previous studies on RHS that the system has very good potential to prevent more water crises in the future. Nevertheless previous studies only concentrated on the cost and benefit of RHS without taking into account holistic financial attributes such as economic factors.

METHODOLOGY

In order to validate the dynamics of financial models for RHS, Pengerang, Johor, Malaysia has been chosen as a case study area. The reason Pengerang was selected is due to the high demand of water impact from the development of the RAPID project. As a consequence Pengerang will anticipate high water demands, therefore to establish RHS in Pengerang is a systematic way to avoid water crises in this area.

In terms of financial sustainability, water asset management for RHS will propose three major components for modelling financially self-sustaining water asset management networks for Pengerang. The three major components are based on physical infrastructure and comprise of: (i) Water main pipes sector, (ii) Consumer sector, and (iii) Finance sector. The above mentioned components will rely on several economic evaluation methods such as: real option, life-cycle cost, reliability, sensitivity, benefit-cost ratio, internal rate of return, net present value (NPV), discounted cash flow and payback period analyses.

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The calculation of the respective present values (PC) for the current year is calculated based on the following model:

PC = (IC) = IC x IC = initial cost in the construction year t i = inflation rate in year i n = number of years between construction x = cumulated inflation factor

The estimation of the cost function is based on linear regression model which extract from this model:

Y = �� + �1�1 Y = dependent variable (estimated costs) (Civil works) �1 = estimated coefficients (Equipment cost) �1= Independent variables (Volume)

RESULTS AND FINDINGS

In order to comprehend the assessment in investment of the RHS is to understand the NPV concept. A basic tenant of any investment decision is the concept of discounting income received at a future date at an appropriate discount rate. The assessment of cost of RHS in Pengerang would be around RM 15,000 for buildings. The next process is to calculate the water demand for residential properties in Pengerang. The water demand for residential properties is approximately 2,000 litres/units (residential building). Income received in the future can be less valuable today due to opportunity costs, inflation and the risk of non- payment. In this context, it would be opportunity costs of foregone earnings today for agreeing to receive payment at a future date. The life span of the RHS will be assumed to last for 30 years based on previous studies. Based on the calculations, the NPV of an RHS for residential properties is approximately RM 6,500 per unit with ROI at 334%. Having high ROI is vital to ensure the investment to install RHS in the building is worthwhile. The ROI for the domestic industry is above 100%, which indicates that the investment for PBT Pengerang in RHS will gain 3.3 times the investment. A benefit-cost ratio (BCR) is an indicator to show the cost-benefit analysis which indicates value for money for a project. A BCR is the ratio of the benefits of a project in monetary terms which is relative to the costs. If the project has a BCR more than one, it therefore indicates that the NPV of the project benefits outweigh the NPV of the costs. Thus, the project should be considered. In this case BCR assessment indicates a value of 0.10 which is less than one. Theoretically, the project’s cost outweighs the benefits, therefore the RHS should not be considered for residential properties. The payback period is the length of time required to recover the cost of an investment and is able to determine whether the length of time is viable for the project. A longer time period of the payback period means it is not desirable for investors to invest in the project. The payback period of RHS investment for domestic buildings is around seven years. Table 1 summarises the results of the finance model for RHS that has been tested in Pengerang, Johor, Malaysia.

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Table 1. Calculation Residential Properties ITEM COST 2,000 litres/hectares 2 m3 daily Water tariff RM 3.00 (average) Installation cost RM 15,000.00 Maintenance cost and operation cost (5% RM 22,500.00 from installation cost) for 30 years Discount rate 5% Life span of system 30 years NPV RM 6,524.84 per unit ROI 334% Benefit-cost rate 0.10 Payback period 7 years

CONCLUSION RHS has been proven to be the most effective way to overcome water crises in the future. RHS has also been proven to be one of the sustainable methods as an alternative to find water resources. Nevertheless to establish a new system, a holistic financial model should also be taken into account. The financial model is the way to ensure all relevant stakeholders have a positive impact from the implementation of RHS. The financial model comprises of several economic and financial attributes such as physical infrastructure cost, real option, life-cycle cost, reliability, sensitivity, BCR, internal rate of return, NPV, discounted cash flow and payback period analyses. In order to validate the model, Pengerang has been chosen to be a case study due to the rapid development of the areas which anticipate high water demands in the future. The analysis has revealed that at the current cost and water tariff, RHS is not a worthwhile investment in Pengerang. In addition, the analysis has revealed that the cost to install RHS outweighs the benefit of RHS in the future. Therefore it can be concluded that the cost of RHS and water tariff should be revised in order to ensure the establishment of RHS in Pengerang is able to provide benefits to all stakeholders.

REFERENCES

Angrill, S., Morales, T., Cerón, I., Gabarrell, X., Josa, A. & Rieradevall, J. 2011, Environmental impact of rainwater harvesting integration in new construction compared with renovated buildings, Application to urban planning for emerging neighbourhoods in Bogotá, In IV International Life Cycle Assessment Conference in Latin-America, Coatzacoalcos, Mexico. Chilton, J.C., Maidment, G.G., Marriott, D., Francis, A. & Tobias, G. 2000, Case study of a rain water recovery system in a commercial building with a large roof, Urban Water 1, pp. 345–354. Coombes, P. & Kuczera, G. Analysis of the performance of rainwater tanks in Australian capital cities, In: 28th International Hydrology and Water Resources Symposium; 2003. DeBusk, K., Hunt, W. & Wright, J. 2013, Characterizing rainwater harvesting performance and demonstrating stormwater management benefits in the humid southeast USA, J. American Water Resources Association 49(6), pp. 1398–1411. Domènech, L. & Saurí, D. 2011, A comparative appraisal of the use of rainwater harvesting in single and multi-family buildings of the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona (Spain): social experience, drinking water savings and economic costs, Journal of Cleaner production, 19(6-7), pp. 598-608. Eroksuz, E. & Rahman, A. 2010. Rainwater tanks in multi-unit buildings: a case study for three Australian cities, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 2010, 54, pp. 1449–1452. Fewkes, A. 1999. The use of rainwater for WC flushing: the field testing of a collection system, Building and Environment 1999, 34(6), pp. 765–772.

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Gilroy, K. & McCuen, R. 2009, Spatio-temporal effects of low impact development practices, J. Hydrology 367, pp. 228–236. Khastagir, A. & Jayasuriya, N. 2010, Optimal sizing of rain water tanks for domestic water conservation, Journal of Hydrology 2010, 381, pp. 181–188. Malinowski, P., Stillwell, A., Wu, J. & Schwarz, P. 2015, Energy-Water nexus: Potential energy savings and implications for sustainable integrated water management in urban areas from rainwater harvesting and grey-water reuse, J. Water Resources Planning and Management 141(12), A4015003. Matos, C., Bentes, I., Santos, C., Imteaz, M. & Pereira, S. 2015, Economic analysis of a rainwater harvesting system in a commercial building, Water Resour. Manag. 29, pp. 3971–3986. Morales-Pinzón, T., Lurueña, R., Rieradevall, J., Gasol, C.M. & Gabarrell, X. 2012, Financial feasibility and environmental analysis of potential rainwater harvesting systems: A case study in Spain, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 69, pp. 130-140. Muthukumaran, S., Baskaran, K. & Sexton, N. 2010, Quantification of potable water savings by residential water conservation and reuse – a case study, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 2011, 55, pp. 945– 952. Steffen, J., Jensen, M., Pomeroy, C. & Burian, S. 2013, Water supply and storm water management benefits of residential rainwater harvesting in U.S. Cities, J. American Water Resources Association 49(4), pp. 810–824. UNEP 2000, Global environment outlook 2000, United Nations Environment Programme. UN-HABITAT 2005, Blue drop series on rainwater harvesting and utilisation, UN-HABITAT, Nairobi, Kenya 2006, Meeting development goals in small urban centres—water and sanitation in the world’s cities 2006. Vaes, G. & Berlamont, J. 2001, The effect of rainwater storage tank on design storms, Urban Water 2001, 3, pp. 303–307. Vieira, A., Beal, C., Ghisi, E. & Stewart, R. 2014, Energy intensity of rainwater harvesting systems: A review, Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews 34, pp. 225–242. Walsh, T., Pomeroy, C. & Burian, S. 2014, Hydrologic modelling analysis of a passive, residential rainwater harvesting program in an urbanized, semi-arid watershed, J. Hydrology 508, pp. 240–253. Wang, R. & Zimmerman, J. 2015, Economic and environmental assessment of office building rainwater harvesting systems in various U.S. Cities, Environmental Science Technology 49(3), pp. 1768–1778. Zaizen, M., Urakawa, T., Matsumoto, Y. & Takai, H. 1999, The collection of rainwater from dome stadiums in Japan, Urban Water 1(4), pp. 335–359.

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GREEN BIOSYNTHESIS OF SILVER NANOPARTICLES USING MUNTINGIA CALABURA LEAF AND ITS EFFECTIVENESS AGAINST PATHOGENIC BACTERIA

Mohd Azlan Ahmad1 and Salmiati1,2*

1Department of Water and Environmental Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA 2Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security (IPASA), Research Institute for Sustainable Environment (RISE), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA *[email protected]

ABSTRACT A green and simple method in biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles via phytochemicals in plants extract has been proven to be potential as the new alternative to replace the conventional physical and chemical methods. The most interesting metal nanoparticles that were synthesised via reported phytochemicals are Au, Cu and Ag for various applications such as electronic devices, medical and cosmetics. In this work, the tropical Muntingia calabura leaf extract obtained by boiling at 60 °C for 30 min was used in biosynthesis of Ag nanoparticles. The AgNPs formation and development was monitored using UV-Vis spectrophotometer. The maximum surface plasmon resonance (SPR) for AgNPs was detected at 425-430 nm. Characterisation of AgNPs size and shape were observed by TEM, while the elemental analysis was conducted using XRD. The microbial inhibition test on E.coli and Bacillus subtilis showed that the muntingia leaf-mediated AgNPs has positively inhibited the growth of these bacteria, indicated by the formation of halo zone around the AgNPs paper disc. The average inhibition zone for E.coli is 10.3±0.5 mm and for Bacillus subtilis at 9.5±0.6 mm. Microscopic results showed that the synthesised AgNPs has spherical form with average size of 22–37 nm. Hence, the synthesised AgNPs can potentially be applied for water treatment and medicinal purposes.

Key words: Green, Biosynthesis, Silver nanoparticles, Plant extract

INTRODUCTION The interest in silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) applications in various fields has recently increasing at global level especially in textiles, medical and foods due to its attractive features (Nurul Aini et al., 2019). Their antimicrobial properties are advantages in environmental applications against bacteria, viruses and fungi (Rolim et al., 2019).

Common approaches for nanoparticle synthesis are using physical, chemical and biological methods with the latter being eco-friendly and economically feasible (Anbu et al., 2019). Since biological method is eco-friendly, it can help in eliminating the need for physical and chemical process which have toxic chemicals that can pose unfavourable effects to the environment (Keat et al., 2015). Thus, the use of plant extract is more beneficial because of easy accessibility, safe and non-toxic compounds which facilitate in reducing the silver ions (Behravan et al., 2019).

Muntingia calabura, commonly called pokok ceri or kerukup siam in Malaysia—also known as Jamaica cherry—belongs to the family Elaeocarpaceae. It is a fast-growing tree

73 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 which is wildly grown in the Southern and Northern America and South East Asia (Morton, 1987). This common roadside tree is traditionally used as a folk remedy for the treatment of fever, incipient cold (Singh et al., 2017), liver disease, and antiseptic agent in Southeast Asia (Sufian et al., 2013). However, there have been no investigations on the use of M. calabura to synthesize AgNPs. Thus, this study presents the green biosynthesis method for AgNPs using the M. calabura leaf extract as the reducing and stabilising agent. Investigation for its bio-reduction reaction has been conducted by visual examination using UV- Visible spectroscopy technique, and TEM.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials In order to biosynthesize the silver nanoparticles, the fresh leaf of Mutinga calabura (M. calabura) was obtained within the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) campus vicinity. Silver nitrate (AgNO3), nutrient agar, Luria Bertani (LB) broth, and Whatman No.1 filter paper were acquired from VNK Supplies & Services, Johor Bharu. Bacteria, Escherichia coli and Bacillus cereus were obtained from Faculty of Biomedical and Engineering (FBME), UTM. Both bacteria were maintained in nutrient agar media and Luria Bertani (LB) broth.

M. calabura Leaf Extract Preparation The preparation of leaf extract was adapted and modified accordingly based on the procedure reported by Nurul Aini et al. (2019). Fresh leaf of M. calabura were collected and washed thoroughly using tap water for two times and followed by deionized water to remove dirt and foreign debris. The cleaned leaf was dried under shed and finely cut using a clean scissor. Approximately 20 g of the leaf was added into 500 mL deionized water and boiled at 60 °C for 30 min. After that, the boiled leaf extract was cooled to room temperature, it was filtered through Whatman No. 1 filter paper using vacuum filtration system. The filtered leaf extract was stored at 4 °C for further analysis.

Biosynthesis of AgNPs Using M. calabura Leaf Extract In the biosynthesis process of AgNPs, the effects of the quantity of fruit extract and concentration of AgNO3 were assessed to intensify the synthesis route in producing the metal nanoparticles. The aqueous solution of AgNO3 (0.01 – 0.03 M) was used and the volume of the aqueous fruit extract was added at 1:1 ratio (v/v). The mixture was left under dark condition with stirring using magnetic stirrer for 24 h. As comparison to show that the AgNPs synthesis was mediated by phytochemicals of M. calabura leaf extract, a control flask containing aqueous solution of AgNO3 and deionized water was also used and kept under the same condition as the AgNPs synthesizing mixture. The occurrence of silver ions reduction was observed when the mixture optical colour changed from clear brown to dark brown solution. The optical density developments were monitored and measured timely for 1 h and up to 48 h using spectrophotometer (Macherey-Nagel Nanocolor UV/Vis). The overnight biosynthesized AgNPs were collected and purified by centrifugation at 10,000 rpm for 20 min in a centrifuge (ThermoScientific Heraeus PICO 17). This was followed by carefully washed with deionized H2O and oven-dried at 80 °C for overnight. Based on the fast reduction of AgNO3 into AgNPs, only the capable AgNPs sample prepared from 0.02M of AgNO3 was used for further characterization using several methods including X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy.

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AgNPs Characterization Biosynthesized AgNPs due to the reduction of silver metal ions with aqueous M. calabura leaf extract was observed by a spectrophotometer (Macherey-Nagel Nanocolor UV/Vis) operated at 1 nm resolution and wavelength of 200–800 nm. In addition, Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS, Oxford Instruments, Oxford, United Kingdom) confirmed the presence of AgNPs elements at 20 keV. Moreover, the morphology of AgNPs have been structurally characterized in high resolution mode (HR-TEM) using JEOL-ARM200F model instrument.

Antibacterial Activity of AgNPs The antibacterial activity of the biosynthesized AgNPs was evaluated against E. coli and B. cereus by paper disc (6 mm diameter) method adopted from Nurul Aini et al. (2019) and modified accordingly. An overnight grown of E. coli and B. cereus culture (optical density (OD600nm) ≈ 0.8 @ approximately 1 × 108 CFU/mL was used. Five millilitres (5 mL) of bacterial culture was spreaded evenly over Mueller-Hinton agar plate. Paper discs were prepared by soaking it in respective AgNPs labelled as 0.01M, 0.02M, 0.03M, 9:1 and 1:9. The paper discs were air dried under laminar flow then transferred onto the prepared agar plates. Blank paper discs were soaked in filter sterilized deionized water. The plates were incubated at 30 °C for 24 h. Each bacterial plate was made in triplicates. The antibacterial activity was determined by averaging the diameter of inhibition zone observed around respective paper discs.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The reaction of leaf extract with AgNO3 was performed using different concentrations of AgNO3; 0.01M, 0.02M, 0.03M, and two ratio of AgNO3 (0.01M) and extract which were 9:1 and 1:9. Figure 1 (A) represents the most rapid UV spectrum of AgNPs development when using 0.02M of AgNO3. After 1 h, rapid change of colour was clearly observed from colourless to dark brown as seen in Figure 1 (B). The AgNPs synthesis was confirmed by this UV-Vis spectrum of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) at approximately 425–430 nm of adsorption band.

(A) (B) Figure 1. (A) UV-Vis spectrum of AgNPs development mediated by M. calabura leaf extract. The peak at 425–430 nm corresponds to surface plasmon resonance (B) AgNO3 solution colour changes after leaf extract addition

The TEM images clearly show that the synthesized AgNPs were mostly mono- dispersed in spherical shapes (Figure 2A). The diameter length or size distribution was ranging from 7 to 52 nm. The highly frequency of size were within 22 to 37 nm. The EDX instrument further confirmed the Ag element in the synthesized AgNPs (Figure 2B).

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(A) (B) Figure 2. (A) TEM images of AgNPs mediated by M. calabura leaf extract; (B) AgNPs size distribution with the most average length within 22–37 nm

Figure 3. EDS patterns of the synthesized AgNPs; the spectra recorded from a film of the synthesized AgNPs with different X-ray emission peaks labelled

Based on the antibacterial activity, AgNPs synthesized from 0.02M AgNO3 shows a better growth inhibition activity against both E. coli and B. cereus compared to other concentrations of AgNO3 as shown in Figure 4.

76 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Figure 4. The microbial growth zone inhibition against B.cereus (Top) and E. coli (Bottom) by M. calabura leaf extract mediated AgNPs

CONCLUSION In this study, AgNPs has been successfully synthesized using M. calabura leaf extract by varying the concentrations of AgNO3. The morphological observation confirmed the mono-dispersed spherical shape and size (average 22–37 nm) of AgNPs. The AgNPs synthesized using 0.02M AgNO3 was the best in inhibiting bacterial activity. Thus, the M. calabura leaf extract has potential role as the biological alternative for AgNPs production.

Acknowledgment: This study was supported financially by the Ministry of Education Malaysia with research grant no (R.J130000.7851.5F095) and GUP grant (Q.J130000.2522.18H92) from the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

REFERENCES

Anbu, P., Gopinath, S. C. B., Yun, H. S., & Lee, C. G. (2019). Temperature-dependent green biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using balloon flower plants and their antibacterial potential. Journal of Molecular Structure, 1177, 302–309. Behravan, M., Hossein Panahi, A., Naghizadeh, A., Ziaee, M., Mahdavi, R., & Mirzapour, A. (2019). Facile green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Berberis vulgaris leaf and root aqueous extract and its antibacterial activity. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 124, 148–154. Keat, C. L., Aziz, A., Eid, A. M., & Elmarzugi, N. A. (2015). Biosynthesis of nanoparticles and silver nanoparticles. Bioresources and Bioprocessing, 2(1). Morton, J. F. (1987). Fruits of Warm Climates. Nurul Aini, A., Al Farraj, D. A., Endarko, E., Rubiyanto, A., Nur, H., Al Khulaifi, M. M., Syafiuddin, A. (2019). A new green method for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their antibacterial activities against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Journal of the Chinese Chemical Society, (January), 1–8. Rolim, W. R., Pelegrino, M. T., de Araújo Lima, B., Ferraz, L. S., Costa, F. N., Bernardes, J. S., Seabra, A. B. (2019). Green tea extract mediated biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles: Characterization, cytotoxicity evaluation and antibacterial activity. Applied Surface Science, 463(August 2018), 66–74. Singh, R., Iye, S., Prasad, S., Deshmukh, N., Gupta, U., Zanje, A., Joshi, S. (2017). Phytochemical Analysis of Muntingia calabura Extracts Possessing Anti-Microbial and Anti-Fouling Activities. International Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemical Research, 9(6), 826–832. Sufian, A. S., Ramasamy, K., Ahmat, N., Zakaria, Z. A., & Yusof, M. I. M. (2013). Isolation and identification of antibacterial and cytotoxic compounds from the leaves of Muntingia calabura L. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 146(1), 198–204.

77 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

NOT IN MY BACKYARD! A HEDONIC ANALYSIS ON HEAVY INDUSTRIAL SITE PROXIMITY IMPACTS ON MALAYSIAN HOUSE PRICES

N. Karunzaman1, N.H. Adi Maimun*2, S.S. Ab. Azis3, M.N. Razali4, A. Ismail5, Z.

Tarmidi6 and S. Pisol7

1, 3, 4, 5 Department of Real Estate, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 2 Centre for Real Estate Studies, Institute for Smart Infrastructure and Innovative Construction, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA [email protected] 6 Department of Geoinformation, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA [email protected] 7 MAP2U Sdn. Bhd., PT 9951, Jalan BBN 1/3k, Bandar Baru Nilai, 71800 Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, MALAYSIA [email protected]

ABSTRACT Environmental pollution, obstruction of view and traffic congestion caused by heavy industrial sites adversely impact on the health and well-being of humans. Thus, heavy industry areas are less desirable for occupation and investment and reflected in house price discounts. Despite the growing body of literature examining heavy industry area impact on house prices, the scarcity of Malaysian based studies raises question of whether heavy industry area have impact on house prices and if so, what is the magnitude of impact? To address the research gap, this research aims to investigate the impact of heavy industry area on house prices in Pasir Gudang, one of highly polluted areas in Johor, using Multiple Regression Analysis model (MRA). A regression performed on 999 house observations demonstrate the evidence of distance decay impact of heavy industry area. The price impact established in this study is beneficial for valuation and investment related decisions and extends the body of knowledge on the impact of heavy industry area on Malaysian house prices. Future studies may continue the research debate by examining other property market sectors, considering multiple heavy industry areas and using a more accurate measure of distance.

Key words: Industrial Site, Multiple Regression Analysis, Valuation, House Price

INTRODUCTION The industrial sector is crucial to a nation’s economic growth. Despite the positive economic benefits of industrial sector, there are negative externalities impact attributed to heavy industries. Specifically, heavy industrial sites cause environmental pollution, obstruction of view and traffic congestion which adversely impact on the health and well- being of humans. Thus, heavy industry areas are less desirable for occupation and investment and reflected in house price discounts. The current body of literature showed the adoption of various methods in measuring the price impacts of heavy industries. In California, US, Saphores and Aguilar-Benitez (2005) measured the impact of industrial

78 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 odours on nearby houses for four southern Calfornia cities and discovered negative relationship between house prices and smelly pollutants. On the other hand, several studies used distance to quantify the price impacts of heavy industry on properties. In 2007, Hanna analysed the effect of polluting manufacturing facilities on New England, US housing market and found that a mile closer to a polluting manufacturing plant reduced the surrounding house prices by 1.9 percent. In the Dutch housing market, up to 15 percent of price discounts may be expected for houses located within 2000 metres from industrial sites (de Vor and de Groot, 2011). Meanwhile in India, rent prices decreased with nearer distance to a paper mill (Das and Roy, 2014).

This paper contributes to the growing debate on the impacts of heavy industrial site on the housing market. It aims to measure the negative externalities generated by heavy industrial sites using the hedonic regression method, a method extensively used by previous studies to quantify the price premium or discount of heavy industries. This paper extends the current body of knowledge by covering a larger geographic area and longer time period. This is essential to capture local spatial and temporal variations pertinent to house prices (Nappi-Choulet and Maury, 2009; Adi Maimun, 2011; Adi Maimun et al., 2012; Sipan et al, 2018) and thus increasing estimation accuracy. Based on the findings of related previous studies, this study hypothesises a distance decay impact between heavy industry and house prices.

The next section describes the data and analysis methodology adopted for this study. Section 3 presents and discusses the hedonic price regression results. Section 4 concludes the findings of the study.

METHODOLOGY Pasir Gudang, an area dedicated for industrial activities and affected with high pollution (Department of Environment, 2017) was selected as the study area. Several residential areas located within 4 kilometres from a heavy industrial area were identified to ascertain whether and to what extent industrial activities give impact to house prices. Selected residential areas include Taman Air Biru, Taman Mawar, Taman Dahlia, Taman Tanjung Puteri Resort dan Taman Pasir Puteh.

1KM 2KM 3KM 4KM

Figure 1. The study area

A unified database for 999 house observations transacted between years 2009 and 2018 were set up. This database contained transaction price and price-influencing attributes such

79 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 as location, structural and neighbourhood characteristics that were sourced from the Valuation and Property Services Department of Johor Bahru. Meanwhile the spatial characteristic of houses and industrial area was supplied by Pasir Gudang Municipal Council. The distance variable was generated from overlay of industrial buffers and location of houses in ArcGIS. Table 1 summarises the dataset used in this study.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics Variables Description Mean SD (N= 999) Price Transaction price (RM/unit) 199812.83 85381.730 L_Price Log transaction price (RM/unit) 12.1193 0.4194 LA Land area 150.45 79.57681 MFA Main floor area 102.74 34.01079 AFA Ancillary floor area 20.7131 12.00552 TM Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is terraced house middle lot .8418 .36507 TE Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is terrace house end lot .0400 .19615 TC Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is terrace house corner lot .0811 .27310 SD Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is semi-detached house .0370 .18895 FREE Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is freehold .3804 .48572 Y09 Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is transacted in year 2009 .0851 .27915 Y10 Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is transacted in year 2010 .0691 .25370 Y11 Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is transacted in year 2011 .0731 .26039 Y12 Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is transacted in year 2012 .0831 .27615 Y13 Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is transacted in year 2013 .1451 .35242 Y14 Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is transacted in year 2014 .1211 .32643 Y15 Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is transacted in year 2015 .1381 .34522 Y16 Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is transacted in year 2016 .1191 .32409 Y17 Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is transacted in year 2017 .0881 .28356 Y18 Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is transacted in year 2018 .0781 .26843 B1 Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is within 1KM distance from industry .1201 .32526 B2 Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is within 2KM distance from industry .3493 .47700 B3 Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is within 3KM distance from industry .2953 .45640 B4 Dummy variable: equals 1 if the house is within 4KM distance from industry .2352 .42436

Transaction prices (dependent variable) were then regressed by land area, main floor area, ancillary floor area, type of tenure, position of building, year of transaction and distance to industrial area (independent variables) to quantify the price impact of industrial area (Equation 1).

�� = �� + (� � ��) + (� � ��) + (� � ��) + (� � ��) + (� � ��09) (� � ��10) + (� � ��11) + (� � ��12) + (� � ��14) + (� � ��15) + (� � ��16) + (� � ��17) + (� � ��18) + (� � �2) + (� ��3) + (� � �4) (Equation 1)

80 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Table 2 tabulates the results of the regression for linear model and semi-log model. Overall, both models demonstrates coefficient values that matches with the theory and having acceptable �̅̅̅2̅ and F values and Sum of Estimated Errors (SEE) values.

Table 2. Regression results Linear Model Semi-log Model Variables B B (t) (t) 54291.312** 11.391** Constant (4.083) (168.873) 21009.734** 0.079** LA (17.753) (16.211) 959.335** 0.004** MFA (17.456) (15.882) 254.016 0.002 AFA (1.788) (2.393) -39132.344** -0.0168** TM (-4.325) (-3.651) -33264.939** -0.121** TE (-2.837) (-2.033) SD Reference Reference -21902.229** -0.083** FREE (-3.801) (-2.830) B1 Reference Reference 47601.466** 0.286** B2 (8.316) (9.836) 87233.447** 0.427** B3 (14.547) (14.045) 74351.977** 0.367** B4 (9.708) (9.456) Time controlled Yes Yes

�2 0.673 0.651

�̅̅̅2̅ 0.667 0.644 F 111.808 101.391

SEE 49307.222 0.2501485 Note: **denotes p-value significant at 0.01

An analysis on the impact of heavy industries on house prices showed prices decrease with nearer distance to heavy industries and vice versa. The declining prices reflect the buyer’s unwillingness to pay more for houses located near heavy industries. This supports the findings of previous studies such as Benitez and Saphores (2005), Hanna (2007), de Vor and de Groot (2011) and Das and Roy (2014). Indirectly, this finding shows buyers consider the element of environmental quality that may impact their health and well-being when making house purchase decisions. Nonetheless, prices were shown to decline again slightly (6 percent) for houses located beyond 3000 metres (with reference to houses within 1000 metres from heavy industry). This implies that the effect of negative externalities from heavy industries have ceased at a distance of 3000 metres and buyers considered distance beyond 3000 metres as too far from the work place. Hence the

81 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 decline in prices. This supports the findings of Das and Roy (2014). In addition, this could also be due to the negative impacts of other heavy industries located near houses beyond 3000 metres.

CONCLUSION This study was conducted to investigate the impact of heavy industry area on house prices in Pasir Gudang. A hedonic analysis on 999 transactions observed the evidence of heavy industry impact on house prices. This finding supports the finding in other countries such as the Netherlands, United States and India. In consistent with the theory of location, this study found an adverse price impact that enhances with closer distance from heavy industry site and a distance too far from heavy industries. This implies that there is an optimum distance to heavy industries that were preferred by buyers. Buyers were unwilling to pay for houses located near heavy industries but at the same time do not want to stay too far from the work place area. In addition, this may also imply the impact of other heavy industries located near houses beyond 3000 metres. This study employed buffers to measure distance of houses from heavy industry site. To ensure a more accurate measurement of the price impact, it is suggested that future studies employ individual distance measurement, air pollution index and adding other significant variables pertinent to house prices such as distance to city centre and facilities and considering a few more industrial areas. This study enhances further understanding on the heavy industry impact on house prices body of literature. The findings may also provide guidance to the town planners in establishing the optimum buffer size to ensure a minimal impact on surrounding house prices and residents health in general.

Acknowledgment: The financial support of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia through GUP Tier 2 (Vote number: 16J56) is gratefully acknowledged. Many thanks also accrue to Valuation and Property Services Department Johor Bahru and Pasir Gudang Muncipal Council for supplying the data required for this study.

REFERENCES

Adi Maimun, N.H. (2011). Spatiotemporal Autoregressive Model for Malaysian housing market analysis. MSc Thesis, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Adi Maimun, N.H., Ismail, S. and Iman, A.H.M. (2012). The Spatiotemporal Autoregressive Model for residential property prices. International Journal of Real Estate Studies, 7 (1), 30-42. Aguilar-Benitez, I.A. and Saphores, J.D. (2005). Smelly local polluters and residential property values: A hedonic analysis of four orange county (Calfornia) cities. Estudios Economicos, 20 (2),197 -218. Das, S. and Roy, N. (2014). Property price and proximity to paper mill: A Hedonic pricing analysis of Cachar Paper Mill. IOSR Journal of Economics and Finance, 3 (6), 7-13. de Vor, F. and de Groot, H.L.F. (2011) the impact of industrial sites on residential property values: A Hedonic pricing analysis from the Netherlands. Regional Studies, 45 (5), 609-623. Hanna, B.G. (2007). House values, incomes, and industrial pollution. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 54 (1), 100-112. Nappi-Choulet, I. and Maury, T-P. (2009). A spatial and temporal autoregressive local estimation for the Paris housing market. Working Paper No. DR 09004. ESSEC Business School, Paris. Sipan, I., Iman, A.H.M. and Razali, M. (2018). Spatial–temporal neighbourhood-level house price index, International Journal of Housing Markets and Analysis, 11 (2), 386-411.

82 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

RESOURCE SECURITY

Parallel Session 4

83 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

ULTRAFINE PALM OIL FUEL ASH AS STABILIZER IN COMPRESSED EARTH BRICK

Yvonne W. T.*1, Abdul K. M.2 and Hidayati A.3

1,2,3 Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT Compressed Earth Bricks (CEB) are made of clay soil, sand and water. In order to stabilize the soil mix, a stabilizer such as cement is added into the mixture to enhance the strength and durability properties of CEB. However, cement contributes to environmental pollution due to the fact that the production of cement releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Hence, many studies have been carried out to replace cement in the construction industry with waste material. Palm oil fuel ash (POFA) is a waste material produced by palm oil mills and has been popularly used in studies as a pozzolanic material for a sustainable construction material. Nevertheless, the fineness of POFA affects its pozzolanic properties. Studies have proved that the high fineness of POFA improved its pozzolanic properties. This paper is a study on the potential use of Ultrafine POFA as waste material in the production of CEB. It is used as a partial replacement for cement to produce a sustainable CEB. The effects of Ultrafine POFA (UfPOFA) on the strength activity index and compressive strength of CEB showed positive results where the incorporation of 10-30% of UfPOFA can be effectively used as OPC replacement. It is anticipated that UfPOFA could be used as eco-friendly stabilizers.

Key words: Ultrafine Palm Oil Fuel Ash, Compressed Earth Brick, Pozzolanic Material, Soil Stabilizers

INTRODUCTION Compressed Earth Brick (CEB) has been recognized as one of the sustainable green construction materials due to its soil-based production which uses locally available materials. However, CEB production using natural soil can be a challenging task due to the poor properties of some natural soil. Loss of strength on saturation and erosion due to weathering effect are a few of the challenges (Venkatarama R. & Prasanna K., 2011). Therefore, the addition of a stabilizer was introduced to improve the properties of CEB. One of the important contributions of a stabilizer is its ability to create a bonding between soil-stabilizer mixes. It also helps to enhance CEB strength and durability properties (Riza, 2011). Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is one of the popular stabilizers used in the production of CEB. Nevertheless, the usage of OPC will increase the carbon footprint of CEB production, due to the fact that the contribution of OPC production worldwide to greenhouse gas emissions is estimated to be about 6% of the total greenhouse gas emissions (Islam et al., 2014).

To mitigate this problem, numerous researchers have studied materials to be used as possible OPC replacement, especially materials that have pozzolanic properties. Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) is one the common pozzolans used in these studies specially in top palm oil producer countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand (Safiuddin et al., 2010). POFA is the final product when palm fruit residues are burned to generate electricity after the oil extraction process (Nagaratnam et al., 2016). It was first used for a research

84 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 conducted by Tay (1990) as OPC replacement in concrete production, and since then research on POFA has extended to the effect of its particle sizes. Studies have proven that the higher the fineness of POFA, the better the pozzolanic properties (Asrah et al., 2015; Megat J. et al., 2012). Therefore, ultrafine POFA was used in this study. There is an abundance of studies investigating the effect of POFA as OPC replacement in concrete and yet limited studies conducted in using ultrafine POFA (UfPOFA) as OPC replacement for stabilizers in the production of CEB. This study aims to investigate the effect of UfPOFA towards the properties of CEB specially the compressive strength.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The materials used in this study were clay soil, river sand, Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA). Clay soil was collected from the University Malaysia Sabah area and river sand was collected from a river in Tuaran, Sabah. Ordinary Portland cement used for this research were products distributed by Sabah Cement (Gajah). POFA is a by-product from the combustion of palm fibers and palm kernel. Collected samples of POFA were in wet condition. They were dried and then sieved under a 212-um sieve to get rid of large particles. After sieving, the POFA was then ground using a ball mill grinder machine. In order to get the required ultrafine size UfPOFA, the sample was ground for 2.5 hours.

Two experimental stages were conducted in this study. The first stage was the characterization of the materials and the second stage was the determination of the strength activity index and compressive strength test. Eight series of combinations of OPC and UfPOFA as stabilizers were used. Proportions of UfPOFA starting from 10% and up to 80% were used as OPC replacement. Four specimen cubes were prepared for each series for three different curing ages of 7, 14, and 28 days. After each consecutive age, a compressive strength test was conducted to obtain the highest percentage of UfPOFA as OPC replacement to stabilize the soil mixtures.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The properties of materials used for producing the CEB mixture are shown in Table 1 and Table 2. A control mixture of clay soil and sand in a ratio of 4.5:5.5, and 10% (by weight of combined soil) of stabilizer were added to the mixture. Based on the proctor compaction test results shown in Table 1, the water requirement for the control mixture to reach its optimum moisture content is 15.2% with a maximum dry density of 1883.16 kg/m3. The right water content for the manufacture of CEB is given as the water content necessary to reach a percentage of the maximum compaction in the proctor test (Jiménez D. & Guerrero, 2007). Determining the right amount of water for the CEB mixture is crucial in order to have the perfect moldable mixture rather than a too dry or too wet mixture.

Table 1. Physical properties of soil Parameters Soil Standard Proctor Compaction Test ASTM D698 Optimum Moisture 15.2 Content (%) Maximum dry density 1883.16 (kg/m3)

85 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Parameters Soil Standard Particles size ASTM D422 Passing 75um (%) 15.57

Table 2. Chemical composition of OPC and POFA Chemical composition (%) Oxides component OPC POFA

Silicon dioxide SiO2 13.816 59.769

Aluminum oxide Al2O3 3.592 1.796

Ferric oxide Fe2O3 3.078 3.204 Calcium oxide CaO 70.213 10.496

Sulfur trioxide SO3 5.384 0.552

SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3 20.486 64.769 Loss on ignition LOI 5.43 8.74 Moisture content 0.32 2.23

Table 3. Strength activity index (SAI) of POFA (ASTM C311) Water 20% SAI (%) Requirement replacement of (% of OPC 7 days 28 days control) UfPOFA 90.88 91.12 6.16 UgPOFA 60.04 60.52 13.50

Table 2 shows the chemical compositions of OPC and POFA. Based on the results, silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), and iron oxide (Fe2O3) make up 64.769% of POFA. Among the other components, sulfur trioxide (SO3) is 0.552% and LOI is 8.74% with a moisture content of 2.23%. According to ASTM C618, if a pozzolan has at least 50% SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3 and a maximum of 5% SO3, 6% LOI and 3% moisture content, then it meets the chemical requirements for a Class C pozzolan. However, POFA used in this study did not meet all the chemical requirements due to the high percentage of LOI. It might be indirectly due to the high carbon content of POFA (Thomas, 2007).

To investigate the pozzolanic reactivity of the POFA used in this study, the strength activity index (SAI) was determined. Table 3 shows the result of SAI for ultrafine POFA (UfPOFA) and unground POFA (UgPOFA) with size < 212um. UfPOFA attained a higher SAI than UgPOFA. This proves that POFA with a higher fineness has better pozzolanic properties. The SAI of UfPOFA at 7 and 28 days are 90.88% and 91.12%, respectively. ASTM C618 states that the SAI must be at least 75% for both 7 and 28 days and UfPOFA achieved the required SAI. The SAI for UfPOFA also shows that strength increased with age. The longer the curing period, the better the SAI of UfPOFA. The water requirement for UgPOFA is also higher than UfPOFA. This is due to the morphology of the UgPOFA particles which has a high porosity and irregularly shaped compared to UfPOFA (Tangchirapat et al., 2007)

86 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Figure 1. Compressive strength

The optimum compressive strength of the cube specimens was determined with various series of UfPOFA dosage, but keeping other parameters such as clay soil-sand mixture, water content and stabilizer content fixed. Figure 1 shows the compressive strength result of the specimens. Strength was tested at 7, 14, and 28 days curing ages. The effect of curing age shows that strength increases with a longer curing time. This leads us to conclude that UfPOFA doesn’t improve the early strength of CEB. This result is supported by the SAI of UfPOFA as shown in Table 3 where the SAI at 28 days is higher than at 7 days. However, the strength gain at the later age is because the pozzolanic activity of the mixture has fully commenced, where a pozzolanic reaction between the UfPOFA, OPC and soil forms a secondary CSH gel (Pourakbar et al., 2015). The strength trend shows that as the dosage of POFA increases, the compressive strength of the mixture is reduced. A 30% ratio of UfPOFA replacing the OPC shows the highest compressive strength. This is due to the optimum hydration process of OPC and UfPOFA with a high content of SiO2 in UfPOFA forming more CSH gel. The strength starts to decrease above 30% probably due to the lack of cement which necessary for strength development and the interruption of UfPOFA particles on the hydration process surrounding the cement particles (Wi et al., 2018).

CONCLUSION The innovation of using UfPOFA in CEB stabilization to achieve a cleaner technology approach was investigated. The positive result of this study shows the opportunities to use UfPOFA for CEB construction. Based on the compressive strength result, the effective amount of UfPOFA content as an OPC substitute in the stabilization of investigated soil appeared to be approximately in a range of 10–30%. Although the compressive strengths of mixtures containing 40-80% of UfPOFA were on a decreasing trend, the results still achieved the required strength of a CEB. According to British Standard 3921, the minimum strength requirement for a standard brick is 5MPa. This means UfPOFA has the potential to be used as a stabilizer at a high dosage. Specimens with standard brick dimensions should be investigated by replacing the OPC with up to 80% of UfPOFA to confirm the result obtained. The utilization of UfPOFA in the manufacturing of CEB can

87 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 be an effective way to dispose of the abundant solid waste.

Acknowledgment: The authors sincerely thanks to the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia research grant (LRGS 0008-2017) for financial support for this research.

REFERENCES

Asrah, H., Mirasa, A. K., & Mannan, A. (2015). The Performance of Ultrafine Palm Oil Fuel Ash in Suppressing the Alkali Silica Reaction in Mortar Bar. International Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, 2(9), 60–66. ASTM C618-17a. (2010). Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 3–6. British Standard 3921. (1985). Specification for Clay bricks. (1), 350. Islam, A., Alengaram, U. J., Jumaat, M. Z., & Bashar, I. I. (2014). The development of compressive strength of ground granulated blast furnace slag-palm oil fuel ash-fly ash based geopolymer mortar. Materials and Design, 56, 833–841. Jiménez Delgado, M. C., & Guerrero, I. C. (2007). The selection of soils for unstabilised earth building: A normative review. Construction and Building Materials, 21(2), 237–251. Megat Johari, M. A., Zeyad, A. M., Muhamad Bunnori, N., & Ariffin, K. S. (2012). Engineering and transport properties of high-strength green concrete containing high volume of ultrafine palm oil fuel ash. Construction and Building Materials, 30, 281–288. Nagaratnam, B. H., Rahman, M. E., Mirasa, A. K., Mannan, M. A., & Lame, S. O. (2016). Workability and heat of hydration of self-compacting concrete incorporating agro-industrial waste. Journal of Cleaner Production, 112, 882–894. Pourakbar, S., Asadi, A., Huat, B. B. K., & Fasihnikoutalab, M. H. (2015). Stabilization of clayey soil using ultrafine palm oil fuel ash (POFA) and cement. Transportation Geotechnics, 3, 24–35. Riza, F. (2011). Preliminary Study of Compressed Stabilized Earth Brick (CSEB). Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Science, 5(9), 6–12. Safiuddin, M., Jumaat, M. Z., Salam, M. A., Islam, M. S., & Hashim, R. (2010). Utilization of solid wastes in construction materials. International Journal of Physical Sciences, 5(13), 1952–1963. Tangchirapat, W., Saeting, T., Jaturapitakkul, C., Kiattikomol, K., & Siripanichgorn, A. (2007). Use of waste ash from palm oil industry in concrete. Waste Management, 27(1), 81–88. Tay, B. J. (1990). Ash from oil - p a l m w a s t e as concrete m a t e r i a l. 2(2), 94–105. Thomas, M. D. A. (2007). Optimizing the Use of Fly Ash in Concrete. Portland Cement Association, 24. Venkatarama Reddy, B. V., & Prasanna Kumar, P. (2011). Cement stabilised rammed earth. Part A: compaction characteristics and physical properties of compacted cement stabilised soils. Materials and Structures, 44(3), 681–693. Wi, K., Lee, H.-S., Lim, S., Song, H., Hussin, W., & Ismail, M. A. (2018). Use of an agricultural by-product, nano sized Palm Oil Fuel Ash as a supplementary cementitious material. 56.

88 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

CHARACTERIZATION OF ECO-PROCESSED POZZOLAN AS POZZOLANIC MATERIAL

Raihana Farahiyah Abd Rahman*1, Hidayati Asrah2, Ahmad Nurfaidhi

Rizalman3 and Abdul Karim Mirasa4

1,2,3,4 Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Sabah, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT Waste products with pozzolanic properties have been widely used as cement replacement materials. Eco-processed pozzolan (EPP) which is the product of extraction of spent bleaching earth (SBE) from palm oil refineries has also been used as a cement replacement material recently. The residual waste from a palm oil refinery can be used in the construction industry instead of sending them to landfills which causes more environmental degradation. This study intends to determine the physical, chemical and microstructural properties and strength activity index of EPP. The chemical and microstructural properties of EPP were analysed by means of x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), respectively. Mortars with 20% of EPP as cement replacement were prepared. The pozzolanic reactivity of EPP was evaluated by conducting the strength activity index test. The main component in the chemical composition of EPP is SiO2 and the total amount of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 is 68.98%, which is more than 50% as specified in ASTM C618. The micrograph image from SEM of EPP showed some irregularly shaped, some relatively spherical and agglomeration of its particles. The compressive strength of mortar containing 20% of EPP as cement replacement was higher than the control specimen at 7 and 28 days. The strength activity indices of EPP at 7 and 28 days were 114.4% and 104.2% respectively.

Key words: Eco-processed Pozzolan, Pozzolanic Material, Cement Replacement

INTRODUCTION Pozzolanic materials have been used widely as cement replacement. The use of pozzolans will minimize the use of cement (Chindaprasirt et al., 2007). Carbon dioxide emissions from the cement industry is one of the largest sources of carbon dioxide emissions. The production of cement contributes to 5-7% of global carbon dioxide emissions (Benhelal et al., 2013). Pozzolanic materials can be used as alternatives to cement although there is still CO2 emission since cement is still needed to activate the reaction of pozzolan (Gartner, 2004).

The use of waste materials such as fly ash (Fauzi et al., 2016), palm oil fuel ash (Tangchirapat et al., 2007), and clay brick powder (Shao et al., 2019) as cement replacement have been investigated in previous studies. These waste materials possess pozzolanic properties which mainly consist of high amounts of silica. The reaction of a pozzolan material with the cement hydration product, calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) produces more C-S-H gel (Cordeiro et al., 2011). The C-S-H gel will make the hardened paste denser and enhances its strength and durability (Cho, Jung, & Choi, 2019). Eco-processed pozzolan (EPP) material is currently used in producing blended cement. It is extracted from the waste product of crude palm oil degumming and bleaching process

89 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 from refinery plants. This waste product is called spent bleaching earth (SBE). In Malaysia, SBE from a refinery plant is often disposed of at landfills. The disposal of SBE at landfills can cause pollution to the environment (Loh et al., 2013). Therefore, the Ecooils Company of Lahad Datu, Sabah has provided a sustainable solution which is to recycle the SBE into new industrial products. The flowchart of the process of EPP production is shown in Figure 1. A literature review has revealed that there is limited research on EPP as a pozzolanic material.

Figure 1. Production of eco-processed pozzolan (EPP)

MATERIALS AND METHODS Eco-processed pozzolan (EPP) was collected from Ecooils, Lahad Datu. The EPP is as shown in Figure 2. In this study, 20% of EPP was used as cement replacement in mortar. Sand was prepared according to ASTM C778. Mortars of 50 × 50 × 50 mm size were prepared for 7 days and 28 days to determine the compressive strength and strength activity index of EPP. The chemical composition of the materials was investigated by using x-ray fluorescence (XRF). A compressive strength test of the mortar was conducted according to ASTM C109. The pozzolanic reactivity of EPP was determined by conducting the strength activity index (SAI) test according to ASTM C311. The morphology of EPP was analysed by using scanning electron microscope (SEM).

Figure 2. Eco-processed pozzolan (EPP)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The chemical compositions of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and EPP are shown in Table 1. The main component of EPP is SiO2 at 47.6% and the total combined amount of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 is 68.98% which is more than 50% as specified in ASTM C618. The loss on ignition of EPP is 3.3% which is less than 6% as specified in ASTM C618. From the chemical compositions result, according to ASTM C618, EPP can be classified as a Class C pozzolan.

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Table 2 shows the physical properties of EPP. The mean particle size, d50 of EPP and OPC are 29.3 μm and 27.4 μm, respectively. The particle size d90 (90% of the particles under this size) of EPP and OPC are 80.42 μm and 94.36 μm, respectively. The specific gravity of EPP is 1.93 while the specific gravity of OPC is 3.27. Due to its larger mean particle size, EPP has a lower specific gravity than OPC. The micrograph images of EPP and OPC are shown in Figure 3. The SEM image shows that OPC is irregular in shape while EPP consists of irregularly shaped, some relatively spherical and also agglomerated particles. From the image, it can be seen that EPP has a porous texture on its particles. Particles with a porous structure commonly possess a lower specific gravity (Tangchirapat et al. , 2007).

Table 1. Chemical compositions of EPP Chemical Properties (%) OPC EPP

Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 14.4 47.6

Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) 3.6 11.6

Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 3.2 9.8 Calcium oxide (CaO) 72.3 12.5 Magnesium oxide (MgO) 1.7 6.2 LOI 3.3 5.78

Table 2. Physical properties of EPP Chemical Properties OPC EPP

Mean particle size, d50 (μm) 27.4 29.3

Particle size, d90 (μm) 94.36 80.42 Specific gravity 3.27 1.93

(a) OPC (b) EPP Figure 3. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

The compressive strength figures of the mortar are shown in Figure 4. The compressive strength of mortar with 20% EPP is higher than the control mortar at both 7 and 28 days. This shows that EPP can also increase the compressive strength of mortar at an early age. The strength activity indices of EPP at 7 and 28 days are shown in Figure 5. The strength activity indices of EPP at 7 and 28 days are 114.4% and 104.2% respectively and the values are more than the minimum requirement of 75% as specified in ASTM C618. It shows that the SAI at 7 days is higher than at 28 days. The higher SAI might be due to the influence of the pozzolanic reaction of EPP with the hydration product of cement, Ca(OH)2 which produces more C-S-H gel hence the compressive strength increases (Altwair, Megat Johari, & Saiyid Hashim, 2011).

91 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Figure 4. Compressive strength of mortars

Figure 5. Strength activity index(SAI) of EPP

CONCLUSION Eco-processed pozzolan (EPP) has good properties as a pozzolanic material with a high amount of silica and potentially can be used as a cement replacement. The properties and strength activity index of EPP fulfilled the requirements of pozzolanic materials as per ASTM C618 and can be classified as a Class C pozzolan. The compressive strength of mortar containing 20% EPP as cement replacement was higher than the control mortar. Up to 114.4% of SAI can be achieved by EPP at an early age.

Acknowledgment: The authors would like to acknowledge Ecooils, Lahad Datu for providing the eco-processed pozzolan (EPP). Special thanks to laboratory technicians for their help.

REFERENCES

Altwair, N. ., Megat Johari, M. ., & Saiyid Hashim, S. . (2011). Strength activity index and microstructural characteristics of treated Palm Oil Fuel Ash. International Journal of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 11(5), 85–92. ASTM, Standard specification for coal fly ash and raw or calcined natural pozzolan for use in concrete (ASTM C618), West Conshohocken, PA, USA., 2014. Benhelal, E., Zahedi, G., Shamsaei, E., & Bahadori, A. (2013). Global strategies and potentials to curb CO2 emissions in cement industry. Journal of Cleaner Production, 51, 142–161. Chindaprasirt, P., Kanchanda, P., Sathonsaowaphak, A., & Cao, H. T. (2007). Sulfate resistance of blended cements containing fly ash and rice husk ash. Construction and Building Materials, 21(6), 1356–1361. Cho, Y. K., Jung, S. H., & Choi, Y. C. (2019). Effects of chemical composition of fly ash on compressive strength of fly ash cement mortar. Construction and Building Materials, 204, 255–264. Cordeiro, G. C., Toledo Filho, R. D., Tavares, L. M., Fairbairn, E. D. M. R., & Hempel, S. (2011). Influence of particle size and specific surface area on the pozzolanic activity of residual rice husk ash. Cement and Concrete Composites, 33(5), 529–534. Fauzi, A., Nuruddin, M. F., Malkawi, A. B., & Abdullah, M. M. A. B. (2016). Study of Fly Ash Characterization as a Cementitious Material. Procedia Engineering, 148, 487–493.

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Gartner, E. (2004). Industrially interesting approaches to “low-CO2” cements. Cement and Concrete Research, 34(9), 1489–1498. Loh, S. K., James, S., Ngatiman, M., Cheong, K. Y., Choo, Y. M., & Lim, W. S. (2013). Enhancement of palm oil refinery waste - Spent bleaching earth (SBE) into bio organic fertilizer and their effects on crop biomass growth. Industrial Crops and Products, 49, 775–781. Shao, J., Gao, J., Zhao, Y., & Chen, X. (2019). Study on the pozzolanic reaction of clay brick powder in blended cement pastes. Construction and Building Materials, 213, 209–215. Tangchirapat, W., Saeting, T., Jaturapitakkul, C., Kiattikomol, K., & Siripanichgorn, A. (2007). Use of waste ash from palm oil industry in concrete. Waste Management, 27(1), 81–88.

93 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

CARBONIZATION OF EXCESS SEWAGE SLUDGE BY USING SUPER-HEATED WATER VAPOR TO MAKE FUEL

N.A. Haridan1, H. Yoshida2, M.A.M. Salleh1, S. Izhar*1

1 Dept. Chem. & Environ. Engg, Fac. of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, MALAYSIA 2 Osaka Prefecture University, 1-1 Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka 599-8570, JAPAN *[email protected]

ABSTRACT Excess sewage sludge was converted to carbonized material using superheated water vapor for use as fuel. The superheated water vapor carbonized the sewage sludge using a bench-scale rotary kiln setup at temperatures between 200°C to 500°C and reaction time of 60 min. The treatment temperature was lower and more rapid than that using N2, CO2, and air. The yield of carbonization decreased when the temperature of carbonization increased. SEM images revealed that the macroscopic structure of carbonized materials strongly depended on the original compositions. The CHNS elemental analyzer and bomb calorimeter were used to measure the heating value of the carbonized products. The heating value of the carbonized material was higher after carbonization. Thus, this study has shown that instead of landfill, excess sewage sludge can be utilized using superheated water vapor for conversion to fuel.

Keywords: Excess sewage sludge, Superheated water vapor, Carbonization, Fuel

INTRODUCTION Excess sewage sludge is considered one of the most severe solid waste problems due to increasing population in Malaysia. Sewage sludge is disposed of by landfill without any treatment. This has led to an increase in the production of methane gas in the landfill. overcome the problem of sewage sludge disposal by construct the sludge lagoons that act as sludge holding and treatment facilities. This is ideal for short-term use in urban areas. However, the landfill is urgently required to act as a sludge holding. The purpose of sludge thickening is to reduce the volume of excess sewage sludge that was produced by aerobic digestion in activated sludge reactor. However, the volume of disposed sewage sludge into the landfill is not thoroughly manage in Malaysia (Hamid & Baki, 2005).

Carbonization is a process of thermal conversion of organic materials to carbon. Char can be produced at a certain carbonization temperature and reaction time. Temperature is associated with the amount of energy required to break the chemical bond of raw material, thus influences the quantity of volatiles released from the carbonization material affecting the char yield. Yoshida et al (2004) have performed the super-heated water vapor treatment of organic wastes and elucidated the adsorption properties of the carbonized products, in which the carbonized product of cellulose was effective as the adsorbent of ammonia gas. Iwasaki et al. (2013) also used Hinoki wood to recovery valuables such as organic acids and inflammable gas using super-heated steam carbonization. Carbonization can convert the organic feedstocks into carbonaceous product that was hydrochar in the presence of water (Lu & Berge, 2014). Thus, in this study, superheated water vapor is being introduced to convert excess sewage sludge waste to useful resources such as carbonized fuel.

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MATERIALS AND METHODS The excess sewage sludge was supplied from Cheras sewage treatment plant by Indah Water Konsortium Sdn. Bhd. Before the moisture content of excess sewage sludge was determined, the unwanted materials such as grass, sand and soil that were attached on the surface of excess sewage sludge were removed. Then, it was divided into three portions. The weights of each portions were measured and recorded online. The sewage sludge was dried in a drying oven at 80C for 2 weeks until the weight of each portions became constant.

Figure 1. Experimental setup of Rotary Kiln Carbonizer

Excess sewage sludge was carbonized with super-heated water vapor using Rotary Kiln Carbonizer (TANAKA TECH, Japan) as illustrated in Figure 1. The carbonization furnace was connected with a pipe supplied by a flow of steam from a water supply. The pure water was supplied to the evaporator that was set at 300C at a constant flow rate of 1.0 ml/min by a metering pump. The water vapor flowed through the pipe that was kept heated until the water vapor entered the rotary kiln furnace. The carbonization temperature was fixed at 253C, 305C, 356C or 406C. The reaction time was 60 minutes and kiln rotation of 60 rpm. The internal temperatures of the furnace, evaporator and kiln were measured with a thermocouple and recorded. After one hour at the specified temperature, vaporized organic materials, tar and gases were produced and exit the furnace to the condenser. These vaporized materials and water vapor flowed to the condenser to be quenched. The water-soluble organics and tar condensed in the condensers as shown in Figure 1.

The amounts of ash (inorganic substances) contained in the sewage sludge was measured using an electric furnace. The original samples of 5g were used. The unwanted materials attached on the samples were removed. Then, it was put into three melting crucible pot and incinerated at 800C for 4 hours. The final weights of the sludge were measured and the average of ash content (%) was calculated. The yield of carbonization was calculated.

Elemental analysis was carried out using a CHNS Analyzer (CHNS LECO, CHN628 & 628S) to determine the weight % of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur which contained in product of carbonized solid. The external and internal structures of carbonized solids were analyzed by using SEM/ EDX (HITACHI, S-3400N, Japan). The heating value of the product fuel was calculated, and the theoretical and experimental values were compared to get the best product fuel. The best operating conditions of temperature and reaction time to give the highest heating value were determined to convert the sewage sludge economically to carbonized fuel by using super-heated water vapor.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Figure 2 shows the effect of temperature on super-heated water vapor carbonization of excess sewage sludge. The carbonization yield decreased with increasing carbonization temperature. Carbonization at 253C and 406C gave the highest (0.50) and the lowest (0.35) of carbonization yield, respectively. The excess sewage sludge was incinerated at high temperature (800C) for 4 hours to measure the yield of ash (Y). The ash value was 22.6% as shown in Table 1.

Figure 2. Effect of temperature on the yield of super-heated water vapor carbonization of excess sewage sludge

Table 1. Physical properties of excess sewage sludge and watermelon outer layer Moisture Ash Best temp for Lower Heating content LHV (C) value (LHV) Excess sewage sludge 16.5% 22.6% 253 14650 kJ/kg Watermelon waste 95% 0.58% 253 17788 kJ/kg

The average value of ash yield from excess sewage sludge was 22.6%. The color observed from the excess sewage sludge changed from black to brown. This brown color might be due to the present of ferrous ion in excess sewage sludge. As a comparison, water watermelon skin was also subjected to carbonization. As a result, watermelon contained 0.578% of average value of ash which is much less than excess sewage sludge. Excess sewage sludge that was supplied by Indah Water Sdn. Bhd. contained a lot of ash because of inorganic material such as grass, soil and sand attached on the inner and outer surface of sludge. Ash of watermelon outer layer very small compared to excess sewage sludge.

The carbonized sewage sludge was crushed into powder before analyzing with Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Electron Dispersion X-ray. Figure 3 shows the SEM photographs before and after carbonization process at four different operating temperatures. The photos did not show big different. Figure 4 shows the EDX analysis of excess sewage sludge before and after carbonization process at 406C. The amount of inorganic materials increases after carbonization. The carbonization process decomposed excess sewage sludge into tar, water soluble tar and organic acids such as lactic acid, acetic acid and others. The inorganic materials cannot be removed from the carbonization process. Therefore, the concentration of organic materials increased due to decreasing volume of samples during carbonization.

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Before Carbonization Carbonization at 253C

Carbonization at 305C Carbonization at 406C Figure 3. SEM of excess sewage sludge after carbonization at four different temperatures

Figure 4. Composition of elements contained in excess sewage sludge before and after carbonization process at 406C by EDX

Figure 5 (left) shows the Van Krevelen diagram of H/C and O/C for excess sewage sludge that was repeated three times by using CHNS analyzer. A straight line was observed from all the measurements. Figure 5 (right) shows the relationship between LHV with carbonization temperature of excess sewage sludge. The highest average heating value of excess sewage sludge was 14650 kJ/kg at 253C. The heating value decreased when the temperature of carbonization of excess sewage sludge was increased. The range heating value of coal is 23000-33000 kJ/kg. In this study, excess sewage sludge gave heating value about half of coal. Nevertheless, the study has shown that excess sewage sludge can be converted to fuel by carbonization using superheated steam.

97 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Figure 5. Van Krevelen Diagram and LHV (kJ/kg) as a function of carbonization temperature

CONCLUSION The carbonization process using super-heated water vapor was performed successfully in the study to produce fuel from excess sewage sludge, although average moisture content of the sludge was 16.5%. The excess sewage sludge contained large amount of inorganic materials such as grass, sand and soil. The yield of carbonization decreased when the temperature of carbonization with super-heated water vapor increased. During carbonization, superheated steam decomposed raw material into valuable resources such as carbonized material, tar, water soluble tar and gases. The carbonization relation of H/C and O/C was consistent by Van Krevelen diagram. LHV of carbonized sludge was maximum at 253C. The best heating value was produced at mild carbonization temperature. Although the heating values were half of charcoal, carbonization by super-heated steam successfully convert excess sewage sludge to value added product.

Acknowledgment: The funding of this work was obtained under the grant in aid from UPM (grant number 9491400).

REFERENCES

Hamid, H., & Baki, A. M. (2005). Sewage Treatment Trends in Malaysia. The Ingenieur, 46–53. Iwasaki, T., Mizuhashi, S., Watano, S., Akachi, T., & Yoshida, H. (2004). Recovery of valuables from wood waste by superheated steam carbonization. Proceeding of 10th Asia Pacific Confederation of Chemical Engineering Conference, 1-9. Lu, X., & Berge, N. D. (2014). Influence of feedstock chemical composition on product formation and characteristics derived from the hydrothermal carbonization of mixed feedstocks. Bioresource Technology, 166, 120–131. Yoshida, H., Miyagami, N., & Uchida, H. (2004). Thermogravimetry analysis for thermally decomposed wood by using superheated water vapor. Proceeding of 10th Asian Pacific Confederation of Chemical Engineering Conference, 1-9.

98 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

DEFINING THE BIOGAS GENERATION POTENTIAL AND THE KINETICS OF BIOGAS GENERATION FOR HOUSE- HOLD GENERATED RICE COOKING WASTEWATER

S M Shabab Islam, Umme Farah Shakin Neha and Nadim Reza Khandaker*

Department of Civil Engineering, North South University *[email protected]

ABSTRACT Rice is the staple of all families of South Asia and South East Asia. It is cooked at least twice daily in most households. The process of cooking rice involves boiling the rice in water which leaves a byproduct of decanted liquid. The research showed that the wastewater generated from cooked rice (Bhaather Maar) could be used to generate biogas with a biogas generation potential of 190 ± 46 mL/g BOD5 (5.38 ± 0.75 L of biogas/per L of Maar) with the methane content of 78 %. First order reaction defines the kinetics of biogas production with the intent of fitting between modelled and observed data (r2) of 0.961. The first order kinetics constant “k” was determined to be 0.2 d-1. We further determined that a family of four produces 1.0 L of starch rich wastewater per day that has the potential to produce 5.38 L of biogas with 78 % methane content. This clearly shows the potential for the use of starch rich wastewater (Bather Maar) in an urban setting to augment the energy needs for cooking.

Key words: Biogas generation potential, cooked rice decant wastewater, kinetics

INTRODUCTION Bangladesh is a country whose economy is natural gas driven. Natural gas is used for electricity generation, fertilizer production, process heating, electricity generation, and household cooking. About 70% of Bangladesh’s energy demand is met through natural gas (Energy Scenario, 2019). But in recent times, the demand of natural gas has been exceeding the supply (Energy Scenario, 2019). The government has started to put in place measurers that limit supply. Natural gas supply has been limited for domestic use placing an undue burden to the urban population. However, amidst all the crisis, we may have found a simple potential solution from a very unlikely source in the form of wastewater generated from rice cooking that serves as the substrate for biological methane generation. Rice is a staple food in Bangladeshi households. People rely on it as the chief source of their dietary needs at least twice per day. The process of preparing rice involves boiling it in water and this process gives off a white starchy liquid which is referred to as “Bhaather Maar”, and in this study this rice rich wastewater was used to conduct a Biological Methane Potential (BMP) study to ascertain how much biogas can be produced from waste water generated from rice cooking. In a controlled experimental program wastewater generated from cooking rice (Baather Maar) was characterized, using methane generating reactors at the bench scale a BMP study was conducted to ascertain the quantity and quality of the biogas generated from Maar. Energy diversification will play a major role in the sustainable development of south Asian and east Asian countries future and to identify a source which is readily available can produce a positive sustainable solution at the household level.

99 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

MATERIALS AND METHODS Raw wastewater: The rice cooking wastewater was obtained from actual wastewater generated from cooking rice in a typical household of urban Bangladesh, in average 1.0 L of rice wastewater is generated per day from a family of 4 persons. A seven-day composite sample was used in the study.

Seed: The BMP study seed was seven-day old crow dung.

BMP Reactor Configuration: The bench scale BMP reactor were 150 ml plastic disposable syringes with a liquid volume of 20 ml. The BMP syringe reactors were operated as batch rector with an incubation period of 34 days. In the BMP study the rice wastewater was fed directly to the reactor at the initiation of the study. The food to microorganism ratio (F/M) for the BMP study was 0.02. The daily biogas production was monitored and noted and at the end of the study the biogas quality was measured in terms of methane and carbon dioxide percentage. The data generated was plotted and modelled using Spreadsheet in accordance to established protocols modelling anaerobic transformation substrates (Nadim Khandaker, 2018).

Figure 1. Syringe reactor used in the BMP study

Analysis: The rice cooking wastewater was analyzed for COD, BOD5, TS, and pH. as per standard methods (American Public Health Association, 1989). The biogas generated was measured using the piston displacement method where the piston in the syringe reactor moves up with daily biogas production the displacement volume is noted by reading off the gradation lines existing in the syringes used as the BMP reactors (Young & Tabak, 1993).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The composite rice cooking wastewater characterized and used in the study is given in Table 1. below. This a highly biodegradable wastewater with high BOD5, wastewater and should be very suitable for methane generation nan anaerobic process. The BMP study conducted using the rice cooking starch wastewater using syringe reactor seeded 3 with cow dung at an F/M ratio of 0.02 at a BOD5 loading rate of 0.5 Kg BOD5/m within the range of operation of low rate reactors for anaerobic wastewater treatments currently being designed and constructed (Young & Tabak, 1993).

Table 1. Characteristics of the rice cooking wastewater used in the BMP study pH BOD5 Density TS VS fraction (mg/L) (g/ml) (mg/L) (%) 8.3 ± 0.1 23450 ± 796 0.95 ± 0.01 0.47 ± 0.01 98.7

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The biogas production trends for the BMP reactors are shown in Figure 2. From the onset the BMP reactors producing biogas and gas production was completed within 15 days of operation. The mean ± Standard Deviation total biogas production for the four reactors in the BMP test was 190 ± 46 mL/g BOD5 (5.38 ± 0.75 L of biogas/per L of Maar). Also the biogas production trend showed that the system did not require any period of acclimation prior to achieve the high degree of waste stabilization shown by rapid biogas production indicating that Maar is easily degradable by the anaerobic culture. The kinetics of biogas production by the degradation of Marr by the anaerobic microorganism is defined by Figure 3. The figure shows that first order kinetics for biogas (r2 = 0.961) production for the Maar as the substrate with the “k” value of 0.2 d - 1. This implies that the Maar is easily anaerobically biodegradable and the system has the microorganism to readily degrade the rice cooking wastewater and produce biogas.

Figure 2. Cumulative biogas production with days of operation

The methane content of the biogas measured in the end of the test was 78% showing that the biogas generated from Maar has high methane content close to that of methane gas supplied to household the gas supply companies.

In an overall prospective the result of the BMP study shows the potential of Maar a substrate for biogas production producing a biogas with high methane content. A waste product such as Maar that is dumped down the drain can be used in the energy mix to as a source of renewable energy in the context of south Asia and south east Asia.

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Figure 3. First order modeled profile of biogas product to observed data

CONCLUSION The research showed that the wastewater generated from cooked rice could be used to generate biogas with a biogas generation potential of 190 ± 46 mL/g BOD5 (5.38 ± 0.75 L of biogas/per L of Maar) with the methane content of 78 %. First order reaction defines the kinetics of biogas production with the intent of fitting between modelled and observed data (r2) of 0.961. The first order kinetics constant “k” was determined to be 0.2 d-1.

REFERENCES

American Public Health Association. (1989). Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater, 17 edition. Washington D.C: American Public Health Association. Energy Scenario Bangladesh. Dhaka: Energy and Mineral Resources Division, Ministry of Power, Energy and Mineral Resources. (2019). Khandaker, N. R., & Young, J. C. (2000). Effect of culture acclimation on the kinetics of aldicarb insecticide degradation under methanogenic conditions. J. Agric. Food Chem, 48, 1411-1416. Md. Siddiqur R. Sarker. (2018). Defining the kinetics of the novel application of anaerobic acetogenics for treating textile dyeing wastewater. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, 4, 1259–1270. Young , J. C., & Tabak, H. H. (1993). Multilevel protocol for assessing the fate and effect of toxic organic chemicals in anaerobic treatment processes. Water Environ Res., 65, 34-45.

102 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

A CRITICAL REVIEW ON THE CURRENT TECHNOLOGIES FOR RECOVERY OF PRECIOUS METALS FROM INDUSTRIAL WASTES

Santhana Krishnan1, Nor Syahidah Zulkapli1*, Ooi Theam Yiew1,2, Mohd Fadhil Md Din1*, Zaiton Abd Majid1,2, Iwao Kenzo3, Yo Ichikawa3, Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan4, Hesam Kamyab4

1Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security, UTM Sustainability Campus, Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, MALAYSIA [email protected], *[email protected], [email protected], *[email protected] 2Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected] 3Nagoya Institute of Technology, Nagoya City, 466-8555 JAPAN [email protected], [email protected] 4Engineering Department, UTM Razak School of Engineering & Advanced, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, MALAYSIA [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT Challenges of sustainable development, particularly ‘living within limited infinity’ and ‘scarcity of natural resources’ have urged scientific community to develop innovative processes that integrate into complex technology and reduce ecological disturbances. Massive amount of industrial wastes being generated annually and majorly being treated via landfills and incineration which eventually leads to environmental challenges. As a result, the treatment methods for industrial waste such as reuse, remanufacturing and recycling have received much attention. The present studies provide a state of art review on the current technologies existing for the recovery of precious metals from industrial wastes. Various different metal recovery processes including physical, pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, electrometallurgy and biometallurgy are discussed. The current challenges of pyrometallurgy, modification on the hydrometallurgy, introduction to electrometallurgy and development of advanced technology of bioprocessing were emphasized. Compared to pyrometallurgical methods, hydrometallurgical methods are becoming a well-established and efficient method for recovering metals from raw materials. Although there have been many proposed or currently applied recovery processes, majority of them are effective only in recovering certain metals from the industrial wastes. Extensive studies mainly on the metal recovery from wastewater badsorption, cementation, chemical precipitation, ion exchange, membrane filtration and ion flotation were briefly discussed.

Keywords: Metal recovery, industrial wastes, metallurgical process

INTRODUCTION

Rapid growth of human population and limited natural wealth reserves are causing new challenges. Pollution prevention, waste minimization, recycling and products at end of life (ELP) have become topics of trends. Every year, industrial activities have generated million tonnes of solid waste worldwide. The disposals of solid wastes around the

103 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 workplace (soils and ground, drainage system) may threatening the human lives and hence damage the ecosystem. China, Africa and India are among the countries that accumulate tonnages of solid waste which raised the concern to look for an effective treatment solution (Chauhan et al., 2018). In addition, the production of solid wastes has found to be one of the major issues due to its non-biodegradable properties. Electronic scrap (e-scrap), spent catalysts, used batteries, red mud, fly ash of municipal waste incinerators and electroplating waste contain wide range of elements including organic and inorganic materials. Some studies have shown solid waste including e-scrap; fly ash and steel slag can be used as the partial replacement for concrete production (Silva et al., 2014). This waste can be used as the binding material since it contain high amount of silicates and alumina and possess pozzolanic properties. Nowadays, researches have offered the alternative solution for a better solid waste management by recovering the metals presence in the solid wastes. It is claimed the recovery of metals from wastes is found to be much easier and energy saving as compared to the extraction of primary metals from the mineral ores (Barbosa et al., 2011).

Extensive studies has been conducted since centuries ago which resulted in development of numerous metal extraction methods. Nonferrous metals are significantly recycled as scrap such as aluminium, copper and copper-base alloys, chromium, nickel, manganese, lead, titanium, zinc, and precious metals (silver, gold and platinum) (Kockal et al., 2011). Metallurgical processes are the most known and practically used in industries mainly involving the extraction of metal from the ores and solid wastes. Metal extraction through the microbial action begun in the six decades ago and now had emerged as a potential technique for metallurgical and treatment of metal containing wastes (Smaniotto et al., 2009). Different physico-chemical techniques particularly the adsorption, cementation, chemical precipitation, ion exchange, membrane filtration and ion flotation will be discussed briefly in the following sections. According to a survey conducted by Gehr et al., (2006) it has been proved the ion exchange and membrane filtration technique are the most frequently applied for the treatment metal containing wastewater (Kurniawan et al., 2006).

The present review provides a comprehensive review about the recent developments on the metal recovery technologies as well as on the opportunities they bring to develop sustainable and energy-efficient recovery of metal products from solid and liquid wastes with ample functionality.

METALLURGY EXTRACTION OF SOLID WASTE

To date, researchers have conducted many studies to establish an economical and efficient metal extraction process. In this section, the general processes for metallurgical extraction are discussed and compared.

PYROMETALLURGICAL TECHNIQUE Solid wastes containing valuable metals usually exist in the form of oxides. In order to recycle the metal, the reduction of oxides is necessary where the material undergoes a selective volatilization at elevated temperature exceeding 1000˚C followed by condensation process (Tuncuk et al., 2012). Pyrometallurgical technique is a conventional process which normally involved the incineration of waste material, sintering and melting at high temperatures. Smelting furnace, thermal reactor, plasma process are among the common furnace employed in the industrial practice (Ramachandra et al., 2006). The melting process is facilitated by addition of carbon or any carbonaceous material such as

104 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 lime and coke. Thorough reviews has been made on the pyrometallurgy extraction of various metals using Noranda Smelting Process, Boliden Ronnskar Smelter, and Umicore’s Smelter (Moskalyk et al., 2003; Syed, 2012; Ojeda et al., 2009; Cui et al., 2014). Ojeda et al., (2009) had reported 98.23% and 98.73% of gold were obtained from alluvial component through the chlorination process at following conditions 873K and 3600s, 873K and 5400s respectively. This outcome summarized the increased in temperature and reaction time of reactant solid favour towards high recovery of metals (Rossini et al., 2006). Chlorination process also has been reported as an efficient, economic and environmental friendly method for the metal extraction. Liu et al., (2013) had performed the removal of copper from iron-rich pyrite cinder using the chlorination roasting. Other than chlorination roasting, there also have numerous studies conducted on the use of lime roasting, ammonium salt roasting (Zhang et al., 2012), soda ash roasting and acid bake process for the treatment of concentrate. In the case of enargite roasting, thermal decomposition in oxidative atmospheres gives much quicker reaction than in neutral atmospheres. The current developments in pyrometallurgy processing are towards a zero waste concept in the minimization of carbon footprint and atmospheric emission is emphasized.

Since decades ago, new approach for the metal extraction using combined hydro- and pyrometallurgical processes have been introduced (Ramachandra et al., 2006). Selective dissolution of desired metals is done using strong chemical reagents producing a high grade concentrate which then roasted at low temperature (<500˚C). Amaral et al., (2014) had discovered the extraction of metals (Au, Ag, Cu and Zn) from galvanic sludge using combined hydro- and pyrometallurgical process involving sulfate roasting and thiosulfate leaching. All metals except gold has been leached out from sludge after pyrometallurgy treatment were conducted using sulfate promoter. Maximum recovery of 80% Ag, 73% Zn and 63% Cu were obtained at condition 1:0.4 ratio sludge to sulphur, furnace temperature set up at 550˚C, roasting time of 90 min and water leaching of 15 min. 77% of Au has been recovered from the concentrate using sodium thiosulfate which has less toxicity than cyanide.

HYDROMETALLURGICAL TECHNIQUE Hydrometallurgical process provides several substantial advantages such as the ability to control the level of impurities, low capital cost, reduced environmental impact, potentials for high metal recoveries and suitability for small scale applications (Jha et al., 2001; Chmielewski et al., 1997). There are several treatment routes proposed in the literature to avoid dumping, or in other words, recycle the wastes. They can be divided into three processes: hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical and a mixed of both. The examples of hydrometallurgical processes are reported by Kamberovic et al., (2019), Souada et al., (2018) Yao et al., (2018). Their works are related with acid leaching and metal separations with precipitation, solvent extraction or electrowinning.

The main characteristic of acid leaching is low selectivity among valuable metals and impurities. There is also a study with alkaline leaching in ammonia media, followed by solvent extraction, developed by Oraby et al., (2019). This author concluded that alkaline leaching ismuchmore selective, but the overall efficiency in valuable metals extraction is low. Felisberto et al., (2018) and Silva et al., (2014) published a comparison between acid and alkaline media in galvanic sludge leaching and the conclusions were similar. There has been an increasing interest in developing new or modified hydrometallurgical processes for the separation of non-ferrous metals and precious metals. The whole process of metal

105 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 recovery consists of three main steps which are (i) mechanical pre-treatment of waste, (ii) leaching of metals by a suitable lixiviant and (iii) purification of pregnant leach solution.

Pre-Treatment Of Waste Metal wastes can be found in the form of oxides/hydroxide state, alloy and associated with different level of impurities depending on the waste solids ranging from scrap metal, water purification sludge, flue dust and combustion ashes (Brooks et al., 2018). Marsden et al., (2007) reported the dissolution of copper ions was carried out simultaneously with mechanical crushing of solid waste as to reduce the dwell times for the crushing and leaching in grinding mill.

Leaching Of Metals A suitable lixiviant or leaching agent is required for the effective extraction of desired metals. Leaching stage or solubilisation process is where the solid waste is converted into free metallic and non-metallic ions. The most common chemical leaching agents used for recovery of metals include cyanide, Halide, thiourea, thiosulphate, EDTA, DTPA, NTA, oxalate, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, Aquaregia ferric chloride and copperchloride, etc. Besides, the solubilisation also consists of reaction with acids or alkalis. Previous studies show several acid solubilisations of metal oxides on waste such as coal ash, sewage sludge which indicates the efficiency of acid solution as a good leaching agent.

PURIFICATION The purification of leach solutions involved the separation of solid and liquid by dissolving the impurities using available methods such as conventional neutralization or precipitation, re-crystallization, solvent extraction, adsorption, membrane separation, electrochemical reduction, electrowinning and ion exchange prior to the recovery of desired metals (Shemi et al., 2014; ESilva et al., 2006). The main properties that always been taken into account for metal purification are selectivity, metal loading possibility, resistance to contact with aqua regia, organic-aqueous phase disengagement, and price of the organic extractant.

Solvent extraction (SX) technology is one of the best techniques available for the removal, separation and concentration of metallic species from aqueous media (Tsakiridis et al., 2005) due to the simplified operation procedures and facilities, efficient acid recycling, low operating costs and environmentally friendly operations (Zhu et al., 2011). It plays an important role in recovering metals from different aqueous leach liquor and waste effluent/solutions. For instance, leach liquor or aqueous solution can be classified into sulphate, chloride, nitrate and phosphate. In solvent extraction, factors that affect the process such as pH, organic to aqueous ratio, kinetics of extraction, phase contact time and stripping should be controlled in order to obtain high extraction of metals (Jha et al., 2012). In addition, phosphorus based-extractants are widely used in solvent extraction processes for metal separation and recovery. Hydrometallurgy technique is much preferable than other methods but it still generates liquid waste that need additional treatment.

METAL RECOVERY FROM WASTEWATER A variety of physical and chemical methods are found in literatures to recover the metals especially from aqueous solution and more specifically leachate which are generated from municipal waste landfills. The recovery techniques are categorized into physical method (adsorption, membrane filtration) and chemical method (chemical precipitation, adsorption, cementation, ion exchange and ion flotation).

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CHEMICAL METHOD Cementation Cementation method is provided for recovering precious metals such as gold, palladium, rhodium and platinum as well as copper and zinc from respective waste solutions including stop baths, stabilizers and solution tailings. Waste solutions generated during copper electroplating in sulphate electrolytes or spent nitric acid based copper etching solutions often contain significant concentrations of copper ions. Stefanowicz et al., (1997) reported more than 99% of copper recovered by the continuous rotation pieces of iron pieces together with copper sulphate solutions with occasional shaking. It was concluded the most viable method for copper recovery is the method of its cementation using scrap iron to produce metallic copper sediments.

There are number of studies been conducted on the metal cementation using aluminium (Wallace, 1978), iron (Lee, 2003), copper (Guerra, 1999; Nguyen, 1997) and zinc (Orhan, 2005; Navarro, 2004).

Chemical Precipitation Theoretically, chemical precipitation is defined as the removal of soluble metal ions from solution by changing the solution composition, hence causing the formation of insoluble metal complexes. This method is the most widely used for heavy metal removal from waste stream which involves the pH adjustment to the basic condition (pH 9-10) in order to convert the dissolved metal ions into the insoluble solid phase (metal hydroxide) via a chemical reaction with the use of precipitant agent. This method is classified into several types for instance hydroxide precipitation (OH-), sulphide precipitation (S2-) and carbonate 2- precipitation (CO3 ). Besides, lime precipitation is claimed to work efficiently for the inorganic effluent treatment with a metal concentration higher than 1000 ppm.

Hydroxide precipitation appears as the most preferable technique used in metal removal. However, sulphide precipitation has some advantages over hydroxide precipitation includes the lower solubility of metal sulphides, high selectivity at lower pH values, higher kinetic reaction and the reusability (Lewis, 2006; Lewis 2010). Recently, the immobilization of heavy metals in the form carbonate salts has been practiced using advanced biological treatment technology. Kumari et al., (2014) had studied the removal of cadmium from contaminated soils by employing Exiguobacterium undae at low temperature and they found more than 90% of cadmium converted to carbonate-bound fraction in the duration of two weeks treatment. Moreover, lime is highly consumed in the soils remediation due to its pozzolanic property and it raise the pH soil thus enhances the precipitation of heavy metals such as Cd, Co, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb and Zn (Hale et al., 2012).

Ion Exchange In ion exchange, a reversible interchange of ions between the solid and liquid phases occurs, wherein a surfactant removes undesirable ions from an electrolytic solution and releases other ions of like charge in a chemically equivalent amount without any structural change of the surfactant (Coman et al., 2013). Ion exchangers are able to exchange either positive charged ion (cation exchanger) or negatively charged ion (anion exchanger) due to the insoluble acid or base that contains insoluble salt. This method is has been employed for the removal of metals from waste streams mainly from chemical process industries. Commonly used surfactant for ion exchange is synthetic organic ion exchange resins.

Far more resin is consumed in water purification than any other purposes. Besides, resin or

107 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 surfactants have a hydrophobic part (uncharged carbohydrate group) and hydrophilic part (depend on the nature of surfactant). There are several examples of metal recovery by ion exchange using medium resin which is classified into several types including cationic resin (exchange positive ions), anionic resin (exchange negative ions) and non-ionic resin.

Ion Flotation Flotation, a process originating from the minerals industry, is finding its way as a separation process for liquid phase, with particular interest in metal ions recovery. The process depends on the selective affinity of the reagents used to form gas bubbles, then separated from the suspension of heavy metal by the bubble rise. However, due to reagent addition, the settling of tailings may cause environmental problem.

PHYSICAL METHOD Adsorption Recently, adsorption on the engineered systems including modified natural materials, industrial by-products and modified agricultural has become one of the alternative treatment techniques for the removal or separation of heavy metals from wastewater laden with heavy metals. Majority of the natural zeolite exists as clinoptilolite with chemical formula Na0.1K8.57Ba0.04(Al9.31Si26.83O72)·19.56H2O and others present as analcime, natrolite, phillipsite and stilbite (Vaca Mier et al., 2001). Metal adsorption onto natural zeolite (clinoptilolite) and synthetic zeolite clinoptilolite hold a great potential in the removal of cationic heavy metal species. Pitcher et al 2004 reported synthetic zeolite (MAP) was better than natural zeolite (mordenite) at removing the heavy metals in motorway stormwater but a proper controlled of pH need to be considered further in order to increase the selective adsorption (Pitcher et al., 2004). Recent studies conducted by Kong et al., (2014) and Jovanovic et al., (2014) reported an almost complete removal (99%) of arsenic from contaminated groundwater on magnetic nanoscale Fe-Mn binary oxides loaded zeolite (MFM) and maximal sorption capacity of zeolite A beads for Cu2+ was predicted as 23.3 mg g-1 based on Langmuir model respectively.

A great deal of interest on the removal of heavy metals from waste stream has been focused on the use of agricultural by-products as adsorbents. Available and cheap resources such as coal, lignite, peat, wood, coconuts shell and rice husk can be employed as an adsorbent for heavy metal uptake after conversion into activated carbon through heating. Activated carbons contains high amount of carbon and low inorganic content with large surface area, fast kinetics and high adsorption capacity. In general, research on activated carbon from animal origin is less common than plant origin, since it require long processing steps. Cechinel et al (2014) had performed the adsorption of lead onto activated carbon originating from cow bone, chemically modified with nitric acid. Activated carbon adsorption gives better performance when dealing with low concentration and trace quantities of heavy metal (Erdem et al., 2004).

In addition, a composite adsorbent (chitosan-coated acid treated coconut shell carbon) were successfully employed by Amuda et al., (2007) and Babel et al., (2004) in removing zinc from aqueous solution. It was concluded the uses of coconut shells and aquatic waste such as chitin to produce activated carbons potentially provide a low cost raw material and highly effective adsorbents. Ajmal et al., (2003) reported in his study, phosphate-treated rice husk was non-selective for Cr(VI) as compared to phosphate treated sawdust but

108 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 showed high adsorption for Cd(II). A recent study by Maruyama et al., (2014) had conducted a selective adsorption of precious metal ions (Au3+, Pd2+ and Pt4+) using protein-rich biomas including feather powder, ground chicken, cowhide, soy protein, corn protein, sheep-intestine where egg-shell membrane emerged as the most efficient adsorbents. The employment of the suitable adsorbent uses to treat the inorganic effluent majorly depends on the technical applicability and cost-effectiveness. Several studies have been conducted on the modification of industrial by-products including fly ash, waste iron, iron slags and hydrous titanium oxide in order to enhance the metal removal from waste effluent (Barakat et al., 2011).

Membrane Filtration Depending on the size of the particle that can be retained, various types of membrane filtration such as ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) can be employed for heavy metal removal. UF utilizes permeable membrane to separate heavy metals, macromolecules and suspended solids from inorganic solution on the basis of the pore size (5–20 nm) and molecular weight of the separating compounds (1000–100,000 Da). These unique specialties enable UF to allow the passage of water and low-molecular weight solutes, while retaining the macromolecules, which have a size larger than the pore size of the membrane. The significance of NF membrane lies in its small pore and membrane surface charge, which allows charged solutes smaller than the membrane pores to be rejected along with the bigger neutral solutes and salts. In reverse osmosis (RO), a pressure-driven membrane process, water can pass through the membrane, while the heavy metal is retained.

CONCLUSION

There are main obstacles of dealing with solid wastes are their heterogeneous and complex nature which is difficult to solve. It is concluded that, the hydrometallurgical processing is recognized as the effective and flexible method for recovering the valuable metals as compared to pyrometallurgy method. It is due to the major drawback of the pyrometallurgical method which requires high energy consumption and need of dust collecting/gas cleaning system. Furthermore, the level of impurities for each waste varies considerably which make it harder to separate the metals essentially from non-metal components and each other. The organic content in wastewater can be easily decomposed by biological, physical and chemical means, but inorganic metals is found harder to be removed or separated by the described approaches due to several intrinsic properties such as level of solubility and the tendency to form a metal complex. Chemical methods are claimed to be more rapid and efficient than physical method but it required high energy cost and chemicals consumption. However, there is no sludge production, little or no consumption of chemicals by using the physical means.

Acknowledgment: This research is financially supported by Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), Hitachi scholarship programme 2019, PDRU Grant- (Vot No. Q.J130000.21A2.04E53) Fundamental Research Grant Scheme of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (Vote R.J130000.7809.4F472; R.J130000.7317.4B207) and Research University Grant Scheme (Vote Q.J130000.2609.09J40) which are gratefully acknowledged.

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ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

Parallel Session 5

113 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

A NOVEL APPROACH FOR MEASURING URBAN FORM SUSTAINABILITY: A STUDY OF KANO TRADITIONAL CITY, NIGERIA

Abubakar Siddiq Usman1*, Dr. Wan Mohd Zakri Bin Wan Abdullah2

1 Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, University Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA *[email protected] 2 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, University Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected]

ABSTRACT The rapid rate of urban growth and its impact on the urban built environment although a global phenomenon is unprecedented in developing countries of the world especially Nigeria. Sustainable urban form is commonly adopted as a panacea for promoting urban sustainability. Yet, what constitutes the most sustainable urban form remains unresolved. This is in part due to the application of different methods, models, and assessment tools for sustainable urban form measurement. It has been advocated, however, that appropriate policies and strategies for sustainable urban development depends on an accurate assessment of sustainable urban form. This study is an attempt to fill that gap. It is a mixed-method approach that utilizes structural equation modelling (SEM) as the main analytical tool. Three endogenous lifestyle variables of economic, social and environmental sustainability, and 17 exogenous variable – urban form components make up the SEM assessment model. A case study of Kano traditional city in Nigeria demonstrates the validity of the assessment model. The study posits that the model could be effective in promoting sustainable urban development through urban form by recognizing the importance of sustainable lifestyle variables and as planning tools. It, therefore, calls for the adoption of lifestyle variables in sustainable urban design and planning paradigm.

Key words: Sustainable urban form, Structural equation modelling, Lifestyle, Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION Since the adoption of sustainability objectives (United Nations, 1993), various strategies and policies have been posited for the promotion of sustainable urban development, especially in developed countries. Sustainable urban form was commonly appreciated as the most effective way of promoting sustainable urban development. This led to the growing interest in the ability of compact city model in achieving sustainable development (Williams, Burton, & Jenks, 2000). However, accurate assessment of sustainable urban form is an important aspect in guiding urban development on a sustainable path by providing the necessary support base for the formulation of sustainable urban development strategies and policies (Uwasu,& Yabar, 2011). Various methods have been used in assessing the contribution of urban form to sustainable development (Williams et al, 2000; Huang, Yan, & Wu, 2016). However, these studies have some shortcomings, due partly to insufficient methodologies and the urban form typology adopted; as most adopted urban form typologies are unique to the area under investigation. As rightly observed, the existing sustainable assessment tools ignore certain important features of sustainability and

114 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 the relationships between environmental and socio-economic aspects were not clearly defined (Uwasu & Yabar, 2011; Jiao, Shen, Shuai, & He, 2016).

Therefore, there is a need for a new sustainable urban form assessment tools that will take into cognisance the interactions between and among the indicators. This paper, therefore, presents an Indicator-based Sustainable Lifestyle, Urban Form Assessment (ISLUFA) model based on the principle of Structural Equation Modelling (SEM), with Kano traditional city in Nigeria as a case study to demonstrate the model’s validity. The paper aims to contribute methodological tools to the sustainable urban form debate, by presenting a model for further research, essential in sustainable development fields.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The process for measuring urban form sustainability for this study involved identifying and defining the different aspects of urban form components; developing indicators of sustainable lifestyle; and modelling the effect of the exogenous variable – urban form on sustainable development (the endogenous variable). To this end, the mixed method was employed for the study. Specifically, data were obtained from a questionnaire survey, design on a 5-point Linkert scale. Information required for the questionnaire were obtained through the use of sustainable lifestyle indicators and urban form components established in literature and research-backed by expert opinion. The Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) was selected for the study, while the partial least square algorithms embedded in the SMART PLS 3.0 was deployed for the modelling. It is the second major process of SEM analysis and provides details on the relationships between the constructs (Lowry & Gaskin, 2014). It shows the specific details of the relationship among the independent or exogenous and dependent or endogenous variables (Hair, Sarstedt, Hopkins, & Kuppelwieser, 2014). Evaluation of the structural model focus firstly on the overall model fit, followed by the size, direction and significance of the proposed parameter estimates, as displayed by the one- headed arrows in the path diagrams (Hair et al., 2014; Altarawneh, Thiruchelvam, & Samadi, 2018). The final part included the confirmation process of the structural model established on the projected relationship among the identified and assessed variables (Altarawneh, et al., 2018). Two models where developed; the Path Modelling technique and the Bootstrapping with 5,000 replications or subsamples to test the effect of urban form on sustainable development.

According to Hair et al. (2014), measurement of reflective models is different from that of formative models. Reflective models are measured based on the individual loadings of each indicator which ranges from 0 to 1. The threshold for each indicator loading to ascertain its contribution to the model is 0.70. Whereas, formative models are measured based on the outer weights of the indicators and the significance of the outer loadings. Indicators with lower loadings (below the specified threshold of 0.70) but significant are therefore retained. The PLS-SEM for the relationship between urban form (tangible and intangible components) and sustainable development was initially set up with sustainable development as formative measurement model and urban form with its categorization having all reflective measurement models which make up the structural model. Urban form as the exogenous variable was modelled with seventeen (17) measuring items (tangible component 10 and intangible component 7). While the tangible component consists of five (5) sub factors - city wall/gate, central market, mosque/palace, urban farmland and water bodies; the intangible component consists of four (4) sub factors - political leadership/administration, land use, layout pattern and architectural pattern. Each of these

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categories was modelled with distinct measuring items, which cumulatively converges on the urban form variable. City wall/gate was modelled with six (6) indicators; central market eleven (11) indicators; mosque/palace ten (10) indicators; urban farmland four (4) indicators and water bodies six (6) indicators for the tangible. For the intangible; political leadership/administration was modelled with four (4) indicators; Land use three (3) indicators; Layout pattern eleven (11) indicators and architecture pattern four (4) indicators. Whereas, sustainable development was set up as a formative model with twenty-seven (27) indicators. In all, the original model was made up of one hundred and sixteen (64 tangible and 52 intangible) measurement items. Figure 1 captures the consequent model.

a) Tangible (64 - Indicator) b) Intangible (52 - Indicator) Figure 1. PLS-SEM showing the outer loadings of the measurement models

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The results indicate that some of the indicators or manifest variables did not load reliably on their assigned constructs. The effect of the loadings of indicators on the reliability and validity of the constructs is reported in Table 1a & b. Indicators of sustainable development which is a formative model were assessed based on their respective outer weights and outer loadings significance. All the indicators were found to be significant with a loading ranging between 0.235 and 0.643 and are therefore retained.

Table 1a. Construct reliability and validity (Tangible Component) Cronbach's Alpha rho_A Composite Reliability AVE

1st test 2nd test 1st test 2nd test 1st test 2nd test 1st test 2nd test Central Market 0.838 0.758 0.843 0.765 0.872 0.837 0.383 0.507 City wall/gate 0.765 0.765 0.771 0.769 0.85 0.85 0.586 0.586 Mosque/palace 0.829 0.821 0.842 0.83 0.869 0.87 0.458 0.528 Sustainability 1 1 Urban Farm Land 0.583 0.583 0.606 0.597 0.825 0.826 0.703 0.704 Urban Form 0.771 0.774 1 0.829 0.327 Water Bodies 0.675 0.693 0.714 0.695 0.801 0.831 0.51 0.621

Table 1b. Construct reliability and validity (Intangible Component) Cronbach's Alpha rho_A Composite Reliability AVE

1st test 2nd test 1st test 2nd test 1st test 2nd test 1st test 2nd test Architecture 0.171 0.447 0.421 0.448 0.445 0.783 0.322 0.644 Land use 0.766 0.766 0.771 0.771 0.85 0.85 0.586 0.586 Layout pattern 0.849 0.761 0.851 0.766 0.879 0.838 0.398 0.509 Political/Administration 0.771 0.771 0.779 0.778 0.853 0.853 0.592 0.592 Sustainability 1 1 Urban Form 1 1

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The Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability and Dijkstra-Henseler’s rho_A are measures of internal consistency reliability, and all are expected to be 0.70 or higher. Both models of tangible (64 indicators) and intangible (52 indicators) did not satisfy these conditions. Furthermore, the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) which measures the construct validity is also expected to be above the acceptable level of 0.5 as noted by Hair et al. (2014). However, the AVE for the central market, mosque/palace and urban form for tangible; architecture and layout pattern for intangible are below the expected threshold of 0.50 (Table 1a & b). The negative scores of the average variances extracted (AVE) and the reliability measures shows that convergence validity and reliability has not been achieved. In order words, the indicators with which the latent variables are measured do not converge on their associated constructs. As such, the indicators with low loadings in the reflective measurement models were dropped to improve the validity and reliability of the model. Figure 2 shows the consequence of dropping these indicators. Dropping the indicators also improved the AVE values and satisfy the validity requirement. Although the Cronbach Alpha and the rho_A values were below the required threshold for some constructs, the convergent validity and reliability can be said to have been achieved since the Composite reliability test was positive. The collinearity of Latent Predictor Variables (LPV) does not pose any problem in the structural model as the study indicate. This is because all the scores for the variance inflation factor (VIF) for the structural construct's variables were below 5.0.

a) Tangible (57 - Indicator) b) Intangible (44 - Indicator) Figure 2. The effect of urban form on sustainable development

The numbers on the arrows connecting the constructs is the path coefficients noted as (β), (having standardized values from -1 to +1), represent the hypothesized relationships among the constructs. Path coefficients close to +1 represent strong positive relationships and estimated path coefficients close to -1 represent strong negative or mediating relationships. The path coefficient between tangible and intangible factors and urban form has a weak positive relationship to the converging construct. However, the relationship between urban form and sustainable development was found to be strongly positive with a path coefficient of β= 0.657, p>0.01 for tangible and β= 0.61 for intangible. To further ascertain the significance of these relationships, bootstrapping (with no sign change option algorithm) was deployed on the SmartPLS software using an alpha protection level of 5% and 5,000 independent subsamples. The standardized confidence interval estimation method was chosen at 95% confidence level. The result shows that all the path coefficients were found to be significant at the 95% confidence level. The findings from the analysis indicate that urban form has a significant effect on sustainable development. The predictive power or accuracy of a PLS-SEM is measured by the coefficient of determination (R2). The R2 value is the value in the circle in Figure 2. The R2 value of the endogenous variable in the model is 0.432 for Tangible and 0.549 for Intangible (Table 2).

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The implication of this is that the exogenous variable (Tangible ) explains 43.2% of the variance in sustainable development, while the exogenous variable (Intangible ) explains 54.9% of the variance in sustainable. In other words, we can account for over 40% of the variance in sustainable development by giving attention to the tangible component, and over 50% of the variance to the intangible component. The value for the endogenous variable was above the 0.3 thresholds and was found to be significant. Therefore, and in line with the study objective, the urban form of Kano Traditional city can be said to be sustainable in both its tangible and intangible components.

Table 2. R2 Value of endogenous variable and significant level Original Sample Mean Std Deviation T-Statistics P Values Sample (O) (M) (STDEV) (|O/STDEV|) Tang Intang Tang Intang Tang Intang Tang Intang Tang Intang Sustainability 0.432 0.549 0.457 0.555 0.034 0.027 12.558 20.461 0.00 0.00

CONCLUSION Proper evaluation of the effect of urban form on sustainability is crucial in providing support for urban development strategies and policies for guiding sustainable development. Study findings indicate that the effect of urban form on a sustainable lifestyle can be measured by the ISLUFA model deployed for this study, and that the sustainability of urban form can be effectively measured by PLS-SEM. The typical advantages of the ISLUFA model are that it can determine the most influential indicators to the different dimensions of sustainable development, and can also assist decision-makers to identify effective and adequate policies for achieving sustainable development. It, therefore, calls for the adoption of lifestyle variables in sustainable urban design and planning paradigm. While the model presented in this study is for assessing the sustainability of urban form of Kano traditional city in Nigeria: The paper posits that the model can in principle apply to all cities for sustainable urban form measurement. It is considered that this research not only adds to the literature in sustainable development discourse but can also be useful as planning tools. The study of Kano traditional city in Nigeria, the study concludes, offered an insight into the sustainability of traditional settlement and therefore calls for further research of traditional urban form in promoting urban sustainability. This the study argued will facilitate the creation of more sustainable cities of developing countries that are in dire need of urgent planning intervention.

REFERENCES

Altarawneh, J. Y., Thiruchelvam, V., & Samadi, B. (2018). Analysis of Critical Success Factors Influence on Critical Delays for Water Infrastructure Construction Projects in the Abu Dhabi emirate Using PLS-SEM Method. International Business Research, 11(2), 16-32. Hair Jr, F. J., Sarstedt, M., Hopkins, L., & G. Kuppelwieser, V. (2014). Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) An emerging tool in business research. European Business Review, 26(2), 106-121. Huang, L., Yan, L., & Wu, J. (2016). Assessing urban sustainability of Chinese mega cities: 35 years after the economic reform and open-door policy. Landscape and Urban Planning, 145, 57-70. Jiao, L., Shen, L., Shuai, C., & He, B. (2016). A novel approach for assessing the performance of sustainable urbanization based on structural equation modeling: A China case study. Sustainability, 8(9), 910. Lowry, P. B., & Gaskin, J. (2014). Partial least squares (PLS) structural equation modeling (SEM) for building and testing behavioral causal theory: When to choose it and how to use it. IEEE transactions on professional communication, 57(2), 123-146. United Nations,(1993). Earth Summit Agenda 21:The UN Programme of Action from Rio (United Nations, NewYork). Uwasu, M., & Yabar, H. (2011). Assessment of sustainable development based on the capital approach. Ecological Indicators, 11(2), 348-352. Williams, K., Burton, E., & Jenks, M. (2000). Achieving sustainable urban form: an introduction. Achieving sustainable urban form, 2000, 1-5.

118 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT CONCEPT AWARENESS AMONG STUDENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Florianna L. Michael*, Helmi Sumilan, Nur Fatihah A. Bandar, Hana Hamidi, Sheilla L. O. Lim, Siti M. Abdullah, Abg Izhar A. Ahmad, Victoria Jonathan and Nik Norsyamimi M. Nor

Faculty of Cognitive Sciences and Human Development, Kota Samarahan, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT As higher education is given a primary role as knowledge producer, it serves as a powerful means to help create a more sustainable future which involves educating students on the necessity of sustainable development. The purpose of this case study was to survey the students’ awareness, attitudes and actions in regard to sustainable development. The study was conducted in one of the public universities in Malaysia located in Kota Samarahan. Questionnaire used was developed based on learning objectives provided by UNESCO. A total of 79.2% (N=507) of students from the same programme participated in the study. Results indicated that 40.7% (N=239) students have insufficient knowledge on sustainable development. Using ANOVA test, it was found that there are significant differences between students’ year of study and their sustainability awareness, attitudes, and actions. Further findings revealed that the final year students have the highest level of sustainability awareness (M=3.918, SD=.517), attitudes (M=4.349, SD=.514) and actions (M=4.365, SD=.538) as compared to Year 1 and 2. Improvising the current higher education curriculum is required to effectively equip the students with the knowledge and understanding, skills and attributes in embedding sustainability into their daily activities.

Key words: Sustainable development, Awareness, Higher Education

INTRODUCTION The United Nations defines sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Emas, 2015). Therefore, sustainable development does not only deal with environmental issues, but economic, social and cultural issues as well. At the same time, global action is needed to create a more sustainable future as there has been increased demands placed on societies and the environment (Clayton & Radcliffe, 2018).

As higher education institutions are given its primary role as knowledge producer as it is able to assist in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), it can serve as a powerful means to help create a more sustainable future. Higher education across the globe holds the responsibility for shaping students in terms of sustainability awareness and changing the attitude of future generations towards the importance of sustainability. Universities currently have the potential for educating the younger generations towards sustainability such as environmental through their education system, curriculum, syllabus, practices and Green University vision (Hamid, Ijab, Sulaiman, Md. Anwar, & Norman, 2017). Higher education’s role in creating a sustainable future will presumably take on a greater importance as the world continues to become increasingly globalized and

119 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 interdependent as the propagation of sustainability in higher education (HE) for sustainable development is a recent (Aleixo, Leal & Azeiteiro, 2018) and a promising research area (Hugé, Mac-Lean, & Vargas, 2018).

Additionally, there is an increasing need to educate sustainability among students by encapsulating the practices and strategies of energy efficiency, risk reduction, sustainable designs, climate change, and sustainable consumption of resources (Laurischkat & Jandt, 2018) into the university’s curriculum or program conducted in the campus. This will consequently enhance the students’ competencies (Palacin-Silva, Seffah, & Porras, 2018) at whichever field they ventured into. While it is acknowledged that it is of interest to higher education, to what extent the awareness on sustainability grows amongst the students is still uncertain and yet to be discovered.

The current level of awareness among students for sustainability is generally associated with the environment (Malik, Khan, & Subhan, 2017). There has been lack of attention directed towards highlighting sustainability and embed it into our education curriculum (Tejedor, Segalàs & Rosas-Casals 2018), particularly in art and humanities programmes, such as human resource development although HRD is known to be strategic department that focuses on driving the organization towards its vision and mission theoretically. This study, therefore, investigates the students’ overall awareness of, attitudes towards and the likelihood of action on sustainability as well as the relationship between students’ year and each of sustainability awareness, attitudes, and action.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Research design used is a correlational study where a 5-Likert scale questionnaire was developed based on the learning objectives provided by UNESCO. The respondents were students enrolled in Human Resource Development programme in one of the public universities in Kuching District. The population of the students were 640 inclusive of year 1, 2 and 3. A total of 507 students (79.2%) participated in the study using convenience sampling method. For awareness, the items begin with “My knowledge of ... is.” For attitude, items began with “I feel” or “I do not feel.” For action, each item was preceded by “I will share…” (about or how to). The questionnaire was being divided into four (4) sections which are demographic background, awareness, attitude and action sections. The value of the Cronbach’s alpha was 0.969, exceeded 0.7 which indicated that the questionnaire is reliable. The students were given a link to a google form shared by the Programme Coordinator of the Faculty via WhatsApp Messenger for each cohort group chat as is the fastest and most efficient way to reach the students. The data were analyzed using SPSS Statistics version 25 using one-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and Kruskal- Wallis H test as the data distribution was found to be not normal, hence non-parametric test was used. The demographic background of the students is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Demographic Background Gender Male 19.7% (N=100) Female 80.1% (N=407) Age 18-21 41.3% (N=210) 22-25 54.7% (N=278) 26-29 1.8% (N=9) 30 and above 1.2% (N=6) Year Year 1 18.1% (N=92)

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Year 2 36.8% (N=187) Year 3 44.9% (N=228) Have you heard Yes 32.5% (N=165) of the No 20.3% (N=103) Sustainable Yes, but I do not understand 40.7% (N=239) Development? what it means

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This study investigated the students’ overall awareness of, attitudes towards and the likelihood of action on sustainability in higher education. Then, the relationship between students’ year and each of sustainability awareness, attitudes, and actions were examined. Table 2 summarizes the results for majority of the students’ overall level of awareness as moderate (60.8 %), high level of attitudes (66.3%) and high will power to act towards sustainability (83.7%). The level of awareness is considered the lowest as compared to the other variables. This means that a small number of students are familiar with the importance of mental health and education.

Table 2. Students’ overall awareness. attitude and the likelihood of action on sustainability Variables Category Frequency (%) M SD Awareness Low 8.1 (N=41) 3.831 .547 Moderate 60.8 (N=308) High 31.1 (N=158) Attitude Low 5.5 (N=28) 4.259 .561 Moderate 28.2 (N=143) High 66.3 (N=336) Action Low 4.9 (N=25) 4.274 .594 Moderate 30.8 (N=156) High 64.3 (N=326)

Mojilis (2019) reported a level of awareness of 70% among students in another university in Malaysia, regardless of age, gender and level of study. A similar study conducted in United States of America revealed that although the majority of the students (54.8%) agreed that their university advocates for policies that promote campus sustainability, 60% of the students do not have knowledge on whether or not the university has signed the “American college and university presidents climate commitments,” nor do they know whether the university is a member of “the association for the advancement of sustainability in higher education.” This supports the notion that the sustainability awareness among university students globally showed a similar level of awareness (Msengi et. al, 2019).

As for action, the frequencies are at 66.3%, which is relatively close to attitude variable. There is an indication that the students do have the desire to contribute to activities related to sustainable development. Similarly, Msengi et. al (2019) reported in their study that about 72% of their sample indicated that student clubs engage in environmental outreach or recycling as well as earth day. However, 43% of the students reported that sustainability was not included in the student orientation program and 57% reported that their student publications did not focus on sustainability. Overall, the findings are consistent with previous studies that showed students are indeed concerned with sustainability issues (Duarte, Escario, & Sanagustín, 2017; Meyer, 2016). These results also imply that the students initiated and expanded their efforts in ensuring environmental aspects are

121 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 sustained.

Table 3. Year of study and sustainability awareness, attitude and action Variables Category M(SD) Kruskal Wallis (H) p Awareness Year 1 3.671(.630) 13.726 .001 Year 2 3.786(.522) Year 3 3.918(.517) Attitude Year 1 4.145(.589) 10.069 .007 Year 2 4.206(.588) Year 3 4.349(.514) Action Year 1 4.148(.630) 9.085 .011 Year 2 4.227(.627) Year 3 4.365(.538)

Table 3 shows there was a statistically significant difference among Year of Study and sustainability awareness (p =.001), sustainability attitude (p =.007) and sustainability action (p=.011). Overall, students from the three different years (Year 1, Year 2, Year 3) showed a high sustainability awareness, attitude and action. However, the results revealed that Year 3 students have the highest mean of sustainability awareness (M=3.918, SD=.517), attitude (M=4.349, SD =.514) and action (M=4.365, SD=.38) compared to Year 2 and Year 1. A generally higher score for those who are in Year 3 revealed that the students may be more exposed to sustainability awareness campaigns throughout their study. Interestingly, this result is consistent with prior studies that showed more mature students in college exhibited positive attitudes towards environmental issues (Levine & Strube, 2012).

CONCLUSION The revision of curriculum is recommended to enhance the knowledge of students to create the so-called new skill which is the green skills. The development of green skills is suggested in order to control the human activities which affected the environment as the focal of twenty-first century skills should not be limited only on the technical skills and generic skills, but also on the knowledge, abilities, values and attitudes towards sustainability.

REFERENCES

Aleixo, A. M., Leal, S., & Azeiteiro, U. M. (2018). Conceptualization of sustainable higher education institutions, roles, barriers, and challenges for sustainability: An exploratory study in Portugal. Journal of Cleaner Production, 172, 1664-1673. Blessinger, P, Sengupta, E., & Makhanya, M. (September, 2018). Higher education’s key role in sustainable development. University World News. Retrieved from https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20180905082834986 Clayton, T., & Radcliffe, N. (2018). Sustainability: a systems approach. Routledge. Emas, R. (2015). The concept of sustainable development: definition and defining principles. Brief for GSDR, 2015. Duarte, R., Escario, J. J., & Sanagustín, M. V. (2017). The influence of the family, the school, and the group on the environmental attitudes of European students. Environmental Education Research, 23(1), 23-42. Hamid, S., Ijab, M., Sulaiman, H., Md. Anwar, R. and Norman, A. (2017), "Social media for environmental sustainability awareness in higher education", International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, Vol. 18 No. 4, pp. 474-491. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSHE-01-2015-0010 Hugé, J., Mac-Lean, C., & Vargas, L. (2018). Maturation of sustainability in engineering faculties–From emerging issue to strategy? Journal of cleaner production, 172, 4277-4285. Laurischkat, K., & Jandt, D. (2018). Techno-economic analysis of sustainable mobility and energy solutions consisting of electric vehicles, photovoltaic systems and battery storages. Journal of cleaner

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production, 179, 642-661. Levine, D. & Stube, M. (2012). Environmental attitudes, knowledge, intentions and behaviors among college students. The Journal of Social Psychology, 152(3), 308-326. Malik, M. N., Khan, H. H., & Subhan, F. (2017). Sustainable Design of Mobile Icons: Investigating Effect on Mentally Retarded User's. Journal of Medical Imaging and Health Informatics, 7(6), 1419-1428. Malik, M. N., Khan, H. H., Chofreh, A. G., Goni, F. A., Klemeš, J. J., & Alotaibi, Y. (2019). Investigating Students’ Sustainability Awareness and the Curriculum of Technology Education in Pakistan. Sustainability, 11(9), 2651. Meyer, A. (2016). Heterogeneity in the preferences and pro-environmental behavior of college students: the effects of years on campus, demographics, and external factors. Journal of Cleaner Production, 112, 3451-3463. Mojilis, F. (2019). Sustainability Awareness of Students from a Green University in Sabah, Malaysia. Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Environment Management, 4(13), 24-33. Msengi, I., Doe, R., Wilson, T., Fowler, D., Wigginton, C., Olorunyomi, S., ... & Morel, R. (2019). Assessment of knowledge and awareness of “sustainability” initiatives among college students. Renewable Energy and Environmental Sustainability, 4, 6. Palacin-Silva, M. V., Seffah, A., & Porras, J. (2018). Infusing sustainability into software engineering education: Lessons learned from capstone projects. Journal of cleaner production, 172, 4338-4347. Tejedor, G., Segalàs, J., & Rosas-Casals, M. (2018). Transdisciplinarity in higher education for sustainability: How discourses are approached in engineering education. Journal of cleaner production, 175, 29-37. Waltner, E. M., Rieß, W., & Mischo, C. (2019). Development and validation of an instrument for measuring student sustainability competencies. Sustainability, 11(6), 1717.

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A STRUCTURAL EQUATIONS MODELLING APPROACH TO MEASURING URBAN FORM SUSTAINABILITY: CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS AND METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK

Abubakar Siddiq Usman*1; Dr. Wan Mohd Zakri Bin Wan Abdullah2

1, 2 Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, University Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA *[email protected]/[email protected] 2, 3 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, University Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected]

ABSTRACT Two-thirds of the world’s population is expected to be urban by 2030. Virtually all this growth is expected to be accommodated in the developing world. Urban development stakeholders need to come up with sustainable ways to accommodate this growth. However, much discourse on sustainable urban form measurement centres on cities of the developed world, with little or no consideration to the developing world with its distinct urban form (in terms of history, tradition and identity). There is the need for a sustainable urban form measurement framework that evaluates urban form sustainability, taking cognizance of its peculiarity and residents. This research is an attempt in that direction. It is a desk research that seeks to contribute to the pertinent discourse on sustainable urban form. The paper posits that effective understanding of urban form and its relationship with urban sustainability could minimize the impacts of urbanization by providing the basis for sustainable urban development. It suggests that an acceptable and more responsive sustainable urban form assessment is desirable in promoting urban sustainability. Conclusions are drawn on the robustness of the framework, with areas requiring further development highlighted.

Key words: Sustainability, Structural equation modelling, Urban form, Methodological framework.

INTRODUCTION With rising environmental concerns due to urban population increases, sustainable development have become an important issue across the globe. (Teriman, Yigitcanlar, & Severine, 2009; Yigitcanlar, & Dur, 2010). The urgent need for cities to achieve sustainability in their development path has increased the search for sustainable urban form. This has led to adoption of the compact city model as the most sustainable urban form especially in the developed countries. Following the criticisms inherent in the compact city model; finding an acceptable method for urban form sustainability assessment has become a major challenge (Singh, Murty, Gupta, & Dikshit, 2012). Various studies have come up with different methods for sustainable urban form assessment (Daniell, Kingsborough, Malovka, Sommerville, Foley, & Maier, 2005; Hák, Janoušková, & Moldan, 2016), yet the issue as to which urban form type is the most sustainable still remains unresolved. A thorough literature review indicate limitations in the existing methodologies, Loiseau, Junqua, Roux, & Bellon-Maurel, 2012) with few taking the three pillars of sustainability - the environmental, economic and social into cognizance . This is in part due to the application of different methods, models, and

124 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 assessment tools for sustainable urban form measurement. The challenge is to develop a methodological sustainability assessment tool, not just as a mechanisms that measures the specific relationship between urban form and sustainability, but also as a policy instruments for transiting to a sustainable urban development path (Zheng, Shen, & Wang, 2014). This calls for development of a more effective urban form assessment tool (Sala, Ciuffo, & Nijkamp, 2015; Sadler, & Dalal-Clayton, 2012; Geneletti, 2011).

In developing these assessment models most researchers are guided by the UN’s 1987 concept of sustainable development (Jones, & Patterson, 2007). This led to an increasing effort at developing an integrated indicator-based model that will accurately articulate an urban form sustainability assessment tool. The use of indicators provide the foundation for policy decision, and contributes to the promotion of a sustainable city, where both development and environment are integrated. As Meadows, (1998) and Huang, Wu, & Yan, (2015) observed, the advantage of an indicator-based sustainable urban form assessment model is its ability to quantify urban form sustainability on a comparative bases. It also has the ability to simplify, analyse and communicate complex and complicated information (Wallhagen, Glaumann, Eriksson, & Westerberg, 2013). The development of these models however, fails to answer the question; what is the most sustainable urban form type? (Jenks and Jones, 2010). This is because apart from the use of different indices, coupled with different emphasis placed differently, it is also limited by data availability, with the little available being more of quantitative environmental data rather than social qualitative data.

Jenks and Jones, (2010) in investigating urban form sustainability explored the potential association between the three dimensions of sustainability (environment, social and economic) and urban form by developing a specific methodology that measure the potential association of different urban form types. While the Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute (AHURI) identify four measurement methods (UNDEC, 2007), Blair, Prasad, Judd, Zehner, Soebarto, & Hyde, (2004) adopted the triple bottom line (TBL) approach to allow for all the components of sustainability to be viewed and understood in a holistic manner, suggesting that viewing a full suite of indicators allows for better synthesize. However, over reliance of technical and built form indices are course for concern among researchers (UNDEC, 2007). For example, the higher the number of parks and recreational spaces provided within a given neighbourhood, the higher ratings under satisfaction category, whether the facilities so provided are utilized. It is in line with these, that the study presents a novel sustainable urban form assessment model:- The “Indicator-Based Sustainable Lifestyle, Urban Form Assessment Model (ISLUFA)”. The ISLUFA Model is an integrated urban form sustainability assessment tool that in principle can be applied to any city across the globe. The paper gives an overview of the model, discuss its theoretical foundation and conceptual base.

MATERIALS AND METHODS It is a desk research that is qualitative in approach. Data for the research was collected through a systematic review that cover both conference and workshop proceedings, published articles (original research, books, journal, documents, reviews, comments, opinions). This was supplemented with experts discussion; with descriptive analysis as the main method of analysis. The method adopted helps clarify and define the depth and breadth required to formulate appropriate research instruments

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The Indicator-Based Sustainable Lifestyle, Urban Form Assessment Model (ISLUFA) utilize sustainable lifestyle indicators and urban form components. The aim is to incorporate all related urban form domains that impact on lifestyle (leisure and consumption activities) into a practical assessment method. The OECD’s Methodology (The Joint Research Centre-European Commission, 2008) was adapted for the Model formulation. The model is not just a sustainability assessment tool, but also a practical urban design and planning tool that has the ability to be replicated. It is to assist urban designers and policy makers in creating a sustainable future. However, it main distinct characteristic is the use of urban form components as a proxy for urban form type.

The model consists of three segments: the theoretical/conceptual base; the indicator base; and the urban policy. The concept of sustainability and its spatial dimension (urban form) constitute the Model theoretical foundation. The theoretical foundation was based on the theory that sustainable lifestyles and living sustainably are different constructs, that were moderated by some variables or attributes. The urban policy considerations refers to urban form, land-use and infrastructure developments. Therefore, the theoretical foundation adopt the use of urban form components that enabled the use of residents lifestyles and household activity data. The theory behind the indicator-based urban sustainability frames the structure of the research and has immense importance for the robustness and reliability of methods. Data selection is however, partly intuition and partly subjective, a normal process in developing a model (Singh et al, 2012). The availability of data, therefore affects indicator selections. Hák, et al. (2016), explained that, indicators are merely assessment tools; and must therefore be selected in a cost-effective way.

Theoretical Foundation While Williams, Dair, and Lindsay, (2010) queried the technically assessment method such as the TBL in defining an area as sustainable. Holden & Norland, (2005) argued that sustainability can be measure adequately by understanding the ‘behavioural’ dimensions of the residents, and posits that, the ability of a household to live a sustainable life is being influence by other variables, such as urban form. As Neuman (2005, p. 23) state: “Form is a snapshot of process. It is a fixed condition at any point in time. Form, in and of itself, is not measurable in terms of sustainability. Asking whether a compact city, or any other form of the city, is sustainable is like asking whether the body is sustainable. The proper question is not if the body is sustainable, but rather, does the being that inhabits the body live sustainably?” Though the availability of urban form components does not translate automatically to sustainability, Ghosh & Vale (2009) argued that urban form components are potential influence on the propensity of households to act, behave and live sustainably. According to Jiboye, (2009); Howley, (2010) there is a positive relationship between the physical attributes of housing type with residents’ behaviour. This implied that a relationship exist between an urban form component and residents lifestyles which may vary between cultures, social compositions, countries, and/or races. The theoretical framework serve as a structural guide, from which the study methodology was developed. Table 1 shows the various levels of inquiry for the study. The areas of investigation were divided into three (3) segments based on the study objectives.

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Table 1. Summary of the various levels of inquiry to evaluate urban form sustainability Instrument for Method of data Areas of investigation Purpose/Aim Expected results data collection analysis Urban form To identify urban form Document/archival Morphological & Tangible and 1 components (tangible components that impact Interview & descriptive intangible urban and intangible) on sustainability observation analysis form components Urban form To assess urban form Descriptive The sustainability 2 sustainability, residents sustainability using Questionnaire statistics: t-tests of the urban form lifestyles & behaviour residents lifestyles Mean ranking; Influence of urban Impact of urban form To establish the potential Associational: form on 3 components on impact of urban form on Questionnaire Structural sustainable sustainable lifestyles sustainable lifestyles Equation Model lifestyles

The Model Conceptual Base The conceptual base (Figure 1) was based on effects of urban form components (tangible and intangible) on residents lifestyles as a determinant of sustainable urban form. Lifestyles are presented in the data using two main fields: leisure and consumption activities that accommodates key indicator category areas of economics, politics, culture, religion and living status. The conceptual framework also incorporated effects of household behaviour on sustainable lifestyles models.

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework for the study

CONCLUSION The research posits the possibility of urban form sustainability assessment model, that in principle can be apply to major urban area on a comparative basis. Though in its formatives (theoretical) stage, the Model has the potential to assist architects, planners, urban designers and policy makers in pursuing an integrated framework for locally adoptable sustainable development policies. When viewed within the context of rapid urbanisation, urban growth, climate change, and its accompanying urban and environmental problems, the Model has the potential to assist in formulating a sustainable urban development path. The paper however acknowledge that additional aspects such as equity and participation need to be taking into consideration. Hence, the need for empirical research to enhance the model by testing the model in order to best reflect comparative sustainability levels of cities. Another area for further research and development involves the possibilities of including urban infrastructures, services and facilities to the Model. These possibilities should be explored and tested, before the model can be potentially adopted into sustainable urban planning and design mechanism.

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REFERENCES

Blair, J., Prasad, D., Judd, B., Zehner, R., Soebarto, V. I., & Hyde, R. (2004). Affordability and sustainability outcomes: a triple bottom line assessment of traditional development and master planned communities- Volume 1. Daniell, K. A., Kingsborough, A. B., Malovka, D. J., Sommerville, H. C., Foley, B. A., & Maier, H. R. (2005, March). Sustainability assessment of housing developments: a new methodology. In Colloque CABM-HEMA-SMAGET 2005, Joint Conference on Multi-Agent Modeling for Environnemental Management (pp. 31-p). Geneletti, D. (2011). Reasons and options for integrating ecosystem services in strategic environmental assessment of spatial planning. International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management, 7(3), 143-149. Ghosh, S., & Vale, R. (2009). Typologies and basic descriptors of New Zealand residential urban forms. Journal of Urban Design, 14(4), 507-536. Hák, T., Janoušková, S., & Moldan, B. (2016). Sustainable Development Goals: A need for relevant indicators. Ecological Indicators, 60, 565-573. Holden, E., & Norland, I. T. (2005). Three challenges for the compact city as a sustainable urban form: household consumption of energy and transport in eight residential areas in the greater Oslo region. Urban studies, 42(12), 2145-2166. Huang, L., Wu, J., & Yan, L. (2015). Defining and measuring urban sustainability: A review of indicators. Landscape ecology, 30(7), 1175-1193. Jenks, M., & Jones, C. (2010). Issues and concepts. In Dimensions of the sustainable city (pp. 1-19). Springer, Dordrecht. Jones, P., & Patterson, J. (2007). The development of a practical evaluation tool for urban sustainability. Indoor and Built Environment, 16(3), 255-272. Loiseau, E., Junqua, G., Roux, P., & Bellon-Maurel, V. (2012). Environmental assessment of a territory: An overview of existing tools and methods. Journal of environmental management, 112, 213-225. Meadows, D. H. (1998). Indicators and information systems for sustainable development. Neuman, M. (2005). The compact city fallacy. Journal of planning education and research, 25(1), 11-26. Sadler, B., & Dalal-Clayton, D. B. (2012). Strategic environmental assessment: a sourcebook and reference guide to international experience. Earthscan. Sala, S., Ciuffo, B., & Nijkamp, P. (2015). A systemic framework for sustainability assessment. Ecological Economics, 119, 314-325. Singh, R. K., Murty, H. R., Gupta, S. K., & Dikshit, A. K. (2012). An overview of sustainability assessment methodologies. Ecological indicators, 15(1), 281-299. Teriman, S., Yigitcanlar, T., & Severine, M. (2009). Urban sustainability and growth management in southeast Asian city regions: the case of Kuala Lumpur and Hongkong. Planning Malaysia Journal, 7(1). Wallhagen, M., Glaumann, M., Eriksson, O., & Westerberg, U. (2013). Framework for detailed comparison of building environmental assessment tools. Buildings, 3(1), 39-60. Williams, K., Dair, C., & Lindsay, M. (2010). Neighbourhood design and sustainable lifestyles. In Dimensions of the sustainable city (pp. 183-214). Springer, Dordrecht. Yigitcanlar, T., & Dur, F. (2010). Developing a sustainability assessment model: The sustainable infrastructure, land-use, environment and transport model. Sustainability, 2(1), 321-340. Zheng, H. W., Shen, G. Q., & Wang, H. (2014). A review of recent studies on sustainable urban renewal. Habitat International, 41, 272-279.

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SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF PEAT SWAMP FOREST IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA: A FORGOTTEN HABITAT

Dato’ Mohd Ridza bin Awang1, Dato’ Lim Kee Leng2, Mohd Faris bin Sobri 3, Regina Mariah Jong 4

1Director General of Forestry Peninsular malaysia, Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia Headquarters, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50660 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA [email protected] 2Deputy Director General of Forestry(Operations and Technical), Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia Headquarters, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50660 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA [email protected] 3Section Head (Conservation of Water Catchment Forest), Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia Headquarters, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50660 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA [email protected] 4Assistant Director (Amenity Forest), Pahang Forestry Department, 5th Floor, Kompleks Tun Razak, Bandar Indera Mahkota, 25990, Kuantan, MALAYSIA [email protected],

ABSTRACT

Malaysia has the second largest distribution of tropical peatland in Southeast Asia after Indonesia. Despite covering merely 8% of the country, this natural wetland ecosystem has key values for biodiversity conservation, climate regulation, carbon sequestration and support for the livelihood of the local communities. This wetland is vitally important but it has not been widely appreciated until recently. Rapid development and booming population have significantly put the peat swamp forests under threat. As a result, large tracts of peatlands have been cleared and drained for agriculture, settlement and other land use. Given the fact that peat swamp forests are more vulnerable than other forest ecosystems, Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia (FDPM) has undertaken sustainable management measures and conservation efforts in an integrated manner to protect this natural wetland.

Keywords: Peninsular Malaysia, Permanent Reserved Forests (PRFs), peat swamp forest, wetland, forest biodiversity, conservation

INTRODUCTION

Peat swamps are one of the most unusual and harsh wetland ecosystems in the tropical rainforest biome yet one of the most poorly understood biotopes (Ng et al., 1994). The importance of the peat swamps is underappreciated as they are regarded as wastelands and unproductive (Posa et al., 2011; Rijksen & Peerson 1991). Peat swamps occur inland just beyond coastal mangroves and often spread over some 3km to 5km on the floodplain of rivers. These swamps derive their name from their substrate of peat consisting of plant parts, which gradually release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water and contribute to its characteristically low pH values ranging 3.6 to 5.9 (Ng et al., 1994; Posa et al., 2011; Wantzen et al., 2011; Yule, 2010). Peat swamps are waterlogged areas that typically deficient in oxygen, which contributes to incomplete decomposition of the plant parts – roots, leaves, branches that were accumulated over thousands of years (Beamish et

129 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 al., 2003). Peat swamps are generally referred as ‘black waters’ because of their dark brown or tea-like waters, which is caused by a high content of organic matter and other phenolic acids (Goltenboth, 2006; Irvine et al., 2013). Before embarking upon a discussion about sustainable management and conservation of peat swamp forests in Peninsular Malaysia, it is necessary to define the common terms related to this wetland type. Peat is generally known as sedentarily accumulated material consisting high organic matter (more than 65%) in a soil layer at least 50cm deep (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2011). Meanwhile, a peatland is an area with or without vegetation with a naturally accumulated peat layer at the surface (D’Cruz, 2014). An area where natural or semi-natural forest types occur on peat deposits is called a peat swamp forest (D’Cruz, 2014).

AN OVERVIEW OF THE PEAT SWAMP FOREST RESOURCES

As shown in Fig. 1, the distribution of peat swamp forests in Peninsular Malaysia is fairly limited at about 5% as compared to the dry inland forests (93%) and mangrove forests (2%). Todate, 30% (852,363 hectares) of peatlands in Malaysia can be found in Peninsular Malaysia (Fig. 2). Approximately 70% (598,916 hectares) of these peatlands are State Land forests, Alienated Land and other land reserves which are owned by State Governments and private sectors respectively. Most of these peatlands are land banks set aside for development purposes, agriculture and plantations. Meanwhile 253,447 hectares (30%) of natural peat swamp forests are gazetted as Permanent Reserved Forests (PRFs) that fall under the jurisdiction of Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia (FDPM). The largest tract of natural peat swamps can be found in Pahang with total area of 140,830 hectares (55.5%), followed by Selangor 82,890 hectares (33%), Terengganu 25,931 hectares (10%) and Johor 3,796 hectares (1.5%).

Figure 1. The cross-section of forest types in Peninsular Malaysia

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Figure 2. The distribution of peatlands in Peninsular Malaysia

PEAT SWAMP BIODIVERSITY AND ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS

Peat swamps harbour significant and highly specialised biodiversity (Page et al., 1997; Phillips, 1990; Yule, 2010) of which remain inadequately understood scientifically. According to Purwaningsih and Yusuf (2000) and Corlett (2009), about 30 to 122 tree species of more than 10cm diameter can be found in a one-hectare study plot in the peat swamp forests. The number of tree species is generally low compared to tropical inland forest due to the extreme chemical condition and hydrological regime of the peat swamps. Nevertheless, the tropical peat swamp forests are still considered as exceptionally high in flora diversity compared to all other types of peatlands in the world.

The peat swamp forests in Peninsular Malaysia have important source of timber and non- timber products. Among the important tree species for timber are Gonystylus bancanus (Ramin melawis), Shorea platycarpa (Meranti paya), Shorea uliginosa (Meranti bakau) and Kompassia malaccensis (Kempas). In addition, this natural wetland also has various ornamental plants and ferns, resin producing trees, medicinal plants and scented species. The peat swamps are also home to variety of fauna species. A number of mammals were recorded and sighted in the swamp areas, namely Tapirus indicus (Tapir), Helarctos malayanus (Sun bear), Hyloblates lar (White-handed Gibbon), Presbytis obscurus (Dusky- Leaf Monkey), Panthera pardus (black leopard) and many others. According to Wetlands International (2010), about 33% of freshwater fish species, 23% of amphibians and 18% of reptiles can be found in the peat swamp forests in Peninsular Malaysia.

Peat swamp forests provide a wide range of valuable goods and services, yet these are often ignored when peat areas are considered for development. Nonetheless, there has been increased interest in the recent years about the important roles and ecological functions of peat swamp forests (Jaenicke et al., 2008; Page et al., 2004). Peat swamp forests are significant carbon stores and sinks. They are one of the few ecosystems which, in their natural state, accumulate carbon. The carbon dioxide is sequestered as organic carbon in the form of organic material in the peat and hence helps in reducing the greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate change (Wetlands International, 2010). The peat swamp forest also plays an important role in regulating the water resources. During periods of heavy rainfall, peat swamp forests act as natural reservoirs because they absorb and store water. The peat functions as a sponge, absorbing water during the wet season and releasing

131 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 it gradually during dry periods. Peat swamps are important for flood control, regulating water supply and preventing saline water intrusion, of which are crucial to the agriculture and industry sectors. In some areas in Peninsular Malaysia, peat swamps play a vital role in the socio-economic and livelihood of the local communities, particularly in the fishery industry, ecotourism sector and recreation activities. In addition, this habitat has important attributes to the local communities, especially the cultural or spiritual values, historical values and aesthetic values.

PEATLAND LEGISLATIVE, POLICY AND PLANS

Currently, there are three legislations that are considered of major importance to the forestry sector in Peninsular Malaysia, namely National Forestry Policy 1978, National Forestry Act 1984 (Amended 1993) and National Policy on Biological Diversity 2016 – 2025.

National Forestry Policy 1978 The development of forest resources is guided by the National Forestry Policy 1978, which is currently under second revision. This policy aims to conserve and manage the nation's forest based on the principles of sustainable management and to protect the environment as well as to conserve biological diversity, genetic resources, and to enhance research and education. The policy prescribes for a clear classification system for Permanent Reserved Forests (PRFs), with associated management standards.

National Forestry Act 1984 (Amended 1993) The second most important legislation is the National Forestry Act 1984 (Amended 1993). This Act would enable the effective implementation of the National Forestry Policy as it was formulated to uniformed and update the various State Forest Enactments besides plays important role in the administration, management and conservation of forests for forestry development within States in Peninsular Malaysia. However, to further strengthen its provisions to safeguarding and protecting the forest resources from encroachment and illegal forest harvesting activities of forest areas and timber theft, the Act was amended in 1993.

National Policy on Biological Diversity 2016 – 2025 Last but not least, the National Policy on Biological Diversity 2016 – 2025 is yet another important policy related to peatland management and conservation. This Policy is a revised version of the National Policy on Biological Diversity 1998. The purpose of revision is to meet the current biodiversity management needs as well as to fulfil Malaysia’s obligation under the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The National Policy on Biological Diversity 2016 – 2025 specifies 17 national biodiversity targets to be implemented by all segments of stakeholder and society within a period of 10 years. This policy outlines five key principles on biodiversity management:

i. P1: Heritage. Biological diversity is a national heritage. It must be sustainably managed, wisely utilised and conserved for future generations. ii. P2: Precautionary. The lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason to postpone measures to minimise threats of significant loss of biodiversity. iii. P3: Shared responsibility. The conservation and sustainable utilisation of biodiversity are the shared responsibility of all sectors of society.

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iv. P4: Participatory. Planning and management of biodiversity must be carried out in a participatory manner. v. P5: Good governance. Good governance, including accountability and transparency, is crucial to biodiversity conservation.

National Action Plan for Peatlands Apart from the three legislative mentioned above, FDPM also upholds the National Action Plan for Peatlands (NAPP). The objectives of NAPP are to enhance knowledge, awareness and capacity for sustainable peatlands management and development; conserve peatlands resources and reduce peatland degradation and fires; to promote the sustainable and integrated management of peatlands and to ensure effective multi-stakeholder cooperation. Under the NAPP, there are 13 focal areas and 78 national actions to be implemented by various stakeholders to achieve sustainable peatland management in Malaysia.

Integrated Management Plans Todate, there are two Integrated Management Plans (IMPs) developed respectively for the peat swamp forests within the PRFs in the State of Selangor and State of Pahang (Fig. 3). The overarching objective of these IMPs is to maintain the geographical extent and integrity of the peat swamp forests in the PRFs in order to sustain and rehabilitate the functions of the ecosystem as provider of goods and services for the benefit of the local and global communities. The IMPs place great emphasis on protection and conservation of peat swamps within the PRFs. Nevertheless, its’ implementation takes into consideration of the activities in the adjacent peatlands that are non PRFs. Other peatland related legislatives that are now in effect in Peninsular Malaysia are shown in Table 1.

Figure 3. Two Integrated Management Plans were developed each for North Selangor Peat Swamp Forest (left) and South-East Pahang Peat Swamp Forest (right)

Table 1. Other Peatland Related Legislatives Policies 1. National Policy on Climate Change (2010) 2. Common Vision on Biodiversity (2009) 3. The National Physical Plan (2010) 4. The National Wetland Policy (2004) 5. The National Agricultural Policy (2003) 6. The National Policy on the Environment (2002) Plans 1. 11th Malaysian Plans (2016-2020) 2. ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy (2006-2020) 3. ASEAN Programme on Sustainable Management of Peatland Ecosystems (2014-2020)

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SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION INITIATIVES

Hydrological Management Hydrology is the single most important factor for the establishment and maintenance of peat swamps and the various processes that take place within it (Mitsch & Gosselink, 1993). The hydrological aspect influences the abiotic activities that are relevant for soil anaerobiosis and nutrient availability. All these factors yield to soil fertility and subsequently the overall intactness of the peat swamp forests, which would further determine the types of biodiversity that inhabit the ecosystem.

FDPM places great emphasis on the hydrological management in the peat swamp forests. Regulating and maintaining good water table at the peat swamp forests not only helps to safeguard the natural characteristic of the habitat, it also assists in preventing wildfire occurrence. Active canals that were once built for forest harvesting are blocked to avoid constant outflow of peat water from the PRFs. Blocking of canals are implemented using materials such as sand bags, geotextile materials, mangrove poles, concretes, old tyres and so forth. More than 800 units of canal blockings are built in the peat swamps forests. In addition, FDPM has built a number of check dams and long stretch of clay dykes to avoid substantial water loss to the adjacent peatlands.

Nevertheless, restoring hydrological regime is case by case basis depending on the site conditions, particularly the availability of alternative water resources. For instance, Raja Musa Forest Reserve in Selangor has adequate alternative water resources to facilitate rewetting and to restore water table. The water sourced from an ex-mining pond within the PRFs was channelled through a water piping system to peat swamp areas where water is scarce. Currently, the water piping system is being upgraded by increasing the length from 3km to 5km, reaching further in to peat swamps that are prone to wildfire. On the other hand, tube wells were built with the assistance of Department of Mineral and Geoscience Department Malaysia (Jabatan Mineral dan Geosains Malaysia – JMG) at peat areas with severely limited water resources. Todate, there were 5 units of tube wells available at peat swamp forests in PRFs.

Cooperatives Fire Management Fire prevention is one of the crucial aspects to be considered in the peatland management. According to Langner et al. (2007) as well as Langner and Siegert (2009), tropical peat swamp forests are more vulnerable to destruction by fire compared to other forest types due to high organic matter in the peat soil and by characteristic it is extremely flammable when dry. Previous disturbance greatly exacerbates the severity of fire damage. Peat swamps that were burnt multiple times have dramatically low tree densities and biodiversity relative to the areas that have burnt only once (Page et al. 2009; Yeager et al. 2003). Based on studies conducted by Page et al. (2009) and Siegert et al. (2001), peat forest that has been exposed to fire incidence has high risk of fire reoccurrence because of the accumulated unburnt dead biomass and the presence of fire-prone regrowth vegetation that act as fuel for the next fire.

Cooperatives fire management plan developed by FDPM for peat swamps includes all activities such as reducing the number of unwanted, uncontrolled, escaped wildfire incidences and recovery plan. It is noted that peat fire occurrence is most frequent during prolonged dry spells all over the year or during the dry seasons. Although there is a lot of concern among local communities about peat fire incidences, there is still a minority of

134 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 individuals who are not concern about the use of fire and cause mostly unintentional wildfires. Most of the wildfires in the peat swamp forests were caused by man-made fires outside of the PRFs boundaries that got out of control. More rarely are the fires triggered inside of the reserve areas.

In the efforts to reduce forest fire, Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD) has developed Fire Danger Rating System (FDRS) - a peatland fire prediction and warning system since 2003. This system has extensive application of satellite technology to detect the ground conditions of hotspots and obtain weather data (e.g. rainfall, temperature, humidity, wind speed, etc.) at Automated Weather Stations (AWS). Currently, there are more than 200 AWS built by MMD across Malaysia to monitor the hotspot areas (Fig. 4). A peatland layer was incorporated into the FDRS for easy reference and to guide land managers to determine the probability of fire occurrence due to weather conditions. The data from the AWS is used to analyse ground conditions and provide fire risk indices and codes through FDRS (Fig. 5). The indices are displayed to the public members through the FDRS signboards installed at the peat swamp forests (Fig. 6). Based on the fire risk indices, the land managers will then take necessary preventive measures such as allocating resources, facilitate patrolling and warning actions and lastly, prepare for firefighting. In addition, FDPM also developed a manual on Forest Fire Suppression Manual. The manual addresses key aspects on fire watch, fire disaster response, tools use for fire-fighting, fire recovery and public awareness on fire risks.

Figure 4. The distribution of Automated Weather Stations (AWS) in Malaysia

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Figure 5. The Fine Fuel Moisture Code used for Fire Danger Rating System (FDRS)

Figure 6. The Fire Danger Rating System (FDRS) signboard installed at the peat swamp forest

Rehabilitation of Degraded Peat Swamp Forest Some degraded peat swamp in Peninsular Malaysia are in dire need of rehabilitation. Without rehabilitation efforts these peat swamp areas will take a longer time to recover through a normal succession processes, especially for forest complexes which are highly fragmented where the seed dispersal process is disrupted. The existing degradation of some areas has left them unproductive and in a state where their environmental functions is not maintained.

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Although replanting of degraded peat swamp forests may not the ultimate priority for FDPM, the department still undertakes rehabilitation programme with the Community Based Organisations (CBOs), Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and local communities who live adjacent to the peat areas. The rehabilitation programme also attracts several private companies from the manufacturing sector, plantations sector and banking services who contributed towards peatland conservation efforts in Peninsular Malaysia through Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).

Re-greening of the degraded peat swamp forests requires a proper rehabilitation regime starting from site selection, species selection, planting method as well as treatment and protection. Planting of mixed species, especially the pioneer species such as Eudia spp. (Tenggek Burung) and Macaranga spp (Mahang), are highly favourable. The fast growing pioneer species will facilitate natural growth by covering the degraded peat areas and reducing soil pressure. Apart from the two species mentioned, FDPM also planted a number of other key peat swamp tree species, namely Shorea platycarpa (Meranti paya), Anisoptera marginata (Mersawa paya), Intsia palembanica (Merbau) and Gonystylus spp. (Ramin) (Ismail, 2014).

Communication, Education and Public Awareness (CEPA) There are a number of communication, education and public awareness (CEPA) programmes undertaken by FDPM to fortify public awareness on peat swamp forest and its resources as well as to bring into light the concept of Sustainable Forest Management (SFM). CEPA is implemented in various forms, such as public talk and awareness campaigns, exhibitions, tree planting activities, publications and so forth. These programmes are conducted with the collaboration of CBOs and NGOs.

One of the CBOs who is actively involved in CEPA is the Friends of North Selangor Peat Swamp Forest. The members of this CBO are the local communities who live nearby to the peat swamp forests in the Hulu Selangor District Forest. In addition to their supporting role, this CBO also serve as the “eyes and ears” of FDPM and other related agencies in forest fire monitoring, enforcement and rehabilitation activities.

Other Related Initiatives Apart from the four major aspects mentioned above, FDPM also implemented the following activities to strengthen the protection and management of peat swamp forests. This includes the upgrading of infrastructure such forest roads, building watch towers, PRF boundary demarcation and maintenance, aerial and ground surveillance and management of buffer zones.

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Forest Fire Incidence Most wildfire outbreaks that spread to the peat swamp forests are originated from the adjacent peatland to the PRF areas. Private companies, small plantation holders and local communities often resort to open burning to discard plantation and orchard waste as the method is more cost-saving. The forest fire risk is multifold during prolong extreme dry weather, especially when water resources is depleting. Furthermore, former logging canals which remain actively draining peat waters add on to the vulnerability of the fire-prone peat areas. Most of the existing canals can be found in the former State Land area. These compounding effects contribute to the degradation of peat swamp forests in the PRFs.

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Although fire incidence recorded in the PRFs area is reducing year by year, the outbreak of wildfire remains one of the most critical issues to be addressed by FDPM.

High Cost of Hydrological Rehabilitation Restoring the water table at the peat swamp forests remains a huge challenge to the FPDM, this scenario is particularly true to areas that experience water shortage. Hydrological management in the peat areas requires huge sum of expenditure as it involves construction and maintenance of much needed infrastructures such as clay dykes, canal blocks, check dams, water retention ponds, tube well and water piping system.

Costly Rehabilitation Works The cost of rehabilitating and restoring degraded peat swamp forests also require an enormous sum of investment. With limited source of peat species saplings, expensive treatment cost, logistic conditions, high mortality rate and exposure to fire risk, the fund incurred for re-greening the peat areas will only become more expensive and unaffordable surpassing the cost of maintaining the habitat at its originate state.

WAY FORWARD

Fortify and Accelerate Hydrological Restoration Initiatives Restoring good water table at the peat swamps in the PRFs remains the utmost focus for FDPM. The water outflow from canal outlets and seepage at the landscape level must be regulated accordingly to promote re-wetting of the peat surfaces. Large canals with heavy water outflow should be blocked to divert the peat waters into the PRF areas.

Security Tenure of Peatlands While maintaing its commitment to retain current distribution of PRFs in Peninsular Malaysia, FDPM is constantly seeking new peatland areas to be gazetted as PRF under the National Forestry Act 1984 (Amended 1993), particularly those of State Land Forests. Securing the tenureship of other peatlands will help FDPM to conserve the habitat at the landscape level in an integrated manner.

Upscaling Forest Enforcement Activities Frequent enforcement and monitoring activities are very important in protecting the peat swamp forests. This can be done through collaboration of enforcement teams from various Government departments and agencies, CBOs as well as NGOs. Enhancing the use of high technology equipment is much needed to ensure effectiveness of forest enforcement.

Promote Best Management Practices (BMP) Promoting and instilling Best Management Practices (BMP) among the stakeholders of adjacent peatlands is highly perquisite to conserve and protect the peatland at the macro level. The BMP encompasses hydrology management, fire prevention, rehabilitation and sustainable use of peatland resources. The sensitisation of BMP through CEPA will facilitate paradigm shift among the stakeholders so that they can become responsible custodians.

CONCLUSION

The societal and ecosystem values of the peat swamp forests should be protected and conserved for the sake of environment integrity and livelihood of the local communities.

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Also, the involvement of the general public in the conservation, rehabilitation and sustainable use of peat swamp forest resources should remain relevant and be fortified. It is important that the policy makers should understand the importance of peat swamp forests and the important role it plays in rendering multiple ecosystem services. Therefore, it is essential to institutionalise and integrate close collaboration between governmental agencies, CBOs and NGOs to elevate the sustainable management and conservation of peat swamp forests. On that note, FDPM is committed to protect the peat swamp forest resources by uupholding Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) practices in accordance to the national commitments and in relation to Forest Beyond Timbers concept.

REFERENCES

Beamish, F.W.H., Beamish, R.B., & Lim, S.L. (2003). Fish assemblages and habitat in a Malaysian blackwater peat swamp. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 68(1): 1–13. Corlett RT. (2009). The Ecology of Tropical East Asia. Oxford University Press. D’Cruz, R. (2014). Guidelines on Integrated Management Planning for Peatland Forests in Southeast Asia. ASEAN Peatland Forests Project and Sustainable Management for Peatlands Forests Project. Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Global Environment Centre. Kuala Lumpur. Goltenboth, F. (2006). Ecology of Insular Southeast Asia: The Indonesian Archipelago. In F. Goltenboth, K. H., Timotius, P. P., Milan, & J. Margraf (Eds.). Elsevier. Irvine, K., Vermette, S., & Mustafa, F.B. (2013). The “black waters” of Malaysia: tracking water quality from the peat swamp forest to the sea. Sains Malaysiana, 42(11): 1539–1548. Ismail, P. (2014). Manual on Peat Swamp Rehabilitation in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur. Jaenicke, J., Rieley, J.O., Mott, C., Kimman, P., Siegert, F. (2008). Determination of the amount of carbon stored in Indonesian peatlands. Geoderma, 147: 151–158. Langner, A. & Siegert, F. (2009). Spatiotemporal fire occurrence in Borneo over a period of 10 years. Global Change Biology, 15: 48–62. Langner, A., Miettinen, J. & Siegert, F. (2007). Land cover change 2002–2005 in Borneo and the role of fire derived from MODIS imagery. Global Change Biology, 13: 2329–2340. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. (2011). Malaysia National Action Plan for Peatlands. NRE. Kuala Lumpur. Mitsch, W.J. & Gosselink, J.G. (1993). Wetlands. 2nd Edition. Van Nostrand Reinhold. New York, USA. Mohd Radhi Chu, A. (1998). Status of peat swamp forest in Pahang. In: Palle, H., Chin, T.Y. & Razani, U. (eds.). Proceeding of the Workshop on Sustainable Management of Peat Swamp Forest. (pp.22-27). Kuala Selangor, 29 September – 1 October 1997. Kuala Lumpur. Ng, P.K.L, Tay, J.B. & Lim, K.K.P. (1994). Diversity and conservation of blackwater fishes in Peninsular Malaysia, particularly in the North Selangor Peat Swamp forest. Hydrobiologia, 285: 203–218. Page, S.E., Hoscilo, A., Langner, A., Tansey, K., Siegert, F., Limin, S. & Rieley, J.O. (2009). Tropical peatland fires in Southeast Asia. Pages 263–287. In. Cochrane, M.A., (ed.) Tropical Fire Ecology: Climate Change, Land Use and Ecosystem Dynamics. Springer. Page, S.E., Wust, R.A.J., Weiss, D., Rieley, J.O., Shotyk, W. & Limin, S.H. (2004). A record of late Pleistocene and Holocene carbon accumulation and climate change from an equatorial peat bog (Kalimantan, Indonesia): Implications for past, present and future carbon dynamics. Journal of Quaternary Science, 19: 625–635. Page, S.E., Rieley, J.O., Doody, K., Hodgson, S., Husson, S., Jenkins, P., Morrogh-Bernard, H., Otway, S. & Wilshaw, S. (1997). Biodiversity of tropical peat swamp forest: A case study of animal diversity in the Sungai Sebangau catchment of central Kalimantan, Indonesia. In: Rieley, J.O., Page, S.E. (eds.). Tropical Peatlands (pp. 231–242), Samara. Phillips, V.D. (1990). Peat swamp ecology and sustainable development in Borneo. Biodiversity and Conservation, 7: 651–671. Posa, M.R.C., Wijedasa, L.S. & Corlett, R.T. (2011). Biodiversity and Conservation of Tropical Peat Swamp Forests. BioScience, 61:49 – 57. Purwaningsih & Yusuf R. (2000). Vegetation analysis of Suaq Balimbing peat swamp forest, Gunung Leuser National Park–South Aceh. Pp. 275–282, In: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Tropical Peatlands, Bogor, Indonesia, 22–23 November 1999. Hokkaido University and Indonesian Institute of Science.

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Rijksen H.D and Peerson, G. (1991). Food from Indonesia’s swamp forest: Ideology or rationality. Landscape and Urban Planning, 20: 95–102. Shamsuddin, I. (1997). Peat Swamp Forests: Integrated Framework for Assessment and Management. In: Phang, T.J. & M. Khairul, E. (eds.). Proceedings of the GEF Inception Workshop on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Peat Swamp Forests in Malaysia (pp. 37 – 45). 24 – 25 July 1997, Kuala Lumpur. Yeager, C.P., Marshall, A.J., Stickler, C.M. & Chapman, C.A. (2003). Effects of fires on peat swamp and lowland dipterocarp forests in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Tropical Biodiversity, 8: 121–138. Yule, C.M. (2010). Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in Indo-Malayan peat swamp forests. Biodiversity and Conservation, 19(2):393–409. Wantzen, K.M., Yule, C.M., Mathooko, J.M., & Pringle, C.M. (2011). Organic matter processing in tropical streams. Tropical Stream Ecology, 1: 44-65. Wetlands International. (2010). A quick scan of peatlands in Malaysia. Wetlands International-Malaysia: Petaling Jaya.

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ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

Parallel Session 6

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EXAMINATION OF MALAYSIAN RIVER WATER QUALITY INDEX BY SOME SELECTED PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS

1,2 1,2 3 3 Suzanna Rosli Wong , Brittny Chars and Su Na Chin , Noraini Abdullah and Pak Yan Moh*1,2

1 Water Research Unit, Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, University Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, MALAYSIA 2 Industrial Chemistry Programme, Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, University Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, MALAYSIA [email protected], [email protected] 3 Mathematics with Economics Programme, Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, University Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, MALAYSIA

ABSTRACT Malaysian Water Quality Index (WQI) is based on National Water Quality Standards (NWQS) developed by the Department of Environment since 1982. Sensitivity of the WQI however, is doubtful. Several limitation has been revealed mainly related to the inconsistency of the weightage used between the six WQI parameters and the suitability of the selected parameters which are highly correlated to each other. The results in this study revealed that current WQI is irrelevant as the provided river-water classes does not reflects with the physical observation. Laboratory scale analysis data further proved that parameters such as COD, BOD and TSS are correlated, which account 73% of the total weightage in the Malaysian WQI. pH and NH3-N indeed, are correlated as well. Therefore, a formulation with non-significantly related physico-chemical parameters should be proposed to avoid bias in the WQI determination. Based on the statistical analysis data, 3- NH3-N, colour, EC and PO4 -P are independent and could be used as determining parameters in the assessment of river water quality inconsideration to the easiness, time consume and cost of analysis. A more relevant water quality output was obtained when the four parameters were applied in the most stringent formulation, Canadian Water Quality Index (CWQI). This study implies that elimination of the correlated parameters in WQI calculation can precisely determine the river water quality status and significantly reflects the physical appearance of the river.

Key words: Water Quality Index; River; Physico-chemical parameters; Correlation.

INTRODUCTION Water is the most essential compound for all living organisms. It is not limited only for drinking purpose. The vitality of water also involved in maintaining the constituents of ecosystem and various economy sectors. Shortly to say, without water there is no life. This invaluable resource however is not appreciated by human population. Anthropogenic activities are the major causes of the increasing in river water pollution. As a preliminary action, the Department of Environment (DOE) of Malaysia has applied a water quality index (WQI) for more than 30 years. It is one of the water quality classification programme that serves as an important indicator of water pollution that caused by the natural input and anthropogenic activities. The utmost goal is to identify the inconsistency in the water quality status and to come out with a strategy to improve the water quality management based on the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (DOE,

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2009). However, the suitability of the existing WQI is questionable. The good WQI is the one that is sensitive and flexible towards any changes of the environment. High consideration toward factors such as selection of parameters and obtaining the final index are crucial in order to produce an ideal WQI (Naubi, 2015; Sutadian et al., 2016).

Hence, we report the examination of Malaysian river water quality index by some selected physico-chemical parameters assessment of water quality of Moyog River through Malaysian WQI versus Canadian Wqter Quality Index (CWQI). The discrimination of the correlated parameters reported are based on the statistical analysis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS This research has focused on the Moyog River watershed which were located at Kampung Kibunut (KB), Kampung Notoruss (NT), Kampung Babagon (BB) and Kampung Kibabaig. There were total of five sampling stations selected for study. Water sample for each site was collected monthly from January to May 2017.

Physico–chemical parameters such as pH and dissolved oxygen (DO) were recorded in situ by using YSI (Digital Professional Series) multiparameter. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solids (TSS) and ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) were analyzed ex-situ according to APHA and EPA method.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Table 1 summarizes the water quality of Moyog river watershed based on Malaysian WQI and CWQI (Wong et al., 2018). Malaysia WQI is too loose and less stringent since this model ranked Moyog river water quality as excellent in almost all cases. CWQI is internationally used to rate the river water quality. This index rate the river status precisely however,it is not suitable to apply this index in our country directly.

Table 1. MWQI vs. CWQI vs. BMWP Index (for Jan – May 2017) Malaysia WQI Canadian WQI Class Value Grade Site Value Grade Site KB, 95 – I > 92.7 Very Good MY, Excellent KB 100 NT, BB MY, II 76.5 – 92.7 Good 80 – 95 Good NT BB, III 51.9 – 76.5 Average KG 65 – 79 Fair KG

IV 31.0 – 51.9 Polluted 45 – 64 Marginal

Very V < 31.0 0 - 44 Poor Polluted

Correlation analysis according to the laboratory scale experiment results was carried out in order to classify the correlated parameters into group. The uncorrelated parameter therefore was divided into another group. Table 2 represent the classification of selected parameters. Only one parameter in a group should be used to calculate the WQI to avoid bias.

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Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 1. Turbidity 1. EC 1. pH 1. Phosphate 2. TSS 2. TDS 2. AN 3. COD 4. BOD 5. Colour

CONCLUSION Moyog river remains unpolluted (Upstream and lower stream) based on Malaysian WQI and CWQI. Malaysian WQI, however is too loose and less stringent therefore causes an inconsistency grading between MWQI and CWQI. Therefore, a universal WQI can be achieved by discriminating the correlated water quality parameter.

REFERENCES

DOE. 2009. Malaysia Environmental Quality Report 2009. Department of Environment (DOE). Naubi, I., Zardari, N. H., Shirazi, S. M., Ibrahim, N. F. & Baloo, L. 2015. Effectiveness of Water Quality Index for Monitoring Malaysian River Water Quality. Polish Journal of Environment Studies. 25:231-239. Sutadian, A. D., Muttil, N., Yilmaz, A. G and Perera, B. J. C. 2016. Development of river water quality indices – a review. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 188:58. Wong, S. R., Chars, B. L. Jainih, Fikri, A. H., Harun, S and Moh. P. Y. 2018. Comparative Assessment of Moyog River Watershed and Malaysia Water Quality Index. ASM Science Journal. 11(2):29-35.

144 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

ENHANCEMENT THE BIODEGRADATION OF BENZENE BY Pseudomonas aeruginosa THROUGH ULTRAVIOLET-INDUCED MUTATION

Fahruddin Fahruddin

Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, INDONESIA [email protected]

ABSTRACT Mutagenesis can increase the capacity of bacterial metabolism to degrade pollutants. Two bacteria mutan strains (ISM1) obtained from the UV mutagenesis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ISP) is a parental bacteria isolate. Mutants strain isolate were applied to a groundwater microcosm containing a benzene of 125 ppm. For were incubation is carry out an observation includes: analysis of benzene, CO2, and bacterial population. The result shows that benzene degradation to of 11.82 ppm of 87.8 percent for the ISM1 mutant strain whereas in the presence of parental bacteria a benzene of 38.8 ppm of 60 percent at the initial concentration of 125 ppm in 120 h. Degradation of benzene has followed the increase of the bacterial population and increase of CO2 produced.

Keywords: biodegradation, benzene, parental, mutant

INTRODUCTION Benzene is a chemical compound that is often used in the chemical industry and is part of the petroleum revinery of a source of environmental pollution (Dibble and Bartha, 1979). Benzene is dangerous because, while it is difficult to degrade in nature, it is also toxic and carcinogenic; therefore, the allowable upper limit in drinking water is 0.005 mg L-1 (Chapelle, 1999).

To solve the problem of benzene pollution using biological methods to thoroughly biodegradation processes using bacterial. Efforts to increase of bacterial capacity for degradation activity can be made through gene mutation. The metabolic capacity of an organism is determined by the genome (Dai and Copley, 2004).

Therefore, bacterial capacity for metabolism can be increased through induction of gene mutations using ultraviolet (UV) irradiation (Ikehata and Ono, 2011). The effect of the mutation, it could result of changes in the genetic code, resulting in improvement bacterial isolate for metabolism of the substrate (Wielgoss et al., 2013). Recently, need to think about strain improvement in the field of environment microbiology to improve the ability of microbes in degradation of pollutants (Kim et al., 2002).

In accordance with the description above, an assay was needed to determine the benzene degradation capacity of mutant strain which produced by UV mutagenesis and to compare it with that of the parental bacteria isolate. The results of mutation induction to obtain bacteria mutant with a high-degradation capacity for the aromatic compound, so that it can serve as an inoculum source to solve the problem of pollution the aromatic hydrocarbon compounds in environment.

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MATERIALS AND METHODS

Isolate Benzene-degrading bacterial isolates are mutant strains (ISM1) obtained from the Pseudomonas aeruginosa parental (ISP) has been cultured in the laboratory.

Generation of mutants UV mutagenesis was performed according to the method of Carlton and Brown with slight modification (Kim et al., 2002). Bacterial cell suspension was transferred to sterile glass petri dish on nutrient agar and exposed to 254-nm UV light. Bacterial colonies that grow after 24 hours incubation are putative mutant bacteria for further assay of benzene degradation ability on the salt mineral media.The results, obtained one mutant isolates the namely ISM1 gave significantly higher capacities of benzene degradation than the parent bacteria isolate.

Application of Mutant Strain in the Microcosm The study of benzene biodegradation of bacteria mutant strain and parental bacteria was carried out in a groundwater microcosm. The microcosmos was made using a 100 mL flask bottle containing 30 mL of ground water. The nutrients K2HPO4 1 g/L and NH4NO3 1 g/L were added as phosphorus and nitrogen sources, respectively, and added benzene 125 ppm. The inoculum used was 2 % (v/v) of a suspension of concentration 0.5 McFarland. 1 mL of each sample’s headspace was injected for benzene and CO2 analysis; and bacterial population enumeration.

Analysis of Benzene Concentration Benzene concentration in the supernatant were measured by gas chromatography Analysis of benzene was performed with a flame ionization detector (FID) (Mottaleb et al., 2003).

CO2 Concentration Analysis Headspace CO2 were monitored by injection of gas samples into a Varian 450-GC gas chromatograph (SRI Instruments, Torrance, Calif) was completed with a thermal conductivity detector (TCD). The CO2 production rates were calculated by linear regression of CO2 production vs time.

Bacterial Population Enumeration Bacterial population were enumerated by employing serial dilution agar plating method. serial dilutions, then are plated onto duplicate sterile petri dishes containing nutrient agar media. Colony counts were made from plates after incubation for 24 h.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

According to the results of the benzene degradation assay of mutant strain ISM1 (Figure 1) showed the most rapid degradation of benzene which was able to reduce the concentration of 38 percent in 48 hours, then the benzene concentration was reduced to 87.81 percent after a 120 h incubation. The observation of CO2 in the headspace of the flask produced was 21.20 ppm in 48 h, and after, the amount of CO2 produced to begin to decline in the late incubation 120 h, followed increased benzene biodegradation activity, except of the last 24–48 h, as well as a decrease in bacterial population. Bacterial growth was followed activation of the benzene degradation too is production of CO2.

146 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Figure 1. Benzene concentration, number of bacterial cells and CO2 production of biodegradation process by mutant strain ISM1

If the mutant strains ISM1 were compared with ISP parental bacteria (Figure 2) as the comparison control, benzene degradation occurred very slowly since the beginning of the incubation to incubation of 72 h. At the 48 h, the benzene concentration was only decreased of 42.33 percent. As a whole, from the beginning to the end of incubation degradation has occurred reaching 60 percent, its associated with of growth of the bacteria population was also relatively slow, although from 72 h there was an increase the bacterial population to the end of the incubation.

Figure 2. Benzene concentration, number of bacterial cells and CO2 production of biodegradation process by parental isolate ISP

The present result shows that ISM1 mutant strain had a faster of degradation, especially at 48 h. Then, if the mutant strains are compared with the parental bacteria, both ISM1 mutant strains were proven to have an increased capacity to degrade benzene. The degradation ability was significant for the ISM1 mutant strain, which could reduce the benzene concentration of 80.41 percent at 48 h.

The invesitigate bacterial population, growth of bacteria cell decreased at the beginning of the incubation, evidence that microbes need a long time in the adaptation phase when

147 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 using benzene as a carbon and energy source (Yoshikawa et al., 2017) is called lag phase. It appeared especially for the ISP parental bacteria, whereas for both mutant strains have the lag phase was relatively more quickly.

Degradation of benzene was not followed by an increase in bacteria cell growth and consequently CO2 production also decreases, this is related to the intermediate compounds formed in the degradation of benzene compounds which inhibit the increase of cell growth. Bacterial growth is not always followed by benzene degradation, because cell metabolic processes will produce organic acids that can be used by microbes as a carbon and energy source while benzene is used for growth (Pettigrew et al., 1991).

According to the above description, UV-induced mutations can change the metabolic capacity of bacteria. The relevance of this phenomenon is that mutation induction can increase the capacity of bacteria to generate a metabolic product. Mutation can be used to create microbial genetic variation to increase the biodegradation of pollutant compounds in the environment (Dai and Copley, 2004; Wielgoss et al., 2013 ).

Mutation induction can produce strain improvement without having to go through foreign gene insertion. Mutants have the advantages of specific degradation and characterization that are appropriate to be requested, and can even be increased in capacity several times over the potential of wildtype isolates (Sadhu et al., 2014). Data demonstrated that the ability of Rhodococcus sp. strain DK180 to grow on benzene resulted from a mutation in the gene encoding the meta-cleavage dioxygenase, attempts were made to identify the corresponding metabolite in the benzene catabolic pathway (Kim et al, 2002).

CONCLUSION

Pseudomonas aeruginosa mutant strains showed higher ability to benzene degradation compared to parental bacteria isolate, this is evident when two mutant are applied to a groundwater microcosm containing benzene of 125 ppm, result is most able to degradation of benzene is the ISM1 mutant strain is degrading benzene of 87.81 percent, whereas in the ISP parental isolate as control is degrading benzene of 60 percent in 120 h.

REFERENCES

Chapelle, F. (1999). Ground-water microbiology and geochemistry. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Cot, M., Loret, M.O., Francois, J. and Benbadis, L. (2007). Physiological behavior of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in aerated fed-batch fermentation for high level production of bioethanol. FEMS Yeast Research, 7 (1), 22-23. Dai, M.H. and Copley, S.D. (2004). Genome shuffling improves degradation of the anthropogenic pesticide pentachlorophenol by Sphingobium chlorophenolicum ATCC 39723. Applied and Environmental Microbiology,70 (4), 2391-2397. Dibble, J.T. and Bartha, R. (1979). Effect of environment parameter on the biodegradation of oil sludge. Applied and Environmental Microbiology,37 (4), 729-739. Foster, P.L. (1991). In vivo mutagenesis. Methods in Enzymology, 204, 114-125. Grbić-Galić, D. and Vogel, T.M. (1987).Transformation of toluene and benzene by mixed methanogenic cultures. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 53 (2), 254-260. Hashimoto, S., Mayumi, O., Kazuo, A., Hisashi, H., Yoshinori, N. and Rinji, A. (2005). Isolation of auxotrophic mutants of diploid industrial yeast strains after UV mutagenesis. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 71 (1), 312–319. Ikehata, H. and Ono, T. (2011). The mechanisms of UV mutagenesis. Journal of Radiation Research, 52 (2),115-125. Jens, K. and Burkhard, T. (2017). Recent advances in understanding Pseudomonas aeruginosa as a pathogen.

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F1000Research, 6, 1-10. Kim, D., Kim, Y., Kim, S., Kim, S.W., Zylstra, G.J., Kim Y.M. and Kim, E. (2002). Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degradation by Rhodococcus sp. strain DK17. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 68 (7), 3270-3278. Mottaleb, M.A., Abedin, M. Z. and Islam, M.S. (2003). Determination of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene in river water by solid-phase extraction and gas chromatography. Analytical Sciences, 19 (10), 1365-1369. Pettigrew, C.A., Billy, E.H. and Jim, C.S. (1991). Simultaneous biodegradation of chlorobenzene and toluene by a Pseudomonas strain. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 57 (1), 157-162. Sadhu, S., Pallab, K.G., Goutam, A. and Tushar, K. M. (2014). Optimization and strain improvement by mutation for enhanced cellulase production by Bacillus sp. (MTCC10046) isolated from cow dung. Journal of King Saud University – Science, 26 (4), 323-332. Shimao, M. (2001). Biodegradation of plastics. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 12 (3), 242-247. Tillich, U.M., Lehmann, S., Schulze, K., Duhring, U. and Frohme, M. (2012). The optimal mutagen dosage to induce point-mutations in Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 and its application to promote temperature tolerance. PLOS ONE, 7 (11), E49467. Wielgoss, S., Jeffrey, E.B, Olivier, T., Michael, J.W., James, D., Stéphane, C.,… Dominique, S. (2013). Mutation rate dynamics in a bacterial population reflect tension between adaptation and genetic load. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110 (1), 222-227. Xue, C., Zhao, X.Q., Yuan, W.J. and Bai, F.W. (2008). Improving ethanol tolerance of a self-flocculating yeast by optimization of medium composition. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 24, 2257. Yoshikawa, M., Ming, Z. and Koki, T. (2017). Biodegradation of volatile organic compounds and their effects on biodegradability under co-existing conditions. Microbes and Environments, 32 (3), 188-200. Zhang, G.L., Wu, Y.T., Qian, X.P. and Meng, Q. (2005). Biodegradation of crude oil by Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the presence of rhamnolipids. Journal of Zhejiang University Science, 6 (8), 725-730.

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LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF GREEN DIESEL PRODUCTION

Che Hafizan*1, Zainura Zainon Noor2, Norelyza Hussein3

1, 2, Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security (IPASA), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, 80990 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected] 3 School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, 80990 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected]

ABSTRACT The global transportation sector is one of the major fuel consumers and contributes directly to greenhouse gas emissions. To reduce the environmental burden of fuel usage, new diesel blending formulations that consist of biofuels were developed. The objective of the study is to assess the environmental performance of the five new diesel blending formulations with the existing diesel blending formulation by using Life Cycle Assessment method. In term of LCA result within midpoint categories, Blending 5 has shown the most potential compared to other fuels including B5 blending due to better environmental performance in most categories except for ozone depletion and urban land occupation impacts. In conclusion, Blending 5 has scored the least weighting values as compared to other diesel blending formulations including B5 thus indicating its potential as an alternative to the existing diesel blending formulation.

Key words: Life Cycle Assessment, Biodiesel, Biofuel, Renewable Energy

INTRODUCTION Diesel is utilized align with other fuel such as biodiesel. International standard has been applied for describing the concentration of biodiesel in the blend, known as the BXX nomenclature, where XX denotes the percentage in the biodiesel volume in the diesel/biodiesel blends. Nowadays, nomenclatures such as B2, B5, B20 and B100 are being used with 2%, 5%, 20% and 100% of biodiesel content respectively. The most common blending utilized today is B100, blend B20-B30, additive B5 and lubricity- additive B2 (Yusuf et al. 2011). In Malaysia, the implementation of B5 usage, which constitutes of 5% biodiesel and 95% petroleum diesel, was started in February 2009. Although the B5 programme can help to reduce emission of harmful substance into the environment, as for industrial purposes, the policy should target a higher blend of biodiesel in the future to ensure the success of the National Biodiesel policy (Abdullah et al. 2009). Thus in order to fully understand the sustainability of new diesel blending formulation in Malaysia, Life cycle assessment (LCA) appears to be a valuable tool.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The methodology of life cycle assessment according to ISO 14000 series was used in this research. Figure 1 illustrates the overall research framework. Each phase is necessary to be followed step by step in order to meet the standards.

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Data Collection for life cycle inventory

LCA modelling using LCA software modelling (Gabi)

Diesel blending formation

LCA using ReCiPe v1.3 methodology

Result intrepretation

Figure 1. Research Methodology flow chart i. Goal and scope definition The overall LCA framework for the study is illustrates in Figure 2, while Table 1 shows five different blending formulations that is applied in the study. The blending was formulated by Mohidin, (2014) which have matched their target properties such as density, cetane number and calorific value.

Figure 2. LCA Framework for the Study

Table 1. New diesel blending formulation (Mohidin, 2014) Component Blend 1 Blend 2 Blend 3 Blend 4 Blend 5 Diesel 0.709 0.744 0.719 0.753 0.789 Biodiesel 0.037 0.039 0.038 0.040 0.042 Butanol 0.244 0.217 0.123 0.097 0.070 Ethanol 0.000 0.000 0.100 0.100 0.100 Butyl Levulinate 0.010 0.000 0.020 0.010 0.000 ii. Life cycle inventory In this stage, data related with the product or systems are collected. Sources and types of data collected for LCA are summarized in Table 2. In LCA, data are collected from industrial data, literatures, software data, estimations and assumptions. Inventory data is crucial to represent the real LCA case study. Since the data are collected from several reports and published location, procedures should be followed to reach consistent understanding of the product systems to be modelled (ISO 14400, 2006). The data obtained were inserted into the LCA software.

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Table 2. General data collected and its sources Type of data Method of Source collected collection LCA palm Literature Choo et al., 2011; Ecoinvent database v2.2 (MY: biodiesel and database palm oil, at oil mill); Ecoinvent database v2.2 (MY: Palm methyl ester, at esterification plant) LCA diesel Database Ecoinvent database v2.2 (RER: diesel, at regional storage) LCA butanol Database Ecoinvent database v2.2 (RER: 1-butanol, propylene hydroformylation, at plant) LCA bioethanol Literature Wooley et al., 1999; Gutiérrez et al., 2009; Ecoinvent and database database v2.2; Chemical engineering software (Hysis) LCA butyl Database Ecoinvent database v2.2 (GLO: chemicals organic, at levulinate plant) iii. Life cycle impact assessment The midpoint impact result results are calculated using ReCiPe v1.3.18 impacts categories were assessed in midpoint impact.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

In this model, five components of fuels were considered namely diesel, biodiesel, butanol, ethanol and butyl levulinate. Figure 2 to Figure 4 demonstrates the potential environmental impact for production of diesel blending based on percentage contribution. In general diesel usage was majorly contributed to fossil depletion, marine ecotoxicity, natural land transformation, ozone depletion and terrestrial acidification impacts. Figure 2-4 also indicated that biodiesel is significantly contributed to at least 2 impact categories namely agricultural land occupation and terrestrial ecotoxicty impacts. Bioethanol and butyl levulinate have found insignificant for all impact categories due to low composition percentage in the new diesel blending formulations. While, butanol was found significant in many impacts categories except for agricultural land occupation, marine eutrophication, natural land transformation, and terrestrial ecotoxicity impacts. As for fuel transportation, the findings are directly referred to the amount of fuels used to transport each blending component.

For climate change impact, in comparison of diesel blending, it is apparent that B5 blending has scored the least impact as compared to other blendings. Assessment on each of the diesel blending component has shown that the production of 1kg butanol will emit 2.640 kg CO2-equiv, while for diesel, biodiesel, bioethanol and butyl levulinate release 0.512, 0.762, 0.368 and 1.890 kg CO2-equiv respectively. Thus it is expected that the formulation that contains the highest composition of butanol will results in highest carbon emission trace which is blending 1. Further analysis on butanol production found that the raw material for butanol production (Frischknecht et al., 2005, which is propylene covered 36% of the total climate change impact. However, the climate change impact of the blending is still considered high as compared to B5 blending. Nevertheless, study by Kashinath et al., (2012) that applying 4 of 5 components in the new diesel blending formulation which are diesel, ethanol, butanol and butyl levulinate, has found that the reduction of diesel percentage in diesel blending will reduce the CO2 emission in tailpipes gases measurement, which signify that the blending may gain positive environmental performance at the end of usage.

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Figure 2. Potential environmental impact for diesel blending based on percentage of contribution

Figure 3. Potential environmental impact for diesel blending based on percentage of contribution

An LCA study by Rodríguez, (2003) assessed the environmental performance of two diesel blendings, which are E-10 (diesel 90%, ethanol 10%) and E-15 (diesel 85%, ethanol 15%) that considered cradle-to-grave boundary has found that the utilizations of E-10 and E-15 formulations emitted 10% lower of CO2 emission than fossil diesel. The study also reported that the amount of nitrous oxide emission is almost similar for diesel and diesel blending. Since the characterization factor of nitrous oxide in climate change impact is higher than CO2 (NOx: 298 and CO2:1). Therefore it is expected nitrous oxide is not the main emission in the combustion of these blending. This also indicates that the application of diesel blending does not necessarily improve the climate change impact of the current fossil diesel.

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Figure 4. Potential environmental impact for diesel blending based on percentage of contribution

Sensitivity analysis is included used to test the assumptions and data used for life cycle inventory. 6 parameters namely butyl levulinate, ethanol, butanol, biodiesel, diesel and transport were chosen to identify the sensitive parameter in the diesel blending production inventory data. Figure 5 presents the sensitivity result for diesel blending production. From Figure 5, diesel is found to be the most sensitive parameter in which the magnitude of change is above 10% for all impact categories except in agricultural land occupation Aside from that, biodiesel is found to be sensitive parameter in agricultural land occupation impact, which the magnitude of change is higher than 10%.

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Figure 5. Sensitivity analysis for diesel blending production

CONCLUSION In diesel blending assessment, comparison study was done based on six different blending formulations including the commercial diesel blending which is B5 blending. In general, no consensus can be made within mid-point environmental impacts result which blending formulation is the least contribute to environmental interventions with considerations no diesel formulations that shown best environmental performance for each impact. In comparison to B5 blending, blending 5 is found better for at least 11 impacts categories, which indicating its potential to be alternative formulation for existing diesel formulations.

Acknowledgment: The authors would like to acknowledge the support from UTM Flagship Project with Cost Center No. QJ130000.2444.00G55 provided by Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and the Malaysian Government which provided the MyPHD scholarship to the authors.

REFERENCES

Abdullah, A. Z., Salamatinia, B., Mootabadi, H., and Bhatia, S. (2009). Current Status and Policies on Biodiesel Industry in Malaysia as the World’s Leading Producer of Palm Oil. Energy Policy. 37, 5440- 5448. Frischknecht R., Jungbluth N., Althaus H.-J., Doka G., Dones R., Heck T., Hellweg S., Hischier R.,

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Nemecek T., Rebitzer G. and Spielmann M., (2005). The ecoinvent database: Overview and methodological framework, International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 10, 3–9. International Standard of Organizations 14044 (2006). ISO 14044:2006(E). Published in Switzerland. Kashinath, S. A. A., Manan, Z. A., Hashim, H., & Alwi, S. R. W. (2012). Design of green diesel from biofuels using computer aided technique. Computers & Chemical Engineering, 41, 88-92. Mohidin, K. (2014). Tailor-Made Biofuel-Diesel Blends Properties Validation And Engine Performance (Master dissertation, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, School of Graduate Studies). Yusuf, N. N. A. N., Kamaruddin, S. K, and Yaakub, Z. (2011). Overview On the Current Trends in Biodiesel Production. Energy Conversion and Management. 52. 2741-2751.

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QUALITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS IN PURWOREJO REGENCY, CENTRAL JAVA, INDONESIA

Widodo B.*1, Lupiyanto R.2, Nugrahayu Q.3, Widyastuti A4, Harmawan F.5, Fauzi

FM.6 and Galis A.7

1, 3 Department of Environmental Engineering, Universitas Islam Indonesia, Yogyakarta, INDONESIA *[email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 2,4,5 Karunia Sejahtera, Yogyakarta, INDONESIA 6,7Center for Environmental Study, Universitas Islam Indonesia, Yogyakarta, INDONESIA [email protected]

ABSTRACT The quality of coastal ecosystems in Purworejo - Central Java which is closed to Yogyakarta International Airport tends to degrade due to pollution and environmental degradation. Environmental quality identification is essential for conservation. This study aims to identify indicators, including soil ecosystem, water quality, wastewater, and seawater quality. The methods include geo-electrical survey, field observation, and laboratory test. The results show that the area is polluted and degraded. Salinity distribution varies between 0.01 and 0.13 due to geological factors and seawater intrusion. Another finding shows that TSS reaches 1000-13.000 mg/L with 162-551 mg/L BOD, 2.24-4.77 mg/L Sulfide, and 0.61-2.06 mg/L Nitrite allegedly caused by shrimp farming activities. Clean water sources are polluted as total coliforms reach 46x103 – 195x103 MPN/100 ml. Seawater quality is also degraded with 8.96 pH. Pb, Cd, Cr, and Hg exceed the standard. This study recommends that, for a sustainable coastal area, shrimp farming should apply the best practice management with a wastewater treatment plant. Such area requires sanitation facilities to minimize pollution by coliforms. Firm control should be performed on industrial activities that contaminate seawater with heavy metals. Clean water pumping through wells should not exceed 16.82 m of depth to anticipate seawater intrusion.

Key words: Pollution, degradation, conservation, coastal area

INTRODUCTION Marine and coastal ecosystems are continuously exposed to pollution caused by eutrophication, toxic substances such as pesticides and POPs, heavy metals, ocean acidification, and direct human activities (Adams, 2005). One of the marine and coastal ecosystems with decreasing quality is located in Purworejo Regency, Central Java, Indonesia.

Approximately 80% marine and coastal pollution is caused by industrial, agricultural, and fish-farming activities as well as land-use activities (Hildering et al., 2009). The fish farming activities contributing to the pollution in marine and coastal ecosystems of Purworejo Regency is shrimp farming. Coastal pollution can be triggered by pollutants along the coastline and/or indirectly through river flows, offshore activities, seawater intrusion into the ground, and others. Shrimp-farming operating activities use a very large

157 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 amount of groundwater, leading to a significant reduce in groundwater quantity. In addition, untreated wastewater drained from shrimp ponds is immediately discharged into the surroundings in a vast quantity with unidentified quality, making the environment more burdened. According to USEPA (2013), on a global scale, irrigation contributes the largest volume of wastewater and the livestock sector produces more animal waste than human. Such activities deteriorate groundwater condition, and seawater intrusion flows further inland, which also leads to changes in the physical characteristics of land. Therefore, it is deemed necessary to identify the extent to which damage has affected the coastal ecosystems in Purworejo Regency. Such study is intended to make recommendations for the management of pollution and environmental damage in coastal ecosystems as part of conservation planning and environmental recovery.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The research stages consist of secondary data collection, survey and inventory, testing, data analysis, classification of status, and conclusions. Geoelectrical survey was carried out to identify underground damage, which includes the depth and quantity of groundwater and the extent of seawater intrusion inland. Wastewater testing was conducted on the wastewater from shrimp ponds and industries with three sample points. The parameters tested comprised TSS, turbidity, pH, BOD, Phosphate, Nitrite, Nitrate, Sulphates, Ammonia, and H2S. Clean water quality testing was performed for groundwater with ten sample points. The parameters tested consisted of colour, turbidity, pH, total hardness (CaCO3), Fluoride, (F), Chloride (Cl), Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe), Nitrite, Nitrate, Sulphates, KMnO4, dissolved solids (TDS), Cyanide (CN), coliform MPN, and salinity. Seawater quality testing was carried out on the seawater along the coastal ecosystems in Purworejo Regency with five sample points. The parameters tested included total coliform, Zn, Pb, Cu, Cd, Cr, Hg, and pH.

Geological analysis was conducted on the results of geoelectrical survey. Identification analysis of underground damage correlates with the extent of seawater intrusion inland. Analysis of wastewater and clean water pollution was done to the results of wastewater- quality laboratory test, and comparison was made with the environmental quality standards. The quality standards for the analysis of clean water pollution referred to the Regulation of the Minister of Health (Permenkes) Number 32 of 2017 concerning the Quality Standards of Clean Water and Drinking Water, and for that of wastewater pollution, the Regional Regulation of Central Java Province Number 5 of 2012 concerning Wastewater Quality Standards for Other Industrial Activities was utilized. Meanwhile, the results of seawater-quality laboratory test was analyzed for seawater pollution and compared with the quality standards from the Decree of the Minister of Environment Number 51 of 2004 concerning Seawater Quality Standards.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Wastewater Pollution Shrimp-farming activities around a marine and coastal ecosystem lead to declining environmental quality. Wastewater sampling is done at three points of shrimp-pond outlet followed by a laboratory-scale analysis. The results indicate a number of pollutant parameters with excessive values. These parameters include TSS of 1470, 13430, and 1047.5 mg/L (100 mg/L EQS) in samples 1, 2, and 3 respectively, with BOD values of 440, 551, and 162 mg/L (EQS = 50), and sulphide parameters of 4.77, 3.74, and 1.24 mg/L

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(1 mg/L EQS). In addition, the parameter of Nitrite as N at the wastewater sample points 1 and 2 is 2.05 and 2.06 mg/L (1 mg/L EQS), while that of sample 3 is 0.65 mg/L indicating that it remains below the environmental quality standards. The high values of physical, chemical, and organic chemical parameters result from the fact that shrimp farming uses a number of chemicals in the feed, antibiotics, or drugs that protect shrimp from disease, allowing optimum shrimp growth and larger yields (Nyanti and Ling, 2011). Furthermore, in the absence of Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP), shrimp-farming waste will pollute water bodies. According to Widodo (2015), if the best practice management of shrimp farming is not implemented, the effect appears as pollution from leftover feed and other solutes in the wastewater.

Clean Water Pollution The test results indicate several parameters that exceed the environmental quality standards for clean water set in the Regulation of the Minister of Health No. 32 of 2017. Parameters above the threshold can indicate groundwater pollution in the study area. These parameters include water turbidity of 26.7 NTU (EQS = 25 NTU) at sample point 10, manganese (Mn) of 1.49 mg/L (0.5 mg/L EQS) at point 10, water hardness of 704 mg/L at point 2, 1562 mg/L at point 7, 2068 mg/L at point 8, 904 mg/L at point 9, and 1672 mg/L at point 10 with 500 mg/L EQS. Another key parameter exceeding the environmental quality standard is the total coliform in all well points that reaches a range of 46 x 103 – 116 x 103 MPN/100 ml (threshold = 50 MPN/100 ml).

Meanwhile, the results of river water testing show that the key parameters exceeding the environmental quality standard for clean water include the hardness and total coliform, reaching 506 mg/L (500 mg/L EQS) and 105 x 103 MPN/100 ml (50 MPN/100 ml EQS), respectively. Hardness is very closely related to the mineral content in water. Hard water is caused by Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions or by such other elements as Al, Fe, Mn, and Zn (Effendi in Setyaningsih, 2014). Water with a high mineral content will have a high level of hardness. In addition to mineral content, the level of water hardness is also influenced by land topography in which lands with flat topography tend to have a high level of hardness because the movement of minerals in water becomes slower and they settle at certain points. In addition to hardness, the river water has been polluted by total coliform. Such pollutant overload can indicate the existence of pollutant sources intruding clean water resources. According to Sembel (2015), when total coliform bacteria are located, it is highly likely that there has been pollution due to human organic waste or animal waste. If the total coliform level exceeds the environmental quality standard, it can be an indication that groundwater resources and river water have been polluted by domestic waste. Such pollution comes from poor sanitation practices, such as the high percentage of people practicing open defecation (BABS) reaching 22.7% in 2015 (Anonymous, 2015), poor sanitation facilities such as open unsecured latrines, and the sewer system that is mixed with the system for rainwater and domestic waste among the community in the study area.

Seawater Pollution Test sampling is conducted at 5 points spreading from the east to the west. The test results in key parameters that indicate seawater pollution in the coastal ecosystem in Purworejo. These parameters include pH and heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cr, Hg) as well as the biological parameter of total coliform. The pH level exceeds the quality standard at sample point 4 with 8.96 (7 – 8.5 EQS). The levels of Pb at 5 sample points are all above the threshold of environmental quality standard with 0.27 mg/L at point 1, 0.16 mg/L at point 2, 0.19 mg/L at point 3, 0.25 mg/L at point 4, and 0.25 mg/L at point 5 while the EQS is 0.005 mg/L.

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This is similar to the parameters of Cd, Cr and Hg in which all points have greater levels than 0.002 mg/L EQS threshold.

The levels of heavy metal content that exceed the quality standard are caused by various activities, including waste from industries, mining, agriculture, and domestic activities that contain heavy metals (Nugraha, 2009). In the industrial sector, BPS (2017) records the existence of small-scale to large-scale industries in Purworejo Regency as a form of support for the local economy, such as the textile industry in Banyuurip, wood processing in Bayan, and widespread food industries as well as other small-scale and medium-scale industries. Such activities as wood processing, agriculture, and tourism have significantly affected the hydrological aspect of the environment with lowered water productivity and disrupted water quality.

Geoelectrical Analysis From the results of geoelectrical resistivity analysis conducted using a computer program and correlated with the geological conditions of the study area, it is interpreted that there are 3 types of lithology based on the resistivity level of rock types, including the cover layer, the clay layer, and the sand layer. The depth and resistivity of each layer can be seen in Table 1.

Tabel 1. Depth, Resistivity, and Interpretation of Rock Unit in the Geoelectrical Analysis Layer Depth (Meter) Resistivity (Ohm-m) Interpretation of Rock Unit 1 0 – 1.03 5.96 – 71.04 Cover layer 2 1.03 – 4.52 5.66 Clay 3 4.52 – 13.97 8.17 Clay 4 13.97 – 16.82 27.16 Sand 5 16.82 – 48.69 3.87 Clay/Sand 6 >48.69 4.05 Clay/Sand Source: Results of Geoelectrical Analysis

Table 1 shows that there is a lithology at the observation point with the potential of water content (aquifer) in the form of sand layer at a depth of 13.97 – 16.82 meters. However, since the layer thickness is less than 3 meters, it is estimated that the potential of water discharge is relatively small. Meanwhile, in the lower layer deeper than 16.82 meters, the resistivity value shows a lithology in the form of clay without the potential to become an aquifer. Because the assessment site is located in the coastal ecosystem, the small resistivity value leads to another possibility of sand layer containing water (aquifer) with seawater intrusion. Therefore, if drilling is carried out to reach a depth of more than 16.82 meters, the possibilities are: 1. No layer with water resource is found, or 2. A layer containing water is located but with seawater intrusion

Conservation of Coastal Ecosystems in Purworejo Regency A final assessment indicates whether environmental damage has incurred based on water pollution and land-use change. From the samples studied, most of the parameters tested remain below the quality standard thresholds except for the levels of hardness and total coliform that exceed the quality standard. These two parameters will not have a significant effect on environmental damage because such condition commonly occurs in a normal environment. It is hereby suggested that no significant environmental damage due to water pollution has occurred. A number of recommendations are made as a step to approach a sustainable conservation program for the coastal ecosystems in Purworejo Regency.

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Shrimp farming should implement the best practice management of environmentally friendly shrimp farming by constructing wastewater treatment plants. In addition, coastal ecosystems should be completed with appropriate sanitation facilities to minimize total coliform bacteria pollution in water resources. Industrial activities that pollute seawater with heavy metals (Pb, Cu, Cr, and Hg) should also be kept under firm control. Clean water collection through wells should not exceed a depth of 16.82 meters to anticipate seawater intrusion into fresh water resources. In addition, coastal ecosystems should provide greenbelts as a windbreak, such as with Australian pine trees or other plants alike.

CONCLUSION Identification of pollution and damage to the coastal ecosystems in Purworejo Regency indicates an insignificant environmental damage. This conclusion is supported by the fact that the water pollution factors remain under normal conditions.

Acknowledgment: The authors would like to thank the regional government of Purworejo Regency for supporting this study.

REFERENCES

Adams, S.M. (2005). Assessing cause and effect of multiple stressors on marine systems. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 51, 649-657. Anonymous. (2015). Buku Profil Sanitasi Kabupaten Purworejo. (Sanitation Profile of Purworejo Regency). Badan Pusat Statistik. (2017). Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Purworejo. (Central Statistics Agency of Purworejo Regency). Hildering, A., Keesen, A.M., van Rijswick, H.F.M.W. (2009). Tackling pollution of the Mediterranean Sea from land-based sources by an integrated ecosystem approach and the use of the combined international and European legal regimes. Ultrecht Law Rev. 5, 80-100. Nyanti, L., Berundang, G., & Ling, T. (2011). Shrimp Pond Effluent Quality during Harvesting and Pollutant Loading Estimation using Simpson’ s Rule. International Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 1(5), 208–213. Nugraha, W.A. (2009). Kandungan logam berat pada air dan sedimen di perairan Socah dan Kwanyar Kabupaten Bangkalan. Jurnal Kelautan, 2 (2) (Heavy metal content in water and sediment of Socah and Kwanyar in Bangkalan Regency). Sembel (2015). Toksikologi Lingkungan Dampak Pencemaran dari Berbagai Bahan Kimia dalam Kehidupan Sehari-hari. Penerbit Andi. Yogyakarta (Environmental Toxicology. Daily Effects of Pollution from Chemicals). USEPA. (2013). Literature review of contaminants in livestock and poultry manure and implications for water quality. USA: USEPA. Widodo B., Erwin, Adam. (2015). Manajemen Kontrol Kualitas Air Tinkatkan Produktifitas Tambak Udang Vannemei (Water Quality Control Improving Vannemei Shrimp Pond Productivity), DPPM, UII.

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THE EFFECT OF TYPE OF BOARDING HOUSE ON SOLID WASTE GENERATION AND COMPOSITION AS A MODEL OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN INDONESIA: A CASE STUDY OF YOGYAKARTA PROVINCE

Kasam*1, Eko Siswoyo2 and Fajri Mulya Iresha3

1,2 Department of Environmental Engineering, Universitas Islam Indonesia, Yogyakarta, Indonesia *[email protected], [email protected] 3 Department of Environmental Engineering, Universitas Islam Indonesia, Yogyakarta, Indonesia [email protected]

ABSTRACT The type of boarding house (student rented room) in Indonesia is grouped into two different types, namely non-exclusive and exclusive boarding house. The different types of boarding house will affect the generation of solid waste. This study aims to determine the waste management system of both types of boarding houses which includes: solid waste generation, composition, and characteristic of residents. The research activity began with waste generation sampling in the boarding houses around campus in the Yogyakarta region. While the resident characteristic was identified by using questionnaires. The volume of waste generated from exclusive boarding house is slightly larger than non- exclusive boarding house namely 2.38 and 2.07 liter/person/day, respectively. Significant difference occurs for organic waste (17.41% and 9.14%) and plastic waste (31.70% and 40.79%) for the non-exclusive and exclusive boarding house. Even though the level of knowledge of residents about waste management is same, however, the level of participation for non-exclusive boarding house residents is higher than the exclusive boarding house with a score of 61% and 41%, respectively. The result of this study is important to be considered in the development of the model of boarding house regarding waste management system in Indonesia.

Key words: Boarding house, solid waste generation, solid waste management

INTRODUCTION Yogyakarta Special Province is one of the biggest education cities in Indonesia, causing the number of students who come from various regions. There are more than 400,000 students who study at the university, polytechnic, or institution as level as it. Especially at Universitas Gadjah Mada (UGM) as the biggest university in Yogyakata. It has 53,199 students, most of them reside at the boarding house or dormitory around the campus of UGM, while Universitas Islam Indonesia (UII) students are around 24,000 (Central Bureau of Statistics Special Province of Yogyakarta, 2017). A large number of students will require a large number of boarding houses. Accommodations spread across the Yogyakarta region consist of various types, both the number of rooms and facilities. Base on the level of the facilities, the boarding houses are grouped into two types, they are Non-Exclusive Boarding House (NEBH) and Exclusive Boarding House (EBH). NEBH is defined as a simple dwelling with basic facilities such as a bed, shared bathroom and study table, while EBH is a residence with complete facilities such as air conditioning, Wi-Fi, refrigerator, wardrobe, study table, bed, and television. Called as EBH because the facilities are more complete, the price is more expensive than NEBH, so that the residents are economically

162 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 more capable. With various types of boarding house, it will indicate changes in waste generation and composition.

Various factors that influence waste generation include socioeconomic parameters such as education, occupation, income of the family, number of family members (Monavari et al., 2012 and Khan et al., 2016). The findings of Suthar and Singh (2015) suggest that there is a strong correlation between waste generation and family size of a household. The consumption pattern of household is directly linked to the increase in income which results in changed composition and quantities of household waste (Ogwueleka, 2013). Income factor is also one of the changes to waste generation that the solid waste generation is directly dependent on the income levels, and the upper-income individuals tend to consume more industrialized products, their garbage contains more recyclable materials than that of low-income communities. (Qu et al., 2009 and Saeed et al., 2009). The aim of this research is to determine the waste generation and characterize in the Boarding House around campus in Yogyakarta Region with the specific aims are to determine the trends in the volume of waste generated and examine possible integrated solid waste management strategies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Sampling Area Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta (DIY) Province which is lies between 7o33’- 8o12’ South Latitude and 110o00’-110o50’ East Longitude of Greenwich, have area 3,185.80 km² or 0.17 percent of Indonesia area (1,860,359.67 km²), Yogyakarta is the smallest province after DKI Jakarta Province. Majority area of DIY lies at height 100 m – 499 m above sea that is 65.65 percent, at height less than 100 m around 28.84 percent, at height 500 m – 999 m around 5.04 percent and the areas that lies at above 1000 m around 0.47 percent. The population of DIY in 2016 recorded 3.720.912 people, with the percentage of the male population is 49.45 percent and 50.55 percent among females. Population growth in 2016 to reach 1.18 percent in 2010, up from the previous year's growth, which is 1.13 percent. With an area of 3,185.80 km2, the population density in the province recorded 1,168 people per km2.

The research locations are boarding houses located in 3 areas, consist of the area around Universitas Gadjah Mada (UGM), Universitas Islam Indonesia (UII), and Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta (UNY). The 3 areas are chosen because they are included in the 3 biggest universities in Yogyakarta.

Sampling Method This sampling activity aims to determine the total weight and volume of the solid waste from boarding house and then compare the amount of generation and volume of solid waste produced by each type of boarding house so that this sampling activity is carried out in two different types of boarding houses, namely exclusive and non-exclusive. This sampling activity was carried out for 8 consecutive days which have been explained in SNI 19-2964-1994 on "Method for Taking and Measuring Examples of Urban Waste Collection and Composition" from 12 December 2017 to 19 December 2017 at same time in 3 locations.

In determining the number of samples, is taken by using two sampling techniques, the first is purposive random sampling which is a sampling technique with certain considerations

163 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 and quota sampling is a sampling technique where researchers determine a sample of a population that has certain characteristics to the amount (quota) as desired (Sugiyono, 2004: 77-78)

As referred to quota sampling, the researcher determines the characteristics of the boarding houses to be sampled, namely by looking at the number of rooms in the boarding house, namely 15 rooms for exclusive boarding houses and 15 rooms for non-exclusive boarding houses. Then for the desired total for the total sample to be sampled, there are 17 exclusive boarding houses and 18 non-exclusive boarding houses. So that the total number of boarding houses to be sampled are 35 boarding houses with 15 rooms for each boarding house. From the explanation of the quota sampling technique, this is what makes the consideration of this study in taking data with a purposive random sampling technique.

The average weight and volume of solid waste from 8 consecutive day are obtain from both types of boarding room. The composition of solid waste was classified to organic, plastic, paper, metals, glass, textile, and others. These are referred to the composition that are often appeared in Municipal Solid Waste.

While the resident characteristic was identified by using questionnaires. The distribution was aimed to find out the student’s knowledge about waste management and sorting as well as to find out the consumption patterns of students while staying in the boarding house. The questionnaire was distributed online using Google E-Form using the Slovin method as a determination of the number of respondents.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Existing Waste Management at The Study Site Solid Waste Management the area around the UGM, UII, and UII campus, which is mostly a boarding house for the university student following the flow of storage at the source, collecting to the transfer station then transporting to landfill, as shown in Figure 1. Storage used at the boarding house around the campuses consists of two types, namely individual and communal. Individual storage is a trash bin that can be only used by one boarding house, while communal storage is used by two or more houses. Waste accumulation in boarding houses around the campuses is collected to the transfer station using pick up. As the final stage of solid waste management in settlements around the campuses is transportation to the Piyungan landfill which is about 20-25 km away.

Figure 1. Waste Management System at the Study Location

Waste Generation And Composition Based on sampling conducted for 8 days consecutively at boarding houses both non- exclusive and exclusive boarding houses, it is known that the average amount of solid waste generation per house is 90.19 kg/day for EBH, while the NEBH is 95.04 kg/day.

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Table 1. Comparison of the Amount of Weight and Volume of Waste in Each Area of the Boarding Houses

Area Type of Boarding House Weight Volume

Exclusive 0.35 kg/person/day 2.72 l/person/day UII Non- Exclusive 0.25 kg/person/day 2.00 l/person/day Exclusive 0.35 kg/person/day 1.82 l/person/day UGM Non- Exclusive 0.35 kg/person/day 1.85 l/person/day Exclusive 0.39 kg/person/day 2.61 l/person/day UNY Non- Exclusive 0.33 kg/person/day 2.26 l/person/day When compared among boarding houses in the area of UGM, UII, and UNY, the weight of solid waste generation of the EBH in the area of UGM tend to be as same as in the generation of NEBH waste. But, on average, the volume and the weight of waste generated from EBH is slightly larger than NEBH namely 2.38 and 2.07 liter/person/day, then 0.36 and 0.31 kg/person/day, respectively. It assumed that the student from EBH dispose more waste than student in NEBH. Economy level usually have correlation with the quantity of the waste generation (Owamah, et.al., 2017).

There is almost no significance different of the composition of the solid waste generation between EBH and NEBH. Significant difference occurs for organic waste (17.41% and 9.14%) and plastic waste (31.70% and 40.79%) for the NEBH and EBH, respectively.

Figure 2. Waste Composition for NEBH (left) and EBH (right)

Even though the level of knowledge of residents about waste management is same, however, the level of participation for non-exclusive boarding house residents is higher than the exclusive boarding house with a score of 61% and 41%, respectively.

Figure 3. Willingness to participation in solid waste management

CONCLUSION Waste generated from EBH is greater than NEBH. This is due to the higher lifestyle of EBH residents. Then, the composition of waste is dominated by paper, plastic, and organic

165 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 waste. However, the organic is smaller among the three types of waste, due to the student's habit of eating outside the boarding house. This is the different condition with the Household Waste in Indonesia which is dominated with organic waste fraction. Also, paper is dominated in two types of the resident. This causes the character of the student of the boarding house waste is more like office or waste in commercial area. Resident in EBH use plastic more than NEBH resident, because the different lifestyle, so resident in EBH is more consumable than resident in NEBH. Then, judging from the level of willingness to participate in managing waste, NEBH residents have a higher desire than residents of EBH. For this reason, the 3R socialization program and waste segregation can be prioritized in NEBH. Then, it can also be subject to high fees to residents of EBH. Garbage collection can be divided into 2 types, commercial waste for EBH. Where waste can be mixed but they must pay high fees for residents of EBH. Secondly, regular waste, where waste collected free or much cheaper than commercial waste, with the requirement, the waste is already separated. This type is for NEBH residents. So that, the solid waste management system will run better in accordance with socio-economy conditions.

Acknowledgment: Authors wish to thanks for the students who participated in this research, namely Ardian Murdani, Bulgam Akbar, and Muhammad Alif Fathurrahman. Also, for collectors of waste around UGM, UII, and UNY, then for all communities around there who help this research.

REFERENCES

Central Bureau of Statistics Special Province of Yogyakarta. (2017). DIY dalam Angka Tahun 2017. Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta : Badan Pusat Statistik. Khan, D., Kumar, A., Samadder, S.R. (2016). Impact of socioeconomic status on municipal solid waste generation rate, Waste Management 49 15–25. Monavari, S.M., Omrani, G.A., Karbassi, A., Raof, F.F. (2012). The effects of socioeconomic parameters on household solid-waste generation and composition in developing countries (a case study: Ahvaz, Iran). Environ. Monit. Assess. 184 (4), 1841–1846. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2082-y. National Standardization Agency of Indonesia. 1994. SNI 19-3964-1994 tentang Metode Pengambilan dan Pengukuran Contoh Timbulan dan Komposisi Sampah Perkotaan. Ogwueleka, T.C. (2013). Survey of household waste composition and quantities in Abuja, Nigeria. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 77, 52–60. Owamah, I.H., Izinyon, O.C. and Igbinewekan, P. (2017). Characterization and quantification of solid waste generation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria: a case study of Ogbe-Ijoh community in Delta State. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 19(1), pp.366-373. Qu, X., Li, Z., Xie, X., Sui, Y., Yang, L., Chen, Y. (2009). Survey of composition and generation rate of household wastes in Beijing, China. Waste Manage. 29 (10), 2618–2624. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.05.014. Saeed, M.O., Hassan, M.N., Mujeebu, M.A. (2009). Assessment of municipal solidwaste generation and recyclable materials potential in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Waste Manage. 29 (7), 2209–2213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. wasman.2009.02.017. Sugiyono. 2004: 77-78. Metode Penelitian Bisnis. Bandung: CV. Alfabeta. Suthar, S., Singh, P. (2015). Household solid waste generation and composition in different family size and socio-economic groups: a case study. Sustain. Cities Soc. 14, 56–63.

166 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

OCCURRENCE AND BEHAVIOUR OF ANTIBIOTICS IN CONVENTIONAL SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT

C. X. Chen1, A. Aris1,2, E. L. Yong1, Z. Z. Noor2,3

1Department of Water and Environmental Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA 2Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security (IPASA), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA 3Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT Antibiotics are widely used in the society with significant quantities of these chemical ending up being discharged into sewage treatment plant (STP). However, most of the antibiotics are not completely removed by conventional STP processes and eventually discharged into the environment. In this study, the concentration and type of four selected antibiotics namely, ampicillin (AMP), ciprofloxacin (CIP), erythromycin (ERY), and sulfamethoxazole (SMX) in six STPs in Johor Bahru district were investigated. The types of STPs investigated in this study consists of Imhoff tank (IT), Extended Aeration (EA) and Hi-kleen (HK). In addition, the removal efficiency of common wastewater quality parameters (COD, BOD, TSS, Total Nitrogen, Ammonia, Nitrate, Nitrite and Total Phosphorus) were evaluated. The results show that only one EA plant was capable to remove COD and BOD with efficiencies of more than 70%. Others plants achieved removal of all parameters with efficiencies less than 70%. All antibiotics were detected in the influent, effluent from secondary treatment and final effluent samples of all STPs. The concentration of occurrence antibiotics ranged from 2.87 to 606.85 ng/l, 3.98 ng/l to 276.11 ng/l and 2.10 to 171.85 ng/l in influent, secondary effluent and final effluent samples, respectively. AMP and SMX were highly removed with efficiencies ranging from 47% to 100% and 39% to 100% in all processes, respectively. ERY have high removal variability with overall removal efficiency ranging from 5% to 100% in all processes. CIP was the least removed antibiotic, with removal efficiency up to only 52%.

Key words: Ampicillin, ciprofloxacin, erythromycin, sulfamethoxazole, municipal wastewater, CEC, LC-MS.

INTRODUCTION The presence of various pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) in environment has received considerable scientific attention in recent years due to their adverse environmental and human health effect. The potential risk and toxicity on environment and human health by PPCPs are suspected due to the active ingredients in PPCPs which are mainly designed to trigger biological response (Du and Liu, 2012). Besides, antibiotic as one of the most important class in PCPPs, is frequently reported to easily trigger the development of antibiotic resistance bacteria (ARB) and antibiotic resistance gene (ARG) after exposure to environment (Le et al., 2018). It is expected that high quantity of antibiotics will be continuously discharged into sewage treatment plant (STP). Unfortunatley, most of the STPs are frequently reported incapable to effectively remove the antibiotics (Semreen et al., 2019), which results in the antibiotics residue being

167 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 discharged to the environment.

Currently, no study have been conducted to investigate the removal effectiveness of antibiotics in Malaysia’s STP. Therefore, this paper fills the existing gap by providing the data on the occurrence and removal of the four most commonly used antibiotics in Malaysia. In this work, the occurrence and removal efficiencies of the selected antibiotics including ampicillin (AMP), ciprofloxacin (CIP), erythromycin (ERY) and sulfamethoxazole (SMX) were investigated at six decentralized STP with all located in Johor Bahru district, Malaysia. The treatment system evaluated in this study were extended aeration (EA), imhoff tank (IT) and Hi-kleen (HK).

MATERIALS AND METHODS Chemicals and consumables Methanol and acetonitrile used in this work were HPLC grade (>99.8%) and purchased from QRec (Asia). Oasis HLB 3cc Vac Cartridge (60 mg Sorbent) were purchased from Waters Cooperation (United State). Ampicillin (AMP, 99%), ciprofloxacin (CIP, 99%), erythromycin (ERY, 99%) and sulfamethoxazole (SMX, 99%) were analytical grade and purchased from Santa Cruz Biotechnology (USA).

Sampling location All samples were collected from six municipal STPs in Johor Bahru district. The STPs consist of three extended aeration (referred as EA1, EA2 and EA3), two Imhoff tank (referred as IT1 and IT2) and one Hi-leen process (referred as HK). In brief, all system consists of primary treatment to remove large particle and biological treatment to remove the residual contaminants. For biological treatment, EA1, EA2 and EA3 plants employed extended activated sludge process, IT1 and IT2 plants employed small anaerobic Imhoff tank system, and HK plant employed aerobic Hi-kleen technology.

The wastewater samples were collected once for every four months from the selected STPs during October 2018 to June 2019 using grab sampling method. Total of three sampling exercises were conducted throughout the study. Samples were collected from influent, effluent from secondary treatment and final effluent. All samples were collected in duplicate (1 litre from each sampling point) in prewashed amber glass bottles, kept in ice box and transported to the laboratory. The sample were immediately filtered through 0.45 m cellulose nitrate filter (NC, Bioflow) to remove suspended solids and stored at 4°C before extraction.

Wastewater characterization Samples were analysed immediately after being collected from STP according to the Standard Method (APHA, 2012). The samples were analysed for chemical oxygen demand (total and soluble; tCOD, sCOD), 5d-biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), total nitrogen (TN), ammonia (NH4-N), total phosphorus (TP), total suspended solid (TSS) and volatile suspended solids (VSS). pH was analysed in-situ using multi-parameter water quality checker (U-50; Horiba, Japan).

Sample extraction and analysis All antibiotics were extracted and analysed according to USEPA Method 1694 with change in extraction volume from 500 ml to 150 ml (EPA, 2007). In brief, the pH of wastewater samples were adjusted to 2.0 with 1.0 M hydrochloride acid. The desired

168 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 antibiotics in samples were extracted using solid phase extraction (SPE) by allowing 150 ml wastewater samples to pass through Oasis HLB cartridge with using oil free vacuum pump (Rocker 600; Rocker, Taiwan). The eluents were concentrated with nitrogen evaporator (XcelVap; Horizon Technology, USA) to volume of 1 ml. The final volume of analytes were brought up to 4 ml by the addition of formic acid (0.1% v/v in methanol). 1 ml of the concentrated eluents were separated with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (1290 Infinity; Agilent, USA) and analysed with triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer (MS) (6410; Agilent USA) with positive electrospray ionization (ESI).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Performance of STPs on wastewater quality parameter The performance of the STPs on the removal of common wastewater parameters is shown in Table 1. In general, EA processes achieved better removal on most of the parameters as compared to IT and HK processes. However, EA plants also have higher variability of tCOD removal efficiency, ranging from 19% to 79%; IT plants have tCOD removal ranged from 48% to 59% while HK plant achieved 66% tCOD removal. Among three EA plants, EA2 plant achieved greater removal on most of the selected parameters while EA1 plant achieved weaker removal on most of the selected parameters. Similarly, for biodegradable organic removal, EA process achieved better BOD removal as compared to IT and HK process; the BOD removal achieved ranged from 41% to 82%, 50% to 61% and 44% for EA plants, IT plants and HK plant, respectively. Besides, EA process achieved greater ammonia (-1% to 58%) removal compared to other processes (IT: -118%; HK: -5%). The higher ammonia removal in EA plants is mainly due to higher dissolved oxygen concentration in EA plants which is essential for nitrification. Phosphorus were not effectively removed in all processes, in which removal efficiency recorded ranged only from 10% to 39%.

Table 1. Removal efficiencies of common wastewater parameters in the selected STPs+ STP Type pH tCOD sCOD BOD TSS TN TP EA1 7.6 19.1±20.1 13.9±49.9 41.7±27.7 6.6±26.8 3.6±11.7 16.9±14.9 EA2 7.7 79.3±6.8 70.89±8.5 83.6±8.3 53.5±15.1 48.4±13.4 28.5±12.4 EA3 7.1 59.2±12.2 64.6±10.9 64.2±12.2 62.5±10.9 32.6±9.8 10.7±12.1 IT1 7.0 59.3±7.5 49.2±8.1 61±8.2 76±5.7 8.1±18.5 23±6.6 IT2 7.5 48.9±11.5 52.2±9.4 50±11.1 44.5±13.0 10.6±10.7 31.3±11 HK 7.3 66.9±6.8 63±5.9 44.8±28.5 44.7±6.4 19.7±10.5 39.3±9.8 +Except for pH, the units are in mg/L

Removal efficiencies of antibiotics Highest overall removal efficiencies were observed for AMP and SMX with efficiencies ranging from 47% to 100% and 39% to 100% in all processes, respectively. ERY have high removal variability with removal efficiency ranging from 5% to 100% in all processes. CIP was the least removed antibiotic, with removal efficiency ranged only from -26.4% to 52% (Overall removal data not shown). All antibiotics showed different behaviour during different stage of treatment. In general, secondary treatment is the most significant process in antibiotics removal where most of the removal take place during this stage (Table 2), contributing 70% of the removal. For post-secondary treatment, AMP was removed by 80%. However, negative removal was achieved for SMX and CIP during post- secondary treatment. Meanwhile, IT and HK plants were capable to greatly remove ERY and AMP, with removal efficiency of more than 80% for both antibiotics.

169 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Figure 1 show the overall removal of antibiotics by different processes. On the others hand, Figure 1 shown that AMP was able to be removed by all processes, with removal more than 50%; SMX could only be effectively removed by aerobic process (EA, HK), with removal more than 40% in both processes. ERY could only be effectively removed by anaerobic process (IT) with removal more than 90%. CIP was not effectively removed by all studied plants, with less than 50% and negative removal generally achieved.

25%~75% Range within 1.5IQR Median Line Mean Outliers 100

Removal efficiencies (%) efficiencies Removal

-50 AMP CIP ERY SMX AMP CIP ERY SMX AMP CIP EA IT HK Figure 1. Overall removal efficiencies of antibiotics in difference processes

Table 2. Removal efficiencies of the targeted antibiotics in aqueous phase of STPs STPs Removal efficiencies (%) Detection Influent wastewater - Secondary effluent - Influent wastewater – frequency Secondary effluent Final effluent Final effluent (%) EA1 EA2 EA3 EA1 EA2 EA3 IT1 IT2 HK Antibiotics AMP 46.6 n.d 58.72 63.75 n.d 81.98 88.21 46.9 78.2 97.7

CIP 86.6 34.4 36.73 7.47 -42.39 -6.71 16.53 28.4 -26.3 -6.8

ERY 13.3 100 n.d n.d -100 n.d n.d 100 n.d n.d

SMX 33.3 11.05 100 74.12 100 n.d -133.15 77.9 n.d n.d n.d: not detected

CONCLUSION Most of the common wastewater parameter were removed with removal efficiency less than 80% in all the selected STPs, suggested that old and conventional technology may not sufficient to ensure quality effluent. The antibiotics were detected from influent to final effluent indicating that none of the antibiotics were completely removed during the treatment. CIP was the most recalcitrant antibiotic, in which none of the process achieved removal more than 50%. AMP and SMX were the least recalcitrant antibiotics, with more than 50% removal achieved by all processes. Only anaerobic process such as IT plants were capable to remove ERY with removal more than 90%. The selective removal of antibiotics observed in this work suggested that combined process is the most suitable way

170 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 to ensure complete removal of most of the antibiotic.

Acknowledgment: The author would like to acknowledge Ministry of Education Malaysia and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for supporting the study under International/Industry Incentive Grant (Q.J130000.3051.01M36). The authors would also like to thank Indah Water Konsortium (IWK) for providing assistance and support throughout the study.

REFERENCES

APHA. (2012). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater (Vol. 10). E. W. Rice (Ed.). Washington, DC: American Public Health Association. Du, L., & Liu, W. (2012). Occurrence, fate, and ecotoxicity of antibiotics in agro-ecosystems. A review. Agronomy for sustainable development, 32(2), 309-327. Le, T. H., Ng, C., Tran, N. H., Chen, H., & Gin, K. Y. H. (2018). Removal of antibiotic residues, antibiotic resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes in municipal wastewater by membrane bioreactor systems. Water research, 145, 498-508. Semreen, M. H., Shanableh, A., Semerjian, L., Alniss, H., Mousa, M., Bai, X., & Acharya, K. (2019). Simultaneous Determination of Pharmaceuticals by Solid-phase Extraction and Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry: A Case Study from Sharjah Sewage Treatment Plant. Molecules, 24(3), 633.

171 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

RESOURCE SECURITY

Parallel Session 7

172 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

FOOD AND WOOD WASTE COMPOSTING: OPERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE AT LANDFILL

Yusouf Latif*1, Zamri Abdul Rahman2, Hashim Wahab3,

Mohd Faizi Abu4 and Yusof Hassan5

1,2,3 Worldwide Landfills Sdn Bhd, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 4,5 Worldwide Holdings Berhad, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT There are several proprietary processes to make compost from organic materials. Takakura method applies direct mixture of fermentation solution to organic media, typically rice husk and food waste. Rice husk was once available at landfill but having its own market recently. Substitution of rice husk by wood waste was carried out in a separate trial as an attempt to find alternative carbon source. The compost was later applied to plant bed and after awhile mite trails were observed suggesting mite attack on the dried and decomposed wood waste. Thus, this paper discusses the results of composting batch made without rice husk substitution. The macro and micro-nutrient content met general requirement, only the C:N ratio and final compost pH suggested longer composting period to produce fully matured compost. It was also learned that the fermentation solution can be applied to waste pile as foul odor remover. This aspect can be further explored so the multiple applications could upheld compost making at landfill that suit the daily operation and being beneficial to the environment as well.

Keywords: Food waste, Wood waste, Fermentation, Compost, Landfill operation

INTRODUCTION In 2016, Selangor has set target to achieve Smart State status by the year 2025. The Smart Waste Management has been introduced as one of the domains to complement the target, adopting an integrated value chain approach by accelerating waste recycling rate and recovering its value. One of the initiatives done by Subang Jaya Municipal Council was providing free compost bins to households to encourage composting from food and garden waste (SSDU, 2016). The assignment was adjacent to the former Serdang Biomass Town Project. In a related report, one quadrant of the total survey responded that the council initiative was deemed successful (Kamaruddin et al., 2017). Another initiative launched by EcoKnights, a not-for-profit environmental organization in 2018. Also supported by Smart Selangor, the small-scale program extended the compost bins supply but limited to participants who attended their composting workshop. These exercises were practical in terms of the waste can be utilized soonest possible for composting. Facility located near to community and residences for instance might get the waste within 2 or 3 days that the organics degradation in beginning stage.

Worldwide Environment has also initiated its own role to do composting at landfill. There are several proprietary processes to make compost from organic materials. Vermicompost is the common process of degrading food waste using earthworms in vessel system or batch reactor. Hügelkultur is the process of composting wood waste including yard trimmings and leaves in garden beds, mostly being practiced in Europe countries. Bokashi

173 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 is another alternative method which fully utilizes fermentation process for instance using inoculated bran to decompose organic matter such as kitchen waste. Takakura composting method utilizes fermentative microorganisms as seed compost, which were cultured from local fermented food such as fermented soybean (Nuzir et al., 2019). At landfill, waste received was relied to the collection schedule by operators which ranges from 3 to 5 days that the organics degradation at on-going stage.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Overview. Learning the benefit of Takakura composting, some trials have been carried out at Tanjung Duabelas Sanitary Landfill, Kuala Langat since 2016, apart of the operational activities to manage 1,000 tonne domestic waste on initial daily capacity. The compost produced was aimed for internal use since the site is located at a considerable isolated area. Rice husk as part of the composting raw material was once a type of organic waste sent to landfill until the material was found good for certain productions through advanced biotech processes. Realizing the potential and value, producers began to sell the material instead of conventionally dispose at landfill. Dry waste such as garden waste, construction and debris materials were managed at inert waste landfills. Selected wood waste was sourced from Kuang Inert Waste Landfill, Gombak and processed into woodchips form for a separate composting trial to substitute the rice husk.

General procedure. Plastic container with lid was used for the preparation of fermentation solution and storage purpose. An all-sided wooden box padded with cloth to enable air in and out was used for the seed compost mixing and final composting process. In between the process, shovel was used to muddle the heap of compost materials. Essential microbe was sourced from the commercially available tempeh which was made by natural culturing of Rhizopus oligosporus fungus in a controlled fermentation process that binds soybeans into cake form. Blackstrap molasses was used to prepare sugared solution for its higher nutrient content as compared to sulphured molasses.

Fermentation solution. Mother culture was prepared by fine-slicing the tempeh. Formerly, 4.0% molasses was mixed with 20-liter water to make sugared solution. Dechlorinated water of temperature about 40.0 deg.C. was preferable but tap water with chlorine or chloramine 3.0 ppm and below was acceptable. To complete the mixing, 5% mother culture was added into the sugared solution. The solution attended again 48 hours later, after which burping process was carried out daily by simply loosening and tightening the container cap to release forming gas. The fermentation solution was ready when it gives pH readings in the range of 2.5 to 4.0, normally achieved at day 7.

Organic media and composting. The media mix consisted of rice husk and rice bran at 5:1 ratio, both from commercial grades. The initial 18.0 kg media mixture was poured and mixed with 12 liters of fermentation solution. When necessary, additional solution was sprinkled to form damp lumps by hand without liquid drip observed, otherwise considered too wet. In a separate batch, rice husk portion was substituted with woodchips. Cultivated white molds can be observed on the surface after 7 days. To begin final composting process, 6.0 kg coarse food waste was cut into smaller sizes and rinsed with tap water. It was then fed into the heap and water was sprinkled if the mix was too dry. As the composting process continued, the heap was muddled every two days for a total 30 days with the cloth padding and wooden box cover were kept closed in between the process to avoid bugs and larva, and to sustain the inner temperature.

174 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Compost test. The compost produced was applied to a plant bed, growing calamansi trees or Citrofortunella microcarpa. The compost made of wood waste as substitution to rice husk was found adverse as discussed in the following section. This trial was discontinued since no such observation found on the compost made of rice husk. Quantity in terms of weight of raw material and compost produced were recorded to calculate the reduction. Quality test were carried out by supplying sample to an independent laboratory covering up to 18 parameters including pH test based on APHA 4500 method, most of macronutrient test based on Malaysian Standard including MS 417 and MS 678, and micro- nutrient test based on USEPA 1311 method.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Wood waste compost. Substitution of rice husk by wood waste has produced compost that was relatively dry and grainy. Saad et. al (2013) carried out composting of mixed yard and food waste at several composition also reported that the moisture content for 100% yard waste was very low. In Figure 1, mite trails were observed at multiple areas suggesting mite attack as they fed on dried and decomposed wood. Compost trials by Pujiono et. al (2018) with various ratio of wood waste as in saw dust to green biomass also found that only certain parameters meet the compost quality standard. Thus, this trial was considered adverse but some studies suggested optimum proportion of rice husk and wood waste mix can be further explored.

(a) (b) (c) Figure 5. Mite trail at plant bed a) away from tree, b) near tree, and c) another spot near tree with the dried and decomposed wood waste can be observed in light color

Weight reduction and pH. Only compost sample using the unaltered Takakura compost ingredients used for the lab test. Nearly 45 kg of raw materials mix have produced 18 kg of compost, equivalent to 60% weight reduction. Other studies showed reduction of 84% and 36% by volume, as shown in Table 1. The reduction reflected the degradation of not only the food waste, but virgin raw material as well. Nuzir et al. (2019) reported that successful implementation of Takakura composting in 5 years run has resulted in 30% reduction on the average waste disposal whereby the Benowo Landfill at Surabaya city recorded 1,500 tonne per day in 2006 against 1,000 tonne per day for the year 2009. During the initial stage of decomposition, organic acids were formed and matured compost would have a more neutral pH ranged between 7 and 8 (Jamaludin et. al (2017). The pH of 6.3 recorded in this study indicated that the process has yet produce matured compost.

175 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Table 3. Partial comparison of compost system Composting Reduction Reference Technique Setting period Final pH (%) (days) Takakura composting Landfill 60 This study 44 6.3 box food waste (weight) Jiménez-Antillón Takakura composting Office 84 42 6.0 et al. (2018) box cafeterias (volume) Campos-Rodríguez Takakura composting Composting N.R. N.R. 7.5 et al. (2016) a box facility Takakura composting Composting 36 Borrero (2014) a 17 and 35 7.6 box facility (volume) Composter barrel with Abushammala et Takakura effective Backyard 42 N.R. 7.0 to 8.0 al. (2015)a microbes Note: 1. Reference with (a) also sourced from Jiménez-Antillón et al. (2018) report. 2. N.R.: not reported.

Quality test findings. The nitrogen (N), organic carbon (C) and phosphorus (P) content were within the recommended values as shown in table 2, except for potassium (K). On overall, the landfill food waste contained less meat but more fruits and cooked vegetables known to have high content of potassium or the protein sources have been degraded before it reached landfill. The C:N was 65:1, relatively high as compared to the ideal 10:1 to 15:1 range (Argun et al., 2017). Degradation of rice husk usually required enhanced process as the raw was reported to have high ratio of C:N at about 85:1 for its silica and lignin content (Thiyageshwari et al., 2018). Composting duration could also be more than 44 days to produce fully matured compost, similarly suggested to the pH findings.

Table 4. Comparison of macro-nutrient with recommended value Macronutrient content (%) Reference N C P K This study 0.70 45.82 0.57 4.89 Jiménez-Antillón et al. (2018) 2.09 ± 0.17 30.60 ± 3.10 0.98 ± 0.09 1.55 ± 0.12 Altaminaro & Cabrera (2006)b 0.4 – 3.5 8 – 50 0.3 – 3.5 0.5 – 1.8 Note: b Reporting the recommended values, as cited from Jiménez-Antillón et al. (2018).

For micro-nutrient, Copper (Cu) was deemed not detectable due to very low content of less than 0.01 mg/kg and Zinc (Zn) was 73.48 mg/kg. Maximum allowable concentration was 300 mg/kg and 900 mg/kg for Cu and Zn, respectively (Jiménez-Antillón et al., 2018). Both parameters have met the requirement. Apart from the compost produced has achieved partially acceptable quality, the research team learned that Takakura fermentation solution can be also applied onto waste piles to remove foul odor. The effective spraying of the agent as in volume per area has yet to be determined. By then, right amount of solution can be calculated and prepared accordingly for both applications.

CONCLUSION In Selangor state, composting has been implemented by the communities with the support of municipalities and not-for-profit organization. For a better waste management towards smart state status, composting at landfill was also tried out using the renowned Takakura method. However, an attempt to substitute rice husk with wood waste was found adverse as the compost attracted mite. Reverted to the original material, the compost produced was

176 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 applied for internal use and the quality was found to partially met the requirement. Another potential application learnt was the same fermentation solution used for composting can be applied to waste pile as foul odor remover. This aspect could upheld composting at landfill that suit the daily operation and being beneficial to the environment as well.

Acknowledgement: The research team really appreciate continuous encouragement and support given by the management of Worldwide Holdings Berhad and its subsidiary company, Worldwide Landfills Sdn Bhd in this research.

REFERENCES

Argun, Y.A., Karacali, A., Calisir, U. and Kilinc, N. (2017). Composting as a waste management method. Journal of International Environmental Application & Science, 12 (3), 244-255. Jamaludin, S.N., Kadir, A.A. and Azhari, N.W. (2017). Study on NPK performance in food waste composting by using agricultural fermentation. MATEC Web of Conferences, 103 (05015). Jiménez-Antillón, J., Calleja-Amador, C., and Romero-Esquivel, L. (2018). Food waste recovery with Takakura portable compost boxes in offices and working places. Resources, 7(4), 84. Kamaruddin, S.M., Sharif, M.H., Misni, A. and Ahmad, P. (2017). Bio mass initiative; awareness and practice: Case study, Subang Jaya. 5th AMER International Conference on Quality of Life, 2 (5), 31- 40. Nuzir, F.A., Hayashi, S., and Takakura, K. (2019). Takakura Composting Method (TCM) as an Appropriate Environmental Technology for Urban Waste Management. International Journal of Building, Urban, Interior and Landscape Technology (BUILT), 13, 67-82. Pujiono, Mulyati, S.S., Prijanto, T.B. and Fikri, E. (2018). Compost Quality Analysis of Various Variations in Green Biomass and Sawdust with the Hot Composting Method. International Journal of Current Research, 10 (11), 75724-75727. Saad, N. F. M., Ma’min, N. N., Zain, S. M., Basri, N. E. A., and Zaini, N. S. M. (2013). Composting of mixed yard and food wastes with effective microbes. Jurnal Teknologi, 65(2). Samsul, A.R. (2011). The influence of anything to anything. Coastal Engineering, 22, 29-40. SSDU (2016). Executive Summary, Smart Selangor Blueprint. The Smart Selangor Delivery Unit (SSDU), Menteri Besar Selangor Incorporated (MBI Selangor), Shah Alam. Thiyageshwari, S., Gayathri, P., Krishnamoorthy, R., Anandham, R. and Paul, D. (2018). Exploration of rice husk compost as an alternate organic manure to enhance the productivity of blackgram in typic haplustalf and typic rhodustalf. International journal of environmental research and public health, 15(2), 358.

177 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

OPTIMIZATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE CONVERSION TECHNOLOGY USING PROCESS NETWORK SYNTHESIS

R.A. Ali*1 and N.N.L. Nik Ibrahim2

1, 2 Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT The number generation of municipal solid waste (MSW) is increasing year by year all around the world including Malaysia. For now, it still a big concern in Malaysia since we only dispose our MSW on landfills. Process Network Synthesis (PNS) is a tool to optimize technologies conversion of MSW. This study optimizes MSW conversion technologies using PNS tool which is Process Graph (P-Graph). Four highest composition (food waste, agriculture waste, paper and plastics) of MSW generated in Malaysia are optimized using P-graph. Two types of technologies conversion are considered which are biological conversion (Anaerobic Digestion) and thermal conversion (Pyrolysis and Incinerator). All these technologies conversion is compared with common method used; landfill. 100 feasible structure have been generated using P-graph. These optimization models allowed analysis of economic performance and environmental impact of MSW conversion technologies. Out of 100, 9 feasible structures have been analysed. Two feasible structures are selected based on maximum economic performance and minimum environmental impact

Key words: Optimization, P-Graph, Municipal Solid Waste Conversion Technology

INTRODUCTION Different types of activity produce municipal solid waste (MSW). The number generation of MSW is increasing year after year throughout the world. The total amount of MSW produced in the United States has continuously risen from 88 million tonnes (MT) in 1960 to 259 MT in 2014 (USEPA, 2016). In addition, based on survey conducted by Malaysian government, generation of MSW in Malaysia has increased to 33,000 ton/day in 2012 (SWCorp, 2014). This could be factors in raising the world's MSW generation, population growth, socioeconomic upgrading, and changes in the society's lifestyle.

The rising number of generations of MSW has become the most important environmental issues and could be harmful to our ecosystem. There may be major environmental problems, such as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from our MSW. In addition to massive amount of landfills, the amount of rodents and insects that can cause human disease may increase. To balance the ecosystem, MSW must be managed once it is collected from household and industries.

There are many kinds of conversion technologies to manage the MSW from it is collected from residence to processing area of MSW before sending it to landfill. There are three main stages to manage the MSW (Joao & Paulo, 2017). The stages are, (i) collection and transportation of MSW; (ii) treatment and processing of MSW; and (iii) final disposal. Each stage has their own investment cost, operating cost and energy recovery. However, there are pros and cons of each conversion technologies.

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There is narrow research to be implemented in our country on the effectiveness of conversion technology. To evaluate the selected pathway, it is therefore necessary to optimize MSW conversion technologies using process graph. MSW conversion technology optimization helped to determine the most favourable and effective technique and pathway for MSW management.

Process graph or also known as P-graph is one of Process Network Synthesis (PNS) use as synthesis tool for this study. This may help in optimizing MSW conversion technology. As the main objective of optimization was maximizing the efficiency of production by minimizing the cost of production. The software used was P-graph Studio. For this study, it required data collection on the amount of waste generated in Malaysia, waste collection and transportation, potential waste processing and energy efficiency.

P-graph framework enables rigorous model-building and efficient generation of optimal solution (Hon, Raymond, & Kathleen, 2016). PNS problem primarily utilizing unique information. It known as user-friendly decision-making tools for PNS. This helps in better design and better operations that led to; i) lower capital and operating cost (CAPEX and OPEX), ii) higher profitability through increased output and better quality of product, iii) reduce technology risk and iv) better with health, safety and environmental requirements.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Figure 6Error! Reference source not found. below shows intracellular synthesis procedure for process graph (P-graph). The procedure starting from identification of materials and streams to come out with optimal municipal solid waste (MSW) conversion technology network.

Intracellular synthesis procedure started with identification of materials, stream and unit operating. After that, data input required to input in maximal superstructure and solution structure generation. The procedure end with optimal MSW conversion technology network.

Figure 6. Intra cluster synthesis procedure for P-graph (Lam, Varbanov, & Klemeˇs, 2010)

Identification of Materials and Streams This step produced the details for the inputs and outputs of system. In this study, there are four types of process feedstock. There are six types of output or product along with their intermediate product. The superstructure has been illustrated as Figure 7.

179 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Figure 7. Superstructure of this study

Identification of Operating Units For this case study, 11 operating units are included in the flowsheet-generation problem as shown to be solved algorithmically with P-graphs. For this case study, anaerobic digestion, incinerator and pyrolysis are identified as the MSW conversion technologies in the model as operating unit.

Maximal Superstructure and Solution Structure Generations This step was produced to ensure that the resulting superstructures and solution networks are consistent. In the process graph, a superstructure of the issue was implemented as shown in Figure 8. In the superstructure, the major processes and utility operations are labelled. The overall performance data that describes the conversion of feedstock to final production are incorporated into the different process and cluster operations. There were several algorithm combinations associated with the process framework. The selected optimized technology conversion from municipal solid waste was then further assessed on the impacts of feedstocks and products on GHG emissions, demand and prices.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

100 feasible structure have been generated using process graph (P-graph). The structure was generated by using solution structure generation and linear programming (SSG + LP) algorithm. Solution structure generation (SSG) will generates all combinatorically feasible solution structures or networks. Each solution is a subset of the maximal structure and represents a potential network configuration for the process network synthesis (PNS) problem. Linear programming (LP) is the process finding best solution under specific condition.

180 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Figure 8. P-graph representation of the municipal solid waste process network

Based on the superstructure diagram in Figure 7, structure was defined with the necessary conversion raw material data to it goods, capital and operating costs of conversion technologies, and product prices. The superstructure diagram converted in P-graph as in Figure 8. Municipal solid waste choice based on Malaysia's top largest waste generation. Organic waste such as food waste and agricultural waste will undergo biological transformation treatment, i.e. anaerobic digestion and treatment for both organics will be compared to landfill method disposal. Thermal converting treatments will be undertaken for inorganic waste; pyrolysis and incinerator as tabulated in Table 5. Table 5. Allocation of MSW to different technologies Food Agriculture Plastics Paper Waste Waste Anaerobic Digestion / / Incinerator / / Pyrolysis / / Landfill / / / /

Out of 100 feasible structure generates, 9 feasible structures have been selected to be identified and analysed. Based on 9 feasible structures, all structures will give different types of products. All structures also generated different volume of product.

Feasible structure 1 as illustrated in Figure 9 use food waste, agriculture waste, paper and plastics as raw materials. This feasible structure will generate electricity, heat, bio char and will releases greenhouse gas (GHG) emission.

181 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Figure 9. Feasible structure 1

There are four possible pathways to treat our waste based on this feasible structure which are through landfill, digester, incinerator and pyrolysis. Food waste will undergo anaerobic digestion treatment in Digester_1 that will produce biogas and digestate before converted to final product. Paper will undergo Pyrolysis_1 that will produce combustible gas before converted to electricity, heat and will release GHG emission, and biochar as its final product. Plastics will undergo incineration treatment in Incinerator_2 to produce combustible gas and ash before converted into final product. Other pathway selected by all raw material is landfill. The generation of GHG emission come from different type of technologies which are gas turbine, boiler and landfill.

CONCLUSION In this study, feasibility of MSW conversion technologies by process network synthesis; Process graph is simulated. Superstructure of MSW conversion technologies is constructed. Lastly, p-graph is effectively evaluating the selected, optimize pathway of municipal solid waste conversion technologies. In future works, all feasible structure generated will be evaluate in term of economic performance and environmental impact.

REFERENCES

Hon, L. L., Raymond, R. T., & Kathleen, B. A. (2016). Implementation of P-graph modules in undergraduate chemical engineering degree programs: experiences in Malaysia and the Philippines. Journal of Cleaner Production, 138, 254-265. Joao, A., & Paulo, F. (2017). Assessing the costs of municipal solid waste treatment technologies in developing Asian countries. Waste Management, 69, 592-608. Lam, H. L., Varbanov, P. S., & Klemeˇs, J. J. (2010). Optimisation of regional energy supply chains utilising renewables: P-graph approach. Computers and Chemical Engineering, 34, 782-792. SWCorp. (2014). Pelan Strategik SWCorp 2014 - 2020. SWCorp. USEPA. (2016). Advancing sustainable materials management: 2014 fact sheets. Retrieved from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: https://www.epa.gov/sites/production /files/2016- 11/documents/2014_smmfactsheet_508.pdf(PDF).

182 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

GRACILARIA CHANGII: SEAWEED ADDING VALUE TO HEAVY METALS REMOVAL FROM LEACHATE

Nithiya Arumugam1*, Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan1, Zamri Abdul Rahman2 Sathiabama T. Thirugnana1, Imran Ahmad3, Santhana Krishnan4, Mohd Fadhil Md Din4

1Department of Engineering, Razak Faculty of Technology and Informatics, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, Kuala Lumpur 54100, MALAYSIA *[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] 2Worldwide Landfills Sdn Bhd, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA 3Malaysia Japan International Institute of Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, 54100, Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA [email protected] 4Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security, UTM Sustainability Campus, Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, MALAYSIA

ABSTRACT Treatment of landfill leachate often involves technologies to reduce toxicity to meet environmental standards prior to discharge into water bodies. The malignant of generating landfill leachate primarily depends on the source of waste dumped at the landfill site. Heavy metals are one of the major pollutants in leachate. Due to their harmful nature towards the ecosystem, specifically, when exceeded the regulatory standards, authorities are in the urge of finding a solution to reduce the severity. In that purpose, many types of treatment methods practised. However, the choice of treatment techniques exclusively depends on the nature and composition of leachate. Adsorption technique has received significant interests and several types of adsorbents being researched. However, alternatives for existing adsorbents are necessary by the fact to replace costly, non- environmental friendly and sophisticated production and operations of adsorbents. Therefore, this paper aims to introduce Gracilaria changii, a seaweed species based adsorbent which found abundantly in nature. This adsorbent was used to remove Cr6+ and Fe2+ from leachate via a laboratory batch study. Leachate with synthetically added heavy metals concentrations of 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100mg/L tested with optimum pH of 5, 10g seaweed dosage and stirrer speed of 50 for time intervals 10-60min. Adsorption of metal ions onto seaweed found to be influenced by contact time and initial concentration of metal ions. In general, the rapid removal occurred in the first 30min, and decreasing removal rate observed after that. It reached maximum removals of 60% and 98% for Cr6+ and Fe2+ respectively at t=30min and initial concentration of 100mg/L. In conclusion, Gracilaria changii potentially an environmental friendly adsorbent in removing Cr6+ and Fe2+ from leachate.

Keywords: Leachate; heavy metals; seaweed; adsorption; adsorbent

INTRODUCTION

Municipal solid and liquid waste from suburban, industrial and commercial sources are commonly deposited at landfills (Masoner et al., 2014). Interment or dumping of wastes on landfills is common practice all over the world. Rapid urbanization and growing size of the population most likely increase the generation of wastes and use of landfills as a means

183 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 of a repository (Lu et al., 2012; Naveen et al., 2017). The exponential generation of solid wastes sounds sensible due to the comprehensive economic development program in rural (Kamaruddin et al., 2015). These entirely have changed the earth’s landscape. Thus, municipalities and landfill operators are facing difficulty in dealing with the mounting amount of wastes. Decomposition of these wastes together with percolation of rainwater through landfills undergo concurrent biological, chemical and physical changes generate liquid called “leachate” (Ahmed and Lan, 2012). This leachate is a dark colour liquid, with a strong smell and highly contaminated fluid concentrated mainly with organic and inorganic compounds, heavy metals and xenobiotic organic compounds (Hui et al., 2014; Peng, 2017). The concentrations of these pollutants vary based on the physical, chemical and microbiological processes takes place within the landfill as well as influenced by several factors such as landfill age, depth of waste in the site, climatic variation, moisture content, oxygen availability, temperature, and also the nature of wastes being dumped (Rafizul and Alamgir, 2012; Adhikari et al., 2014). Therefore, the characteristics of leachate vary from site to site.

Organic matter and heavy metals were two critical issues in landfill leachate treatment (Li et al., 2017). Heavy metals contamination in leachate is alarming authorities and landfill operators for the past decade. Heavy metals may also be present in different chemical and physical forms; these substances are non-biodegradable (El-Salam and Abu-Zuid, 2015; Sidhu, 2016). It is considered as the greatest concern because of refractory property and also persistent in the environment (Mojiri et al., 2016). Authorities are facing hard times due to the content level above the allowable discharge limit, which need to be treated before discharge into water bodies. Such is the case for a sanitary landfill located at Jeram, Selangor in Malaysia. The most common heavy metal ions found in leachate are cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) (Al Raisi et al., 2014; Peng, 2017; Robinson, 2017). Despite going through multiple stages of treatments, the issue of heavy metal contents in leachate is still not solvable. Adsorbents were introduced to solve such a problem with suitable adsorbent selection. Activated carbon is one of the commonly used adsorbents and effectively remove heavy metals from leachate (Mohan and Gandhimathi, 2009).

Besides using the commercially available, activated carbon derived from waste also studied (Xue et al., 2014; Alrozi et al., 2017) for heavy metals removal from leachate. However, few drawbacks caught the attention of researchers to find a substitute (Mohan and Gandhimathi, 2009). Seaweed is one of the focuses as it naturally holds the ability to adsorb heavy metals because they act as a sink for metals (Montazer-Rahmati et al., 2011; Lee and Park, 2012). It grew naturally and found abundantly at the seabed. Seaweeds classified according to their pigments’ composition as red, brown and green seaweed (Padua et al., 2015) and each holds different compositions and unique in a way. The high content of bioactive compounds in seaweed makes it edible and used in other industries, i.e. pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical (Holdt and Kraan, 2011; Martins et al., 2014). As for metal binding, the key functional groups such as carboxyl, hydroxyl, sulfate, phosphate and amine groups that present in the seaweed play a dominant role in the metal binding (Bertagnolli et al., 2014; Cheng-Guang et al., 2014). Therefore, this paper aims is to introduce a new type of red seaweed, namely Gracilaria changii as an adsorbent to remove Cr6+ and Fe2+ from leachate using batch study.

184 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

MATERIALS AND METHODS Landfill Leachate Landfill leachate used in this study collected from Jeram Sanitary Landfill, Kuala Selangor operated by Worldwide Landfill Sdn. Bhd. The collected leachate stored in a sealed high- density polyethylene (HDPE) container at 4⁰C to preserve the physical-chemical characteristics of the leachate. The parameters such as pH, COD, BOD and heavy metal levels of leachate were studied.

Metal Ions Solution Analytical grade chemicals used and solutions prepared in distilled water. Stock solutions of 100mg/L were prepared for each metal ions by dissolving Iron (II) sulphate heptahydrate and Potassium Dichromate. The working metal ion concentration prepared from by diluting the stock solutions.

Gracilaria changii Gracilaria changii, the seaweed species used in this study collected from a cultivation pond at Kota Kuala Muda, Kedah. The harvested seaweed washed in order to remove sand, debris and epiphytes salts (Lakshmi et al., 2017) before drying and crushing process. The Gracilaria changii oven-dried at 40⁰C for 24hr, crushed using laboratory blender and sieved through sieve shaker to prepare powder size 150µm (Hong et al., 2014; Verma et al., 2016).

Parameters The parameters that influence the adsorption of seaweed are pH, seaweed dosage, stirrer speed (rpm) and contact time. Earlier optimization study conducted revealed that maximum removal of Cr6+ and Fe2+ occurred at pH=5, seaweed dosage=10g, rpm=50 and t=30min. Therefore, hereafter the effect of the different initial concentration of Cr6+ studied at these optimum conditions for adsorption of Cr6+ and Fe2+.

Batch Study The performance of Gracilaria changii in removing Cr6+ and Fe2+ from landfill leachate was studied using jar-test. Six beakers of 1-litre volume each filled with 100mL leachate and added seaweed dosage of 10g. The solution stirred at 50rpm and different contact time (10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60min) for varying initial concentration of Cr6+ (20, 40, 60, 80 and 100mg/L). The solution allowed to settle before collecting supernatant (Nouha et al., 2016). These supernantants subject to filtration to separate the liquid from seaweed powder. The precipitant from filtration analyzed for heavy metals concentration (Sivakumar, 2015).

Analysis The concentration of Cr6+ and Fe2+ in leachate before and after addition of Gracilaria changii were monitored using APHA Method 3120. The percentage of heavy metals reduction after the specified contact time calculated.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Removal of Cr6+ The adsorption study to evaluate the performance of Gracilaria changii in removing hexavalent chromium from leachate at varying initial concentration of Cr6+ conducted

185 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 at optimum conditions of pH=5, seaweed dosage=10g and rpm=50. Results (Fig. 1) show that rapid removal within the first 30min. However, the adsorption at the subsequent phase decreased and reached equilibrium. A maximum of 35%, 40%, 50%, 55% and 60% removal occurred at initial concentration of 20mg/L, 40mg/L, 60mg/L, 80mg/L and 100mg/L respectively. The removal after 30min is almost constant for each concentration. Constant removal may involve the saturation of binding sites at the cell surface (Jayakumar et al., 2014). The percentage of removal is increasing as the initial concentration of Cr6+ increases. Increasing removal indicates that the initial concentration provides an influential driving force to defeat the resistance in mass transfer between two different phases, namely aqueous and solid. Also, as the initial concentration increases, the likelihood of chromium ions and seaweed to be in contact increases as well (Rathinam et al., 2010; Tsai and Chen, 2010; Koutahzadeh et al., 2013). In average, the maximum removal of 60% occurred at Cr6+ initial concentration of 100mg/L and t=30min.

Figure 1. The efficiency of Gracilaria changii in removing Cr6+ at varying initial concentrations

Removal of Fe2+ Optimization study conducted earlier shows the optimum condition for Fe2+ adsorption onto Gracilaria changii is at pH=5, rpm=50 and seaweed dosage=10g. Therefore, the investigation on the effect of the initial concentration of Fe2+ on the performance of Gracilaria changii at a different period carried at these optimum conditions and the results are as summarized in Fig. 2. Maximum removal of 45%, 50%, 80%, 88.8% and 98% occurred at t=30min for all initial concentration of 20mg/L, 40mg/L, 60mg/L, 80mg/L and 100mg/L respectively. During the subsequent phase from t=40-60min, a decrease in the adsorption rate was observed and attained equilibrium. Equilibrium proving the fact that the surface of Gracilaria changii reached a saturation point as reported previously for adsorption of Fe2+ (Rahman and Sathasivam, 2015).

186 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Figure 2. The efficiency of Gracilaria changii in removing Fe2+ at varying initial concentrations

CONCLUSION This research investigated the feasibility of red seaweed Gracilaria changii in adsorbing Fe2+ and Cr6+ from leachate. The longer the contact time of Gracilaria changii with heavy metals, the higher the metal uptake up to reaching a saturation point. The optimum time to remove the maximum amount of heavy metals is at t=30min, and maximum removal of 60% and 98% of Cr6+ and Fe2+ respectively achieved. It also can be concluded that the initial concentration of metal ions influences the performance of Gracilaria changii. The findings indicate that Gracilaria changii can perform as an adsorbent to remove Fe2+ and Cr6+ from landfill leachate.

Acknowledgement: The authors thank Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for funding this study under the Prototype Research Grant Scheme (PRGS), Vote Number: R.K130000.7810.4L674. The conference fee paid using the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) Vote Number R.K130000.7856.5F049.

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Lu, Z., He, Z., Parisi, V. A., Kang, S., Deng, Y., Nostrand, J. D. V., Masoner, J. R., Cozzarelli, I. M., Suflita, J. M. and Zhou, J. (2012). Geochip-based analysis of microbial functional gene diversity in a landfill leachate-contaminated aquifer. Environmental Science and Technology, 46(11), 5824–5833. Martins, A., Vieira, H., Gaspar, H. and Santos, S. (2014). Marketed marine natural products in the pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industries: Tips for success. Marine Drugs, 12(2), 1066–1101. Masoner, J. R., Kolpin, D. W., Furlong, E. T., Cozzarelli, I. M., Gray, J. L. and Schwab, E. A. (2014). Contaminants of emerging concern in fresh leachate from landfills in the conterminous United States. Environmental Science: Processes and Impacts, 16, 2335–2354. Mohan, S. and Gandhimathi, R. (2009). Removal of heavy metal ions from municipal solid waste leachate using coal fly ash as an adsorbent. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 169(1–3), 351–359. Mojiri, A., Ziyang, L., Tajuddin, R. M., Farraji, H. and Alifar, N. (2016). Co-treatment of landfill leachate and municipal wastewater using the ZELIAC/zeolite constructed wetland system. Journal of Environmental Management, 166, 124–130. Montazer-Rahmati, M. M., Rabbani, P., Abdolali, A. and Keshtkar, A. R. (2011). Kinetics and equilibrium studies on biosorption of cadmium, lead, and nickel ions from aqueous solutions by intact and chemically modified brown algae. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 185(1), 401–407. Naveen, B. P., Mahapatra, D. M., Sitharam, T. G., Sivapullaiah, P. V. and Ramachandra, T. V. (2017). Physico-chemical and biological characterization of urban municipal landfill leachate. Environmental Pollution, 220(Part A), 1–12. Nouha, K., Kumar, R. S. and Tyagi, R. D. (2016). Heavy metals removal from wastewater using extracellular polymeric substances produced by Cloacibacterium normanense in wastewater sludge supplemented with crude glycerol and study of extracellular polymeric substances extraction by different methods. Bioresource Technology, 212, 120– 129. Padua, D., Rocha, E., Gargiulo, D. and Ramos, A. A. (2015). Bioactive compounds from brown seaweeds: Phloroglucinol, fucoxanthin and facade as promising therapeutic agents against breast cancer. Phytochemistry Letters, 14, 91–98. Peng, Y. (2017). Perspectives on technology for landfill leachate treatment. Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 10, S2567– S2574. Rafizul, I. M. and Alamgir, M. (2012). Characterization and tropical seasonal variation of leachate: Results from landfill lysimeter studied. Waste Management, 32, 2080–2095. Rahman, M. S. and Sathasivam, K. V. (2015). Heavy metal adsorption onto Kappaphycus sp. from aqueous solutions: The use of error functions for validation of isotherm and kinetics models. BioMed Research International, 1–13. Rathinam, A., Maharshi, B., Janardhanan, S. K., Jonnalagadda, R. R. and Nair, B. U. (2010). Biosorption of cadmium metal ion from simulated wastewaters using Hypnea valentiae biomass: A kinetic and thermodynamic study. Bioresource Technology, 101(5), 1466–1470. Robinson, T. (2017). Removal of toxic metals during biological treatment of landfill leachates. Waste Management, 63, 299–309. Sidhu, G. P. S. (2016). Heavy metal toxicity in soils: Sources, remediation technologies and challenges. Advances in Plants & Agriculture Research, 5(1), 1–3. Sivakumar, D. (2015). Hexavalent chromium removal in a tannery industry wastewater using rice husk silica. Global Journal of Environmental Science and Management, 1(1), 27–40. Tsai, W.-T. and Chen, H.-R. (2010). Removal of malachite green from aqueous solution using low-cost chlorella-based biomass. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 175(1–3), 844–849. Verma, A., Kumar, S. and Kumar, S. (2016). Biosorption of lead ions from the aqueous solution by Sargassum filipendula: Equilibrium and kinetic studies. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 4, 4587–4599. Xue, Q., Li, J.-S., Wang, P., Liu, L. and Li, Z.-Z. (2014). Removal of heavy metals from landfill leachate using municipal solid waste incineration fly ash as adsorbent. Clean - Soil, Air, Water, 42(11), 1626–1631.

188 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

TRICLOSAN REMOVAL BY COMBINATION OF WASTE BIOMASS ACTIVATED CARBON AND NYLON 6,6 MEMBRANE

Nor Khoriha Eliysa Mohd Khori1, Salmiati1,2,*, Zulkifli Yusop1,2

1Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, MALAYSIA 2Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security (IPASA), Research Institute for Sustainable Environment (RISE), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected], *[email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT Triclosan (TCS) is a biocide used as antibacterial and antifungal agent. It was used in many personal care and health care products. However, TCS can cause health and environmental problems such as environmental pollutions, acute toxicity and others. The aim of this study was to investigate the removal of TCS from aqueous solution by combination of coconut pulp waste (Cocos nuciefera) activated carbon (AC) and nylon 6,6 membrane. The effects of physico-chemical parameters, adsorption kinetics, adsorption isotherms and physical-chemical characteristics of the nylon 6,6 membrane were studied. The nylon 6,6 membrane [14 wt.%] was prepared by using electrospinning machine. A flat sheet membrane test machine at pressure 1.0 bar was used in this experiment. The characteristics of the membrane were analysed by using FESEM and FTIR test. The analysis show that the removal of TCS by using nylon 6,6 membrane follow Freundlich isotherm and pseudo-second-order model. The nylon 6,6 membrane can remove 90.2 % of TCS within 5 minutes and increased to 100 % removal in less than 5 minutes after combined with AC. This study proved that the combination of AC and nylon 6,6 membrane can increase the removal of TCS in water.

Key words: Triclosan; Coconut pulp waste activated carbon; Nylon 6,6 membrane; Adsorption; Filtration

INTRODUCTION Triclosan (5-chloro-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy) phenol), (TCS) is one of the antibacterial and antifungal agents that are normally used in medical and consumer products such as surgical scrubs, toothpastes, hand wash soaps, plastics, toys, textiles and deodorants (Teitelbaum et al., 2015). It has been detected in most of the sediments, biosolids, surface water, soil, and aquatic species (Montaseri and Forbes, 2016). Although TCS is an antibacterial agent, it also gives a potential risk to the human health, aquatic life and the environment.

Hence, several treatment methods have been implemented to remove TCS from water such as using structure-directing agent modified mesoporous MIL-53 (Al) (Dou et al., 2017), xenon light (Golchinpour et al., 2018) and many more. However, some of the treatments involved complex procedures, high costs, large volumes of chemicals and long processing times (Wang et al., 2013). In recent years, the adsorption process is one of the methods applied for water and wastewater treatments. Several adsorption studies to remove TCS were done by using rice straw-derived activated carbon (Liu et al., 2014) and conventional activated carbon (Weiner et al., 2017). High surface areas, micro-porous

189 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 structures and high degrees of surface reactivity make activated carbons as versatile adsorbents, particularly effective for the adsorption of organic and inorganic pollutants from aqueous solutions (Pezoti et al., 2016). The agricultural wastes are one of the promising sources as they are cheap, easy to collect and environmental friendly. Other than that, membrane treatment is one of the potential and favourable method because low energy consumption, no addition of chemicals required, no secondary pollutants produced, easy to handle, low operating and maintenance costs, easy to scale-up, high porous structure and high recovery and reusability (Xu et al., 2015). Nylon 6,6 is one of the polyamide group that is excellent in mechanical strength, toughness, rigidity and stability with self-lubricating properties and cost effective in nature (Jasni et al., 2017). It is also hydrophilic, thinner, highly porous, highly permeant, better in fouling resistant and less complicated in structures (Bilad et al., 2018).

However, finding the best and the most affordable treatments for TCS removal remains a concern for the researchers. Therefore, the aim of this research was to studied the efficiency of combination both adsorption and filtration methods to remove TCS in water. Hence, the effects of physico-chemical parameters, adsorption kinetics and isotherms, physical and chemical characteristics of nylon 6,6 membrane and the effect of combination method for TCS removal were discussed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS A 500 mg/L of TCS stock solution was prepared in 500 mL volumetric flask by dissolving 250 mg TCS powder into 500 mL ethanol with 0.1 % Tween 80. The standard solutions for adsorption process were prepared by diluting stock solution with distilled water. The coconut pulp waste activated carbon was prepared during the preliminary study (Mohd Khori et al., 2018). For Nylon 6,6 membrane, it was fabricate in an electrospinning machine (FNM Ltd., Iran). 5 ml of acetic acid and 5 ml of formic acid were used to dilute 1.40 g of nylon 6,6 pellets in a 30 ml vial bottle and were put on a magnetic stirrer for 12 hours. As performed by Jasni et al. (2017), the jetting flow rate, supplied voltage, drum collector speed and tip-to-collector distance were set at 0.4 mL/h, 26 kV, 1000 rpm and 15 cm respectively. The membrane produced was stored in a clean container for further study.

For adsorption studies, the TCS adsorption using Nylon 6,6 membrane were done in 100 mL conical flask. Based on Jasni et al. (2017), the batch studies were conducted in order to analysed the effect of various parameters on the uptake of TCS onto Nylon 6,6 membrane. As studied by Muhamad et al. (2016), for adsorption performance experiment, the membrane sheet was cut to smaller size (5mm x 5mm) before weighed using analytical weighing scale. The physico-chemical parameters design for TCS adsorption by using Nylon 6,6 membrane were tabulated in Table 1. The remaining of the TCS concentration in water after adsorption treatment was determined by using Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) Spectrophotometer (NANOCOLOR® UV/Vis Macherey-Nagel) at maximum wavelength 279nm.

Table 1. The parameters design for TCS adsorption by using Nylon 6,6 membrane Contact Membrane Agitation TCS Temperature Parameters time mass speed concentration pH (˚C) (hr) (g) (rpm) (mg/L) Effect of contact 0.17-6.00 0.01 150 5.0 5.6 25 time

190 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Contact Membrane Agitation TCS Temperature Parameters time mass speed concentration pH (˚C) (hr) (g) (rpm) (mg/L) Effect of adsorbent 4.00 0.01-0.15 150 5.0 5.6 25 dosage Effect of 4.00 0.01 50-250 5.0 5.6 25 agitation Effect of triclosan 4.00 0.01 150 5.0-90.0 5.6 25 concentration Effect of pH 4.00 0.01 150 5.0 3.0-9.0 25 Effect of 4.00 0.01 150 5.0 5.6 25-60 temperature

For filtration studies, the experiments were done by using flat sheet membrane test. The filtration test was done to analyse the water flux, TCS flux and concentration of TCS solution after filter with Nylon 6,6 membrane. Firstly, a compaction test was conducted by using 4 L distilled water with 1.5 bar pressure. The volume of permeate water from the membrane cell outlet were recorded every 5 minutes to observe the permeation rate pattern. After the permeation volume was stable, the pressure was reduced to 1.0 bar and proceeds with water flux test. After that, the distilled water was removed and change with 4 L of 5 mg/L TCS solution for filtration processed and TCS flux analysis.

Then, the combination test of coconut pulp waste activated carbon and Nylon 6,6 membrane was done by using the optimum parameters conditions obtained from the batch adsorption and filtration experiments. A piece of fabric was installed at the inlet pipe in order to prevent the activated carbon from enter into the membrane machine. After compaction test, 4 L of the TCS solution with initial concentration at 5 mg/L was poured in the feed tank along with coconut pulp activated carbon. A stand stirrer was setup beside the feed tank. Then, the TCS solution was stirred with activated carbon for 20 minutes. After that, the inlet valve was opened and TCS solution was flowed into the membrane test machine for filtration process. The concentration of TCS permeated from the membrane was collected and analysed.

For the characterizations of nylon 6,6 membrane, the surface structure and morphology of the Nylon 6,6 membrane were analysed by using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) (FESEM, JEOL 6335f-SEM, Japan) test at magnifications scales from 5000x to 10000x. Besides that, the functional groups existed on the membrane were analyzed by using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) (Perkin-Elmer spectrum ONE) with spectral range of 4000 to 400 cm⁻¹ at resolution 4 cm-1.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Characteristics of nylon 6,6 membrane Figures 1(a) and (b) show the FESEM images of nylon 6,6 membrane before and after the TCS adsorption, respectively. From Figure 1(a), the morphology of nylon 6,6 fiber threads produced appear to be thin, smooth, free from beads and continuous. Based on Figure 1(b), the image shows that the nylon 6,6 nanofiber threads were filled up by a lot of particles until most of the nanofiber threads were covered. This showed that, the nylon 6,6 membrane can adsorb and trap TCS particles in aqueous solutions.

191 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

a b

Figure 1. FESEM image of (a) nylon 6,6 membrane before adsorption (magnification x10000) and (b) nylon 6,6 membrane after TCS adsorption (magnification x5000)

From FTIR test, it shows the functional groups exist for nylon 6,6 membrane. From the results, the nylon 6,6 has amino, alkanes, amide and carbonyl groups. Xu et al. (2015) stated that the hydrogen bonding interactions might play an important role in the sorption processes, because hydrogen bonds could be formed between phenolic hydroxyl group of TCS acting as hydrogen-bonding donors and carbonyl groups of electrospun fibrous membranes.

Adsorption studies From the experiments, all the physico-chemical parameters show the different effects for every change in parameters value. The best condition for optimum TCS removal at 86.3% removal were 0.10 g of membrane, 150 rpm agitation speed, 4 hours contact time, pH of the solution at 5.6 and room temperature at 25˚C. The lower or higher values of the parameters will reduce the TCS adsorption. Hence, the best parameters condition are important for optimum TCS removal by using nylon 6,6 membrane.

From adsorption isotherms study, the R2 for Freundlich model at 0.9821 was the highest, compared to those of Langmuir (R2 = 0.6605) and Temkin (R2 = 0.9159) models. Hence, it proved that the adsorption mechanism of TCS by using nylon 6,6 membrane followed Freundlich isotherm model. The Freundlich isotherm explained that the nylon 6,6 membrane has the heterogeneity surface. A higher R2 indicated a good heterogeneous adsorption process for the TCS removal by using nylon 6,6 membrane.

While for the adsorption kinetics study, the adsorption capacity calculated from pseudo- second-order model (2.21 mg/g) was nearest to the adsorption capacity obtained from the adsorption experiment (2.16mg/g) when compared with the adsorption capacity calculated from pseudo-first-order model (1.09mg/g). Besides, the R2 of pseudo-second-order (R2 = 0.9981) was also bigger than R2 of pseudo-first-order (R2 = 0.5158). This results proved that, the TCS removal by using nylon 6,6 membrane followed the pseudo-second-order model. The pseudo-second-order suggested that, there were chemical reactions taking place during the adsorption of TCS by using nylon 6,6 membrane (Aluigi et al., 2014). The, pseudo-second-order further indicated that, the rate limiting step was also influenced by both adsorbent and adsorbate (Gedam and Dongre, 2015).

Filtration Studies During the filtration studies, the water flux achieved during the pre-compaction test decreased from 2028 L/m2h to 1570 L/m2h and reached a steady flux at 75 minutes. The compaction process caused the membrane structure porosity to be reduced and a flux reduction occurred. The pre-compaction test was done in order to maximize the water contact in all membrane pores before the filtration test can be done. After the compaction process, the pressure was decreased to 1.0 bar. From the results, the distilled water flux is higher than the TCS solution flux. The water flux was recorded with 1655 L/m2h during

192 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 the first 5 minutes before it decreased to 1491 L/m2h at 30 minutes. As for the TCS solution, the flux also decreased from 1209 L/m2h to 1062 L/m2h, from 5 to 30 minutes. The reduction of flux when using TCS solution might be due to the presence of TCS particles trapped into the membrane pores, causing their porosity to be reduced for water permeation. The TCS removal decreased from 90.2% to 17.7% from 5 minutes to 30 minutes. The same results were also reported by Muhamad et al. (2016) in their experiment for the removal of BPA by using PES-SiO2 membrane, where the BPA removal decreased from 81% to 52% from 10 minutes to 170 minutes during the filtration test. This occurred due to the reduction of adsorption sites available for TCS after its saturation. From the results, the TCS achieved its maximum removal within 5 minutes of the filtration process.

Combination of activated carbon and membrane onto TCS removal From the results, the TCS achieved 100% removal at 5 minutes of the filtration process where it already reached its equilibrium. During the adsorption process, most of the TCS particles in the solution were already removed. As such, the nylon 6,6 membrane only filtered the leftover of TCS particles that escaped during the adsorption process. According to Wang et al. (2019), the activated carbon can be used as a pre-treatment for membrane by removing the majority of dissolved organic matter and inorganic particles in the water and thus reduced the membrane fouling. Hence, it shows that this combination method can increase the TCS removal in aqueous solutions within a shorter time. Similar results were reported by Wang et al. (2019), using the combination of coconut shell activated carbon and polyamide NF membrane to remove dimethyl phthalate (DMP), di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and dioctyl phthalate (DOP) where more than 99 % removal rates were achieved for all the three chemicals.

CONCLUSION The TCS removal by using nylon 6,6 membrane through filtration method was achieved at 90.2 % removal within 5 minutes. Then, after the combination process of both coconut pulp waste activated carbon and nylon 6,6 membrane, the TCS removal was increased until 100 % removal within less than 5 minutes. Hence, this combination method can help to increase the TCS removal from the water and reduced the fouling probabilities. This research can help to give solutions to reduce the TCS from water sources and reduces its disadvantages. The future research can widen their studies by using the real water samples such as from river or water and wastewater treatment plants. The combination of activated carbon and nylon 6,6 membrane is one of the promising method that can help to increase the TCS removal from the aqueous solution

Acknowledgment: The authors would like to acknowledge the Ministry of High Education Malaysia for providing LRGS Grant on Water Security entitled Protection of Drinking Water: Source Abstraction and Treatment (203/PKT/6720006) and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (R.J130000.7809.4L810) as financial support of this project.

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Dou, R., Zhang, J., Chen, Y., & Feng, S. (2017). High efficiency removal of triclosan by structure-directing agent modified mesoporous MIL-53 (Al). Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24(9), 8778- 8789. Gedam, A. H., & Dongre, R. S. (2015). Adsorption characterization of Pb (ii) ionsonto iodate doped chitosan composite: Equilibrium and kinetic studies. RSC Advances, 5(67), 54188–54201. Golchinpour, N., Rastkari, N., Nabizadeh Nodehi, R., Abtahi, M., Azari, A., Iravani, E., & Yaghmaeian, K. (2018). Catalytic degradation of Triclosan by using xenon light/GO@ TiO2 combination system: optimization of initial parameters. Iranian Journal of Health and Environment, 10(4), 443-456. Jasni, M. J. F., Arulkumar, M., Sathishkumar, P., Yusoff, A. R. M., Buang, N. A., & Gu, F. L. (2017). Electrospun nylon 6, 6 membrane as a reusable nano-adsorbent for bisphenol A removal: Adsorption performance and mechanism. Journal of colloid and interface science, 508, 591-602. Liu, Y., Zhu, X., Qian, F., Zhang, S., & Chen, J. (2014). Magnetic activated carbon prepared from rice straw- derived hydrochar for triclosan removal. RSC Advances, 4(109), 63620-63626. Mohd Khori, N. K. E., Hadibarata, T., Elshikh, M. S., Al‐Ghamdi, A. A., Salmiati, S & Yusop, Z. (2018). Triclosan removal by adsorption using activated carbon derived from waste biomass: Isotherms and kinetic studies. Journal of the Chinese Chemical Society, 65(8), 951-959. Montaseri, H., & Forbes, P. B. (2016). A review of monitoring methods for triclosan and its occurrence in aquatic environments. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 85, 221-231. Muhamad, M. S., Salim, M. R., Lau, W. J., Hadibarata, T., & Yusop, Z. (2016). Removal of bisphenol A by adsorption mechanism using PES–SiO2 composite membranes. Environmental technology, 37(15), 1959-1969. Pezoti, O., Cazetta, A. L., Bedin, K. C., Souza, L. S., Martins, A. C., Silva, T. L., Júnior, O. O. S., Visentainer, J. V. & Almeida, V. C. (2016). NaOH-activated carbon of high surface area produced from guava seeds as a high-efficiency adsorbent for amoxicillin removal: kinetic, isotherm and thermodynamic studies. Chemical Engineering Journal, 288, 778-788. Teitelbaum, S. L., Li, Q., Lambertini, L., Belpoggi, F., Manservisi, F., Falcioni, L., Bua, L., Silva, M. J., Ye, X., Calafat, A. M. & Chen, J. (2015). Paired serum and urine concentrations of biomarkers of diethyl phthalate, methyl paraben, and triclosan in rats. Environmental health perspectives, 124(1), 39-45. Wang, Y., Li, P., Liu, Y., Chen, B., Li, J., & Wang, X. (2013). Determination of triclocarban, triclosan and methyl-triclosan in environmental water by silicon dioxide/polystyrene composite microspheres solid- phase extraction combined with HPLC-ESI-MS. Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection, 1(02), 13-17. Wang, L., Wan, Q., Wu, J., Guo, M., Mao, S., & Lin, J. (2019). Removal of Phthalate Esters by Combination of Activated Carbon with Nanofiltration. In Sustainable Development of Water Resources and Hydraulic Engineering in China (pp. 269-273). Springer, Cham. Weiner, B., Sühnholz, S., & Kopinke, F. D. (2017). Hydrothermal Conversion of Triclosan-The Role of Activated Carbon as Sorbent and Reactant. Environmental science & technology, 51(3), 1649-1653. Xu, J., Niu, J., Zhang, X., Liu, J., Cao, G., & Kong, X. (2015). Sorption of triclosan on electrospun fibrous membranes: Effects of pH and dissolved organic matter. Emerging Contaminants, 1(1), 25-32.

194 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

RESOURCE SECURITY

Parallel Session 8

195 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

SEQUENTIAL OPERATION OF ACETOGENIC FOLLOWED BY AEROBIC SEQUENTIAL BATCH REACTORS FOR TEXTILE WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Nadim Reza Khandaker1*, Faisal Fahad Rio1, Lina Sarkar2, And Ayesha Sharmin3

1Department of Civil Engineering, North South University, 2Military Institute of Science and Technology, 3Department of Chemistry, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, *[email protected]

ABSTRACT This paper reports on the efficacy of textile wastewater treatment using series operation of acetogenic sequential batch reactor followed by aerobic sequential batch polishing reactor. The experimental protocol was conducted using wastewater obtained from the equalization basin of a composite textile wastewater treatment plant. The experimental reactors were operated at the bench level under controlled conditions. The acetogenic reactor was maintained in a washout mode with daily shock aeration and the aerobic reactor was constantly aerated. Both acetogenic lead reactor and aerobic polishing reactor influent and effluent water were monitored for color, COD, BOD5, TDS, and pH. The reactor HRT, TSS, F/M ratio, and temperature, were also monitored and controlled. The treatment train was operated till steady state operation was ensured and the data analyzed to determine the efficacy of the treatment system with respect to textile wastewater treatment. The results indicated that after a period of culture acclimation high rates of wastewater stabilization was achieved by the system. The color, BOD5, COD, removal efficient were greater than 95%. The experimental program confirmed that acetogenic pretreatment followed by aerobic polishing is a viable option for treating textile processing wastewater.

Key words: Textile wastewater, Acetogenic/Aerobic, Treatment

INTRODUCTION The complexity of textile wastewater calls for treatment systems that are complex requiring multiple stages of treatment. The process flow train for textile wastewater treatment involves pH adjustment, colloidal solid and color removal by chemical addition and clarification, followed by degradation of soluble biochemical oxygen demand through extended aeration aerobic treatment (Khandaker & Talha, 2016). The soluble biochemical oxygen demand removal is the heart of the treatment process with hydraulic retention time higher than conventional aeration basin application in sewage treatment. Hydraulic retentive higher than thirteen hours is mandated by the Department of Environment (Department of Environment Ministry of Environment and Forest, 2008). In actuality treatment systems are designed with hydraulic detention times from thirty to eighty hours. Although the combined physical chemical biological treatment system is the industry norm, the process is expensive to operate due to the requirement of chemicals in the chemically aided settling to remove color, and the high energy intensity of the extended aeration process to remove the soluble organics. This places an undue burden to resource challenged countries in developing economies. To make the textile industry more sustainable we have developed a process that is independent of chemicals and is also less energy intensive than the combined physical chemical biological process. This process is a

196 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 two-step process, that involves acetogenic treatment requiring very little aeration as the first step followed by aerobic polishing.

Figure 1. Schematic of the combined acetogenic aerobic wastewater treatment system

In the proposed process the textile wastewater enters after screening directly to the acetogenic reactor where acetogenic microorganisms prevail. The acetogenic reactor has a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of four days with only a periodic shock aeration once per day instead of continuous aeration to maintain acetogenic operation. The reactor effluent is sent to a clarifier where the acetogenic biomass is recycled back to the acetogenic reactor periodically to prevent reactor washout. The effluent from the clarifier is polished in a continuously aerated aerobic reactor operated in a sequential batch mode. The reactor effluent is passed through a membrane ensuring that the polishing reactor mixed liquor suspended solids are kept in the reactor.

The efficacy of the process was evaluated through a period of steady state operation ensuring high degree of wastewater stabilization defined by extent of chemical oxygen demand (COD), bio chemical oxygen demand (BOD5), and color removal. The overall objective was to develop an energy efficient alternative to the conventional treatment process used for textile wastewater treatment that also does not require any chemicals for operation. This process will go a long way to make the textile processing more sustainable.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Raw wastewater: The test wastewater was collected from the wastewater equalization basin of one of the largest towel manufacturer in the world, Talha Terry Towel, in Gazipur, Bangladesh. The wastewater was a time proportioned sample collected over twenty-four hour of operation of the wastewater treatment plant.

Seed: Both the acetogenic and aerobic polishing rector was seed with waste mixed liquid suspended solids from the wastewater treatment plant sludge thickener of the Talha Terry Towel.

Reactor Configuration: In the bench scale react setup the textile wastewater was fed directly to the acetogenic reactor where acetogenic microorganisms prevailed. The acetogenic reactor has a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of four days with only a periodic shock aeration once per day instead of continuous aeration to maintain acetogenic operation. The acetogenic reactor effluent was sent to a clarifier where the acetogenic biomass was recycled back to the acetogenic reactor periodically to prevent reactor washout. The effluent from the clarifier was polished in a continuously aerated aerobic reactor operated in a sequential batch mode with the effluent passed through a membrane

197 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 ensuring that the mixed liquor is kept in the reactor. The treated effluent was analyzed on a daily basis for water quality parameters.

Figure 2. Acetogenic aerobic wastewater treatment used at the bench level

Anaerobic acetogenic reactor: The bench scale reactor was a glass vessel with a liquid volume of 1.0 L. The reactor content was completely mixed (Figure 2). The reactor was maintained at a (HRT) of 4.0 days. Every day 250 ml was wasted and 250 ml of the wastewater was fed to the reactor. The short HRT reflects an operation condition known as washout mode of operation that is the food to microorganism ration (F/M) increases with every day of operation. To further prevent methanogenic microorganisms from growing in the reactor in a daily basis, the reactor content is purged with air and raise the dissolved oxygen level in the reactor to 2.0 mg/L (Fang & Liu, 2002) (Fascetti, D'Addario, Todini, & Robertiello, 1998) (Huang, Ong, & Ng, 2011). Based on our prior experience in operating anaerobic acetogenic reactor that F/M ratio of greater than 1.0 causes reactor failure (Khandaker & Sharker, 2016). To negate this the reactor waste MLSS recycled back to the acetogenic reactor periodically. The reactor pH, temperature and MLSS were monitored on a daily basis.

Aerobic Membrane Batch Reactor: The aerobic batch reactor had a liquid volume of 500 ml and was maintained in a waste feed mode on a daily basis (50 ml waste/feed volume). The reactor was continually aerated. The reactor effluent was passed through a membrane to separate the liquid from the biomass. The MLSS was not wasted for the duration of the testing program.

Analysis: The composite wastewater was analyzed for COD, BOD5, color, and TDS. The aerobic reactor effluent was centrifuged and the supernatant was saved on a daily basis and analyzed for COD, BOD5, and color for all days of operation as per standard methods (American Public Health Association, 1989). For spaced days of operation saved effluent samples for the acetogenic reactor were sent for Furrier Transformation Inferred Spectrophotometric analysis (FT-IR).

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The composite wastewater characteristic used in the study is given in Table 1. below. This a complex wastewater with high BOD5, COD, and color. The BOD/COD ratio of 0.67 makes the wastewater a good candidate for biological treatment and served as the challenge wastewater for the combined acetogenic aerobic polishing treatment process.

Table 1. Characteristics of the raw wastewater used in the study pH BOD5 COD Color TDS TSS (mg/L) (mg/L) (ptco) (mg/L) (mg/L) 9.6 ± 0.26 3500 ± 114 5186 ± 138 3540 ± 353 1963 ± 10 1783 ± 619

The BOD5, COD and the color removal trends for the combined process are shown in Figure 3a-c. From the onset the combined acetogenic aerobic process was able to treat the wastewater to a high degree of efficiency. Over the period of 20 days of operation the system consistently achieved greater than 95% removal efficiency of BOD5, COD, and color.

(a) (b)

Also the system did not require any period of acclimation prior to achieve the high degree of waste stabilization observed. The reason may be that the seed source was from the same wastewater treatment plant where the test wastewater was from and the culture is already acclimated to the wastewater. The microorganism present had the ability to produce the enzymes for degradation of the wastewater. The quality of the treated water (Table 1) is within the regulatory standards of the Government of Bangladesh Standards for discharge into inland water bodies such as lakes and rivers of pH = 6-9, BOD5 < 50 mg/L, COD < 200 mg/L, TSS = 150 mg/L, and color < 150 ptco (Environment, 2008). This emphatically emphasizes that the acetogenic pretreatment followed by aerobic polishing is a viable process of treating textile processing wastewater. The advantage of this process is that it is energy efficient due to the

199 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 reduction of BOD loading to the aerobic polishing reactor for the acetogenic reactor removes BOD5, does not require pH adjustment for operation, or any color removal chemicals. FT-IR scan shows that in the acetogenic process complex aromatic compounds that is the chemical constituents of organic dyes get broken down.

Table 2. Characteristics of the treated discharge from the bench scale system pH BOD5 COD Color TSS (mg/L) (mg/L) (ptco) (mg/L) 9.2 ± 0.10 17.5 ± 5.0 163 ± 10 193 ± 42 77 ± 16

CONCLUSION The combined acetogenic aerobic polishing process is a viable process for treatment of textile processing wastewater with over 95% removal of BOD5, COD, and color when it was applied at the bench level to a composite textile processing wastewater. This process is less energy intensive that extended aeration, did not require pH adjustment, and chemicals for color removal.

REFERENCES

American Public Health Association. (1989). Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater, 17 edition. Washington D.C: American Public Health Association. Environment, D. o. (2008). Guide for Assessment of Effluent Treatment Plants. Fang, H. H., & Liu, H. (2002). Effect of pH on hydrogen production from glucose by a mixed culture. Biosource Research, 82(1), 87-93. Fascetti, E., D'Addario, E., Todini, O., & Robertiello, A. (1998). Photosynthetic hydrogen evolution with volatile organic acids derived from the fermentation of source selected municipal solid wastes. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 23(9), 753-760. Huang, Z., Ong, S. L., & Ng, H. Y. (2011). Submerged anaerobic membrane bioreactor for low-strength wastewater treatment: Effect of HRT and SRT on treatment performance and membrane fouling. Water Res , 705-713. Khandaker, N. R., & Talha, A. M. (2016). The new nexus and the need for understanding textile wastewater treatment. BUFT J, 19–26. Khandaker, N. R., & Young, J. C. (2000). Effect of culture acclimation on the kinetics of aldicarb insecticide degradation under methanogenic conditions. J Agric Food Chem, 48, 1411-1416. Khandaker, N. R., Sarker, M., & Rahman, S. D. (2017). Acetogenic pretreatment of textile wastewater for energy conservation. Int J Sci Res, 59–62.

200 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

KINETICS STUDY OF PHOSPHATE ADSORPTION ONTO WASTE MUSSEL SHELL

Nur Atikah Abdul Salim*1, Mohd Hafiz Puteh1,2, Noorul Hudai Abdullah3, Mohamad Ali Fulazzaky4 , Mohd A’ben Zulkarnain Rudie Arman1, Mohd Hairul Khamidun5, Abdull Rahim Mohd Yusoff6 and Muhammad Abbas Ahmad Zaini7

1 School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA *[email protected] 2 Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security, Research Institute for Sustainable Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA [email protected] 3 Centre For Diploma Studies, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Muar, MALAYSIA [email protected] 4 Department of Postgraduate Studies, Djuanda University, INDONESIA [email protected] 5 Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Batu Pahat, MALAYSIA [email protected] 6 Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA [email protected] 7 School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA [email protected]

ABSTRACT

3− In this study, removal of phosphate (PO4 ) from aqueous solutions using waste mussel shell (WMS) was examined. The physicochemical characteristics of WMS were identified. In the batch experiments, the effects of contact time and adsorbent dosage (m) on the 3− 3− PO4 adsorption by the WMS were scrutinised. The maximum PO4 removal efficiency (E) was 72.2% at 120 h contact time for WMS dosage of 20 g. A comparison of kinetic 3− models applied to the adsorption of PO4 onto WMS was evaluated for pseudo-first-order (PFO) and pseudo-second-order (PSO) kinetic models. The correlation coefficient (R2 > 0.988) for pseudo-second-order model was higher than that (R2 > 0.969) for pseudo-first- order model.The experimental data fitted well with the PSO kinetic model suggesting that chemisorption is involved during the adsorption process. The results indicate that WMS 3− has a good potential to adsorb PO4 from water and thus can improve environmental quality.

Key words: Adsorption, Phosphate, Waste mussel shell, Pseudo-first-order kinetic, Pseudo- second-order kinetic

INTRODUCTION

Phosphorus (P) is an important element to all living organisms. However, high concentration of P released into natural waters strongly accelerates to eutrophication (Mezenner and Bensmaili, 2009). According to the European Union effluent standard, the total phosphorus (TP) limit is 2 mg·L−1 for 10,000–100,000 population equivalent. Many water treatment methods are used to remove P from water, such as biological phosphorus

201 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 removal, chemical precipitation, and adsorption. Among these treatment methods, the adsorption process is superior to other methods. This technique has a simple design and operation and produces small volume of sludge. Nowadays, considerable attention has been paid on economic and environmental concerns to the study of using different types of low-cost adsorbents such as oyster shell (Chen et al., 2012), eggshell (Oladoja, Ahmad, Adesina, & Adelagun, 2012), and gastropod shell (Oladoja et al., 2013). In this study, the 3− selection of mussel shell as a low-cost alternative adsorbent for PO4 removal is favourable due to its high availability in Malaysia. WMS contains calcium carbonate, 3− which enables it to adsorb PO4 from water Chen et al., 2012). The objectives of this work 3− are to determine the kinetic adsorption for the adsorption of PO4 onto WMS based on the data of batch experiments

ADSORPTION KINETICS AND ISOTHERMS

Kinetic adsorption models Pseudo-first-order model The first-order rate equation is commonly expressed as ( Ho and McKay, 2000):

ln(�� − �� ) = ��(��) − �1�� (1) 3− −1 3− where qe is the equilibrium amount of PO4 adsorbed (mg·g ), qt is the amount of PO4 −1 adsorbed at adsorption time (mg·g ), k1 is a rate constant of pseudo-first-order equation −1 (min ), and ti is the adsorption time (min). The values of k1 and ln qe can be evaluated from the slope and intercept of plot ln(qe − qt) versus ti, respectively. The adsorption kinetic obeys a pseudo-first-order model when the curve of plotting ln(qe − qt) versus ti gives a straight line.

Pseudo-second-order model The second-order rate equation can be expressed in the linear form of (Ho, 2006):

�� 1 �� = 2 + (2) �� 2�� −1 3− where qt (mg·g ) is the amount of PO4 adsorbed at adsorption time, qe is the amount of 3− −1 PO4 adsorbed at equilibrium time (mg·g ), k2 is a rate constant of pseudo-second-order −1 model (min ), and ti is the adsorption time (min). The kinetic parameter k2 was obtained from slope of plotting t/qt against t and the parameter qe was calculated from the intercept of plotting t/qt versus t.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials WMS was used as adsorbent in this study. The WMS was collected from Kg. Pasir Putih in Pasir Gudang, Johor, Malaysia. The WMS was cleaned with tap water and dried at 30 °C for 2 days in an oven. The dried WMS was crushed with a mixer grinder (Panasonic, Model MX-AC400W, Malaysia) and passed through a sieve fraction of 1.18 mm and retained 0.60 mm. The mean size of adsorbent was around 0.89 mm. The dried adsorbent 3− - was used for the adsorption of PO4 from aqueous solution. Phosphate solution at 7 mg L 1 was prepared from KH2PO4 in deionized water. The pH of the synthetic solutions was set at 7.0 for all the batch experiments.

202 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Batch experiments Batch experiments were conducted to determine adsorption kinetics. The experiments of kinetic adsorption were conducted by adding 4, 12, and 20 g of the adsorbents into an 3− Erlenmeyer flask. Each Erlenmeyer flask containing of 200 mL of PO4 with a concentration of 7 mg·L−1 for the adsorptions of solute was shaken at 140 rpm. The 3− concentrations of PO4 in each sample solution were monitored at appropriate time 3− intervals until the adsorbent saturates. The residual concentrations of PO4 present in each Erlenmeyer flask for the adsorptions of solutes onto the adsorbent were determined using 3− HACH DR 6000 UV–Vis Spectrophotometer. The PO4 parameter was analysed in accordance with the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater 3− (APHA, 2005). PO4 was determined using the amino acid method. The PFO and PSO 3− models were used to study the kinetics of the adsorption of PO4 onto the adsorbent. The adsorption capacity (q) and the removal efficiency (E) were calculated by using Eq. (3) and Eq. (4), respectively. (�� − ��) × � � = (3) � �� − �� = × 100% (4) �� −1 3− −1 where q is the adsorption capacity (mg·g ), Ci is the initial PO4 concentration (mg·L ), 3− −1 Cf is the PO4 concentration in the solution (mg·L ), m is the mass of adsorbent (g), V is the volume of solution (L) and E is the removal efficiency (%)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Characteristics of the WMS The elemental composition analysis of WMS was examined by EDX (Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy, Bruker, Model X Flash 6I10, German). The major cationic composition of WMS is Ca (41.69%) and the minor compositions are Na (0.92%), Fe (0.02%), and Al (0.02%). Furthermore, in this work, the studied WMS has a BET surface area of 1.80 m2·g−1.

3− Adsorption of PO4 from a synthetic solution onto the WMS 3− The effects of different amounts of WMS (m) on both E and q for adsorption of PO4 were observed using 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 g of the WMS as shown in Fig. 1. Figs. 1a and b 3− show that E for adsorption of PO4 gradually increased from 31.3% to 72.2% while q gradually decreased from 0.11 to 0.05 mg∙g−1 with increasing amounts of WMS from 4 to 20 g. Higher adsorbent amount used in a batch experiment resulted in more adsorbent 3− 3− surface area available to adsorb PO4 and thus the percent removal of PO4 increased (Hussain et al., 2011; Köse and Kivanç, 2011; Xiong et al., 2011). The decreasing value of q with increasing amount of adsorbent is due to adsorption active sites remaining unsaturated during the adsorption process (Aydın and Bulut, 2008). Therefore, the use of more adsorbent could be difficult to attain at a saturation level (Abdul Salim et al., 2018).

203 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Figure 1. Relationship of: (dashed line) the removal efficiency and the amount of WMS; (solid 3− line) the adsorption capacity and the amount of WMS; (a) E for the adsorption of PO4 and (b) q 3− for the adsorption of PO4

3− Adsorption kinetics of PO4 onto the WMS In this study, both pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order models were used to 3− elucidate the adsorption kinetics of PO4 onto WMS. Table 1 shows the kinetic parameters k1, k2, and qe for PFO and PSO models.

Figure 2. Linear regression analysis for (a) PFO model and (b) PSO model for the 3− adsorption of PO4 onto WMS

Table 1. Kinetic parameters obtained from the pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order 3− models for the adsorption of PO4 onto WMS Amount Pseudo-first-order model 2 Medium (g) qe (theo) k1 R qe (exp) (mg·g−1) (min−1) (mg·g−1) Synthetic solution 4 0.085 0.0004 0.969 0.110 12 0.056 0.0005 0.982 0.072 20 0.034 0.0005 0.971 0.052 Amount Pseudo-second-order model 2 Medium (g) qe (theo) k2 R qe (exp) (mg·g−1) (g·mg−1·min−1) (mg·g−1) Synthetic solution 4 0.116 0.015 0.988 0.110 12 0.075 0.027 0.991 0.072 20 0.054 0.059 0.997 0.052

3− The linear regression analysis of the kinetic models for the adsorption of PO4 from a synthetic solution by WMS is shown in Fig. 2. As shown in Table 1, the correlation coefficient for the PSO model (R2 > 0.991) is higher than the for PFO model (R2 > 0.969). 3− This study verifies that the PSO model is more suitable for the adsorption kinetic of PO4 from a synthetic solution onto WMS compared to the PFO model because of the higher R2 value. According to the results of this study, the adsorption between adsorbent–adsorbate can be categorised as chemisorption. The result indicates that the adsorption process

204 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 involves valency forces through sharing or exchange of electrons between adsorbent and − 3− adsorbate through the replacement of OH by PO4 ( Xiong et al., 2017). Similar results 3− have been reported for the adsorption of PO4 onto ferric sludge (Song, Pan, Wu, Cheng, & Ma, 2011) and methylene blue onto dehydrated peanut hull (Özer et al., 2007), where the value of k2 increases while the value of qe decreases with increasing amount of adsorbent.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, the verification of the kinetic models was performed to understand the 3− behaviour of the adsorption of PO4 from synthetic solution onto WMS. The adsorption kinetic data were best described by the pseudo-second-order model, suggesting that chemisorption is involved during the adsorption process. The result findings provide useful 3− information for the adsorption mechanism and WMS has a good potential to adsorb PO4 from water.

Acknowledgment: We thank the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) for the financial support through the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) (Vot. No. 4F956).

REFERENCES

Abdul Salim, N. A., Abdullah, N. H., Khairuddin, M. R., Rudie Arman, M. A. Z., Khamidun, M. H., Fulazzaky, M. A. and Puteh, M. H., (2018). Adsorption of phosphate from aqueous solutions using waste mussel shell. MATEC Web of Conferences, 250, 06013. APHA, AWWA, WEF, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 21st ed. (2005). APHA, AWWA, WEF, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 21st ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C., 2005. Aydın, H. and Bulut, Y. (2008). Removal of copper (II) from aqueous solution by adsorption onto low-cost adsorbents. Journal of Environmental Management, 87, 37–45. Chen, W.-T., Lin, C.-W., Shih, P.-K. and Chang, W.-L. (2012). Adsorption of phosphate into waste oyster shell: thermodynamic parameters and reaction kinetics. Desalination and Water Treatment, 47(1–3), 86–95. Fulazzaky, M. A., Abdullah, N. H., Mohd Yusoff, A. R. and Paul, E. (2015). Conditioning the alternating aerobic-anoxic process to enhance the removal of inorganic nitrogen pollution from a municipal wastewater in France. Journal of Cleaner Production, 100(3), 195–201. Ho, Y. S. and McKay, G. (2000). The kinetics of sorption of divalent metal ions onto sphangnum moss peat. Water Research, 34(3), 735–742. Ho, Y. S. (2006). Review of second-order models for adsorption systems. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 136(3), 681– 689. Hussain, S., Aziz, H. A., Isa, M. H., Ahmad, A., Van Leeuwen, J., Zou, L. and Umar, M. (2011). Orthophosphate removal from domestic wastewater using limestone and granular activated carbon. Desalination, 271(1–3), 265– 272. Köse, T. E. and Kivanç, B. (2011). Adsorption of phosphate from aqueous solutions using calcined waste eggshell. Chemical Engineering Journal, 178, 34–39. Mezenner, N. Y. and Bensmaili, A. (2009). Kinetics and thermodynamic study of phosphate adsorption on iron hydroxide-eggshell waste. Chemical Engineering Journal, 147(2–3), 87–96. Oladoja, N. A., Ahmad, A. L., Adesina, O. A. and Adelagun, R. O. A. (2012). Low-cost biogenic waste for phosphate capture from aqueous system. Chemical Engineering Journal, 209, 170–179. Oladoja, N. A., Ololade, I. A., Adesina, A. O., Adelagun, R. O. A. A. and Sani, Y. M. (2013). Appraisal of gastropod shell as calcium ion source for phosphate removal and recovery in calcium phosphate minerals crystallization procedure. Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 91(5), 810–818. Özer, D., Dursun, G. and Özer, A. (2007). Methylene blue adsorption from aqueous solution by dehydrated peanut hull. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 144(1–2), 171–179. Song, X., Pan, Y., Wu, Q., Cheng, Z. and Ma, W. (2011). Phosphate removal from aqueous solutions by adsorption using ferric sludge. Desalination, 280(1–3), 384–390. Xiong, J., Qin, Y., Islam, E., Yue, M. and Wang, W. (2011). Phosphate removal from solution using powdered freshwater mussel shells. Desalination, 276(1–3), 317–321. Xiong, W., Tong, J., Yang, Z., Zeng, G., Zhou, Y., Wang, D. and Cheng, M. (2017). Adsorption of phosphate from aqueous solution using iron-zirconium modified activated carbon nanofiber: Performance and mechanism. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 493, 17–23.

205 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

PROGRESS ON ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IMPLEMENTATION FOR PALM OIL PRODUCTION IN MALAYSIA

Siti Nur Atikah Binti Yahya1, Norhayati Abdullah*2 and Norasikin Ahmad Ludin3

1, 2 Environment and Green Technology, Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology (MJIIT), Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA 3Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, MALAYSIA [email protected], *[email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Malaysia started to dominate the world in palm oil production due to Europeans voluntary commitments to use biofuel as a renewable energy source to replace fossil fuels to generate vehicles. Acquiring 39% of world production and 44% of the world export, Malaysia palm oil industry realized the importance of producing certified sustainable palm oil. Malaysia began introducing several sustainability practices including participation in the National Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Project 2006 to support a national eco- labelling program and fulfilling the requirements of foreign legislation that demands stringent measures to reduce environmental impact of products and services throughout their life cycles. The voluntary-based action correlates with the government's aim to achieve United Nation's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 12 and 13 which are responsible consumption and production and climate action in reducing carbon footprint while using processes that are environmentally friendly. The current practise of LCA is still not fully support the global perception of palm oil production in Malaysia which indicates the implementation of LCA in the palm oil sector should be reviewed and the policy makers should consider further possibilities in putting LCA as one of mandatory policy instruments to assist in future decision making.

Key words: Palm oil production, sustainability, Life Cycle Assessment and policy instruments

INTRODUCTION Malaysia started to dominate the world in palm oil production due to palm oil started to emerge and increased in demand when the pursuit of renewable energy via biodiesel has intensified since the rising price of crude petroleum in the recent years (Tan et al., 2009). Based on United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) (2015), statistics show that the European Union (UN) is the third most important consumer of palm oil in the world after India and Indonesia. Observation found that the Netherlands, Germany and Italy were the main palm oil importers in 2013 (Corley & Tinker, 2016). Due to suitable weather conditions, high yield and cost-effective production (Net Balance Foundation, 2013), Malaysia started venturing into palm oil trade. Currently, Malaysia acquires 39% for world production & 44% world export of palm oil (Kon, 2014) which makes Malaysia the second largest producer after Indonesia (Lim et al., 2015). To meet the rapid growth of supply- demand, the palm oil industry acknowledged the need to be able to maintain a consistent output of the product without giving harmful effects to the environment. This triggered Malaysia palm oil industry to take a step ahead by introducing sustainability concept, and practices in order to provide solutions to the existing problems.

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The sustainability concept is adopted from the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Agenda 2030 whereby the focus is on SDG 12 and 13; responsible consumption and production and climate action. A system or product can be said to be sustainable when the needs and aspirations of the present generation are achieved without compromising the ability to meet the needs of those in the future (Brundtland, 1987). It has become a challenge in the agri-food systems in producing more foods while reducing burden on energy, resources and environment (Foley et al., 2011, Soussana, 2014, Keairns et al., 2016) due to the industrialization where the activities of agri-food systems (cultivation, industry processing, distribution, and consumption) becoming more energy-intensive (Schau and Fet, 2008).

Malaysia palm oil industry began its initiatives with introducing laws to protect the land from deforestation and land-use change, participating as a member of the established Roundtable of Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), promoting sustainability schemes and implementing Best Management Practices (BMP) for palm oil plantation. Recently, the importance of environmental sustainability is further reflected in the Malaysian palm oil industry when the primary tools applied are environmental management and life cycle assessment (LCA) (Choong and McKay, 2014). LCA is a sustainability assessment tool that can be used to measure the environmental sustainability performance of a product or system. It is a method governed by international series of ISO 14000 standards for designing environmentally friendly products and technologies and impact evaluation on the environment (Mezzullo et al., 2013). Started in 2006, Malaysia participated in the National Life Cycle Assessment Project that prolonged for five years to execute several outputs at the end of the Ninth Malaysia Plan (2006-2010) (Choong &McKay, 2014).

Malaysia Palm Oil Berhad (MPOB) was the first to conduct full LCA on a crude palm oil production to serve as baseline information for any interested entities in the industry to implement LCA for their palm oil production (Subramaniam et al., 2008). A few research of LCA for Malaysian palm oil production can be found but most are concentrated on plantation stage and very few LCA was done on the rest of the processes involved with regards to palm oil production. This could be one of the many reasons the implementation of LCA on an industrial level is still voluntary-based action. Despite there may be a vast database for LCA results, the transparency of the database is weak, and many acquired data are restricted for public access. This paper intends to review the research gap in the current situation of LCA research in Malaysian palm oil production focusing on crude and refined palm oil.

MATERIALS AND METHODS This study is formed based on literature review search of LCA applied on palm oil processing system. Papers included were identified from structured keywords search in the following database: Elsevier Science Direct, Springerlink, Scopus and Research Gate. Keywords included “palm oil”, “Malaysia”, “life cycle assessment”, “sustainability assessment” and “environmental performances”. Sources were selected according to the following criteria: Only recognized publications that claimed to use attributional or consequential LCA The year of publications is not restricted due to the fact that the amount of LCA case study in Malaysia is considered limited and to overview the current extent of LCA implementation in upstream and downstream processes of palm oil production

207 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Published in English

Results were then classified into two elements; i) focus point of LCA application in the palm oil production and, ii) parameter investigated. Further elaboration is made which correlates the relevance of highlighting the importance of LCA implementation as one of the keys to achieve a sustainable palm oil industry.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Table 1 summarizes the existing LCA research done so far for Malaysia case study. It can be noted that the trend of LCA research was vigorous from the year 2008 to 2010 due to government’s aim in the National Life Cycle Assessment Project to build national life cycle inventory database and to create a critical mass of local life cycle assessment practitioners (Choong & McKay, 2014). However, the trends for LCA application in palm oil processes started declining which may be the consequences of lack of funds and difficulties in obtaining data transparency to conduct LCA in palm oil production. Referring to Table 1, it can be concluded that most LCA application is more concentrated on palm oil plantation phase. This situation has resulted from the pressure of environmental advocates and the public towards the government on deforestation, land-use change and biodiversity loss issues.

Despite LCA is a commonly used analytical tool in other field of industries for evaluating the environmental performances, it is still unfamiliar in the Malaysia palm oil industry due to the fact that every industries has different processes and systems. It may be risky for the palm oil producers to implement LCA immediately when the references available are still insufficient and incomplete. Recently, Malaysia Palm Oil Council (MPOC) has agreed to make Malaysia Sustainable Palm Oil (MSPO) a mandatory action for all palm oil growers and manufacturers by the end of 2019. To achieve the SDG 12 and 13 as well as to meet the objective of the National Life Cycle Assessment Project, the government should consider integrating LCA as one of the compulsory practices in large plantation and manufacturing companies that may contribute the most environmental impacts. Moreover, this indirectly allows academicians to be able to do more collaboration with people in the palm oil industry for LCA research to be more realistic and effective at the industrial level. In addition, to convince the policymakers that LCA should be considered as a potential sustainable consumption policy instrument, there shall be a survey conducted on the extent of LCA familiarity among experts in Malaysia palm oil industry to get an overview of their perception on LCA utilization.

Table 1. Identified LCA case study of palm oil production in Malaysia Authors Focus point of Research topic Parameter investigated (year) LCA application Mattssona et al. (2000) Agricultural land use in life cycle Palm trees Method for environmental assessment (LCA): Case studies of plantation assessment of agricultural land use three vegetable oil crops is tested in case studies of soybean (Brazil), rapeseed (Sweden) and oil palm (Malaysia) Yusoff and Hansen Feasibility study of performing a life Palm trees To introduce LCA concept and (2007) cycle assessment on crude palm oil plantation, transport performing LCA screening on crude production in Malaysia system, palm oil palm oil production milling

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Authors Focus point of Research topic Parameter investigated (year) LCA application Schmidt (2007) Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil Palm trees To provide basis for conducting and palm oil plantation, palm oil LCA of refined rapeseed oil and milling and refinery palm oil Subramaniam et al. Life cycle inventory of the production Transport system, To collect materials and energy (2008) of crude palm oil - A gate to gate case palm oil milling databases of palm oil mills in study of 12 palm oil mills Malaysia Subramaniam et al. Environmental performances of crude Transport system, To determine potential (2008) palm oil production in Malaysia via palm oil milling environmental impacts in 12 LCA approach selected palm oil mills in Malaysia

Yee et al. (2009) Life cycle assessment of palm Palm oil refinery To validate the popular belief that biodiesel: Revealing benefits for palm biodiesel is a green and sustainability sustainable fuel via conducting LCA Zulkifli et al. (2010) Life cycle assessment for oil palm Palm trees To build life cycle inventory for a fresh fruit bunch production from plantation cradle-to-gate data to assess continued land use for oil palm environmental impacts from fresh planted on mineral soil (part 2) fruit bunches (FFB) production in plantation Schmidt (2010) Comparative life cycle assessment of Palm trees Comparison of the environmental rapeseed oil and palm oil plantation, transport impacts and alternative ways system, palm oil identification of producing rapeseed milling and refinery oil and palm oil to the EU market Chiew and Shimada Current state and environmental Waste management Analysis environmental impacts of (2013) impact assessment for utilizing oil of palm oil seven technologies used to utilize palm empty fruit bunches, fuel, fiber oil palm residue fertilizer –A case study of Malaysia Norfaradila et al. (2014) Life cycle assessment (LCA) for the Palm oil milling and Comparison of environmental production of palm oil biodiesel: A refinery impacts resulting from biodiesel case study in Malaysia and Thailand production in Malaysia and Thailand Muhammad et al. Life cycle assessment for the Palm trees To identify potential environmental (2014) production of oil palm seeds plantation impacts in the production of germinated oil palm seeds Nur Izzah Hamna et al. Life cycle analysis of biogas Palm trees To determine the environmental (2019) production from anaerobic digestion plantation, palm oil impacts of producing biogas as an of palm oil mill effluent milling energy source and to derive measures to reduce them

CONCLUSION Several gaps are identified as window of opportunity for betterment of palm oil production in Malaysia utilizing LCA as a sustainability assessment tool. Policy makers should consider further possibilities in making LCA as one of mandatory policy instruments to overcome the lack of participation among industrial people to implement LCA in the palm oil plantation, mill operation and palm oil waste management.

Acknowledgment: The authors acknowledged the contributions and support from Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology (MJIIT), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) particularly the Algal Biomass iKohza and Water Research Laboratory, Disaster Preparedness and Prevention Center (DPPC). This research was funded under the auspices of UTM – Tier Grant No. 17H11.

REFERENCES

Brundtland, G., H. (1987). Our common future. Oxford: WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development). Chiew, Y., L. & Shimada, S. (2013). Current state and environmental impact assessment forutilizing oil palm empty fruit bunches for fuel, fiber and fertilizer: A case study of Malaysia. Biomass and Bioenergy, p. 1-16.

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Choong, C., G. and McKay, A. (2014). Sustainability in the Malaysian palm oil industry. Journal of Cleaner Production. 85, 258-264. Corley, R., H., V. & Tinker, P., B. (2016). The oil palm. 5th Edition. United Kingdom: Wiley Blackwell. Foley, J., A., Ramankutty, N., Brauman, K., A., Cassidy, E., S., Gerber, J., S., Johnston, M., Mueller, N., D., O'Connell, C., Ray, D., K., West, P., C., Balzer, C., Bennett, E., M., Carpenter, S., R., Hill, J., Monfreda, C., Polasky, S., Rockstrom, J., Sheehan, J., Siebert, S., Tilman, D. and Zaks, D., P., M. (2011). Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature. 478, 337-342. Keairns, D., L., Darton, R., C. and Irabien, A. (2016). The energy-water-food nexus. Annual Review of Chemical Biomolecular Engineering. 7, 239-262. Kon, T., M. (2014). Sustainability and responsible production of Malaysian palm oil– Sime Darby’s perspective [PDF Document]. Retrieved October 25, 2017 from http://www.mpoc.org.my/upload/IPOSC-2014-Sustainable-Responsible-Production-in-Malaysian-Mr- Tang-Men-Kon-update.pdf Lim, C., I., Biswas, W. and Samyudia, Y. (2015). Review of existing sustainability assessment methods for Malaysian palm oil production. 12th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing. 26, 13-18. Mattsson, B., Cederberg, C., & Blix, L. (2000). Agricultural land use in life cycle assessment (LCA): case studies of three vegetable oil crops. Journal of Cleaner Production. 8 (4), 283-292. Mezzullo W., G, Mcmanus M., C. and Hammond G., P. (2013). Life cycle assessment of a small-scale anaerobic digestion plant from cattle waste. Applied Energy. 102, 657-664. Muhammad, H., Ai, T., Y., Khairuddin, N., S., K., Amiruddin, M., D. & May, C., Y. (2014). Tropical Life Sciences Research, 25(2), pp. 41–51. Net Balance Foundation. (2013). Palm oil in Australia – facts, issues and challenges. Net Balance Foundation. Norfaradila, J., Norela, S., Salmijah, S. & Ismail, B., S. (2014). Life cycle assessment (LCA) for the production of palm biodiesel: A case study in Malaysia and Thailand. Malaysian Applied Biology, 43(1), pp. 53–63. Nur Izzah Hamna, A. Aziz & Marlia M. Hanafiah. (2019). Life cycle analysis of biogas production from anaerobic digestion of palm oil mill effluent. Renewable Energy, 145, pp. 847-857. Schau, E., M. and Fet, A., M. (2008). LCA studies of food products as background for environmental product declarations. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. 13 (3), 255-264. Schmidt, J., H. (2007). Life cycle assessment of rapeseed oil and palm oil, Ph.D., Part 3: life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil. Department of Development and Planning, Aalborg University. Schmidt, J., H. (2010). Comparative life cycle assessment of rapeseed oil and palm oil. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. 15, 183–197. Soussana, J., F. (2014). Research priorities for sustainable agri-food systems and life cycle assessment. Journal of Cleaner Production. 73 (15), 19-23. Subramaniam, V., Ngan, M., A., May, C., Y., & Sulaiman, N., M., N. (2008). Environmental performance of the milling process of Malaysian palm oil using the life cycle assessment approach. American Journal of Environmental Science, 4(4), pp. 310-315. Tan, K, T., Lee, K, T., Mohamed, A., R. and Bhatia, S. (2009). Palm oil: addressing issues and towards sustainable development. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews. 13, 420-427. USDA. (2015). Oilseeds: World Markets and Trade. [PDF document]. Retrieved January 15, 2016 from http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/fas/oilseed-trade//2010s/2015/oilseedtrade-12-09-2015.pdf Yee, K., F., Tan, T., T., Abdullah, A., Z., & Lee, K., T. (2009). Life cycle assessment of palm biodiesel: Revealing facts and benefits for sustainability. Applied Energy. 86, 189–196. Yusoff, S., & Hansen, S., B. (2007). Feasibility study of performing a life cycle assessment on crude palm oil production in Malaysia. International Journal of LCA. 12(1), 50-58. Zulkifli, H., Halimah, M., Chan, K., W., Choo, Y., M. & Mohd, B., W. (2010). Life cycle assessment for oil palm fresh fruit bunch production from continued land use for oil palm planted on mineral soil (part 2). Journal of Oil Palm Research, 22, pp. 887-894.

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START-UP PERFORMANCE OF MODIFIED ANAEROBIC BAFFLED REACTOR (MABR) FOR THE TREATMENT OF LANDFILL LEACHATE

Imran Ahmad1*, Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan2, Norazli Othman2, Norhayati Abdullah1, Nithiya Arumugam2, Zamri Abdul Rahman3

1Malaysia Japan International Institute of Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, 54100, Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA *[email protected] 2Razak Faculty of Technology and Informatics, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, 54100, Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA 3Worldwide Landfills Sdn Bhd, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA

ABSTRACT The main objective of this study is to evaluate the start-up performance of the MABR using granular sludge treating landfill leachate. Anaerobic reactor start-up is a complex process as it depends on the substrate characteristics, operating conditions, inoculum and reactor configuration. Reduction of the time necessary for the start-up and improved operational control of the anaerobic processes are key factors required to increase the efficiency and the competitiveness of the high-rate anaerobic systems. Sludge granulation concept was a significant milestone in anaerobic wastewater treatment and has greatly enhanced the efficiency and applicability of the technology. It has many advantages such as high efficient microbial proliferation, continuous operation beyond normal washout rates, generation of a reactor effluent with low suspended solids and manipulation of growth rates independent of the dilution rate. Each anaerobic granule is a functional unit comprising of all the different micro-organisms necessary for the methanogenic degradation of organic matter. Results from this study showed a successful start-up of the MABR at an organic loading rate (OLR) of 0.0875 kgCOD/m3/d and hydraulic retention time (HRT) of and 4 days. During this period the COD removal efficiency was 99 % and the gas production increased steadily from 0.013 L/d to 0.021 L/d.

Keywords: landfill leachate, modified anaerobic baffled reactor (MABR), granular sludge INTRODUCTION Recognition of the sludge granulation concept was a significant milestone in anaerobic wastewater treatment and has greatly enhanced both the efficiency and applicability of the technology. Biomass retention is possible within the reactor without the supply of a carrier material, thereby improving the economics of the process. Anaerobic granules are particulate biofilms, formed spontaneously by auto immobilization of anaerobic bacteria in the absence of a support material.These dense particles, consisting of an intertwined mixture of the symbiotic anaerobic micro-organisms that work together in methane fermentation, are the secret to the successful operation of the modern, high-rate anaerobic digester (McCarty, 2001). Each granule is a functional unit comprising of all the different micro-organisms necessary for the methanogenic degradation of organic matter. A typical granule may include millions of organisms per gram of biomass . The unique spatial arrangement of bacteria within an anaerobic granule and the phenomenon of granulation offers a number of advantages: 1. More efficient microbial proliferation; 2.

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Access to resources and niches that cannot be utilised by isolated cells; 3. Internal physicochemical gradients within the aggregates; 4. Collective defence against antagonists that eliminate isolated cells; 5.Optimisation of population survival by differentiation into distinct cell types; 6. Continuous operation of reactors beyond normal washout rates; 7. Generation of a reactor effluent with low suspended solids; 8. Manipulation of biomass in a single phase; 9. Manipulation of growth rates independent of the dilution rate. Granule retention is facilitated by the presence of slanted baffles which help to retain the granules. Granular sludge-based bioreactor technologies are recognised worldwide as cost-effective and efficient for the anaerobic treatment of industrial and municipal wastewater (McHugh et al., 2003).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Modified Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (MABR) The MABR is a laboratory scale plexiglass reactor having 28 L capacity containing four uniform compartments (7 L capacities) and each having a slanted baffle (45°), heater and sludge and gas sampling ports (Figure 1). The length, width and height of the reactor is 82, 17 and 32 cm respectively. Each compartment was installed with a heater to maintain the temperature at 37°C. A digital temperature probe located in each compartment provided the constant operating temperature. The MABR is an enhancement of the existing ABR where each compartment was further divided by slanted baffles to encourage mixing within the compartment. The MABR was designed and developed by Asnie et al, (2017). A synthetic wastewater (glucose) was used to start-up and evaluate its reactor performances. In the current study, meat extract was used to investigate the performance of MABR during the star- up, which was achieved by low OLR of 0.0875 kgCOD/m3/d and HRT of 4 days so that the substrate will acclimatize with the anaerobic granular sludge resulting in efficient start-up of the MABR system.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing modified anaerobic baffled reactor (MABR) Nutrients Macronutrients N100 were used to overcome nutrient deficiencies (from Bio-Systems Corporation Asia Pacific Sdn Bhd). Alkalinity of the feed was adjusted to 1000-2000 mg/l by adding NaHCO3 to the feed whenever it is required.

Synthetic Wastewater (Meat extract) The synthetic wastewater consists of protein and other added chemicals which is a readily degradable, soluble carbohydrate that does not, itself, limit the rate of anaerobic biodegradation. It produces readily measurable intermediary metabolites in anaerobic digestion and was used as a carbonaceous substrate in the experimental studies.Table 1 shows the characteristics of meat extract used as synthetic wastewater.

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Table 1. Ingredients of meat extract used as synthetic wastewater Ingredients of meat extract Weight per 100 g Energy 983 kJ Calories 231 kcal Protein 38.4 g Carbohydrates 19.2 g Fat 0.1 g Fibre 3.1 g Sodium 4.3 g salt 11 g Thiamin 5.8 mg Riboflavin 7.0 mg Niacin 160.0 mg Folic acid 2500 μg Vitamin B12 15.0 μg

Granular Sludge A granular sludge was used as a seed sludge which was taken from an anaerobic digester treating food waste. The sludge is naturally occurring biocatalyst having its wide application as inoculation material for the start-up of bioreactors for the anaerobic treatment of wastewater. Table 2 shows the properties of the granular sludge.

Table 2. Properties of Granular Sludge Aggregation Thick fluid (sediment solids) Odour light smell of rotten eggs Color Grey-black Solubility Pellet-like particles Density (kg/litre) 1.0 to 1.1 Acidity (pH) 7 to 9 Stable at ambient temperatures and Reactivity under normal conditions of use. Chemical Stability The product is stable

Sampling and analysis Sample analysis such as COD and pH were conducted according to standard methods (Kuruti et al., 2017) by using DR 6000 Spectrophotometer. The total biogas volume was determined using an optical gas bubble counter.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION pH Microbial groups involved in anaerobic degradation have a specific pH region for optimal growth. Values outside this range can be quite detrimental to the process, particularly to methanogens. Hence stable pH within the digester should be one of the priorities for ensuring efficient methanogenic digestion. The start-up of MABR lasted for 28 days. During the start- up, a fixed concentration of feed COD (350 mg/L) was maintained until a steady state COD removal and pH were achieved respectively. The OLR and HRT were also maintained at 0.0875 kgCOD/m3/d and 4 days, respectively. Figure 2a illustrates the pH profile during the start-up period. The pH levels during reactor start-up using the synthetic wastewater were generally stable (pH 7.0 – 8.1) in all compartments of the MABR until day 12, where a slight reduction (pH 6.3 – 6.7) was observed in all compartments from days 16-20, of the MABR, but it recovered to stable conditions on day 28.

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COD The COD removal efficiency during start-up showed a steady increase from day 1 up to day 28 (Figure 2b). The MABR start-up was performed by maintaining a constant feed concentration at an OLR of 0.0875 kgCOD/m3/d and long detention time (4 days), the reactor would achieve enhancement of solids build-up, encouragement of methanogenic populations and rapid recuperation to hydraulic shock (Barber and Stuckey, 1999). The COD removal efficiency increased at a steady rate from 58% to 99%, confirming that the reactor start-up was efficient

VA VA is a useful indicator to evaluate the anaerobic reactor performance. The more VA being utilized inside the reactor, the better the reactor performance is. According to Damasceno et al. (2007).VA of less than 150 mg/L in an anaerobic reactor, indicates that the reactor is operating under stable conditions. In general, if the pH of the reactor system is high (e.g. pH 7 – 7.5), the VA should be lower (Li et al., 2016), and in the current study, this trend was clearly observed (Figure 2c). The VA concentration in all compartments during reactor start- up using the synthetic wastewater was stable throughout the study (40 - 95 mg/L HOAC), confirming a stable operation of the reactor. In the current study, acetic acid was evaluated for the acid’s concentration in the reactor due to its main desire for methanogenic digestion. Low VA concentration was observed in C4 (around 40 mg/L HOAC) throughout the start-up.

(a) (b)

(c) (d) Figure 3. (a) pH profile during start-up of MABR (b) COD removal during start-up of MABR (c) VA profile during start-up of MABR (d) Biogas production during start-up MABR

Biogas The anaerobic microorganisms cause breakdown of the organic waste in a digester in the absence of oxygen to give biogas. It occurs in the decomposition of organic substances in the result of the activity of two major groups of microorganisms. One group of microorganisms, commonly called acid-forming bacteria or fermentation of microorganisms, breaks down complex organic compounds (proteins, fats and carbohydrates) into simpler, while in the

214 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 fermentation environment appear primary products of fermentation - volatile fatty acids, lower alcohols, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, acetic and formic acids. These less complex organic substances are a source of food for the second group of bacteria, methane producing, which convert organic acids into the desired methane as well as carbon dioxide etc (Makisha and Semenova, 2018). Figure 3d shows the total gas production during reactor start-up. It can, be seen that the gas production increased steadily from 0.013 L/d to 0.021 L/d during the operational period, confirming the biodegradation of the substrate is taking place.

CONCLUSION

The performance of MABR during rector start-up using granular sludge showed successful treatment of a promising method for wastewater treatment. (performance treating synthetic wastewater).The MABR showed a successful start-up at an OLR and HRT of 0.0875 kgCOD/m3/d and 4 days respectively, using the synthetic wastewater (meat extract). A COD removal efficiency of 98.5% was observed during this period.

Acknowledgment: The authors thank Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for funding this study under GUP Tier 1 Vote Number QK130000.2540.20H05 and the conference fee using the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) Vote Number R.K130000.7856.5F049.

REFERENCES

Asnie, M., Chelliapan,S., Dina, F., Anuara,A., Shahperi,R., Selvam,S.B., Norhayati Abdullahd,N. and Yuzir,A.(2017). Effect of organic loading rate (OLR) on the performance of modified anaerobic baffled reactor (MABR) supported by slanted baffles Desalination and Water Treatment ,79,56-63. Barber, W. P. and Stuckey, D. C.(1999). The use of anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR) for the wastewater treatment: A review. Water Research,33(7),1559-1578. Damasceno L.H.S., Rodrigues J.A.D., Ratusznei S. M., Zaiat M. and Foresti, E. (2007). Effects of feeding time and organic loading in an anaerobic sequencing batch biofilm reactor (ASBBR) treating diluted whey. Journal of Environmental Management,85,927-935. McCarty P.L.(2001) The development of anaerobic treatment and its future.Water Science and Technology 44(8), 149-156. Sharon, M., O’Reilly,C., Mahony, T., Colleran, E., and O’Flaherty, V. (2003). Anaerobic granular sludge bioreactor technology Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio Technology 2: 225–245. Kawai, M., Kishi, M., Hamersley, M. R., Nagao, N., Hermana, J. and Toda, T. (2012). Biodegradability and methane productivity during anaerobic co-digestion of refractory leachate. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 72, 46-51. Kuruti, K., Nakkasunchi, S., Begum, S., Juntupally, S., Arelli, V., Anupoju, G.R., (2017). Rapid generation of volatile fatty acids (VFA) through anaerobic acidification of livestock organic waste at low hydraulic residence time (HRT). Bioresource Technology, 238, 188–193. Li, H., Tan, F., Ke, L., Xia, D., Wang, Y., He, N., (2016). Mass balances and distributions of c, n, and p in the anaerobic digestion of different substrates and relationships between products and substrates. Chemical Engineering Journal 287, 329–336. Makisha Nikolay and Semenova Daria (2018). Production of biogas at wastewater treatment plants and its further application MATEC Web of Conferences 144, 04016 ,1-7.International Conference on Research in Mechanical Engineering Sciences.

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DEVELOPMENT OF AEROBIC GRANULES FOR ACTUAL LOW- MEDIUM STRENGTH DOMESTIC WASTEWATER TREATMENT UNDER THE EFFECT OF STATIC MIXER

Angel Chyi En We1, Azmi Aris*1,2 and Nor Azimah Mohd Zain2,3

1 Department of Water and Environmental Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected] 2 Centre of Environmental Sustainability and Water Security, Research Institute for Sustainable Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected] 3 Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA

ABSTRACT Aerobic granulation technology is considered as a superior alternative for treatment of actual domestic wastewater. It is generally known that the aerobic granules are less likely to be formed in low-medium strength wastewater due to the high OLR required for the formation of aerobic granules. Furthermore, hydrodynamic shear force has been proved to be essential for formation of aerobic granules. However, hydrodynamic shear force in sequential batch reactor (SBR) which is usually provided by high aeration rate is not sustainable in view of operating cost. Thus, static mixer was suggested to be the new alternative to provide the high hydrodynamic shear force. The main objectives of this study were to evaluate the feasibility of aerobic granulation for actual low-medium strength domestic wastewater treatment despite the unstable and low OLR and to examine the effect of static mixer on the formation and removal capability of aerobic granules. The results showed that aerobic granules can be successfully formed in actual low-medium strength domestic wastewater. The addition of static mixer was proved to enhance the settleability and compactness of the aerobic granules due to the higher hydrodynamic shear force provided. However, the static mixer did not cause significant improvement on the removal of organic and ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N).

Key words: Aerobic granules, domestic wastewater, static mixer

INTRODUCTION Aerobic granulation is a promising wastewater treatment technology due to its advantages of high settleability, high biomass retention and high treatment capability. Extensive researches have been carried out on aerobic granulation in high strength wastewater (Yu et al., 2014; Hamza et al., 2018) and synthetic wastewater (Wang et al., 2009; Bassin et al., 2012). However, relatively less number of research have been conducted in actual low-medium strength domestic wastewater due to the lower and unstable substrates availability that unfavored the granulation process.

Hydrodynamic shear force plays an important role in promoting the formation of aerobic granules. The hydrodynamic shear force is usually induced by aeration rate in most of the research whereby an SBR was used to cultivate the aerobic granules. In order to establish a higher hydrodynamic shear force, higher aeration rate in terms of superficial upflow air velocity (SUAV) need to be supplied to the SBR. However, this

216 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 may eventually cause higher operating cost due to higher energy consumption by aeration. To compensate the weakness of providing high aeration rate, a new and effective alternative which is the installation of static mixer was proposed by Sulaiman et al. (2019). Based on Sulaiman et al. (2019), aerobic granules with higher physical strength and lower SVI30 were formed after the installation of static mixer.

In this study, the feasibility of formation of aerobic granules in actual low-medium strength domestic wastewater was evaluated. Besides, the effect of static mixer on the formation and treatment capability of aerobic granules were examined.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The domestic wastewater used in this study was collected directly from the inlet chamber of a local full-scale wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in Johor Bahru, Malaysia. The average TCOD and NH3-N concentration of domestic wastewater was 272 ± 14 mg/L and 24.8 ± 1.1 mg/L, respectively. Activated sludge with an initial sludge concentration of approximately 3.5 g/L was taken from the aeration tank of the WWTP as seed sludge for the cultivation of aerobic granules.

A lab scale SBR with five sequential phases, which comprised of FILL, REACT, SETTLE, DECANT and IDLE was used in the study. The SBR consisted of a glass column with internal diameter of 8 cm and a total height of 100 cm, making a 5 L total volume (Figure 1). The working volume and cycle time of SBR were designed for 3 L and 3 hours respectively. The wastewater from influent tank was fed into the reactor anoxically at the bottom of the reactor for a duration of 60 min. During aeration phase, air was supplied to the reactor from the bottom of the reactor by an air pump via a fine air bubble diffuser for a duration of 100 min. The oxygen was supplied at an air flow rate of 5 L/min, resulting in a superficial upflow air velocity (SUAV) of 1.66 cm/s. The decanting of wastewater was carried out through an outlet sampling port located at 19 cm height from the bottom of the reactor for a duration of 5 min after a settling duration of 5 min was given. Lastly, the reactor was allowed to idle for a duration of 5 min before a new cycle was started.

The cultivation of aerobic granules using actual low-medium strength domestic wastewater was divided into three phases. In Phase I, the cultivation of aerobic granules was initiated and carried out until the granulation reached the steady state. Phase II was only started on Day 125 after the granulation has reached to steady state in the absence of static mixer while Phase III was initiated on Day 280 after a static mixer was installed in the SBR. Comparisons on characteristics of aerobic granules formed and removal performance were made for Phase II and Phase III so that the effect of static mixer on aerobic granulation could be examined.

The characteristics of aerobic granules formed such as sludge volume index (SVI) and biomass concentration in term of mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) and mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS) was determined based on the Standard Methods (APHA, 2012). Removal capability of aerobic granules was monitored by analyzing the TCOD and NH3-N concentration in the influent and effluent of the reactor according to Standard Methods (APHA, 2012).

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Figure 1. Lab scale SBR (with static mixer installed)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The SVI profile of this study is shown in Figure 2 (a). During start-up, the SVI30 was reported to be at around 125 mL/g and the value was further decreased to around 95 mL/g from the mid until the end of Phase I due to the selection pressure caused by short settling time. The SVI30 was decreased sharply during Phase II and reached around 50 mL/g in the end of Phase II, indicating that the increasing of compactness and settleability of sludge. After the installation of static mixer into the SBR during Phase III, the SVI30 reached 35 mL/g in the end of the study. The significant difference between the SVI30 in Phase II and Phase III may be explained by the installation of static mixer which is capable to provide higher hydrodynamic shear force during Phase III. The higher hydrodynamic shear force provided by static mixer further induced the formation of aerobic granules with higher compact structure and settleability.

The granulation rate was monitored by ratio between SVI30 and SVI10. According to Ni et al. (2009), the granulation rate particularly in domestic wastewater is deemed to reach the steady state when the SVI30/SVI10 is around 0.85. The SVI30/SVI10 of 0.88 on Day 126 indicated the granulation had reached the steady state and thus marking the beginning of Phase II. The SVI30/SVI10 was maintained around 0.85 throughout the Phase II. The SVI30/SVI10 was also maintained at around 0.82 throughout the Phase III. Therefore, it may be concluded that static mixer exerted no significant effect in term of granulation rate.

The growth of biomass was monitored by measuring the biomass concentration in the SBR in terms of MLSS and MLVSS (Figure 2 (b)). During early stage of Phase I, the growth of biomass was observed to be unstable. Severe biomass washout happened twice throughout the first 90 days of operation due to the short settling time applied. After Day 90, the biomass was observed to have adapted to the low short settling time, thus maintaining the MLSS and MLVSS concentration at approximately 1.0 g/L and 0.75 g/L, respectively until the end of Phase I. The MLSS and MLVSS concentration were observed to increase drastically and reached approximately 3.0 g/L and 2.0 g/L respectively, during the end of Phase II. The increasing of biomass concentration during Phase II may probably due to the formation of higher portion of granules in the SBR and this assumption was supported by both the decreasing of SVI30 and increasing of SVI30/SVI10 in Phase II. During Phase III, the MLSS and MLVSS concentration

218 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 were further increased to 3.5 g/L and 3.0 g/L respectively. The increasing of biomass concentration could be explained by the lower SVI30 which indicated that the formation of aerobic granules with higher compact structure.

(a) (b) Figure 2. Profile of SVI (a) and biomass concentration in the reactor (b)

Based on Figure 3 (a), TCOD removal fluctuated during the early stage of Phase I and increased towards the end of Phase I. The increasing of TCOD removal efficiency may due to the presence of aerobic granules which have higher organic removal capability as compared to the seed sludge (activated sludge). Meanwhile, the TCOD removal was remained constant from Day 96 until the end of the study. No significant difference on TCOD removal efficiency was observed between Phase II and Phase III which the TCOD concentration in effluent and removal efficiency was always maintained at around 35 mg/L and 85%, respectively.

(a) (b) Figure 3. Profile of TCOD (left) and NH3-N (b) removal

NH3-N removal was fluctuated throughout this study (Figure 3 (b)). However, it is noted that the NH3-N was improved after the formation of aerobic granules as compared to the start-up stage (Day 0-Day 54). The NH3-N removal efficiency was observed to be in the range of between 40% and 70% in both Phase II and III. The NH3-N is highly dependent on the NH3-N influent concentration which the higher NH3- N influent concentration will cause the higher NH3-N effluent concentration. The phenomena were probably due to the reason of insufficient number of nitrifying bacteria in the aerobic granules for effective NH3-N removal performance and thus limiting the NH3-N removal. The growth of the nitrifying bacteria may be suppressed by the presence of high concentration free ammonia (Prinčič et al., 1998) or the

219 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 presence of toxicity caused by heavy metal (You et al., 2009). However, the reason of ineffective NH3-N removal may need further investigation.

CONCLUSION In conclusion, aerobic granules with high settleabiity and good organic removal capability were successfully cultivated in actual low-medium strength domestic wastewater. Based on the results obtained in this study, it may be concluded that the static mixer exerts significant effect the characteristics of aerobic granules formed but not on the removal capability of aerobic granules. Higher SVI and MLSS concentration were observed after the installation of static mixer while TCOD and NH3-N removal was maintained almost the same.

There is still a need to figure out the reason for the occurrence of ineffective NH3-N removal and suggest strategy to further enhance the NH3-N removal in aerobic granulation for treatment of actual low-medium strength domestic wastewater. Other parameters such as nitrate, nitrite and phosphorus removal should also be considered in future study.

Acknowledgment: The authors would like to acknowledge Ministry of Education, Malaysia and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for supporting the study under Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (R.J130000.7809.5F064) and Research University Grant Scheme (Q.J130000.2509.18H89). The authors would also like to thank Indah Water Konsortium (IWK) for providing assistance and support throughout the study.

REFERENCES

Bassin J. P., Kleerebezem R., Dezotti M., van Loosdrecht M. C. M. (2012). Simultaneous Nitrogen and Phosphate Removal in Aerobic Granular Sludge Reactors Operated at Different Temperatures. Water Research, 46, 3805-3816. Hamza, R. A., Sheng, Z., Iorhemen, O. T., Zaghloul, M. S. and Tay, J. H. (2018). Impact of Food-to- Microorganisms Ratio on the Stability of Aerobic Granular Sludge Treating High-Strength Organic Wastewater. Water Research, 147, 287-298. Wang, S. G., Gai, L. H., Zhao, L. Z., Fan, M. H., Gong, W. X., Gao, B. Y. and Ma, Y. (2009). Aerobic Granules for Low-Strength Wastewater Treatment: Formation, Structure, and Microbial Community. J. Chem Technol Biotechnol, 84, 1015-1020. Sulaiman, S., Aris, A., Abd Razak, A. S., Muda, K. and Nor Anuar, A. (2019). Influence of Static Mixer on the Formation of Biogranules. Jurnal Teknologi, 81 (1), 23-30. Ni, B. J., Xie, W. M., Liu, S. G., Yu, H. Q., Wang, Y. Z., Wang, G. and Dai, X. L. (2009). Granulation of Activated Sludge in a Pilot-Scale Sequencing Batch Reactor for the Treatment of Low-Strength Municipal Wastewater. Water Research, 43, 751-761. You, S. J., Tsai, Y. P. and Huang, R. Y. (2009). Effects of Heavy Metals on the Specific Ammonia and Nitrate Uptake Rates in Activated Sludge. Journal of Environmental Engineering. 26 (7). 1207-1215. Prinčič, A., Mahne, I., Megušar, F., Paul, E. A., Tiedje, J. M. (1998). Effects of pH and Oxygen and Ammonium Concentrations on the Community Structure of Nitrifying Bacteria from Wastewater. Appl Environ Microbiol, 64 (10), 3584-3590. APHA. (2012). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water (22nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.

220 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

RESOURCE SECURITY

Parallel Session 9

221 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

INFLUENCE OF MAGNETIC FIELD ON SLUDGE BULKING UNDER LONG SLUDGE RETENTION TIME

Nur Syamimi Zaidi*1, Khalida Muda2, Johan Sohaili3, Liew Wai Loan4 and

Norelyza Hussein5

1, 2, 3, 5School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 4Centre for Degree Program, UTM School of Professional and Continuing Education (UTMSPACE), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected]

ABSTRACT Sludge retention time (SRT) is an important factor affecting the treatment performances. Long SRT has been reported in inducing filamentous microorganisms, thus causing sludge bulking. When bulking occurs, the removal performances are decreased due to the failure of aggregation by the floc-formers. Approach of sufficiently minimizing the SRT had been taken most of the times. This approach, however, eliminated the floc-formers although it was found to inhibit the bulking. The aim of the present study, therefore, is to investigate the potential of magnetic field application as an alternative approach for controlling sludge bulking. Two sequencing batch reactors, Reactor A (SBRA) and Reactor B (SBRB), were operated in long SRT to induce the bulking. SBRA was subjected to 88.0 mT magnetic field intensity while SBRB served as a control system. The findings showed that the magnetic field was able to enhance the aggregation of the biomass under an adverse effect of long SRT thus, led more stable flocs been formed. This had resulted with consistent high removal of SBRA compared to SBRB even under long period of SRT. Consequently, this approach minimizes the occurrence of sludge bulking.

Key words: Magnetic field, Sludge bulking, Sludge retention time, Aggregation, Removal performances

INTRODUCTION Sludge retention time (SRT) is an important factor that provides control over sludge activity upon biomass properties. Optimum SRT allows efficient aggregation thus result in stability of floc formation that consequently lead to high removal performances. Long SRT has been reported in inducing the growth of filamentous microorganisms such as Nocardioforms and Microthrix parvicella (Xie et al., 2007; Comas et al., 2008). Sludge that been retained too long in the clarifiers can become septic, lose its activity thus, can deplete the necessary dissolved oxygen in the reactor (Jenkins et al., 2004). This occurrence favors the growth of filamentous microorganisms hence, causing sludge bulking. For that reason, approach of minimizing the SRT had been taken commonly (Martins et al., 2004; Xie et al., 2007). By reducing the SRT, there will be a subsequent increase by the F/M fed ratio. This condition is able to minimize the risk of sludge bulking occurrences by inhibiting the growth of filamentous microorganisms such as Microthrix parvicella (Xie et al., 2007; Comas et al., 2008).

222 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Reduction in SRT was proven to inhibit the sludge bulking occurrences as the filamentous microorganisms were proven being eliminated from the activated sludge system. However, it appears that the approach is not only eliminating the filamentous microorganisms, but it also eliminates the nitrifying bacteria (Jenkins et al., 2004; Xie et al., 2007). This is because the growth rate of nitrifiers is slow compared to the other heterotrophs (BOD- removing organisms) or even filamentous microorganisms. These organisms require longer SRTs in order to perform the nitrification process. Hence, by shortening the SRT, deterioration of the nitrification efficiency will eventually occur. It is then crucial to find other potential method to control the bulking occurrence. Therefore, the aim of this work is to investigate the feasibility of magnetic field application on the biomass that been induced under long SRT. The influences of magnetic field on the biomass as well as removal performance of the treatment process were monitored using controlled laboratory scale of sequencing batch reactor (SBR) systems.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Wastewater and activated sludge. Raw municipal wastewater sampled from the Indah Water Konsortium sewage treatment plant was used in this study. The biomass used in this study was also collected from the same treatment plant. The biomass was sampled from aeration tank and sieved with a mesh of 1.0 mm to remove large debris and inert impurities.

Experimental setup and operational conditions. Two lab-scale sequencing batch reactors - Reactor A (SBRA) and Reactor B (SBRB) were designed with a working volume of 6 L. SBRA was equipped with the magnetic device while SBRB acted as a control system. The magnetic device that attached to the SBRA comprised series of permanent magnets that are arranged in an alternate order. The applied magnetic field was at intensity of about 88.0 mT. During the start-up period, 3 L of sludge and 3 L of wastewater were added into the reactor system making the final volume of 6 L with a total sludge biomass concentration of 5.6 g/L. SBRA and SBRB were operated in parallel with hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 8-h in 3 successive cycles. Each cycle comprised of 10 min filling, 380 min reaction, 80 min settling and 10 min decanting. The volumetric exchange rate (VER) was fixed at 50%. The temperature of the systems was constant at 25°C while the pH throughout the experiments was between 6.0 and 8.0. In this study, the SRT was set longer at about 20 days in order to induce the sludge bulking. Withdrawal of certain amount of MLSS was conducted at the end of aeration phase in order to set the SRT for about 20 days.

Analytical methods. In this study, aggregation was evaluated in terms of turbidity measurement (Adav et al., 2008; Rahman et al., 2008). For the removal performance of the system, chemical oxygen demand (COD) was determined based on Standard Method APHA (2005).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Effect of magnetic field on aggregation of the biomass under long SRT Occurrence of aggregation is depends on the collision frequency, which is governed by the degree of particle destabilization achieved. High percentage of aggregation suggests that the flocs are easy to form and significantly favors coagulation. Aggregation is an irreversible process and the formed flocs are hard to deteriorate (Gregory, 2009). This suggesting that good aggregation may correlate to the good

223 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 adhesion capability measured by particles’ surface properties. Figure 1 shows the profile of aggregation ability of the biomass in both reactors.

Figure 1. Profile of aggregation ability of the biomass in both reactors

Biomass in SBRA showed high aggregation with the range of 75.0 – 95.2% while biomass in SBRB possessed mostly medium aggregation with average of 65.5%. There were obvious differences between biomass in these two reactors. The exposure of magnetic field may contribute to the enlargement of the floc size in SBRA due to the adherence between flocs as the magnetic forces presence between them (Gregory, 2009; Wang et al., 2012). Furthermore, magnetically exposed biomass in SBRA would hold high densities and sustained the attraction of magnetic forces. This can explain on biomass in SBRA showed better aggregation throughout the process. The high aggregation observed in SBRA was also correlated with the high biomass concentration shown in Figure 2. The presence of more cell biomass increases the collision among the cells and cause more aggregation to occur (Liu and Tay, 2002). This suggesting that the magnetic field accommodated in SBRA do have significant effect in increasing the cell growth of the biomass (Łebkowska et al., 2011; Křiklavová et al., 2014).

Figure 2. Profile of biomass concentration in both reactors

Effect of magnetic field on COD removal performances under long SRT Profile for COD removal performances for both reactors is given in Figure 3. SBRA showed consistent COD degradation performance with an average removal of 87%

224 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 compared to SBRB with average removal of 67%. Previous works using magnetic field in the range of 5 to 460 mT showed that magnetic field is an intensifying factor for organic substrate degradation (Ji et al., 2010; Łebkowska et al., 2013). The evidences suggested that the magnetic field could increase the organism biodegradation ability of aerobic bacteria from the biomass. This was due to the increase in extracellular enzymes distributed on the bacterial surface when magnetic field was used (Ji et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2012; Zaidi et al., 2019).

Figure 3. COD removal performances for both reactors throughout the experiment

Figure 3 also showed that SBRA and SBRB were having maximum COD removal of about 98% and 85%, respectively at day-57. The maximum degradation occurred might be due to the increase of influent COD of about 582 mg/L on the exact day. Such high influent concentration may caused high substrate uptake rate in both systems thus, enable the performance to reach maximum degradation process. However, on the day onwards until the end of experiment, a surge drop of COD removal was observed in both reactors. The COD removal for SBRA reduced from 98% (day-57) to 89% (day- 120) while for SBRB, the removal was reduced from 85% to 68%. The drop could be due to the sludge washout into the effluent. The formed flocs may not be so intact and could easily detached within each other. With regard to the exposure of magnetic field, the drop of COD removal in SBRA was minimum (i.e. 9%) compared to the SBRB (i.e. 17%). This could be due to the existence of magnetic memory of the exposed biomass (Zaidi et al., 2014). During the exposure, the sludge would have an opportunity to retain the effect of magnetization and the effect could become stronger as the sludge being repeatedly exposed during the experiment. Hence, under adverse circumstances, the retained magnetic field in the exposed biomass can still maintained the floc formation, inhibited more sludge washed-out thus, consistently enhance the removal.

CONCLUSION Until today, there is lack of information on the effect of magnetic field on sludge bulking. For this particular study, the bulking was induced under prolonged SRT. Due to the effect of magnetic field applied to SBRA, the physical properties of the biomass and removal performance were higher compared to the control of SBRB. Biomass in SBRA postulated high aggregation of 95% compared to 65% postulated by biomass in SBRB. These observations imply that the magnetic field was able to enhance the ability of the biomass to

225 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 form stable flocs under the probable adverse effect of long SRT. SBRA also showed consistently high COD removal of average 87% compared to SBRB of average 67%. These observations imply that the magnetic field was able to enhance the biodegradation ability of aerobic bacteria even under long period of SRT. Overall, under the sludge bulking, the use of magnetic field stand a great chance in maintaining high removal performances.

Acknowledgment: The authors would like to thank Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for financial support of GUP Grant Tier 2 (Grant Project No: 16J76).

REFERENCES

Adav, S.S., Lee, D.J., and Tay, J.H. (2008). Extracellular polymeric substances and structural stability of aerobic granules. Water Research. 42, 1644-1650. American Public Health Association (2005). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. (21th ed.). Washington DC, USA. Comas, J., Rodríguez-Roda, I., Gernaey, K.V., Rosen, C., Jeppsson, U., and Poch, M. (2008). Risk assessment modeling of microbiology related solids separation problems in activated sludge systems. Environmental and Modelling Software. 23, 1250 – 1261. Gregory, J. (2009). Monitoring particle aggregation processes. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science. 147 – 148, 109 – 123. Jenkins, D., Richard, M.G., and Daigger, G.T. (2004). Manual on the cause and control of activated sludge bulking, foaming and other solids separation problems. (3rd ed.). Chelsea: Lewis Publishers. Ji, Y., Wang, Y., Sun, J., Yan, T., Li, J., Zhao, T., Yin, X., and Sun, C. (2010). Enhancement of biological treatment of wastewater by magnetic field. Bioresource Technology. 101, 8535-8540. Křiklavová, L., Truhlář, M., Škodová, P., Lederer, T., and Jirků, V. (2014). Effects of a static magnetic field on phenol degradation effectiveness and Rhodococcus erythropolis growth and respiration in a fed- batch reactor. Bioresource Technology. 167, 510-513. Łebkowska, M., Narożniak-Rutkowska, A., and Pajor, E. (2013). Effect of a static magnetic field of 7 mT on formaldehyde biodegradation in industrial wastewater from urea-formaldehyde resin production by activated sludge. Bioresource Technology. 132, 78-83. Liu, Y., and Tay, J.H. (2002). The essential role of hydrodynamic shear force in the formation of biofilm and granular sludge. Water Research. 36, 1653-1665. Martins, A.M.P., Pagilla, K., Heijnen, J.J., and Van Loosdrecht, M.C.M. (2004). Filamentous bulking sludge – A review. Water Research. 38, 793-817. Rahman, M.M., Kim, W.S., Kumura, H., and Shimazaki, K. (2008). Autoaggregation and surface hydrophobicity of Bifidobacteria. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. 24, 1593-1598. Wang, X.-H., Diao, M.-H., Yang, Y., Shi, Y.-J., Gao, M.-M., and Wang, S.- G. (2012). Enhanced aerobic nitrifying granulation by static magnetic field. Bioresource Technology. 110, 105–110. Xie, B., Dai, X.-C., and Xu, Y.-T. (2007). Cause and pre-alarm control of bulking and foaming by Microthrix parvicella - A case study in triple oxidation ditch at a wastewater treatment plant. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 143, 184-191. Zaidi, N.S., Muda, K., Sohaili, J. and Sillanpää, M. (2014). Optimization of activated sludge physical properties by magnetic field via response surface modeling. Applied Mechanics and Materials. 567, 98- 103. Zaidi, N.S., Muda, K., and Sillanpää, M. (2019). Effects of extra‐cellular polymeric substances towards physical properties of biomass under magnetic field exposure. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 16 (7), 3801-3808.

226 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

ENHANCEMENT OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS WITH LOW DISSOLVED OXYGEN USING ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

Nulhazwany Abdul Malik1, Khalida Muda1*, Nur Syamimi Zaidi1, Mohamad

Darwish1

1 School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA [email protected], *[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT Activated sludge (AS) system is a biological treatment process that is widely applied in municipal wastewater treatment. Concentration of the dissolved oxygen (DO) is one of the important parameters that may influence the performance of AS system. However, the energy consumption of aeration stage represents approximately 50% of total demand of AS system. Therefore, reducing aeration energy would improve the feasibility of AS process. This study investigated the enhancement of AS process under low DO condition using electromagnetic field (EMF). The AS was exposed to EMF at intensity of 3 mT with DO concentrations of 1 and 2 mg/L for 24 hours. The impact of EMF on the biomass concentration, as well as removal of ammonia nitrogen and COD, were investigated. The results indicated high accumulation of biomass concentration. Besides, the reactor exposed to EMF under 2 mg/L of DO showed the highest removal efficiency of COD (80%) and ammonia (97%). Furthermore, it was proved that EMF could enhance the settleability of the AS in the treatment system.

Key words: Municipal wastewater, Electromagnetic field, Activated sludge, Ammonia nitrogen

INTRODUCTION A remarkable increase in the applications of electromagnetic fields (EMFs) in environmental managements appeared clearly in the recent years. Magnetic technology is a physical treatment technique that was introduced to avoid the consumption of chemicals such as polyphosphates or corrosive substances, which are expensive and can be harmful to the environment and most importantly, human health. To date, EMF was applied for the removal of heavy metals (Kamariah, 2006), organic compounds (Ji et al., 2010; Lebkowska et al., 2011) and turbidity and suspended solids (Chin et al., 2006; Xie et al., 2010). Generally, most of the mentioned treatment processes have shown significant improvements under specific magnetic applications (Zaidi et al, 2014).

Activated sludge (AS) process is one of the aerobic biological treatment methods, which is employed as a core process in more than 90% of the municipal wastewater treatment plants (Ntamitrou et al., 2012). Yet, due to the fluctuation of wastewater quality and flow, conventional AS shows a variety of drawbacks, including sludge expansion, loose flocs structure as well as biomass deficiency (Liu et al., 2013). In addition, the energy consumed by the aeration process represents approximately 50% of the total energy usage of the AS process, which can be dramatically reduced by decreasing the operating dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration (Fan et al., 2017). To the best of our knowledge, the enhancement of municipal wastewater treatment using EMF under the condition of low DO concentration was never tested before. The present study was therefore aimed at investigating the effect

227 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 of applying an EMF in maintaining high effluent quality in municipal wastewater treatment under low concentration of DO.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Raw samples of municipal wastewater, as well as sludge biomass, were collected twice a week from a sewage treatment plant and stored under 4°C. Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the reactor used in this study. The reactor consists of three identical glass columns (Column A, B and C) with a net volume of 1,300 mL for each column. A copper coil was attached to Column B and C, which supplied the EMF with an intensity of 3 mT, while Column A was not exposed to EMF and kept as a control. Each column was supported with a stone air diffuser located at the bottom of the column, to provide the required aeration. The concentrations of DO in Column A, B and C were maintained at 3, 2 and 1 mg/L, respectively, and monitored using YSI dissolved oxygen meter (USA). During the start-up period, 200 mL of AS and 800 mL of raw municipal wastewater were added into each column, to compose a working volume of 1,000 mL with a total biomass concentration of 2,000 mg/L. The cycle time of the reactor was 24 h, consisting of 2 min feeding reaction, 23.4 h aerobic reaction, 30 min settling and 2 min discharge. The mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) and mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS) were measured based on Methods No. 2540D and 2540E, respectively (APHA, 2005). Measurement of COD was done using HACH (DR 6,000) spectrophotometer, while ammonia nitrogen was analyzed using Nessler method.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of experimental set-up

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Effect of EMF on Biomass Concentration: The profile of biomass concentration (MLSS and MLVSS) is given in Figure 2. Generally, it can be seen that the MLSS in Column B was higher than in Column A and C. At steady state, MLVSS for Columns A, B and C were 368.6±5.8, 438.6±5.8 and 238.6±5.8 mg/L, respectively. Throughout the experiment, both MLSS and MLVSS in Column B showed stable reading. Meanwhile, in Columns A and C, sudden drops were observed in the middle of the experiment. The high MLSS and MLVSS in Column B was probably due to the effect of EMF applied to Column B. Principally, EMF could influence the microbial community composition and metabolisms, which could further affect the biomass characteristics (Hattori et al., 2001; Wahid et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2012). According to Zieliński et al., (2017), this higher concentration in biomass resulted from the improved absorption and coagulation in the sludge particles

228 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 due to the effect of EMF. In Column A, the molecules moved in random manner, while in Column B and C, the exposure to EMF allowed the molecules to align easily according to their positive and negative charges. Consequently, the molecules were arranged orderly, thus able to induce coagulation (Johan, 2003). Despite the condition of low DO concentration, Column B was able to retain high biomass concentration compared to Column A and C. As more sludge coagulated, higher settling ability resulted in Column B. In addition, less sludge washout was observed resulting in higher biomass concentration in the Column. The increase in sludge biomass under the effect of EMF was also observed by Lebkowska et. al., (2011), Kriklavova et la., (2014) and Zaidi (2014).

Figure 2. Profile of biomass concentration (A) MLSS (B) MLVSS in all columns

Removal performance of ammonia: The results of removal performance of ammonia were given in Figure 3. Column B showed higher removal compared to Column A and C, although the columns were aggravated by low DO condition. During early stage of the experiment, higher removal was observed in Column C, indicating that the system was not in stable condition yet. Starting from day 25, removal in Column B exceeded Column C until the end of experiment. On average, Column B exhibited the highest ammonia removal (99±1%) followed by Column A (98±1%) and Column C (83±9%). This finding agrees with the phenomenon that EMF enhances the biological activity of ammonium oxidizing bacteria (Wang et al., 2012), which lead to higher removal in Column B.

Figure 3. Profile of ammonia removal efficiency in all columns

Removal performance of COD: The efficiency of COD removal was similar in all columns, with a slightly higher percentage in Column B (Figure 4). Previous studies illustrated that EMF is an intensifyer for organic substrate degradation (Ji et al., 2010; Łebkowska et al., 2013). In the current study, the EMF intensity was as low as 3 mT, which explains the observed improvement in COD removal. Principally, EMF could stimulate the organism biodegradation ability of aerobic bacteria in the AS, probably due to the increase in the concentration of extracellular enzymes distributed on the bacterial

229 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 surface when exposed to EMF (Wang et al., 2012). At initial stage of the experiment, COD removal tended to fluctuate due to inconsistent COD influent concentrations that were fed into the systems. On the 25th day, COD removal in Column C witnessed a severe drop with only 8.5% removal. This could be due to the sludge that has been dominated by the proliferation of filamentous microorganisms. At low DO levels, filamentous microorganisms have a greater tolerance compared to floc-forming bacteria. Consequently, filamentous microorganisms could actively proliferate as their relative biomass increases, thus limiting the growth and activity of aerobic microorganisms to biodegrade the COD (Guo et al., 2014). Apparently, applying EMF with low intensity was not sufficient enough COD removal under low DO levels. After 35 days, the concentration of COD effluent was almost the same in the control and magnetically exposed columns. However, the COD removal in Column B was always higher than Column A and C, reaching up to 90% of COD removed.

Figure 4. Profile of COD removal in all columns

CONCLUSION The current work studied the enhancement of AS process under low DO concentrations of 1 and 2 mg/L, through the application of EMF with intensity of 3mT. It was illustrated that exposure of AS to EMF significantly improved the accumulation of biomass concentration. In addition, the highest removal performance, in terms of ammonia nitrogen and COD, was obvious in the column exposed to EMF with DO concentration of 2 mg/L. Finally, this study proved that EMF could enhance the settleability of the AS in the treatment system.

Acknowledgment: The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge Ministry of Higher Education for supporting this work under grant no 4F984.

REFERENCES

Chin, C.J.M., Chen, P.W. and Wang, L. J. (2006). Removal of Nanoparticles from CMP Wastewater by Magnetic Seeding Aggregation. Chemosphere. 63(10), 1809- 1813.

Fan, H., Liu, X., Wang, H., Han, Y., Qi, L. and Wang, H. (2017). Oxygen Transfer Dynamics and Activated Sludge Floc Structure under Different Sludge Retention Times at Low Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations. Chemosphere, 169, 586–595. Guo, L., Suhartini, S., Xiong, Y., and Liu, Y.Q. (2016). Improved Biological Wastewater Treatment And Sludge Characteristics By Applying Magnetic Field To Aerobic Granules. AIMS Bioengineering, 3 (4), 412–424. Hattori, S., Watanabe, M., Endo, T., Togii, H. and Sasaki, K. (2001). Effects of an External Magnetic Field

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on the Sedimentation of Activated Sludge. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 17,279– 285. Ji, Y., Wang, Y., Sun, J., Yan, T., Li, J., Zhao, T., Sun, C. (2010). Enhancement of Biological Treatment of Wastewater by Magnetic Field. Bioresource Technology, 101 (22), 8535–8540. Johan, S. (2003). Effect of Magnetic Field on the Sedimentation of Suspended Solids of Sewage. Thesis of Philosophy of Doctorate, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai. Kamariah, M.S. (2006). Subsurface Flow and Free Water Surface Flow Constructed Wetland with Magnetic Field for Leachate Treatment. Thesis of Master of Engineering (Civil-Wastewater), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Lebkowska, M., Narozniak-Rutkowska, A., and Pajor, E. (2013). Effect of a Static Magnetic Field of 7mt on Formaldehyde Biodegradation in Industrial Wastewater from Urea-Formaldehyde Resin Production by Activated Sludge. Bioresource Technology, 132, 78–83. Łebkowska, M., Rutkowska-Narozniak, A., Pajor, E. and Pochanke, Z. (2011). Effect of a Static Magnetic Field on Formaldehyde Biodegradation in Wastewater by Activated Sludge. Bioresource Technology, 102 (19), 8777–8782. Liu, Z., Liang, Z., Wu, S. and Liu, F. (2013). Treatment of Municipal Wastewater by a Magnetic Activated Sludge Device. Desalination and Water Treatment, 53 (4), 1–10. Ntamitrou, M. D.; Papakonstantinou, A., Sklari, S. and Samaras, P. (2012). Evaluation of the Operation Performance of a Municipal Activated Sludge Unit, Desalination and Water Treatment, 39, 271–277. Wahid, Z. A., Othman, F. and Sohaili, J. (2001). Electromagnetic Technology on Sewage Treatment. Malaysian JournalOf Civil Engineering, 13,11–21. Wang, X. H., Diao, M. H., Yang, Y., Shi, Y. J., Gao, M. M. and Wang, S. G. (2012). Enhanced Aerobic Nitrifying Granulation by Static Magnetic Field. Bioresource Technology, 110, 105–110. Xie, Q., Liu, X., Wu, C., Wang, Y. and Zhu, G. (2010). Design and Simulation of Flow Field for Magnetic Flocculation Reactor. J Jiangsu Uni. (Nat. Sci. Edi.), 31 (4), 473-477. Zaidi, N. S., Sohaili, J., Muda, K. and Sillanpää, M. (2014). Magnetic Field Application and its Potential in Water and Wastewater Treatment Systems. Separation & Purification Reviews, 43 (3), 206–240. Zieliński, M., Cydzik-Kwiatkowska, A., Zielienska, M., Debowski, M., Rusanowska, P. and Kopanska, J. (2017). Nitrification in Activated Sludge Exposed to Static Magnetic Field. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 228 (4), 126-133.

231 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

REMOVAL OF SOME HEAVY METALS USING FIBROUS RADIATION GRAFTED ADSORBENT CONTAINING SULFONATE MOIETY

Myzairah Hamdzah1, Zaini Ujang2, Mohamed Mahmoud Nasef3, Teo Ming Ting4

1Research Institute of Sustainable Institute (RISE), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, MALAYSIA [email protected] 2 Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, MALAYSIA 3 Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Bandar Seri Iskandar, 32610 Perak, MALAYSIA 4Radiation Technology Division, Malaysian Nuclear Agency, 43000, Kajang, Selangor, MALAYSIA

ABSTRACT The removal of some heavy metal ions such as Ni(II), Zn(II) and Pb(II) was investigated using sulfonated adsorbent obtained by radiation induced grafting of glycidyl methacylate (GMA) onto polyethylene (PE) nonwoven sheets followed by functionalization with sodium sulfite. The efficiency of the adsorbent was evaluated by the percentage of heavy metal ions removal under different ranges of concentrations. The effects of various parameters on the metal ion adsorption on the sulfonated adsorbent such as metal ion concentration, pH and contact time were studied. Adsorption isotherms, kinetics and thermodynamics were studied to elucidate the adsorption of behavior of the metal ions. It was found that the percentage adsorption increased with the increase in metal ion concentrations and contact time. Particularly, experimental results showed that the removal efficiencies of both Ni(II) and Zn(II) were above 90% while that for Pb(II) was found to be variable during the entire experimental work.

Key words: Heavy metal ions; response surface methodology; functionalized graft-PE adsorbent sheets.

INTRODUCTION Anthropogenic activities including metal plating, mining, fertilizer, tanneries, batteries and paper making industries have elevated the heavy metals concentration in natural environment posing serious pollution in soil and surface water (UNEP, 2004; Kalantari et al., 2006; Cavaco et.al, 2007). Heavy metals are elements having atomic weights between 63.5 and 200.6 and can be easily detected using analytical and biochemical method (Fu and Wang, 2011). They are not biodegradable and have tendency to accumulate in living organisms causing damage to the kidney function, liver, lung and also brain functions of human and animals (Petrus and Warchol, 2003; Rana et al., 2009; Fu and Wang, 2011). For these reasons, various methods devoted to effectively remove heavy metal ions from solution including precipitation, ion-exchange, reverse osmosis, membrane processes, chemical and electrochemical techniques, biological treatments, advanced oxidation process and adsorption process have been widely studied (Fu and Wang, 2011). Among all, adsorption is highly popular technique in treating various water streams owing to its simplicity and convenience as well as high treatment efficiency (Vinodh et al., 2011; Ge et al., 2012).

The use of radiation grafted adsorbents having fibrous structures for removal of heavy metal ions has been investigated in a number of occasions (El-Sawya et al., 2007;

232 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Chowdhury et al., 2012) and recently, reviewed in literature (Nasef and Guven, 2012). However, the radiation grafted adsorbents were dedicated to specific metals or dyes for which, the adsorbents showed high affinity. For instance, adsorptions of arsenic and metal ions (Cr(II), Mn(II), Fe(II), Ni(II), Cu(II), Co(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II)) were investigated using grafted adsorbent. Adsorption of Ni(II), Co(II), Cu(II), Pb(II) and Ag(I) from aqueous solutions was also tested by sulfonated grafted PE membrane (Nasef et al., 2010). The most significant effect on the metal ion adsorption on the membrane is the initial concentration and pH of the medium. The maximum percentage of adsorption obtained 99, 97.2, 93, 89.8 and 79.7% at initial concentrations on 1.0 mg/L and pH 6.6 for Ni(II), Co(II), Cu(II), Pb(II) and Ag(I), respectively (Nasef et al., 2010). Therefore, it is highly important to choose the appropriate functional groups, which allows imparting higher selectivity and more adsorption properties to the adsorbent materials.

In the present work, fibrous adsorbent containing sulfonic acid group prepared by radiation induced grafting of glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) on polyethylene (PE) non-woven sheet followed chemical treatment with sodium sulfite was tested for removal of Ni(II), Zn(II) and Pb(II). The functionalized fibrous adsorbent sheet was characterized with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The adsorption isotherms, kinetics and thermodynamics were also evaluated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS PE nonwoven sheet was obtained from Kurashiki Co., Japan. Glycidyl methacrylate (purity ≥97%) was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Tween-20 surfactant (Sigma Aldrich) was used as received. Zn(NO3)2.6H2O (Mw = 297.47g/mol) from ChemPur, lead (II) nitrate (Mw = 331.20 g/mol) from HmbG, and nickel (II) nitrate (Ni(NO3)2.6H2O) (Mw = 290.81g/mol) from QRec were used to prepare metals stock solution using double distilled water. All chemicals and reagents used were of analytical grade. Sodium sulfite (Na2SO3) and solution of isopropyl alcohol (IPA) used for functionalization process were supplied -1 -1 by Merck. Solutions of 0.1 mol NaOH and 0.1 mol HNO3 used for pH adjustment were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich. All solvents were reagent grade and used as received without any purification.

The preparation of the grafted fibrous adsorbent was carried out using pre-irradiation that involves three steps: irradiation, graft copolymerization and functionalization. The PE/PP sheet of known weight was irradiated in an air-free PE bag to a total dose of 20 kGy with an electron beam of 2 MeV and 5 mA at 28 oC. The irradiated sheet was placed in a reactor containing monomer emulsion composed of 5 wt% GMA having 0.5 wt% Tw-20 in an aqueous solution. The grafting mixture was flushed with N2 gas for 30 minutes and the reaction was performed at 40 oC using a water bath. After grafting reaction, the grafted sheet was removed and rinsed with distilled water followed by methanol. This was done to remove residual monomer and homopolymer.

Samples of poly(GMA) grafted sheet (5 cm × 3 cm) were sulfonated in a mixture composed of 10 parts of sodium sulfite (Na2SO3) and 15 parts of isopropyl alcohol (IPA) in 75 parts of water (10:15:75) for 5 h at 80 oC using the procedure reported by Choi et al., (2006). After the reaction, the sulfonated sheets were washed with water few times. The adsorbent sheets were dried and then immersed into sulfuric acid solution (1M) for 100 min at 50 oC. The final sulfonated samples were dried under vacuum at 60 oC overnight and weighed and stored dry prior to any use.

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The chemical structure of prepared adsorbent was evaluated using Fourier transform- infrared measurements. This was carried out using an ENV-RES-10 Pelkin-Elmer Spectrum 400 FTIR FT-NIR spectrometer with attenuated total reflectance (ATR) mode. The morphology of the samples was investigated using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (FEI Quanta 4000). The samples were sputter-coated with gold layer before imaging. All images were captured at applied voltage of 20.0 kV and working distance of 10 mm.

The amount of metal ion adsorbed per unit mass of the adsorbent and the percentage of adsorbed metal ions were obtained using equations 3 and 4, respectively.

(3) where, q is the amount of adsorbed metal ion at equilibrium (metal adsorption capacity) in mg/g, V is the volume of the adsorption medium in litre, Co is the initial concentration in mg/L, Ce is the equilibrium metal ion concentration in mg/L and w is the dry weight of the adsorbent sheet in grams.

(4) where, Co is initial metal ion concentrations in the adsorption medium and Cf is final metal ion concentration.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Radiation induced grafting of GMA onto PE nonwoven sheet produced poly(GMA) grafted microfibrous sheet having a DG of 180%. The poly(GMA) grafted microfibrous sheet was functionalized with sulfonic acid group leading to selective adsorbent with anion exchange capacity of 2.52 mmol/g. The properties of the prepared fibrous adsorbent are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Properties of PE-based microfibrous heavy metal selective adsorbent Properties Prepared fibrous chelating adsorbent Substrate PE nonwoven sheet Ionic moeity –SO3H Chemical structure

Density of –SO3H 2.52 mmol/g-adsorbent Water content 34-44% Average fiber Diameter ca. 31 ± 3 μm

FTIR spectra of PE before and after grafting with GMA and subsequent sulfonation are shown in Figure 2. The pristine PE non-woven sheet showed characteristic bands -1 representing stretching vibration of –CH of CH2 absorption at 2850-3000 cm . Grafting of GMA was marked by strong absorption bands at 905 and 840 cm-1, which were characteristic for epoxy group. The band at 1730 cm-1 was assigned for C=O group. The -1 bands in the range of 2800-3000 cm were represented by CH and CH2 stretching vibration

234 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 of the acrylate group. Sulfonation of the grafted PE was marked by the absorption bands at −1 1220 and 1010 cm which were assigned to -SO3H groups. The bands detected at 1157 and 1063 cm−1 were due to S-O and S=O stretching vibrations, respectively. The broad band at 3200-3750 cm−1 was due to the OH groups of water molecules bound to sulfonate group by hydrogen bonds. These results provide clear evidence of the incorporation of poly(GMA) into nonwoven PE sheet, which has undergone epoxy ring opening as indicated by the disappearance of epoxy group absorption at 905 and 840 cm-1 and introduction of sulfonate group.

Figure 2. FTIR spectra of (A) pristine PE (B) poly(GMA) grafted PE and (C) poly(GMA) grafted and sulfonated PE non-woven sheets

Figure 3. SEM images of (A) pristine PE (B) poly(GMA) grafted PE and (C) poly(GMA) grafted and sulfonated PE non-woven samples

Figure 3 shows the SEM images of PE before and after grafting with GMA and subsequent sulfonation. As can be seen, the fibers diameters were increased by incorporation of poly(GMA) and further thickened by introducing sulfonate group. Particularly, the average fibre’s diameter increased from 12~15 µm in the pristine nonwoven PE sheet to 21~25 µm after grafting of GMA and then to 28~34 µm after subsequent sulfonation. These observations further confirm successful incorporation of poly(GMA) and epoxy ring opening with sulfonic acid.

The amount of ions adsorbed is determined as a function of the concentration at a constant temperature that could be explained in adsorption isotherms. There are few equations that have been used to describe the experimental isotherm data such as Langmuir and Freundlich.

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The Langmuir isotherm model usually used to describe sorption of a solute from a liquid solution, which is represented by the equation:

(5) where Ce is the equilibrium concentration (mg/L), qmax and b are Langmuir constants related to adsorption capacity and energy of adsorption, respectively. The Langmuir plots are shown in Figure 4. The linear form of Freundlich equation was used to evaluate the adsorption data is represented as:

(6) where, Ce is the equilibrium concentration (mg/L) and qe is the amount adsorbed metal ions at equilibrium (mg/g), KF and n are constants incorporating all factors affecting the adsorption capacity and intensity (Rengaraj et al., 2007).

Table 3. Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherms constants and relevant correlation coefficients Metal Langmuir equation Freundlich equation 2 2 ions qmax (mg/g) b (L/mg) R Kf 1/n R Zn (II) 34.13 0.03 0.99 27.8 1.03 1.000 Ni (II) 32.86 0.03 0.99 29.2 1.02 1.000 Pb (II) 56.67 0.02 0.99 10.6 1.27 0.998

The Freundlich plots are shown in Figure 4b. All constant parameters such as qmax, b, KF and n were calculated from the intercepts and slopes of Langmuir and Freundlich plots, and their values with the correlation coefficients (R2) are given in Table 3. The values of n lie between 1 and 10 indicating favorable adsorption (Kadirvelu and Namasivayam, 2000). It also indicates that the higher feed concentration could increase the amount of metal adsorbed. Therefore, the obtained data shows the value of n, in which is related to the distribution of bonded ions on the adsorbent surfaces, together with higher value of KF for the adsorption of all metal ions on the sulfonated grafted poly(GMA) PE nonwoven sheet indicating favorable adsorption.

Figure 4. (a) Langmuir adsorption isotherms (b) Freundlich adsorption isotherms of Zn(II), Ni(II) and Pb(II) ions on sulfonated grafted poly(GMA) PE nonwoven sheet

The kinetics of adsorption describes the rates of three types of metal ions uptake on the sulfonated grafted poly(GMA) PE nonwoven sheet and this rate control the equilibrium time. The kinetic parameter, which is helpful for the prediction of adsorption rate, gives important information for designing and modeling of the processes (Rengaraj et al., 2007).

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Thus, the effects of initial concentration, contact time and pH were analyzed from the kinetic point of view. Preliminary studies on the adsorption rate show that the amount adsorbed increased with increased feed concentrations. The kinetics of the adsorption data was analyzed using different kinetic models such as pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second- order models.

Table 4. Data of pseudo-first and second order kinetic model for adsorption of metal ions on sulfonic grafted-PE adsorbent Pseudo-First Order Kinetic Model Pseudo-Second Order Kinetic Model Metal qe (mg/g) qe (mg/g) 2 qe (mg/g) qe (mg/g) 2 ions k1 R k2 R Experimental Calculated Experimental Calculated Zn (II) -0.0007 34.9 5.35 0.2694 0.0387 34.9 33.9 0.9999 Ni (II) -0.0003 25.0 3.16 0.571 0.0971 25.0 25.06 0.9987 Pb (II) -0.0016 38.0 8.88 0.747 0.0476 38.0 38.3 0.9999

From Table 4, it can be observed that the calculated qe values for pseudo-second order model agree well with the experimental values and a regression coefficient shows that the model can be applied for the entire adsorption process. The k2 values were found to be in the range 0.039-0.097 and R2 values were found to be close to 1. The values of calculated qe for pseudo-first order model were not fitted with the experimental data and the range of regression coefficient between 0.2 and 0.7, was also insignificant. Furthermore, from Figure 5a, it was observed that the pseudo-first order model represents the rapid adsorption at initial stages cannot be applied to the entire adsorption process. This means that the kinetics data were best fitted by the pseudo-second-order model and the result indicates that this adsorbent is excellent in the removal of metal ions from aqueous solution at variable concentrations.

Figures 5a and 5b show pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order kinetics of the adsorption of Ni(II), Zn(II) and Pb(II) on sulfonic grafted-PE adsorbent, respectively. The slope and intercepts of linear plots of log (q-qe) vs t (Figure 6) and t/qt versus t (Figure 7) 2 were respectively used to obtain the values of k1, k2, qe and correlation coefficients (R ). The obtained kinetics data are presented in Tables 4 and 5.

Figure 5. (a) Pseudo-first order kinetic (b) Pseudo-second order kinetic fitting for the adsorption of metal ions on sulfonated grafted poly(GMA) PE nonwoven sheet

Figure 6a shows the variation of the adsorption capacity of metal ions with the initial metal concentrations in the range of 1.0 to 5.0 mg/L. The maximum adsorption rates of these three metal ions are 89.5, 93.7, and 95.5% for Pb(II), Zn(II) and Ni(II), respectively. Generally, the adsorption capacity increases with the increase in metal ion concentrations in the adsorption medium. Increasing feed concentrations lead to an increase in the sorption density and the amount adsorbed metal ion per unit mass. The higher the metal

237 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 concentrations in solution, the higher the solute concentration gradient; and this provides necessary driving force for metal ions to replace cations on the surface of the internal micropores sulfonated grafted PE adsorbent sheets within the given contact time (Du, 2005).

The effect of pH on the adsorption capacity of heavy metal ions on sulfonated grafted PE film was evaluated by adjusting initial pH of the solution in the range of 4.5 to 8.5. The obtained data was plotted in Figure 6b. From this figure, the metal adsorption for Zn(II) and Ni(II) capacity seems average and shows a little accretion in percentage. The percentage of adsorption are higher (over 80%) at pH 4.5 to 6.5 for all metal ions. However, it was observed that Pb(II) was poorly adsorbed at pH > 7.The low adsorption capacity of Pb(II) can be associated to competitiveness of adsorption capacity of the + hydronium (H3O ) ions and metal ions for the same active adsorption sites. In addition, when the pH increases, the adsorption zones tend to attain less positivity charges leading to an increase in electrostatic attraction between the metal ions and sulfonic acid groups. This behavior may be attributed to the electrostatic effects. The adsorption capacity would increase with the decreasing of the radius of hydrated metal ions (Pehlivan and Altun, 2006).

Figure 6. (a) The effect of feed concentration (b) The effect of pH on the adsorption capacity of heavy metal ions on sulfonated grafted poly(GMA) PE nonwoven sheet

CONCLUSION In this study, a novel adsorbent sulfonated grafted poly(GMA) PE non-woven sheet was prepared and characterized. The effects of parameters such as feed concentration, contact time and pH of the medium, isotherm studies and kinetic data were studied. At equilibrium, the metal ion adsorption capacity produced by sulfonated grafted poly(GMA) PE non-woven sheet were found to be 38.0, 35.0, and 25.0 mg/g of adsorbent for Pb(II), Ni(II) and Zn(II), respectively. The metal ion adsorption on this adsorbent film was found to be highly dependent on the feed concentration, pH and contact time. The maximum adsorption rates on sulfonated grafted poly(GMA) PE non-woven sheet were are 90, 94, and 96% at concentrations of 0.5mg/L for Pb(II), Zn(II) and Ni(II), respectively. The higher adsorption rate (>80%) was obtained for all metal ions at pH between 4.5 and 6.5. Pb(II) was poorly adsorbed at pH > 7, in which may be due to the electrostatic effects. From the observation, the adsorption rate were are rapidly increased at initial stage and maximum amount of metal ions were adsorbed within the first 2, 4, and 12 minutes for Ni(II), Zn(II) and Pb(II) respectively. A pseudo-second-order kinetic model was used to describe the kinetic data. The adsorption equilibrium data of all metal ions was found to fit Freundlich isotherm model.

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REFERENCES

United Nations Environment Programme East Asian Regional Coordinating Unit (UNEP/SCS) (2004) National Report of Malaysia On the Formulation of a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis And Preliminary Framework of a Strategic Action Programme for the Bay of Bengal. M.R Kalantari, M.Shokrzadeh, A.G Ebadi, C. Mohammadizadeh, M.I Choudhary. and Atta-ur-Rahman. Soil Pollution by Heavy Metals and Remediation (Mazandaran-Iran). Journal of Applied Sciences, 6 (2006) 2110-2116. S.A Cavaco, S. Fernandes, M.M Quina, Ferreira L.M. Removal of chromium from electroplating industry effluents by ion exchange resins. Journal of Hazardous Materials,144(3) (2007) 634-638. F. Fu, Q. Wang. Removal of heavy metals ions from wastewaters: A review. Journal of Environmental Management 92 (2011) 407-418. R. Petrus and J.Warchol Ion exchange equilibria between clinoptilolite and aqueous solutions of Na+/Cu2+, Na+/Cd2+ and Na+/Pb2+Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, 61(1-3) (2003)137-146. M.S Rana, M.A Halim, S.bSafiullah, M. Mamun Mollah, M.S. Azam, M.A Goni, M. Kamal Hossain and M.M. Rana. Removal of Heavy Metal from Contaminated Water by Biopolymer Crab Shell Chitosan. Journal of Applied Sciences, 9 (2009) 2762-2769. R Vinodh, R. Padmavathi. D. Sangeetha. Separation of heavy metals from water samples using anion exchange polymers by adsorption process. Desalination, 267 (2–3) (2011) 267-276. F. Ge, M.M. Li, H. Ye and B.X. Zhao Effective removal of heavy metal ions Cd2+. Zn2+, Pb2+, Cu2+ from aqueous solution by polyme-modified magnetic nanoparticles. J. Hazard. Mater., 211 (2012) 366-372. M.M Nasef, and O. Guven. Radiation-grafted copolymers for separation and purification purposes: Status, challenges and future directions. Progress in Polymer Science37 (2012) 1597– 1656 M. M. Nasef, T.M. Ting, Ali Abbasi, Alizera Layeghi-moghaddam, S.S. Alinezhad, K. Hashim. Radiation grafted adsorbents for newly emerging environmental applications. Radiation Physics and Chemistry 118 (2015) 55-60. N M El-Sawya, E.S.A Hegazy, A. El-Hag Ali, M.S.A. Motlab, A. Awadallah-F. Physicochemical study of radiation-grafted LDPE copolymer and its use in metal ions adsorption.Nucl.Instrum. Methods: Phys. Res. B 264 (2007) 227-234. M.N.K. Chowdhury, M.W. Khan, M.F Mina, M.D.H Beg, R. Maksudur Khan, A.K.M.M. Alam. Synthesis and characterization of radiationgrafted films for removal of arsenic and some heavy metals from contaminated water.Radiation Physics and Chemistry. 81(2012) 1606-1611. M. M. Nasef, H. Saidi, Z. Ujang, K. Zaman Removal of metal ions from aqueous solutions using crosslinked polyethylene-graft-polystyrene Sulfonic Acid Adsorbent Prepared by radiation grafting. J. Chil. Chem. Soc. 55(4) (2010) 421-427. J. Choi, I.T. Kim, S.C. Kim. Nafion-Sulfonated Poly(arylene ether sulfone) Composite Membrane for Direct Methanol Fuel Cell. Macromolecular Research 13(6) (2005) 514-520. K. Kadirvelu and C. Namasivayan Utilization of Various Agricultural Wastes for Activated Carbon Preparation and Application for the Removal of Dyes and Metal Ions from Aqueous Solutions, Environmental Technology. 21(10) (2000)1091-1097. S. Rengaraj. J.W. Yeon, Y. Kim, Y. Jung, Y.K. Ha, W.H. Kim. Adsorption characteristics of Cu(II) onyo ion exchange resins 252H and 1500H: Kinetics, isotherms and error analysis. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 143 (2007) 469-477. Du Toit, E.L. (2003). The rate inhibiting effect of water as a product on reactions catalysed by cation exchange resins: Formation of mesityl oxide from acetone as a case study. Master Thesis E. Pehlivan and T. Altun. The study of various parameters affecting the ion exchange of Cu2+, Zn2+, Ni2+, Cd2+, and Pb2+ from aqueous solution on Dowex50W synthetic resin. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 134(1-3) (2006)149-156. M. Ozdemir, T. Bolgaz, C. Saka, O. Sahin.Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from cotton stalks in a two-stage process.J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 92(2011)171-175. J.S. Watson (1999). Separation methods for waste and environmental applications. New York: Marcel Dekker, INC.

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RESOURCE SECURITY

Parallel Session 10

240 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

ASSESSMENT OF HETEROGENEOUS MIXING OF METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS ON PM10 CONCENTRATION IN EQUATORIAL REGION

1 2,3 3 Hamza Ahmad Isiyaka , Wesam A. Al Madhoun* ,Faizah Che Ros

1Department of Geography, Faculty of Earth and Environment Sciences, Kano University of Science and Technology, Wudil, NIGERIA [email protected], *[email protected] 2Civil Engineering Deparetment, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, 32610 Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan, MALAYSIA 3 Department of Environmental Engineering & Green Technology,Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Kuala Lumpur, 54100 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA

ABSTRACT This study applies multivariate techniques to understand the concentration, seasonal variation and sources of PM10 in Perak, Malaysia under a tropical climate. The dry southwest monsoon season (June to September) from 2010 to 2011 shows a high level of homogeneity in the dendrogram indicating a peak level of PM10 concentration. This is caused by high temperature, clear skies, less humidity and weak wind. The northeast monsoon season account for a relatively less pollutant concentration with a high dissimilarity due to heavy downpour, high humidity and strong wind. A discriminant function with correct assignation of 66% using standard, forward stepwise and backward stepwise mode shows that all the observed parameters play significant role in determining the concentration of PM10. The major sources of PM10 in Perak were linked to vehicle emission, suspension of soil dust, transboundary and industrial emission. Furthermore, a scatter gram plot was also developed based on the two monsoon season. The results show that the southwest monsoon season (June, July and August) have the highest concentration of PM10. This finding shows that PM10 concentration exhibits a complex relationship when in contact with meteorology, and multivariate technique has the capability to reveal the hidden characteristics that exist between the variables.

INTRODUCTION Concentration of particulate matter (PM) in the urban atmosphere has been a serious environmental concern (Kuzu et. al., 2013) because of its complex matrix found in solid and liquid components with different physical and chemical characteristics (Yubero et al., 2011). PM10 is associated with harmful trace elements that trigger respiratory, cardiovascular diseases and increase mortality rate by 1% for every increase in 10µg/m3 (Yubero et al., 2011). More so, PM10 may impact on the global climate system by absorbing and scattering radiant energy and modify cloud properties (Wahid et al., 2013). PM10 gets easily washed out into soil when in contact with precipitated water thereby polluting the environment (Wang et al., 2010). However, frequent urbanization, industrial emission, vehicle emission and re-suspension of soil dust have triggered the number of PM10 mix in the atmosphere and increased toxicity (Shakir et al., 2016) that needs to be revisited to provide a sustained and healthy environment (Colb and Worsnop, 2012).

When PM10 interface with meteorological parameters like temperature, rainfall, humidity

241 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 and wind, they exhibit difficult and dynamic composition making it very critical to manage and understand. They get easily dispersed from point source to nonpoint sources and constantly reacting and changing inform. Other meteorological conditions may restrict and trap easy movement of pollutants thereby increasing the level and size of concentration in local and synoptic scale. In recent time, there has been a serious environmental quality complain by some residents of Perak (Ismail et al., 2012). As at 2002, DOE received 2,204 cases of environmental degradation with air pollution accounting for 74%. In 2012, complain on poor environmental issues reached 4,467 cases, 73.7% of which are air pollution related (Ismail et al., 2017; DOE, 2012). Within the northern region of Peninsular Malaysia, a total of 5,504,864 vehicles were registered. The aim of this study is to investigate the concentration, seasonal variation and source of PM10 in Perak Malaysia

MATERIALS AND METHODS Sampling Site The sampling points cover a spatial sampling strategy comprising of five monitoring stations spread across Perak. The sampling processes were done by Alam Sekitar Malaysia Berhad (ASMA) and data covering 2010 and 2011 were provided for PM10, ambient temperature, humidity and wind speed by the department of Malaysia. The data matrix was carefully selected to include meteorological parameters in order to observe their impact on PM10 in the environment.

Table 1. Coordinates of Sampling Location STATION STATION NAME LATITUDDE LONGITUDE NUMBER S 1 Ipoh N04o37.781 E101o06.964 S 2 Taiping N04o53.940 E100o40.782 S 3 Seri Manjung N04o12.038 E100o39.841 S 4 Tantung Malim N03o41.267 E101o31.466 S 5 SM Pegoh N04o33.155 E101o04.856

Figure 1. Map of the Study Area

The missing values were estimated using the nearest neighbour method. However, the sampling area (Perak) is located in the north western part of Peninsular Malaysia within latitude 4°35'50.92"N and longitude 101°5'24.38"E. Perak is the second largest state in Malaysia in term of landmass covering an area of 21,006 km2 with a population of 2,416,700 (Ismail et al., 2017). Perak has a tropical monsoon climate receiving rainfall

242 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 throughout the year with a uniform temperature and high humidity. The wet season is the northeast monsoon season (November to March) and a relatively dry season from June to September (southwest monsoon season) (MMD, 2010). Table 1 and figure 1 describe sampling location, coordinates and study area

Hierarchical Agglomerative Cluster Analysis The meteorological mixing of ambient temperature, humidity and wind speed on PM10 concentration in each station were observed using hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis. The PM10 data were temporally compared to understand their level of similarities and dissimilarities from 2010 to 2011.

Discriminant Analysis (DA) DA based on stations was carried out in order to identify the most discriminating parameter and the sources of PM10 in Perak. Stations were regressed as dependent variables while the observed parameters were considered as the independent variable. DA selects a direction that achieves maximum separation among the classes (Farmaki et al., 2012), done using the standard, forward and backward stepwise model and verified spatial variations through some critical variables or parameters (Farmaki et al., 2012).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Monthly Classification of PM10 Based on Similarities Figure 2 describe the seasonal classification of PM10 based on dendrogram. The difference observed in the grouping represents a close relationship with abrupt change in the monsoonal season in Malaysia (southwest northeast and intermediate monsoon season). This is because PM10 concentration is mostly affected by meteorological characteristics of an area.

Figure 2. Monthly classification of PM10 similarities

During the southwest monsoon season, warmer air near the surface area rises to high latitude causing PM10 to unstable leading to more concentration (Barmpadimos et al. 2008). During this season, rainfall is relatively low followed by high temperature, low humidity and less wind speed. These provide a clearer sky that encourages high concentration of particulate matter with minimal dispersion. The northeast monsoon season (November to March) experiences heavy rainfall, high humidity and strong wind. Intense rainfall helps to sink the PM10 to the ground hence, reduces the level of pollutant in

243 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 the area (MMD, 2010). The scatter gram shows the month with the highest concentration of PM10 and the variation between northeast and southwest monsoon season.

Figure 3. Scatter gram for seasonal variation

Spatial classification and source identification of PM10 DA result gave a correct assignation of 66% as described in table 2. The concentration of PM10 in station 1 and 2 can be traced to the large population density that encourages traffic congestion especially at morning and towards the evening leading to high emission. As at 2012, northern Peninsular Malaysia recorded 5,540.864 vehicles (RTD, 2012). According to Kumar et al. (2011) the largest contributor to PM10 emission in most urban centres is vehicle emission. PM10 concentration can also be encouraged by suspension of soil dust, construction sites change in the wind pattern and dispersion capacity (Dominick et al 2013).

Table 2. Discriminant Analysis for Source Identification Sampling Sites Stations

Station Station Station Station Station % 1 2 3 4 5 correct Forward Stepwise

Station 1 627 83 12 6 2 85.89% Station 2 82 788 88 90 3 74.98% Station 3 67 81 481 101 1 65.80% Station 4 18 80 125 507 1 69.36% Station 5 28 137 132 98 26 6.18% Total 822 1169 838 802 33 66.29%

CONCLUSION This study was carried out to investigate the seasonal variation, concentration and sources of PM10 in Perak Malaysia. The result indicates that the seasonal variation of PM10 in Perak, Malaysia is controlled by a change in meteorological condition and anthropogenic activities.

244 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

REFERENCES

Barmpadimos, I., Hueglin, C., Keller, J., Henne, S., & Prevot, A. S., 2011, Influence of meteorology on PM10 trends and variability in Switzerland from 1991 to 2008, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physic, 11, 1813- 1835. Farmaki, E. G., Thomaidis, N. S., Simeonov, V., & Efstathiou, C. E. (2012). A comparative chemometric study for water quality expertise of the Athenian water reservoirs. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 184(12), 7635-7652. Kumar, K., & Thakur, G. S. M. (2012). Advanced applications of neural networks and artificial intelligence: A review. International Journal of Information Technology and Computer Science (IJITCS), 4(6), 57. Kuzu, S.L., Saral, A., Demir, S., Summak, G. Demir, G. (2013) A detailed investigation of ambient aerosol composition and size distribution in an urban atmosphere Environ Sci Pollut Res 20:2556–2568. Wahid, N. B. A., Latif, M. T., & Suratman, S. (2013). Composition and source apportionment of surfactants in atmospheric aerosols of urban and semi-urban areas in Malaysia. Chemosphere, 91(11), 1508-1516. Wang, C. K., Li, Y. X., Liu, J. L., Xiang, L., Shi, J. H., & Yang, Z. F. (2010). Characteristics of PAHs adsorbed on street dust and the correlation with specific surface area and TOC. Environmental Science & Technology, 169, 661– 670. Yubero, E., Adoración, C., Javier, C., Nicolás, J., Santacatalina, M., Nava, S., Lucarelli, F Chiari, M. (2011) PM10 source apportionment in the surroundings of the San Vicente del Raspeig cement plant complex in southeastern Spain Environ Sci Pollut Res (2011) 18:64–74. Colb CE, Worsnop DR (2012) Chemistry and composition of atmospheric aerosol particles. Annu Rev Phys Chem 63:471–491. Malaysia Meteorological Department (MMD) (2010). General Climate of Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation. Department of Environment Malaysia (DOE) (2012). Malaysia Environmental Quality Report, Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, Kuala Lumpur. Ismail, A.S., Abdullah. A. M., Samah M.A. (2017). Environmetric study on air quality pattern for assessment in northern region of peninsular Malaysia. Journal of environmental science and technology vol 10 (4) 186-196. Shakir, S. K,, Azizullah, A.W.M., Muhammad K. D., Farhat N., Hazir R., Shafiqur R., Donat-Peter H. (2016) Toxic Metal Pollution in Pakistan and Its Possible Risks to Public Health Volume 242 of the series Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology pp 1-60. Road Transport Department of Malaysia (RTD) 2012 Annual report, Kualar Lumpur.

245 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

POTENTIAL USE OF PLANT-BASED NATURAL COAGULANTS FOR WATER TREATMENT

Nur Shahidah Aftar Ali1, Khalida Muda*2, Ummu Nusaibah Abdullah3, Ahmad Bazli Sahir4

1, 2,3,4 Department of Water and Environmental, School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bharu, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected] , *[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT This study was aimed to investigate the ability of six plant-based natural coagulants (Carica Papaya seeds, Nephelium Mutabile seeds, Euphoria Malaiense seeds, Pandanus leaves, Centella Asiatica leaves and Cymbopogon Citratus leaves) to replace chemical coagulants for water treatment. A series of Jar test were performed using raw water from Sultan Ismail water treatment plant. The effects of pH and coagulant dosage were evaluated based on the turbidity removal and coagulation activity. Of all plants that have been examined, the Carica Papaya seeds appeared to be the best coagulants for water treatment. An optimum dose of 130 mg/L of this coagulant resulted in 95.5% of turbidity removal and 94% of coagulation activity, at optimum pH= 7.5. Overall, the results suggest the potential of plant-based natural coagulants in water treatment.

Key words: Natural Coagulants, Turbidity, Coagulation Activity, Carica Papaya seeds, Water treatment

INTRODUCTION The availability of clean water is one of the biggest global problems, especially in developing countries. The common way to treat turbid water is by using coagulation. Coagulation is a chemical process for water treatment which typically applied prior to sedimentation and filtration process. Chemical-based coagulant such as alum (aluminium sulphate) and ferric chloride are widely applied in treating water. Despite its efficiency, these chemical coagulants suffer from several drawbacks such as generation of voluminous sludge, non-biodegradable, harmful to human health and toxic for aquatic life ((Patel and Vashi, 2013; Shak and Wu, 2014).

Natural coagulants are attracting a lot attention due to their advantages over chemical coagulants. They are highly biodegradable (Camacho et al., 2017), not harmful to the environment (Choy et al., 2014) and generate less voluminous sludge (Talnikar, 2017). In years, many studies have proven that green polymeric coagulants, such as Moreinga Oleifera seeds (Camacho et al., 2017), Rice starch (Choy et al., 2016), Quercus Robur acorn (Antov et al., 2018), Banana pith (Kakoi et al., 2016), Cicer arietinum (Lek et al., 2018) and Sterculia Foetida seeds (Patidara et al., 2018) have excellent efficiency in removing high turbidity in water treatment.

In this study, selected natural coagulants extracted from seeds and leaves of plants: Carica Papaya seeds, Nephelium Mutabile seeds, Euphoria Malaiense seeds, Pandanus leaves, Centella Asiatica leaves and Cymbopogon Citratus leaves have been utilized for water treatment purposes. Recently, Carica Papaya seeds were able to remove 100% of water

246 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 turbidity (Unnisa and Bi, 2018). However, Nephelium Mutabile seeds, Euphoria Malaiense seeds, Pandanus leaves, Centella Asiatica leaves and Cymbopogon Citratus leaves are relatively unexplored. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the coagulation potentials of these natural coagulants for water treatment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Fruit seeds and Plant leaves: Carica Papaya seeds, Nephelium Mutabile seeds, Euphoria Malaiense seeds, Pandanus leaves, Centella Asiatica leaves and Cymbopogon Citratus leaves were either collected from field or purchased from local market. The raw turbid water used in this study was collected from inlet point of Sultan Ismail Water Treatment Plant (WTP), located near to Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor

Preparation of natural coagulants The seeds of Carica Papaya, Nephelium Mutabile and Euphoria Malaiense were oven- dried at temperature of 103-105 ° C for 24 hours. The dried seeds then were grinded to fine powder using a laboratory mill. Meanwhile, fresh leaves of Pandanus, Centella Asiatica and Cymbopogon Citratus were first washed using tap water, chopped and oven dried at temperature of 103-105°C for 24 hours. The dried leaves were crushed into fine powder using mortar pestle. The powder obtained from both fruit seeds and plant leaves were sieved with a mesh size of 0.4mm. Sieved seeds and leaves were added into distilled water to make 0.01 g/L solution. The solution was vigorously mix for 10 min using mechanical stirrer to extract the coagulation active component, and then filtered. The filtered solution, called crude extracts, were kept in a refrigerator at 4°C. The crude extract then can be used as coagulant for water treatment without any further preparation.

Coagulation test Coagulation activity of each seeds and leaves were determined by the jar test. NaCI and NaOH were used to adjust the pH of the turbid water. The raw turbid water (500 mL) was filled into six beakers and 5 mL of natural coagulants were added to each beaker. The beaker then was rapidly mixed at 200 rpm for 1 min. The mixing speed was then reduced to 60 rpm and kept for another 30 min. Then the suspensions were left for sedimentation. After 1 h of sedimentation, residual turbidity was measured - ��. The same coagulation test was carried out with no coagulants added. The residual turbidity in the control was defined as - ��. Coagulation activity was calculated as:

Coagulation activity (%): [ ( �� - �� ) / �� ] x 100 (1)

Analytical methods The turbidity and pH of raw water, before and after jar test, were measured using the nephelometer and pH meter, respectively.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Effects of Dosage on Natural Coagulants Coagulation dosage is one of the important factor to consider in determining the coagulation efficiency. It is important to figure out the optimum coagulant dosage in order to obtain optimum performance in water treatment. Figure 1(a) and Figure 1(b) shows the turbidity removal and coagulation activity of each natural coagulant, under various

247 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 dosages. Based on Figure 1(a), the optimum coagulant dosage for all the natural coagulants was recorded at 130mg/L, as this dosage contributed to the highest turbidity removal. At optimum dosage, Carica Papaya seeds shows the highest turbidity removal of 95.5%. This followed by Cymbopogon Citratus leaves, Euphoria Malaiense seeds, Nephelium Mutabile seeds, Pandanus leaves and Centella Asiatica leaves with removal of 93.4%, 93%, 92%, 90.5% and 90.2%, respectively. It is clearly evident from Figure 1(a) that the coagulant dosage significantly affects the turbidity removal efficiencies. The removal performances for all the natural coagulant increases respectively with the increment of the dosage. The results of turbidity removal are aligned with coagulation activity of these natural coagulants as shown in Figure 1(b). Carica Papaya seeds resulted in higher coagulation activity of 95.4% while Centella Asiatica leaves had the lowest coagulation activity of 89%.

Figure 1. Effect of various coagulant dosage on (a) Turbidity Removal and (b) Coagulation Activity of different natural coagulants

Effects of pH on Natural Coagulants Besides coagulant dosage, another important factor for coagulation efficiency is pH. The study of pH is vital to determine the optimum pH condition in the treatment system. Figure 2(a) shows the effect of varying pH on turbidity removal by all natural coagulants while Figure 2(b) shows the pattern of coagulation activity occurred during the experimental work of various pH values. Based on the figures, the best pH value to remove turbidity was at pH 7.5. All natural coagulants show similar trends of removal where the percentage removal increases from pH 2 and rapidly decreased after pH 7.5. Based on Figure 2(a), at pH = 7.5, Carica Papaya seeds had the highest turbidity removal of 95.6%, followed by Nephelium Mutabile seeds, Cymbopogon Citratus leaves, Euphoria Malaiense seeds, Pandanus leaves and Centella Asiatica leaves with removal of 94.1%, 93%, 91.3%, 89.2% and 87%, respectively. Figure 4 demonstrated that increase in pH value had positive effect on coagulation activities of all natural coagulants. It is noticeable that most coagulation occurs at pH 7.5, compared to other pH value. The highest coagulation activity in Figure 2(b) also shown by Carica Papaya seeds with percentage of 96.7%. In contrast, Centella Asiatica leaves had the lowest coagulation activity of 86.1%. From all the pH that have been investigated, pH 7.5 was the optimum pH for all the natural coagulant as both results showed the highest turbidity removal and coagulation activity.

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(a) (b) Figure 2. Effect of various pH on (a) Turbidity Removal and (b) Coagulation Activity of different natural coagulants

Potential of Natural Coagulant in Water Treatment The potential use of natural coagulant in water treatment is determined by comparing the turbidity removal and coagulation activity of the best-selected natural coagulants with chemical coagulant (alum). In the present study, Carica Papaya seeds was found to be the best coagulant than others in term of turbidity removal and coagulant activity. Figure 3(a) and Figure 3(b) shows the comparison of turbidity removal and coagulation activity between natural coagulant (Carica Papaya seeds) and chemical coagulant (alum). Both coagulants were tested at optimum dosage of 130 mg/L, with optimum pH= 7.5. The results showed that natural coagulant act as better coagulant agent compared to alum.

Figure 3. Comparison of (a) Turbidity Removal and (b) Coagulation Activity between Carica Papaya seeds and Alum

Based on Figure 3(a), Carica Papaya seeds manages to remove almost 95.5% of turbidity, compared to alum which can only remove water turbidity up to 73%. Based on Figure 3(b), coagulation activity of alum was only 20.8%, lower than Carica Papaya seeds which exhibited high coagulation activity of 94%. Thus, based on the result obtained, it can be proved that Carica Papaya seeds (natural coagulant) has tremendous potential to treat polluted water way better than alum (chemical coagulant).

CONCLUSION The following are the conclusions that could be drawn from all the results obtained in this study. The optimum dosage obtained in this study was 130 mg/L with optimum pH =7.5. At this optimum condition, Carica Papaya seeds appeared to be the best coagulant with the highest turbidity removal and coagulation activity. This study also proved that natural coagulant able to treat polluted water more effectively compared to chemical coagulant. Carica Papaya seeds resulted in higher turbidity removal and coagulation activity of 95.6% and 94%, respectively compared to alum of only 73% and 20.8%, respectively.

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Overall, plant-based natural coagulants has high potential and could be commercialized as a coagulant to replace chemical coagulants in water treatment.

Acknowledgment: The authors would like to thank the School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Skudai for the support given.

REFERENCES

Antov, M. G., Šćiban, M. B., Prodanović, J. M., Kukić, D. V., Vasić, V. M., Đorđević, T. R., & Milošević, M. M. (2018). Common oak (Quercus robur) acorn as a source of natural coagulants for water turbidity removal. Industrial Crops and Products, 117, 340-346. Camacho, F. P., Sousa, V. S., Bergamasco, R., & Teixeira, M. R. (2017). The use of Moringa oleifera as a natural coagulant in surface water treatment. Chemical Engineering Journal, 313, 226-237. Choy, S. Y., Prasad, K. M. N., Wu, T. Y., Raghunandan, M. E., & Ramanan, R. N. (2014). Utilization of plant-based natural coagulants as future alternatives towards sustainable water clarification. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 26(11), 2178-2189. Choy, S. Y., Prasad, K. N., Wu, T. Y., Raghunandan, M. E., & Ramanan, R. N. (2016). Performance of conventional starches as natural coagulants for turbidity removal. Ecological engineering, 94, 352-364. Kakoi, B., Kaluli, J. W., Ndiba, P., & Thiong’o, G. (2016). Banana pith as a natural coagulant for polluted river water. Ecological engineering, 95, 699-705. Lek, B. L. C., Peter, A. P., Chong, K. H. Q., Ragu, P., Sethu, V., Selvarajoo, A., & Arumugasamy, S. K. (2018). Treatment of palm oil mill effluent (POME) using chickpea (Cicer arietinum) as a natural coagulant and flocculant: Evaluation, process optimization and characterization of chickpea powder. Journal of environmental chemical engineering, 6(5), 6243-6255. Patel, H., & Vashi, R. (2013). Comparison of naturally prepared coagulants for removal of COD and color from textile wastewater. Global NEST Journal, 15(4), 522-528. Patidara, K., Roya, R., Kumara, S., Nirmalaa, G., & Murugesanb, T. (2018). Experimental investigation of Sterculia foetida and Moringa oleifera as a coagulant for water and wastewater treatment. Desalination and water treatment, 122, 254-259. Shak, K. P. Y., & Wu, T. Y. (2014). Coagulation–flocculation treatment of high-strength agro-industrial wastewater using natural Cassia obtusifolia seed gum: treatment efficiencies and flocs characterization. Chemical Engineering Journal, 256, 293-305. Talnikar, T. (2017). Natural coagulant for wastewater treatment: Review. Pravara Journal of Science and Technology, 38-42. Unnisa, S. A., & Bi, S. Z. (2018). Carica papaya seeds effectiveness as coagulant and solar disinfection in removal of turbidity and coliforms. Applied Water Science, 8(6), 149.

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THE POTENTIAL OF NAPIER GRASS LEAVES FIBRE AS AN ACOUSTIC ABSORBER

Z. Haron1*, K. Yahya2, T. N. F. T. Mat3, N. M. Fasli4, N. Darus1, W.A. W. A. Rahman5, E.M. Taiwo6 and N. Che Din7

1-4 Department of Structures and Materials, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 5Department of Polymer Engineering [email protected] 6 Federal Polytechnic, Ede, NIGERIA [email protected] 7Faculty of Built Environment, University Malaya, MALAYSIA [email protected]

ABSTRACT Acoustic panels were introduced to treat poor acoustic enviroment in rooms. However, many of the available acoustic panels in the market are composed of hazardous materials. Thus, there are demands for the use of sustainable materials in the production of acoustic panels. This research investigated the sound absorption potential of grass leaves fibres i.e. Napier grass as material for acoustic panels. Various bound Napier grass fibre samples with different thickness were prepared and tested by using an impedance tube test to obtain the sound absorption coefficient (SAC). The results revealed that 5mm and 20mm fibres respectively, when bonded with UF samples with thickness of 30mm, produced a relatively high SAC for frequencies of 500 Hz, 1000 Hz and 2500 Hz, and thus resulting in a high average NRC value of 0.59. This exceeded the value for synthetic fibre glass and similar to rockwool. This study concluded that non-toxic Napier grass fibres can be used in the production of sustainable acoustic panels.

Keywords: Napier grass, Sound absorber, Natural fibre, Sound absorption coefficient

INTRODUCTION Sound absorbers are important elements in buildings to control the quality of acoustics inside rooms in which sounds e.g. speech need to be intelligible. Fibrous porous materials like foam, glass wool and rockwool are usually used as they can absorb sound very well, however, these materials are not environmentally friendly. Therefore, there is a need to have good sound absorbers made from alternative “green” materials that are biodegradable, sustainable and pose low health risks.

Various researches have explored the use and performance of natural fibers as sound absorbers such as tea-leaf fibres (Ersoy & Küçük, 2009; Wong et al., 2017), paddy fibres (Mediastika, 2009; Putra et al., 2013), jute fibres (Fatima & Mohanty, 2011), ijuk (Arenga Pinnata) (Ismail et al., 2010), kapok fibres (Xiang et al., 2013), kenaf fibres (Lim et al., 2018), sisal-kenaf composite (Dunne et al., 2017), pineapple threads (Putra et al., 2018). However, no studies have been done on grass leaves fibre. Napier or elephant grass is a type of grass that grows very fast, easily found and plentiful in Malaysia. The School of

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Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia produces the Napier fibres (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Napier grass

When sound strike an absorber the sound energy may be dissipated in the form of heat, thus reducing the amount of energy released. Xiang et al. (2013) showed that kapok fiber with thickness of 40mm produced an average noise reduction coefficient higher compared to one with thickness of 20mm especially at low frequencies. Koizumi et al. (2002) found that increased acoustic performance between medium and high frequency range can be achieved through increased sample density due to the increased in friction between surfaces that dissipates acoustic energy. Binders changed the sound absorption performance of natural fibres as it filled the spaces within and between fibres (Mamtaz et al., 2016), through increased flow resistivity and sound absorption. Castagnède, Aknine and Brouard (2000), and António (2011) discovered that compressed fibrous layer exhibited high tortuosity due to decrease in length and porosity.

This paper discusses the acoustic performance of Napier grass leaf fibre as a sound absorber. Specimen sound absorbers of approximately the same density were made from two different sizes of fibre bonded with urea formaldheyde. The effect of the size of the fibres and thickness of the specimens on absorption coefficient and noise reduction were investigated. This study tries to outline the benefits and determine the potential of Napier fibre as an alternative material for sound absorbers

MATERIALS AND METHODS Sound absorber samples with approximately the same density were developed using 5mm and 20 mm size fibres, respectively. Three samples with varying thickness were fabricated using hand lay up and normal pressed methods. Liquid UF was obtained by mixing of UF powder with water with a ratio of 100:160 by weight. 5mm and 20mm size fibres, respectively were bonded with 40% UF by weight to achieve a density of 186 kg/m3 (5mm+UF-186 kg/m3) and 212 kg/m3 (20mm+UF-212 kg/m3). The latter were mixed with 5mm fibres with fraction of 30% by weight to obtain good intact samples. A workable sample was obtained after several trials with a mixture ratio of 60:40. After the fibres were mixed the materials were manually pressed in a 98mm diameter cylindrical casing which then underwent a drying process. The acoustic performance of all sample absorbers were measured using an impedance tube instrument in according to ISO 10534-2 (Figure 2(c)). The tube measured the sound absorption coefficient (SAC) of the samples with frequencies between 160 Hz to 2000 Hz. Noise reduction coefficient (NRC), as the average sound energy absorbed at 250, 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz were calculated as an indicator of the materials’ acoustic performance. The acoustic performance of rockwool and fibreglass absorbers available in the market were also tested for comparison.

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Figure 2. Specimens and test for acoustic performance

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Effect of size of fibres and thickness Figure 3 shows the effect of thickness and fibre size on SAC. With the same sample thickness and approximately with the same density, generally 5 mm and 20 mm fibres samples showed similar SAC curve trend, respectively. However as the sample thickness increases, the SAC for all range of frequencies also increased. Variations in thickness also altered the SAC curves and peak shapes. A 30 mm sample thickness had a bell-shaped SAC curve, denoting the more tortuous path and reached a peak SAC approximation of more than 0.99 at 1250 Hz for 20 mm fibre sample size. A 20 mm sample thickness gave the highest SAC at 2000 Hz. Samples with 30mm thickness outperformed others for low frequency at 500 Hz. The thicker samples demonstrated higher SAC at lower frequencies.

Figure 3. Sound absorption of absorber with 5mm and 20mm size fibres for thickness of 10mm, 20mm, and 30mm

The thicker the sample, the higher the NRC; which was in line with Xiang et al. (2013) who used kapok fibre. This showed that sample thickness caused the incident sound waves energy to decrease as it took longer for sound waves to travel through the sample. Furthermore, UF filled the spaces within and between the sample fibres. It further increased flow resistivity and increased sound absorption. Finer fibres had higher NRC implying higher noise reduction capability compared to coarser fibre which had higher peak SAC curve. This finding is similar to Mamtaz et al. (2016) who showed that the more subtle the fiber, the more sound it absorbs compared to thicker and large-sized fibers.

Comparison with current synthetic fibres Figure 4 compares the acoustic performance of 30mm thickness sample absorbers with samples of rockwool and fibreglass absorbers available in the market with approximately the same thickness. All Napier fibres had a higher SAC value greater than 0.8 compared to the SAC value of synthetic fibres at a frequency range of 1000 Hz and above. At below 1250 Hz, SAC for all Napier sample performed better than the synthetic rockwool samples that were 5 mm thicker. The Napier fibre bonded with UF had higher SAC compared to

253 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 fibre glass at frequency 500 Hz. Fibre bonded with UF samples of 30mm thickness produced relatively higher SAC for frequency 500 Hz, 1000 Hz and 2500 Hz, and resulting in a high NRC value of 0.58 - 0.59 that exceeded the value for synthetic fibreglass and similar with rockwool. Both 5mm and 20mm fibre sizes bonded with UF with 30mm sample thickness sample have the potential to replace synthetic fibres in the manufacture of acoustic.

Figure 4. Comparison of sound absorption of sample absorbers with Rockwool and fibreglass

CONCLUSION Napier fibre sound absorber specimens made up of two fibre sizes were investigated. The effect of size and thickness of the fibres on absorption coefficient and noise reduction were investigated. The results are as follows:

i. The thicker the sample, the higher the acoustic performance ii. Finer fibre size of 5mm gave the best sound absorption performance. iii. Fibre size 5 mm and 10 mm had better sound absorption than 25 mm thick fibreglass and similar with 35 mm thick rockwool samples.

It can be inferred that Napier fibre has great potential to be utilised as raw material for producing acoustic absorbers. In the future the effect of density may be investigated using samples produced with cold and hot presses. The use of natural binders may also be considered to overcome environmental problems associated with the production of synthetic acoustic absorbers.

Acknowledgment: This work is supported by the Research University Grant Scheme (GUP: Q.J130000.2522.19H76) financed by the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia.

REFERENCES

António, J. (2011). Acoustic behaviour of fibrous materials, Fibrous and Composite Materials for Civil Engineering Applications, Woodhead Publishing Limited , 306-324. Putra A, Khai H.O, Selamat M. Z, Nor M. J., Hassan M. H, Prasetiyo I. (2018). Sound absorption of extracted pineapple-leaf fibres, Applied Acoustics, 136 9–15. Castagnède, B., Aknine, A., and Brouard, B. (2000). Effects of compression on the sound absorption of fibrous materials, Applied Acoustics, 61: 173 – 182. Dunne, R., Desai, D. & Sadiku, R. (2017). A Review of the Factors that Influence Sound Absorption and the Available Empirical Models for Fibrous Materials ,Acoust Aust 45: 453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40857-017-0097-4 Ersoy S, Küçük H. (2009). Investigation of industrial tea-leaf-ﬁbre waste material for its sound absorption properties, Applied Acoustics 70(1):215-220

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Fatima S, Mohanty A. (2011). Acoustical and fire-retardant properties of jute composite materials. Applied Acoustics 72(2):108–14. Mamtaz, H., Fouladi, M.H., Al-Atabi, M., Namasivayam, S.N. (2016). Acoustic Absorption of Natural Fiber Composites, Journal of Engineering,]ttp://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/5836107 Ismail, L., Ghazali, M.I., Mahzan, S., Zaidi, A.M.A. (2010). Sound absorption of Arenga Pinnata natural fiber. World Acad Sci Eng Technol 67:804–6. Lim, Z.Y., Putra, A., Nor, M.J.M., Yaakob, M.Y. (2018). Sound absorption performance of natural kenaf fibres. Applied Acoustics130:107–14. Putra, A., Abdullah, Y., Efendy, H., Mohamad, W.M.F.W., Salleh, N.L. (2013). Biomass from paddy waste fibers as sustainable acoustic material. Adv Acoust Vib 2013. Advances in Acoustics and Vibration, Volume 2013, http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/605932 Koizumi, T., Tsujiuchi, N., Adachi, A. (2002). The development of sound absorbing materials using natural bamboo fibers. High Performance Structures and Materials, vol. 4, pp. 157–166, 2002. Wong, K., Ahsan, Q., Putra, A., Subramonian, S., Nor, M.J.M. (2017). Preliminary study on the sound absorption behavior of spent tea leaves filled with natural rubber latex binder. J.Teknologi 79(5-2):59– 64. Xiang, Hai-Fan & Wang, Dong & Liu, Huichao & Zhao, Ning & Xu, Jian. (2012). Investigation on sound absorption properties of kapok fibers. Chinese Journal of Polymer Science (English Edition). 31. 521- 529. 10.1007/s10118-013-1241-8

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EFFECTIVENESS OF MACROCOMPOSITES IN TREATING PUBLIC WET MARKET WASTEWATER IN PEKAN PAGOH, JOHOR

Mohamed Zuhaili Mohamed Najib*1, Kogila Vani Annammala2, Mohamad Darwish3, Erwan Hafizi Kasiman4, Muhamad Hanafi Samsuri5, Mohd Arif Rosli6, Zarizi Awang7

1,2,3,4 Department of Water and Environmental Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], 5,6,7 Department of Civil Engineering Technology, Faculty of Engineering Technology, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 84600 Pagoh, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT Public wet market effluent in Malaysia frequently associated with their large quantity of discharge daily and adverse impacts to the environment in terms of odour problem, water pollution and waterborne diseases. Due to few wastewater treatment facilities built at the markets, poor water effluent will flow and pollute several water sources especially the river. To improve its quality, the macrocomposites was implemented as alternative green and low-cost wastewater treatment technology. This study was purposely to measure its effectiveness in treating the wastewater collected at public wet market in Pekan Pagoh, Johor. Using field and laboratory testing, the efficiency of macrocomposites in treating wet market wastewater was demonstrated based the optimized parameters on COD, colour and TSS removal affecting adsorption under different flow rates using Thomas and Yoon- Nelson model analysis. The final results showed that the best flow rate was 7 mL/min which achieved the highest removal efficiency of COD, color and TSS. As the flow rate decreased, the contact time between the sorbent (macrocomposites) and sorbate (wastewater) increased whereby more sorbate can be retained and occupy within the particles during this interaction period.

Key words: wet market wastewater, macrocomposites, Thomas and Yoon-Nelson model

INTRODUCTION Wastewater is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence (Ishak, 2010). Normally, the wastewater is generated from point sources such as housing area, commercial building and industrial building. Then, it will be discharged into the river. Due to this condition, the water quality status concerns among various local authorities, government agencies as well as public at large. According to the Department of Environment (2008), the number of river basin was reduced from 146 to 143 in 2007. There were 1,064 monitoring stations overall with 638 of them (60%) were found to be clean, 376 (35%) were slightly polluted and 50 (5%) were polluted. Generally, a wet market will generate a huge amount of wastewater coming from washing activities, and sanitation facilities. Its high concentration of nutrients is favourable for microalgae and bacteria growth. So, the discharged of this wastewater into the river may contribute to the increment of water pollution that will harm the aquatic life and ecosystem. As an alternative treatment method, the macrocomposite, a green technology, is proposed and made of materials such as aggregates, zeolite, activated carbon, cement and sand. It is

256 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 mixed to form porous rock like mass (Ventures, 2014). Each materials has their own function in order to reduce pollution of water. This macrocomposite involves two treatment process which are physical removal and biological treatment of the pollutants. This study tend to measure the efficiency of macrocomposites for the treatment of wet market wastewater generated using Thomas and Yoon-Nelson model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Experimental Setting Up For data sampling, the wet market wastewater sample were collected from Public Wet Market Pekan Pagoh located in Pagoh, Johor, Mlaysia. The samples were tested for chemical oxygen demand (COD), color and total suspended solids (TSS). For the treatment of wet market wastewater, a fixed bed adsorption lab-scale column was applied. The data for the adsorption parameter column, porosity percentages and the optimum percentage ratio were refered to Samsuri (2018). Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the wastewater treatment setup using the macrocomposites.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of experimental setup

Dynamic Modelling Analysis Dynamic modelling of experimental data divided into Thomas Model and Yoon-Nelson Model. Thomas model was used to determine the efficiency of macrocomposites adsorbent in a column mode of operation. The model was based on the Langmuir kinetics of adsorption-desorption (Taylor et al., 2015). It assumes negligible axial dispersion of adsorbate within the adsorbent bed inside the column since the adsorption obeys the second order reversible kinetics. While the Yoon-Nelson model assumes the decrease rate in the probability of adsorption for each macrocomposite molecule is proportional to the probability of adsorbate adsorption and adsorbate breakthrough on the adsorbent. So, Table 1 shows the mathematical expressions of the Thomas and Yoon-Nelson model used during the experiment.

Table 1. Parameters for modelling analysis Type Thomas Model Yoon-Nelson Model Equation �� ln ( ) = KYNt - tKYN ��−��

Descriptio KThCo Gradient, m obtained from graph KYN the rate constant (/min) = Gradient, n KTh Thomas rate constant (mL/min/mg) m obtained from graph = KThCo / Co qoYN (Co x Q x t0.5) / m Co Obtained from table of data for t0.5 c (Interception obtained on graph) / COD KYN

257 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

(KTh) Interception, c obtained from graph t Time required form 50% adsorbate (qo) breakthrough (m)/Q Co Initial concentration m Data for mass in adsorption Q Data for flow rate in adsorption qo Chemical adsorbed per gram of adsorbent (mg/g) = (KThCo x Q/1000) / ( KTh x m)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The presence of high concentration in the COD (763 mg/L), TSS (100 mg/L) and color (450 Pt Co) were due to the high organic substances that associated with suspended solids such as vegetables, poultry, meat and fruit. Hence, the wastewater was assumed as a high strength wastewater.

Thomas Model Analysis The value of coefficient of determination R2 for the above plots is found to be in the range of 0.78 to 0.97 indicating good fits of the experimental data in Thomas model. The value of KTH and qo obtained from the slope and intercepts of above plots. Parameter of COD (Figure 2(a)) recorded when the flow rate increases, the KTH increases. For color (Figure 2(b)), the KTH decreases when the flow rate increases. Flow rate of 7 mL/min recorded 1.40 x 10-4 mL/mg/min while for 10 mL/min flow rate recorded 1.25 x 10-4 mL/mg/min. For highest flow rate which is 12 mL/min recorded 1.39 x 10-4 mL/mg/min. It has range of 0.92 to 0.94 for the determination of R2. While in Figure 2(c), it shows that when the time of treatment increases, the flowrate tend to become lower (7 mL/min > 10 mL/min > 12 mL/min).

Yoon-Nelson Model Analysis This model introduces the parameter of T0.5 which shows treatment time taken to be half of the initial concentration. For parameter of COD (Figure 3(a)), flow rate of 7 mL/min recorded 46.63 min which is much longer than flow rate of 10 and 12 mL/min. The value of T0.5 decreases with the increases of flow rate. The much slower the flow rate, the higher the treatment time taken to be half of initial concentration. It has a range from 0.94 to 0.97 for values of coefficient of determination R2. For color (Figure 3(b)), flow rate of 10 mL/min recorded the slowest time with 57.72 min and follow up by flow rate of 7 mL/min with 56.98 min. It has a slight difference between them. For flow rate of 12 / min recorded fastest time with 51.9 min to be half of the initial concentration. It has a range of 0.92 to 0.94 for the determination of coefficient R2.

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(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2. Linear plots of Thomas model for (a) COD, (b) color and (c) TSS at different flow rate

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3. Linear plots of Yoon-Nelson model for (a) COD, (b) color and (c) TSS at different flow rate

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For TSS (Figure 3(c)), the order of time taken to be half of the initial concentration is as following order 7 mL/min > 10 mL/min > 12 mL/min. The time taken of treatment for TSS increases with the flow rate decreases. The coefficient value of determination R2 ranging from 0.78 to 0.87 as the table above shows. All the values indicate that the experimental data fitted well with this model.

CONCLUSION

Based on the result obtained, it is proven that macrocomposites able to remove the pollutant of wet market wastewater. The main parameters analyzed in the process were COD, color and TSS. It is proven that the wastewater contained pollutants and could harm the environment. The efficiency of macrocomposites in treating wet market wastewater is proven with the mathematical analysis based on the percentage removal efficiency through the Thomas and Yoon-Nelson model. Also, the optimization study of the parameters affecting adsorption with a variety of flow rates was achieved. The ideal flow rate for optimum adsorption is 7 mL/min. It has larger percentage removal efficiency for COD, color and TSS compared to much higher flow rate. Higher flow rate leads to shorter life span of the macrocomposites. Following order shows the most efficient flow rates for adsorption of pollutant; 7 mL/min < 10 mL/min < 12 mL/min.

REFERENCES

Department of Environment. (2008). Department of Environment. Ministry of Natural Resources & Environment. Retrieved May 28, 2018, from https://www.doe.gov.my/portalv1/en/ Ishak, N. A. (2010). Pre-treatment of wastewater at wet market using effective microorganism (em) technology, (November), 1–25. Taylor, P., Kapur, M., & Mondal, M. K. (2015). Desalination and Water Treatment Design and model parameters estimation for fixed – bed column adsorption of Cu (II) and Ni (II) ions using magnetized saw dust, (June), 37–41. Ventures, P. (2014). Macrocomposites for Wastewater Treatment, 8319. Samsuri, M. H. (2018). A Study on Effectiveness of Macrocomposites for the Treatment of Wastewater from Wet Market (Bachelor’s Degree Thesis). Universiti Tun Hussein Onn (UTHM), Pagoh, Johor, Malaysia.

260 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

FOULING CONTROL APPROACHES IN RECENT ADVANCE MEMBRANE BIOREACTOR SYSTEMS TREATING WASTEWATER

Rabialtu Sulihah Binti Ibrahim1, Zainura Zainon Noor1,2*, Nurul Huda Baharuddin3 and Noor Sabrina Ahmad Mutamim4

1 School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected], *[email protected] 2 Centre of Environmental Sustainability and Water Security, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Skudai, Johor, MALAYSIA 3 School of Professional and Continuing Education (UTMSPACE), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected] 4 Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, LeburayaTun Razak, 26300 Gambang, Kuantan, Pahang, MALAYSIA [email protected]

ABSTRACT Membrane bioreactors (MBR) is an efficient technology for treating wastewater to a very high quality. Of all the sustainable water reuse technologies, MBR is the most feasible and has been employed in real applications. However, MBRs also have several challenges or limitation that affect the quality of treated wastewater. Accumulation of soluble and particulate components onto and into the membrane resulting to fouling problem. Recent research and development trends of MBR technology has shifted from process optimization and economic evaluation to installation of new process providing system for membrane fouling mitigation. This paper aims to provide a consolidated review on the current state of research for the advance MBR system in fouling control treating wastewater. Advance MBR such as forward osmosis , anaerobic MBR and MBR with microbial fuel cell for fouling mitigation are summarized. MBR with biofouling reducers such powder or granular activated carbon, biocarriers, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) beads, quorum quenching beads, bamboo charcoal (BC), fluidized glass bead, and aerobic granular sludge (AGS) are discussed. From this review, it shows that there are numerous approach to produce sustainable control of membrane fouling since it is one of the top priorities in enhancing MBR performance.

Key words: Membrane bioreactor, wastewater treatment, membrane fouling

INTRODUCTION Nowadays, increasingly stringent enviromental legislation and treatment technologies that are effective in removing wide range of pollutants, cost efficient and reliable are needed. an upgraded wastewater treatment technology system called MBR has been selected as a suitable and effective way for wastewater treatment system. MBR is a system that combines activated sludge system and membrane filtration. In MBR system, sedimentation process is replaced with the filtration by membrane. Biological unit in activated sludge system plays a role for the biodegradation of the waste compounds while membrane module is responsible for physical separation of the treated water from the mixed liquor

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(Hoinkis et al.,2012). Biological process in MBR converts dissolved organic matter into suspended biomass, reducing membrane fouling and allowing increase in recovery (Friha et al., 2014). MBR is applicable in treating various types of domestic and industrial wastewater. More attention is being placed on MBR systems because of their distinctive advantages, such as high quality of product water, low footprint, short hydraulic retention time, and reduced sludge production due to high biomass concentration in the bioreactor, and very high rejection of suspended solids (rejection >99%) and particles (turbidity rejection >98%) (Kraume and Drews, 2010; Wang et al., 2016). However, this type of MBR has a limitation which is membrane fouling problem that can reduce the perfomance of treated wastewater . Nguyen et al. (2012) also stated that conventional activated sludge- based MBRs pose operational and R&D problems such as membrane fouling, high energy consumption, and limited nutrient removal capability. Membrane fouling reduces the membrane life, requires more energy for backwashing and makes the system less efficient. Membrane fouling results in performance reduction, severe flux decline or rapid pressure increase and frequent membrane cleaning, thus directly leading to an increase of operating and maintenance costs ( Wang et al., 2016). This paper aims to provide to provide a review on the current research for the advance MBR system in fouling mitigation treating wastewater. There are certain recent MBR technologies that has been used as a fouling control strategies such as Osmotic MBR, Biofilm MBR, Anaerobic MBR and MBRMFC.

MEMBRANE FOULING IN MBR Membrane fouling is considered as a main problem in MBR systems. Membrane fouling is defined as the accumulation of soluble and particulate components beneath the membrane, resulting from reactions on membrane and sludge suspension (Zhang et al., 2014). Fouling also referred to the unwanted components in the retentate that deposit at the membrane surfaces, resulting several situation that proceed on the decreasing in the flow of water via the membrane at fixed TMP, or vice versa (Simon Judd., 2006). A lot of physicochemical and biological mechanisms that fouling may take place due to to rising accumulation of solid material onto the membrane surface and within the membrane structure. Generally, there are several factors that contribute to the membrane fouling like cake layer due to sludge particle accumulation on the membrane surface, gel layer due to adsorption of macromolecules on membrane surfaces, and pore clogging due to small molecules (Huang et al., 2008). The modification of membrane materials and modules (Chang et al., 2005), impact on MBR operating conditions on fouling behavior (Wu et al., 2013) and connection between stability of activated sludge flocs and membrane fouling (Tian et al., 2012) have been studied in order to find the solution in reducing membrane fouling.

ADVANCE TECHNOLOGIES IN MBR Combining forward osmosis (FO) and membrane bioreactor (MBR) has led to an alternative wastewater treatment process, forward osmosis membrane bioreactor (FOMBR). FOMBR experiences much less fouling and much less energy requirement due to the use of osmotic pressure instead of hydraulic pressure as the driving force (Juntawang et al., 2019). Anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) offers advantages in terms of complete retention of all microorganisms and improved effluent quality (Lin et al., 2013). The process realizes two advantages: firstly, the complete separation of hydraulic retention time (HRT) and sludge residence time (SRT), and secondly, the operation control is more flexible and stable. It is a technology where the equipment is suitable for sewage treatment, offers microcomputer automatic control, so that operations

262 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 and management are more efficient. The integration of microbial fuel cell and membrane biorreactor also able to mitigate fouling by the H2O2 generated from cathode, because the oxidation of H2O2 could reduce membrane fouling by in-situ removing membrane foulants from membrane surface. The internal electric field in MFC might be another reason for membrane fouling mitigation, because the conductive membranes in MBR also worked as cathode in MFC. Electrons generated in anaerobic anode chamber can be transferred to cathode membranes via an external circuit, and the protons generated in anode zones would cross the separator to cathode chambers under the effect of internal electric field. This internally generated electric field between aerobic cathode and anaerobic anode may exert an additional repulsion force to membrane foulants (such as negatively charged sludge and organic matters) to mitigate membrane fouling (Liu et al., 2014).

MBR WITH BIOFOULING REDUCERS Several studies show that the fouling behavior of MBRs with biofouling reducers is better than conventional MBRs. Biofouling reducers such as powder activated carbon (PAC), granular activated carbon (GAC), biocarriers, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) beads, quorum quenching beads, bamboo charcoal (BC), fluidized glass bead, and aerobic granular sludge (AGS) were effective for membrane fouling control by restraining the formation of a cake laye on membrane and increased the relative abundance of filamentous bacteria within the MBR, which decreased the settleability of the sludge (Lei et al., 2019 and Palmarin et al., 2019).

CONCLUSION MBR has been widely applied worldwide in full scale. In this review, advance of MBR systems in fouling control have been introduced and discussed. More and more research on MBR focusing on the reduction of fouling in enhancing MBR performance. However, high energy efficient of MBR system also should be focus in future research since wastewater treatment plant contribute 20-80% of total plant electricity demand. Energy demand and related costs issues have, together with membrane fouling issues, become an essential focus point in the fullscale MBR design and operation. Reducing the energy consumption of membrane bioreactors (MBRs) is highly important for their wider application in wastewater treatment engineering.

Acknowledgment: This work was financially supported by the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia under Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) with VOT project number 4F835.

REFERENCES

Hoinkis, J., Deowan, S. A., Panten, V., Figoli, A., Huang, R. R. and Drioli, E. (2012). Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) Technology – a Promising Approach for Industrial Water Reuse. Procedia Engineering, 33(0), 234-241. Friha, I., Karray, F., Feki, F., Jlaiel, L. and Sayadi, S. (2014). Treatment of Cosmetic Industry Wastewater by Submerged Membrane Bioreactor With Consideration of Microbial Community Dynamics. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 88(0), 125-133. Wang, X., Chang, V. W. C. and Tang, C. Y. (2016). Osmotic membrane bioreactor (OMBR) technology for wastewater treatment and reclamation: Advances, challenges, and prospects for the future. Journal of Membrane Science, 504, 113-132. Zhang, Y., Zhang, M., Wang, F., Hong, H., Wang, A., Wang, J., et al. (2014). Membrane Fouling in a Submerged Membrane Bioreactor: Effect of pH and Its Implications. Bioresource Technology, 152(0), 7-14

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Judd. S (2006) The MBR Book: Principles and Applications of Membrane Bioreactors in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Oxford. Elsevier. Huang, X., Wei, C.-H. and Yu, K.-C. (2008). Mechanism of Membrane Fouling Control by Suspended Carriers in a Submerged Membrane Bioreactor. Journal of Membrane Science, 309(1–2), 7-16. Juntawang, C., Rongsayamanont, C., & Khan, E. (2019). Entrapped-cells-based anaerobic forward osmosis membrane bioreactor treating medium-strength domestic wastewater: Fouling characterization and performance evaluation. Chemosphere, 225, 226-237. Lin, H., Peng, W., Zhang, M., Chen, J., Hong, H., & Zhang, Y. (2013). A review on anaerobic membrane bioreactors: applications, membrane fouling and future perspectives. Desalination, 314, 169-188. Liu, J., Liu, L., Gao, B., Yang, F., Crittenden, J., & Ren, N. (2014). Integration of microbial fuel cell with independent membrane cathode bioreactor for power generation, membrane fouling mitigation and wastewater treatment. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 39(31), 17865-17872. Lei, Z., Yang, S., Li, X., Wen, W., Huang, X., Yang, Y., Chen, R. (2019). Revisiting the effects of powdered activated carbon on membrane fouling mitigation in an anaerobic membrane bioreactor by evaluating long-term impacts on the surface layer. Water Research, 115137. Palmarin, M. J., & Young, S. (2019). The effects of biocarriers on the mixed liquor characteristics, extracellular polymeric substances, and fouling rates of a hybrid membrane bioreactor. Biochemical engineering journal, 141, 278-284.

264 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

COMPARISON OF BIOSORBENT PRETREATMENT METHODS OF BJERKANDERA ADUSTA ON COLOUR REMOVAL

Ariani Dwi Astuti1,2 and Khalida Muda1

1Department of Water and Environmental Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected], [email protected] 2Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Landscape Architecture and Environmental Technology, Universitas Trisakti, Jakarta, INDONESIA

ABSTRACT The textile industry generates large amounts of wastewater with heavy BOD/COD and salt load, which is often discovered dark in color. One alternative treatment is biosorption, i.e., passive organic and inorganic compound uptake including dye or their derivatives using non-growing/living microbial mass. The techniques of biosorbent pretreatment, autoclaving and autoclaving combined with chemical process were explored. In the method of biosorption using Bjerkandera adusta in synthetic textile wastewater, the impacts of pH, contact time, weight and size of biosorbent were examined and designed using response surface methodology (RSM). When pH was 4, contact time was 90 minutes, biosorbent weight was 3000 mg/L, and the biosorbent size was 0.4 mm, the optimum removal conditions were determined. The experimental laboratory proved 53.55 % and 81.3 % color removal; while the experimental results and model predictions were 2 2 well agreed. In the optimization, the quadratic model estimated both R and Radj correlation coefficients quite satisfactorily as 0.988, 0.977, 0.926 and 0.783 respectively. Combining autoclaving with chemical processes is more effective than just autoclaving. The two-sided t-test was used to identify any important variations in preparation techniques for biosorbents with p < 0.05. The findings achieved are supported by biosorbent analysis using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and chemical characterization using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy.

Keywords: Bjerkandera adusta, synthetic textile wastewater, biosorbent, Response Surface Methodology, the colour removal efficiency

INTRODUCTION Textile coloring processes use amounts of water, producing it one of the major liquid pollutant generators (Hayat et al., 2015; Holkar et al., 2016). Its discharge 115–175 kg COD/ton of completed textile (Li et al., 2007). Manufacturing License in Malaysia (Malaysian Investment Development Authority (MIDA), Malaysia–Investment Performance 2011) documented a total of 662 licensed textile and clothing mills of 1000 tiny scale. The treatment of wastewater produced by textile companies creates a major environmental challenge, particularly in terms of the expense or quality of the resulting textile effluent (Mata et al., 2015). During the dyeing process, textile dyeing factories use adequate quantities of different colors or additional chemicals and ultimately emit powerful textile wastewater (Kolekar et al., 2012; Anastasi et al., 2010). Currently, azo dyes represent the greater class of synthetic dyes manufactured globally (around 70 percent), and their large-scale production could be linked to their use by various industrial sectors. (Baêta et al., 2015). Different techniques for the processing of textile effluents are being used, including physico-chemical techniques such as activated carbon,

265 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 sedimentation, filtration, activated sludge, chemical flocculation, and coagulation. However, most of these methods are very effective, some of them expensive, and result in focused sludge by creating complication of secondary disposal. Fungi’s ability to degrade a wide range of intransigent pollutants, such as synthetic dyes, is approved (Anastasi et al., 2012). The highest rate of degradation was recorded for Bjerkandera adusta, whose strain could completely decolorize a large number of colorants and detoxify three synthetic wastewaters (Anastasi et al., 2010). Bjerkandera adusta, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, and Pleurotus ostreatus exhibited the best decolorization properties (Eichlerova et al., 2007). While Heinling et al., 1997 stated that Phanerochaete Chrysosporium, Trametes versicolor, and Bjerkandera adusta demonstrated the capacity to decolor all the colors tested (Heinfling et al., 1997). With its production of ligninolytic enzymes, Bjerkandera adusta indicated that this strain could be beneficial for biotechnological advancement. (Gomi et al., 2011). Some methods of pretreatment may enhance the ability to adsorb biomass. Other techniques of pretreatment include autoclaving, which could break the structure of the fungi and reveal potential color binding sites (Srinivasan and Viraraghavan, 2010).

The main objective of this research is to explore the impacts of pH, biosorbent weight, contact time and biosorbent size in the method of biosorption using Bjerkandera adusta in synthetic textile wastewater with two methods of pretreatment with biosorbent e.i. Processes of autoclaving and combining autoclaving with chemical processes. Response surface methodology (RSM) has been pursued here among the sophisticated appropriate variable techniques used in analytical advancement. RSM was used to design experiments, create models and identify optimal conditions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Synthetic Textile Effluent The following content was used for the synthetic wastewater: K2HPO4 0.58 g/L, NH4Cl

0.16 g/L, KH2PO4 0.23 g/L, MgSO4⋅7H2O 0.09 g/L, CaCl2⋅2H20 0.07 g/L, trace solution 1 ml/L and EDTA 0.02 g/L. The carbon source considered in this experiment: sodium acetate (0.5 g/L), glucose (0.5 g/L) and ethanol (0.125 g/L). The trace element was composed from FeCl3⋅4H2O (1.5 g/L), H3BO3 (0.15 g/L), MnCl2⋅4H2O (0.12 g/L), ZnCl2

(0.12 g/L), CoCl2⋅6H2O (0.15 g/L), CuCl2⋅2H2O (0.03 g/L), NaMoO4⋅2H2O (0.06 g/L), and KI 0.03 g/L (Muda et al., 2010). For this study, mixed azo dyes with a total concentration of 60 mg / L were used in reactive black 5, reactive blue 4 and disperse orange 2.

Biosorbents Pretreatment The Bjerkandera adusta fungi were cultivated in static condition on malt extract agar (prepared in the laboratory following DMZS media number 90 descriptions) at a pH of 5.6, 25 ° C. When sporulation occurred at the end of seven days (Tatl and Tunc, 2008), and the fungal biomass was then autoclaved to kill the fungal biomass for 45 min at 121 ° C, 103.42 kPa (Kumari and Abraham, 2007). Pretreatment methods A (autoclaved) the autoclaved non-viable biomass was washed properly with distilled wáter and dried for 36 hours in the oven at 70 ± 1 ° C. Subsequently, the dry biomass of fungus was crushed to form a powder and sieved to a granular size of 0.2-0.6 mm. The autoclaved non-viable biomass (about 10.0 g) was transferred to 50 mL 0.1 M HCl for pretreatment methods B (combination autoclaved-chemical methods) and the mixture was stirred for 1.0 h at

266 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 ambient temperature at 250 rpm (Arica, 2006). Thereafter, non-viable acid-treated biomass was properly washed with distilled water and then powdered as in pretreatment A.

Batch Experiments Batch testing were conducted by shaking 50 ml of synthetic textile wastewater with biosorbent in a flask at a temperature of 25 ± 2 ° C with a shaking speed of 160 rpm (Won et al., 2006). After shaking the flask for preset time intervals, the flasks were then removed and centrifuged to get liquid-solid separation, and then able to be analyzed. In addition to color removal, SEM (TM3000 Hitachi High Technologies America, USA) studied the morphological structure, and FTIR spectroscopy (Nicolet iS10 FT-IR Spectrometer, USA) investigated the chemical characterization.

Experimental Design In this experiment, a four-factor with a five-level CCD that needed nearly 30 studies was used. The factors were as follows; A: pH (4-8), B: biosorbent weight, C: contact time (30- 150 minutes), D: biosorbent size (0.2-0.6 ± 0.05 mm). The experiments were selected randomly for statistical evaluations, and every sample was duplicated. Used as a software package called Design Expert Version 11 (Stat-Ease, Statistical Made Easy, MN, USA).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The response surface methodology can be in the form of a variety of mathematical and applied mathematical techniques. RSM supports the practice of polynomial equations based on experimental data, which must describe the knowledge conduct set with the objective of establishing applicable mathematical predictions (Bezerra et al., 2008). The expected information values were achieved in this research by using Design-Expert software to fit the model technique. After combining this information with distinct models like cubic, ANOVA demonstrates that all responses are better described with a mathematical quadratic polynomial model (Table 1.).

The predicted R2 value for Pretreatment A of 0.9345 is based on rational consensus with the Adjusted R2 value equivalent to 0.9776; this implies that the difference is below 0.2 (Astuti and Muda, 2018). Besides, Adeq Precision computes the signal-to-noise ratio. A ratio > 4 is desirable in this case. A ratio value equivalent to 37.058 sets a satisfactory signal. This model can, therefore, be used to manage the experimental design (Figure 1). The predicted R2 of 0.7820 is also reasonably in agreement with the Adjusted R2 of 0.9266 as for Pretreatment B; i.e. the difference is less than 0.2. The 21,461 ratio shows an appropriate signal. To navigate the design room, this model can be used. The two-sided t- test was used to identify any significant differences in preparation methods for biosorbents with p < 0.05.

SEM analysis was performed to clarify the morphological characteristics, along with the surface characteristics of the adsorption sample. This also models the processed adsorbent’s surface porosity and structure/texture. Adsorption capacity relies on particle size, distribution of pores, and the surface area or porosity of micro/meso (Listyanto et al., 2016).

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Table 1. Variance analysis (ANOVA) and model statistics discovered using Bjerkandera Adusta from Dye Biosorption Process Pre-treatment Methods A*) Pre-treatment Methods B Source Sum of Mean F- Sum of Mean F- DF P-value DF P-value square square value square square value Model 4223.68 14 301.69 91.5 < 0.0001 7282.5 14 520.18 27.14 < 0.0001 A-pH 2953.93 1 2953.9 895.88 < 0.0001 4746.9 1 4746.9 247.70 < 0.0001 B-Weight 570.57 1 570.57 173.04 < 0.0001 444.71 1 444.71 23.20 0.0002 Biosorbent C-Contact 14.41 1 14.41 4.37 0.054 37.68 1 37.68 1.97 0.1812 Time D-Size of 84.15 1 84.15 25.52 0.0001 231.57 1 231.57 12.08 0.0034 Biosorbent AB 103.43 1 103.43 31.37 < 0.0001 202.71 1 202.71 10.58 0.0054 AC 1.69 1 1.69 0.5125 0.485 14.04 1 14.04 0.7328 0.4054 AD 66.02 1 66.02 20.02 0.0004 154.44 1 154.44 8.06 0.0124 BC 0.6889 1 0.6889 0.2089 0.6542 12.66 1 12.66 0.6604 0.4291 BD 7.59 1 7.59 2.3 0.15 19.87 1 19.87 1.04 0.3247 CD 0.555 1 0.555 0.1683 0.6874 7.22 1 7.22 0.3769 0.5485 A² 412.39 1 412.39 125.07 < 0.0001 1283.1 1 1283.1 66.95 < 0.0001 B² 1.71 1 1.71 0.5199 0.482 9.36 1 9.36 0.4882 0.4954 C² 0.2812 1 0.2812 0.0853 0.7743 11.64 1 11.64 0.6076 0.4478 D² 11.02 1 11.02 3.34 0.0875 5.52 1 5.52 0.2878 0.5995 Residual 49.46 15 3.3 287.47 15 19.16

Lack of 48.35 10 4.83 21.76 0.0017 286.24 10 28.62 116.63 < 0.0001 Fit Pure Error 1.11 5 0.2221 1.23 5 0.2454

Cor Total 4273.14 29 7570.0 29

*)Astuti and Muda, (2018)

SEM assessment was performed for biosorbent B. adusta at different magnification (8000X and 2000X) before and after biosorption of synthetic textile effluent/wastewater. After some interaction with the pollutant dye, control and biosorbent treated were confirmed to observe changes in the biosorbent. The size of biosorbent pores B. adusta methods A was 2.74-8.30 μm and 1.31-2.14 μm after biosorption. While the size of biosorbent pores B. adusta techniques B varied from 2.55-4.81 μm and became 1.14-4.25 μm after biosorption. The deposits of dye between the biosorbent B. adusta are indicated as crystalline. Therefore, SEM micrograph showed the greatest affinity with the color being explored. These findings support previous research by other scientists, Mahmoud et al., 2017, using the yeast of baker (Mahmoud, 2016). Biosorbent B. adusta techniques B had smaller pores size than their B methods.

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(a) (b) Figure 1. Graph of The Predicted Vs. Actual Color Removal Process Using Bjerkandera Adusta (a.) Methods A and (b.) Methods B

Biosorbent functional groups B. Adusta was analyzed using FTIR spectroscopy to detect functional groups that may bind to synthetic textile wastewater with dyes. The sample adsorbent IR spectrum was captured between 4000 - 400 cm-1. The findings indicate that the mechanism of biosorption was influenced by the existence of functional groups on the biosorbent B. adusta surface. The findings of this research are similar to those outlined by Mahmoud (Mahmoud, 2016) and K. Jain (Jain et al., 2012).

CONCLUSION Research has been conducted to explore the impacts of pH, biosorbent weight, contact time and biosorbent size in the biosorption system using Bjerkandera adusta in synthetic textile wastewater using two biosorbent pretreatment methods, i.e. autoclaving and combination of autoclaving with chemical processes. The research findings showed that variables such as pH, biosorbent weight and biosorbent size were the main factors that influenced color removal using Bjerkandera Adusta in the biosorption process. Experimental values are as expected under optimized circumstances, showing the adequacy of the model and the accomplishment of RSM in maximizing the biosorption process condition using Bjerkandera Adusta. The two-sided t-test was used with p < 0.05 to identify any significant differences in techniques of biosorbent pretreatment. Assesment of SEM micrographs and FTIR observation enabled us to conclude that the technique of color removal followed the biosorption process.

Acknowledgment: The authors wish to thank Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for the financial support of this research (Grant No. 18H96).

REFERENCES

Anastasi, A., Spina, F., Prigione, V., Tigini, V., Giansanti, P. and Varese, G.C. (2010). Scale-up of a bioprocess for textile wastewater treatment using Bjerkandera adusta. Bioresource Technology. 101(9), 3067–3075. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.12.067. Anastasi, A., Spina, F., Romagnolo, A., Tigini, V., Prigione, V. and Varese, G.C. (2012). Integrated Fungal Biomass and Activated Sludge Treatment for Textile Wastewaters Bioremediation. Bioresource Technology. 123, 106–111. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.07.026.

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Arica, M.Y. (2006). Biosorption of Reactive Blue 4 dye by native and treated fungus Phanerocheate chrysosporium : Batch and continuous flow system studies. 137, 1689–1697. Astuti, A.D. and Muda, K. (2018). Biosorption Processof Synthetic Textile Waste-water using Bjerkandera Agusta via Response Surface Methodology (RSM). In E3S Web of Conferences. Baêta, B.E.L., Lima, D.R.S., Silva, S.Q. and Aquino, S.F. (2015). Evaluation of soluble microbial products and aromatic amines accumulation during a combined anaerobic / aerobic treatment of a model azo dye. 259, 936–944. Bezerra, M.A., Santelli, R.E., Oliveira, E.P., Villar, L.S. and Escaleira, L.A. (2008). Response surface methodology (RSM) as a tool for optimization in analytical chemistry. Talanta. 76(5), 965–977. Eichlerova, I., Homolka, L. and Nerud, F. (2007). Decolorization of high concentrations of synthetic dyes by the white rot fungus Bjerkandera adusta strain CCBAS 232. 75, 38–44. Gomi, N., Yoshida, S., Matsumoto, K., Okudomi, M., Konno, H., Hisabori, T. and Sugano, Y. (2011). Degradation of the synthetic dye amaranth by the fungus Bjerkandera adusta Dec 1: Inference of the degradation pathway from an analysis of decolorized products. Biodegradation. 22(6), 1239–1245. Hayat, H., Mahmood, Q., Pervez, A., Bhatti, Z.A. and Baig, S.A. (2015). Comparative decolorization of dyes in textile wastewater using biological and chemical treatment. Separation and Purification Technology. 154, 149–153. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2015.09.025. Heinfling, A., Bergbauer, M. and Szewzyk, U. (1997). Biodegradation of azo and phthalocyanine dyes by Trametes versicolor and Bjerkandera adusta. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 48(2), 261– 266. Holkar, C.R., Jadhav, A.J., Pinjari, D. V., Mahamuni, N.M. and Pandit, A.B. (2016). A critical review on textile wastewater treatments: Possible approaches. Journal of Environmental Management. 182, 351– 366. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.07.090. Jain, K., Shah, V., Chapla, D. and Madamwar, D. (2012). Decolorization and degradation of azo dye - Reactive Violet 5R by an acclimatized indigenous bacterial mixed cultures-SB4 isolated from anthropogenic dye contaminated soil. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 213–214, 378–386. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.02.010. Kolekar, Y.M., Nemade, H.N., Markad, V.L., Adav, S.S., Patole, M.S. and Kodam, K.M. (2012). Decolorization and biodegradation of azo dye, reactive blue 59 by aerobic granules. Bioresource Technology. 104. Kumari, K. and Abraham, T.E. (2007). Biosorption of anionic textile dyes by nonviable biomass of fungi and yeast. 98, 1704–1710. Listyanto, P.A., Vitasary, D., Indra, R. and Islamica, D. (2016). Coal Bottom Ash and Activated Carbon for Removal of Vertigo Blue Dye in Batik Textile Waste Water : Adsorbent Characteristic , Isotherms , and Kinetics Studies. 14(5), 427–439. Mahmoud, M.S. (2016). Decolorization of certain reactive dye from aqueous solution using Baker’s Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) strain. HBRC Journal. 12(1), 88–98. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1687404814000649. Mata, A.M.T., Pinheiro, H.M. and Lourenço, N.D. (2015). Effect of sequencing batch cycle strategy on the treatment of a simulated textile wastewater with aerobic granular sludge. Biochemical Engineering Journal. 104, 106–114. Muda, K., Aris, A., Salim, M.R., Ibrahim, Z., Yahya, A., van Loosdrecht, M.C.M., Ahmad, A. and Nawahwi, M.Z. (2010). Development of granular sludge for textile wastewater treatment. Water Research. 44(15), 4341–4350. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2010.05.023. Srinivasan, A. and Viraraghavan, T. (2010). Decolorization of dye wastewaters by biosorbents: A review. Journal of Environmental Management. 91(10), 1915–1929. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.05.003. Tatl, I. and Tunc, O. (2008). A comparative adsorption / biosorption study of Acid Blue 161 : Effect of temperature on equilibrium and kinetic parameters. 142, 23–39. Won, S.W., Kim, H., Choi, S., Chung, B., Kim, K. and Yun, Y. (2006). Performance , kinetics and equilibrium in biosorption of anionic dye Reactive Black 5 by the waste biomass of Corynebacterium glutamicum as a low-cost biosorbent. 121, 37–43.

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RESOURCE SECURITY

Parallel Session 11

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TOXICITY OF SILVER NANOPARTICLE AND ITS REMOVAL BY PYTOREMEDIATION SYSTEM IN WATER ENVIRONMENT: AN OVERVIEW

Zainab Mat Lazim1, Salmiati2* Abdul Rahman Samaluddin1, Mohd Razman

Salim2 and Nor Zaiha Arman2

1School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bharu, MALAYSIA 2 Institute Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security (IPASA), Johor Bharu, MALAYSIA [email protected], *[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT The widespread use of silver nanomaterial potentially harms ecosystem health and the aquatic environment. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) from the washing machine, colloidal silver medicine and other AgNPs containing product are directly released into the environment. Review from ecotoxicological studies and the prediction of the future environmental concentrations (PEC), reported that the presence of the toxic level of AgNPs in the surface water and its effect and risks to aquatic organisms. However, the silver nanoparticles transport behavior and transformation in the natural environment and how this behavior poses a risk to human and ecosystem health has not known, thus, an urgent issue that needs to be tackled. This study also had reviewed the potential of using macrophytes to remove AgNPs in aqueous solution. The impact of AgNPs in water environments, their toxicity to aquatic organisms and the phytoremediation function will be discussed.

Keywords: Silver nanoparticle, macrophyte, phytoremediation, surface water

INTRODUCTION The current worldwide, manufactured nanoparticles (NPs) and nanotechnology has grown very quickly and have been broadly used. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) represent a major class of engineered NPs, most often incorporated in nano-functionalized consumer products and one of the most used NPs with a significant potential for environmental impact. The production volumes of AgNPs were 500 ton per year (Laura et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2016; Lodeiro et al., 2016; Buric et al., 2015; Fabrega et al., 2011a; Fabrega et al., 2011b). Additionally, the unique physicochemical properties of AgNPs, including a strong antibacterial potential, a high electrical and thermal conductivity, are increasingly being applied in the industries, medical imaging, textile, house product, etc (Zhang et al., 2016; Braun et al., 2015; Gambardella et al., 2015; Kumahor et al., 2015; Metreveli et al., 2015; Fabrega et al., 2011).

These products mostly end up in the environment and aquatic systems due to the leakage from the production, use, and disposal of these AgNP containing products. These concerns have led to several studies investigating the detection of the particles in the aquatic environment, the fate, and transformation of AgNP in the aquatic environment and the potential environmental toxicology of these AgNPs to aquatic organisms (McGillicuddy et al., 2017; Ma et al., 2015;). The previous study had shown the extensive use of AgNP by years had causes adverse effect toward aquatic ecosystem especially bacteria, plants, fishes

272 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 and indirectly to humans (Begum et al., 2016; Cui et al., 2016; Minghetti and Schirmer, 2016; Osborne et al., 2016). Thus, a crucial to understanding the environmental behavior and to predict the environmental implications of nanoparticles (NPs) is needed to study (Buric et al., 2015; Gambardella et al., 2015).

The AgNPs-contaminated aquatic system was a possible route for human exposure when it used as a source of potable water. Different people had shown differ reaction by this exposure such as rash, inflammation, swelling, mild allergic reaction or have no effects. Other organisms in the aquatic environment were effect directly such as microbes that involve in nutrient cycle, waste composting and other beneficial and harmful bacteria. The previous study on toxicology had proved that AgNP can cause DNA damage, chromosomal aberrations, and the slight effect on the brain as a test on rat and affected on the early development of zebrafish embryos. Besides, concern from biology view was the harmful microbes might be resistant toward AgNP which had been used as anti-microbe and coated-devices in medical equipment. More exposure of AgNP toward aquatic organism, especially on the harmful microbe, can causes more resistant they become by time.

TOXICITY OF SILVER NANOPARTICLE

The toxicity of AgNP, the dynamic nature of these particles in complex media and living systems has been investigated for many years, however, the risk toward human health, the mammalian cell is still not clearly understand (Molleman and Hiemstra 2017; Hume et al. 2015; Tejamaya et al., 2012). In the aquatic environment, many factors that influenced the fate and transformation, the toxicity and characteristic of AgNP. All the parameters factor including time had influenced the presence of AgNP in wáter environment, which might be in still nanoparticle shape, suspensión in surface wáter, or already aggregate and agglomerate, dissolved or binding with natural organic matter or other substances that present in the aquatic system. Dissolution also can be occurred when oxidation happen which change Ag0 to Ag+1. This ionic state of Ag was actually more toxic toward aquatic organism, somehow, this oxidation process is complicated which depend on time and water physicochemical parameter (Souza et al. 2019; Zhang et al., 2016; Cunningham and Joshi, 2015; SCENIHR, 2014; Liu and Hurt, 2010; Luoma, 2008). Several kinds of research have done regarding the toxicity of AgNP is as followed:

Table 1. The toxicity of AgNP No Studies Toxicity of AgNP References 1 Fish: Japanese The hatchability of embryos and eye size decreased Kataoka et al., medaka 2018 2 Biological systems: AgNPs exert an inhibitory effect in all biological virus, bacteria, systems tested Vazquez- fungi, Protist, Munoz et al., animal cell lines, 2017 and human cancer cell lines 3 Fish: Zebrafish Neurodevelopmental toxicity and behavioral Asmonaite et retardation in early-life stages, adverse effects on al., 2016 development and inhibited hatchability, altered Lee et al., 2007 locomotion, harmful effects to zebrafish embryos 4 normal human lung depolarizing the mitochondrial membrane, Li et al., 2016 fibroblast cells inactivating enzymes from several cellular Shrivastava et (IMR-90) and pathways and damaging lysosomes, induction of al., 2016,

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No Studies Toxicity of AgNP References human glioblastoma cell death by apoptosis, reduced ATP content of the Franchi et al., cells (U251) cell caused damage to mitochondria and increased 2015 the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in Asharani et al. a dose-dependent manner 2008 5 Mammal: Mice AgNPs can also readily cross the blood-brain Antsiferova et barrier and caused long-term contextual memory al., 2019 impairment 6 sea urchin the development of abnormalities Buric et al., 2015 7 ecotoxicological Affect prokaryotes, invertebrates, and fish as low as Fabrega et al., just a few ng L−1 2011 8 Plant: Zucchini affected reduced the zucchini biomass and Stampoulis et seeds transpiration rate al., 2009 9 microbial profile of impact on gut microflora affecting the population Sawosz et al., caecum size of certain types of bacteria 2007

PHYTOREMEDIATION IN AQUATIC MEDIA Phytoremediation is a natural process using plants to clean up contaminants from a soil, air and water source. Phytoremediation has a few types that involve in accumulation, degradation, stabilization, rhizodegradation, rhizofiltration and volatilization of the contaminant in the environment (Evangelou et al., 2015, Khan and Bano, 2015, Padmapriya et al., 2015). For water or aquatic environment remediation, usually, macrophytes were used as phytofiltration or rhizofiltration which involves the uptake of contaminants by adsorption/absorption by plants roots. The macrophytes also act as phytoaccumulation which accumulates contaminants in their biomass such as tissues of the roots, stems or leaves. This process can reduce pollutants in water environments such as wetland and estuary area. Phytoremediation It is a useful technique for removing pollutant from the contaminated water which these macrophytes can go through phytomining process which to harvest back the metal for reuse the extracted metal for the water environment (Eissa, 2017).

The macrophytes that used for rhizolfiltration of AgNP require an extensive root system that able to interact with the contaminated water source and aggressively accumulate and filtrate the contaminant. Besides, the selected macrophytes were better an invasive species which quickly reproduce for self-sustaining. For remediation of contaminated AgNP, macrophytes have to be high capability in metal tolerance as to ensure effective removal of metals nanoparticle and contaminants from a water source (Adamu et al., 2015; Gomati et al., 2014; Harris and Bali, 2008).

Application of phytoremediation for contaminated water involves minimum cost as no expensive equipment and chemical used for this remediation. This technique of rhizofiltration and phytoaccumulation can improve water and soil quality and negligible site disruption (Khan and Bano, 2015, Padmapriya et al., 2015). However, for selected appropriate macrophytes needs more experiment, analysis, and observation since AgNP can negatively affect the plants itself. Once the AgNP enter the aquatic system, the unclear fate and transformation of AgNP will affect the mechanism of this phytoremediation. AgNP can transform as physically and chemically by aggregation or disaggregation, bonding with natural organic matter or dissolution which this will influence the stability of AgNP, the uptake and accumulation of AgNP by macrophytes, the bioavailability as well as their toxicology effect toward the organism and phytoremediator (Andreotti et al., 2015,

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Metreveli et al., 2015, Schaumann et al., 2015, Buric et al., 2015, Farkas et al., 2015, Gambardella et al., 2015). The toxicity of AgNP had been an obstacle for macrophyte to effectively remediate the contaminated water. Microorganisms and bacteria community surround and attached at rhizosphere were supposedly very beneficial for phytoremediation potential, however, the toxicity of AgNP was harmful to these microorganism community and affecting their functioning of ecosystems (Xu et al., 2015, Farkas et al., 2015).

The previous studied showed that P. stratiotes which commonly known as water lettuce can reduce the concentration of AgNP and ions in aqueous solution. The plants also can survive under 0.02 ppm of AgNP, however, increase the concentration of AgNP to 2 ppm and exposure by the time had made the plant's physical degrade, the leaves were wilting, discoloration, browned and completely wilting as the root detached from the aerial part of plants. After all, these plants still can reduce Ag to lower levels than the world health organization's (WHO) maximum contamination limit (MCL) which is 0.1ppm (Nicole et al., 2015). Other study had used salt marsh plant as phytoremediator and result showed that this plant can accumulate AgNP only with the absence of rhizosediment, however, the accumulation only detected in roots and rhizomes. No Ag had been detected in the aerial part of plants. Besides, the presence of AgNP by above of 0.5 ppm had effected the bacterial community structure and function which result in an effect in biochemical processes and potential implication for phytoremediation (Joana et al., 2017).

CONCLUSION AgNPs rapidly change in particle size and surface chemistry upon exposure to media and interaction with their chemical environments such as salinity and pH. These exposures have to be considered in evaluating the hazard and risks of AgNPs, which affect the speciation of AgNP and its toxicity. In the water environment, subsequent bioaccumulation and dissolution of AgNP also cause high risk toward aquatic organism due to the formation of Ag+ ions. However, these toxic effects can be enhanced or decreased due to the transformations of AgNPs in the environment. While, phytoremediation is a natural way to remove AgNP from a water source to reduce, degrade, assimilate and metabolize. This process utilizes the plant's metabolic system to remove AgNP from the aqueous surrounding and store them in their biomass. The appropriate selections of aquatic plants can remediate of water contaminated by AgNP.

Acknowledgment: The authors would like to acknowledge the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and Ministry of Education Malaysia for providing Grants Q.J130000.2422.04G06 and Q.J130000.2522.19H06. The authors also appreciate UTM Zamalah for providing a scholarship in favor of the undertaken project.

REFERENCES

Laura-Jayne A. Ellis, Mohammed Baalousha, Eugenia Valsami-Jones, and Jamie R. Lead. (2018). Seasonal variability of natural water chemistry affects the fate and behavior of silver nanoparticles. Chemosphere, 191, 616-625. C. Zhang, Z. Hu, and B. Deng. (2016). Silver nanoparticles in aquatic environments: physiochemical behavior and antimicrobial mechanisms. Water Research, 88, 403-427. P. Lodeiro, E.P. Achterberg, J. Pampín, A. Affatati, and M.S. El-Shahawi. (2016). Silver nanoparticles coated with natural polysaccharides as models to study AgNP aggregation kinetics using UV-Visible

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spectrophotometry upon discharge in complex environments. Science of the Total Environment., 539, 7-16. P. Buric, Z. Jaksic, L. Stajner, M.D. Sikiric, D. Jurasin, C. Cascio, L. Calzolai and D.M. Lyons. (2015). Effect of silver nanoparticles on Mediterranean Sea urchin embryonal development is species-specific and depends on the moment of first exposure. Marine Environmental Research, 111, 50-59. J. Fabrega, S.N. Luoma, C.R. Tyler, T.S. Galloway, and J.R. Lead. (2011a). Silver nanoparticles: behavior and effects in the aquatic environment. Environment International, 37, 517-531. J. Fabrega, R. Zhang, J.C. Renshaw, W.-T. Liu, and J.R. Lead. (2011b). Impact of silver nanoparticles on natural marine biofilm bacteria. Chemosphere, 85, 961-966. A. Braun, E. Klumpp, R. Azzam, and C. Neukum. (2015). Transport and deposition of stabilized engineered silver nanoparticles in water-saturated loamy sand and silty loam. Science of the Total Environment, 535, 102-112. C. Gambardella, E. Costa, V. Piazza, A. Fabbrocini, E. Magi, M. Faimali, and F. Garaventa. (2015). Effect of silver nanoparticles on marine organisms belonging to different trophic levels. Marine Environmental Research, 111, 41-49. S.K. Kumahor, P. Hron, G. Metreveli, G.E. Schaumann and H.J. Vogel. (2015). Transport of citrate-coated silver nanoparticles in unsaturated sand. Science of the Total Environment., 535, 113-121. G. Metreveli, A. Philippe and G.E. Schaumann. (2015). Disaggregation of silver nanoparticle homoaggregates in a river water matrix. Science of the Total Environment, 535, 35-44. Y. Ma, J.W. Metch, E.P. Vejerano, I.J. Miller, E.C. Leon, L.C. Marr, P.J. Vikesland and A. Pruden. (2015). Microbial community response of nitrifying sequencing batch reactors to silver, zero-valent iron, titanium dioxide, and cerium dioxide nanomaterials. Water Research, 68, 87-97. E. McGillicuddy, I. Murray, S. Kavanagh, L. Morrison, A. Fogarty, M. Cormican, P. Dockery, M. Prendergast, N. Rowan, and D. Morris. (2017). Silver nanoparticles in the environment: Sources, detection, and ecotoxicology. Science of The Total Environment, 575, 231-246. A.N. Begum, J.S. Aguilar, L. Elias, and Y. Hong. (2016). Silver nanoparticles exhibit coating and dose- dependent neurotoxicity in glutamatergic neurons derived from human embryonic stem cells Neurotoxicology, 57, 45-53. B. Cui, L. Ren, and Q.H. Xu. (2016). Silver_ nanoparticles inhibited erythrogenesis during zebrafish embryogenesis Aquatic Toxicology, 177, 295-305. M. Minghetti and K. Schirmer. (2016). Effect of media composition on bioavailability and toxicity of silver and silver nanoparticles in fish intestinal cells (RTgutGC). Nanotoxicology, 10, 1526-1534. O.J. Osborne, K. Mukaigasa and H. Nakajima. (2016). Sensory systems and ionocytes are targets for silver nanoparticle effects in fish. Nanotoxicology, 10, 1276-1286. M.W. Evangelou, E.G. Papazoglou, B.H. Robinson and R. Schulin. (2015). Phytomanagement: phytoremediation and the production of biomass for economic revenue on contaminated land Phytoremediation. Springer International Publishing, 2015, 115-132. N. Khan and A. Bano. (2015). Role of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria and Ag-nano particle in the bioremediation of heavy metals and maize growth under municipal wastewater irrigation. International Journal of Phytoremediation, 2015. Eissa, Mamdouh. (2016). Phytomining. ResearchGate. From: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315384439_Phytomining . Retrieved: 2 Sept 2019. Gomati, S., Adhikari, S. and Mohanty, P. (2014). Phytoremediation of copper and cadmium from water using water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology, 2(1), 1-7. Adamu, Y.U., Tasiu, S.I. and Salisu, M.T. (2015). The use of pistia stratiotes to remove some heavy metals from Romi stream: a case study of Kaduna refinery and petrochemical company polluted stream. J. Env. Sci., Toxic. Food Tech., 9 (1): 48-51. Harris, A.T. and Bali, R. (2008). On the formation and extent of uptake of silver nanoparticles by live plants. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 10(4), 691–695. S. Padmapriya, N. Murugan, C. Ragavendran, R. Thangabalu, and D. Natarajan. (2015). Phytoremediation potential of some agricultural plants on heavy metal contaminated mine waste soils, Salem District, Tamilnadu. International Journal of Phytoremediation, 2015. F. Andreotti, A.P. Mucha, C. Caetano, P. Rodrigues, C.R. Gomes, and C.M.R. Almeida. (2015). Interactions between salt marsh plants and Cu nanoparticles–effects on metal uptake and phytoremediation processes. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 120, 303-309. G.E. Schaumann, A. Philippe, M. Bundschuh, G. Metreveli, S. Klitzke, D. Rakcheev, A. Grün, S.K. Kumahor, M. Kühn, T. Baumann, F. Lang, W. Manz, R. Schulz, and H.J. Vogel. (2015). Understanding the fate and biological effects of Ag-and TiO2-nanoparticles in the environment: the quest for advanced analytics and interdisciplinary concepts. Science of the Total Environment, 535, 3- 19.

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J. Farkas, H. Peter, T.M. Ciesielski, K.V. Thomas, R. Sommaruga, W. Salvenmoser, G.A. Weyhenmeyer, L.J. Tranvik, and B.M. Jenssen. (2015. Impact of TiO2 nanoparticles on freshwater bacteria from three Swedish lakes. Science of the Total Environment, 535, 85-93. G. Metreveli, A. Philippe and G.E. Schaumann. (2015). Disaggregation of silver nanoparticle homoaggregates in a river water matrix. Science of the Total Environment, 535, 35-44. C. Xu, C. Peng, L. Sun, S. Zhang, H. Huang, Y. Chen and J. Shi. (2015). Distinctive effects of TiO2 and CuO nanoparticles on soil microbes and their community structures in flooded paddy soil. Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 86, 24-33. Nicole A. Hanks, Joseph A. Caruso, and Peng Zhang. (2015). Assessing Pistia stratiotes for phytoremediation of silver nanoparticles and Ag(I) contaminated waters. Journal of Environmental Management. 164, 41-45. Joana P. Fernandes, Ana P. Mucha, Telmo Francisco, Carlos Rocha Gomes, and C. Marisa R. Almeida. (2017). Silver nanoparticles uptake by salt marsh plants â€“ Implications for phytoremediation processes and effects in microbial community dynamics. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 119(1), 176-183. Cunningham, S. and Joshi, L. (2015). Assessment of exposure of marine and freshwater model organisms to metallic nanoparticles [WWW Document]. EPA Res. Rep. 150. SCENIHR Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks SCENIHR Opinion on Nanosilver: Safety, Health, and Environmental Effects and Role in Antimicrobial Resistance (2014). S.N. Luoma. (2008). Silver Nanotechnologies and the Environment: Old Problems or New Challenges. Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies Publication 15 Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars and PEW Charitable Trusts, Washington D.C. J.Y. Liu and R.H. Hurt. (2010). Ion release kinetics and particle persistence in aqueous nano-silver colloids. Environmental Science & Technology, 44, 2169-2175.

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THERMAL ACTIVATION ON GONGGONG SHELL WASTE AS AN ADSORBENT MATERIAL FOR CADMIUM REMOVAL IN WATER

Eko Siswoyo*, Ciptaning Rini, Fiorizka Marisha Hadi and Kasam

Department of Environmental Engineering, Universitas Islam Indonesia, Yogyakarta, INDONESIA *[email protected]

ABSTRACT The increase of consumption of gongong, one of scallop in Indonesia, remains a problem of shell waste generation. The shell waste is mostly disposed together with municipal solid waste to landfill and only a limited use for handy craft. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the ability of shell waste for adsorbent material after thermal activation in order to remove cadmium ion in water. Some parameters such as temperature of hitting, mass of adsorbent, pH of solution, contact time, and initial cadmium concentration were investigated to know the adsorption capacity of gonggong shell. After 15 minutes of shaking, the adsorption capacity of the adsorbent based on gonggong shell before and after activated on 550ºC was 16.39 and 27.04 mg/g respectively. The optimum pH was from 6 to 8. The quick adsorption process and high adsorption capacity of the adsorbent should be considered as a low cost adsorbent material for cadmium removal in the real application.

Key words: adsorption, cadmium, gonggong shell, thermal activation.

INTRODUCTION The issues on hazardous waste and heavy metal contamination in many developing countries become one of the hottest topic in recent year. Cadmium (Cd) is one of most harmful heavy metal causing severe risk to human health and environment. It can be released from industrial workplaces such as electroplating, paint pigmentations, batteries, ceramics and textile and can remain water, soil and air pollution (Rao et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2009). The accumulation of Cd ions in various organs of human body such as lungs, liver and kidneys may cause some health problems as like bone damage, cancer, hypertension and renal dysfunction (Noh et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2014). Therefore, the maximum concentration of Cd in drinking water based on United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) standard and Indonesian standard is only 0.003 mg/L.

The presence of Cd in some water areas and some biotas are sometimes exceeded than maximum allowed standard. The concentration of Cd in Muara Kamal Waters in Indonesia and in green mussels is up to 0.026 ppm and 5.9 ppm, respectively (Riani et al., 2018). The highest Cd in oyster crassostrea gigas harvested from the estuary of Lamnyong river, Banda Aceh city Indonesia was up to 0.152 ppm (Sarong et al., 2015).

The development of methods and technologies for water and wastewater treatment including heavy metals removal has been conducted by many researchers. Some common methods such as filtration, neutralization, phytoremediation, ion exchange, adsorption and precipitation have been adopted to remove heavy metal ions in water (Namasivayam and Ranganathan, 1995). Adsorption is one of most promising method due to its removal

278 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 efficiency, ease in operational and maintenance and also the huge raw adsorbent materials. Activated carbon, the most popular adsorbent material, is required to be replaced with new adsorbent materials in because this adsorbent is quite expensive. Gonggong shell has high calcium as its main element, therefore it should be considered as one of low-cost adsorbent material for removal of heavy metal in water. Many researchers studied the potential of scallop shells as adsorbent material, however, only few study about gonggong shell was identified. In the current research, gonggong shell waste was treated by using heating process in order to improve its adsorption capacity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Gonggong shell was collected from Yoyakarta city and dried under the sun. The dried gonggong shell then crushed into powdery form by using rod mill, sizing on 140 mesh and finally heated on 110°C, 500°C and 800°C in furnace for 4 hours. In order to know the characteristic of the adsorbent, the powdery form adsorbents (with and without treatment) were tested by using SEM-EDS (Phenom Pro X) to know the surface structure and FTIR spectra to know the functional groups of the adsorbents.

Some batch adsorption processes were conducted with different variables such as adsorbents mass (50, 100,200, 400 mg), pH of solution (4, 5, 6, 7, 8), contact time (15, 30, 60, 90, 120 min), and initial concentration of cadmium (10 to 300 mg/L) in order to know the optimum adsorption capacity. The adsorption capacity of the adsorbent was determined by using Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption models.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Characteristic of the adsorbent The characteristic of the adsorbent has important contribution on adsorption of cadmium ion. The surface structure of the adsorbents determined by SEM-EDS is shown in the Figure 1. It was clear from the SEM image that after heating the surface of the adsorbent become cleaner and more pore is resulted (Lin and Bai, 2006). However, the most dominant element of the adsorbent (O= 80% and Ca= 20%) is not influenced by heating process. The improve of pore on the adsorbent surface is important to increase the adsorption of metal ion (Siswoyo et. al., 2019). In line with result of SEM-EDS, the data of FTIR spectra indicates that after treatment by heating on 550 °C some functional groups become stronger such as at peak 3435 cm-1 indicates hydroxyl group (-OH) and at peak 1437 indicates (C==O). The absorption bands at around 1641, 1082, 913 cm-1 are associated with; P–O–H; and C–H bending groups, respectively (Stuart, 2004).

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Figure 1. SEM Image of the adsorbents before and after treatment

Figure 2. FTIR Spectra of the adsorbents before (black line) and after treatment (blue line)

Figure 3 shows that heating on 500 ºC resulted the highest adsorption removal of cadmium ion, therefore this treatment is applied for further study. Heating on the specific temperature will give positive effect on the adsorption capacity because of the increase of pore on the adsorbent surface (Lin and Bai, 2006).

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Figure 3. The adsorption of Cd on different treated adsorbents

Effect of adsorbent mass on cadmium removal was studied and shown in Figure 4. It is clearly shown that the adsorption efficiency of the adsorbent increase with the increase of adsorbent mass due to the increase of binding site number. Sorption capacity was steady after some point due to screening effect between adsorbent (Ali, 2014). The over number of adsorbent mass will cause a blocking of adsorbent active site by an increase of biomass in the system (Al-Qodah, 2006).

Figure 4. The effect of adsorbent mass on adsorption of Cd

Figure 5 shows the effect of pH solution on adsorption of cadmium ion in water. The increase of pH solution has positive impact of adsorption removal of Cd. The charge of the adsorbent surface will significantly influence the adsorption of metal ions. The adsorbents surface is mostly affected by the acidity of the medium. For example, at the acidic medium, the –COOH groups in the adsorbent will be protonated to –COOH+2. This will cause the adsorption of Cd2+ onto the surface of the adsorbent will be less effective (Hossain et al., 2015). At higher medium pH, the –COOH groups tend to deprotonated, forming –COO- which will react more effectively with Cd2+ ions.

281 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Figure 5. The effect of pH of solution on adsorption of Cd

Effect of contact time on cadmium adsorption was studied from 15 to 120 minutes which shown in Figure 6. The removal efficiency of cadmium slightly increases from 15 to 60 minutes and then become constant. It means that the equilibrium was reached with in about 60 minutes. This finding is similar to study of Siswoyo et al., (2019) and Al-Senani and Al-Fawzan (2018). The quick adsorption process is necessary for real metals removal due to energy consumption.

Figure 6. The effect of contact time on adsorption of Cd

Adsorption isotherm of the adsorbent was determined by using Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models as shown in Figure 7 and Table 1. The adsorption capacity of raw adsorbent and treated adsorbent are 16.4 and 27.0 mg/g, respectively. It was clear from Table 1 that both adsorbent were fitted with Langmuir isotherm model.

Table 1. Adsorption isotherm based on Langmuir and Freundlich model Langmuir Freundlich Adsorbent Qm (mg/g) KL (L/mg) R² KF n R² Without treatment ads. 16.4 2.103 0.976 2.255 4.149 0.908 Adsorbent heated 550C 27.0 0.474 0.975 2.440 3.968 0.702

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Figure 7. The Langmuir adsorption isotherm

CONCLUSION The adsorption capacity of gonggong shell on cadmium ion removal is due to the presence of pore on the surface área and some functional group of the adsorbent. Heating on the specific temperature (550ºC) increased the adsorption capacity due to increase of pore amount and functional groups. After 15 minutes of shaking, the adsorption capacity of the adsorbent based on gonggong shell before and after activated on 550ºC was 16.39 and 27.04 mg/g respectively. The optimum pH was from 6 to 8. The quick adsorption process and high adsorption capacity of the adsorbent should be considered as a low cost adsorbent material for cadmium removal in the real application.

Acknowledgment: The author would like to thank to the Ministry of Research, technology and Higher Education (RISTEK DIKTI) of Indonesia for the financial support of this work (No. 109/SP2H/DRPM/2018).

REFERENCES

Lin, Y.C. and Bai, H. (2006) Aerosol and Air Quality Research, Vol. 6, No. 1, 43-53. Ali, A.H. (2014) Removal of Cd2+, Cu2+and Ni2+ metals from simulated wastewater in single and competitive systems using local Iraqi phosphate rocks. Chem. Eng. Comm. (201), 1620-1644. Al-Qodah, Z. (2006). Biosorption of heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions by activated sludge, Desalination, (196), 164–176. Al-Senani, G.M. and Al-Fawzan, F.F. (2018) Adsorption study of heavy metal ions from aqueous solution bynanoparticle of wild herbs. Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research (44), 187-194. Hossain, A., Bhattacharyya, S.R., Aditya, G., 2015. Biosorption of cadmium from aqueous solution by shell dust of the freshwater snail Lymnaea luteola. Environ. Technol. Innov. 4, 82–91. Namasivayam, C., Ranganathan, K., 1995. Removal of Cd(II) from wastewater by adsorption on waste Fe(III)/Cr(III) hydroxide. Water Res. 29, 1737-1744. Noh Y., Jo, E.J., Mun, H., Ahn, Y.D., and Kim, M.G. (2017) Homogeneous and selective detection of cadmium ions by forming fluorescent cadmium-protein nanoclusters, Chemosphere 174, 524–530. Riani, E., Cordova, M.R and Arifin, Z. (2018). Heavy metal pollution and its relation to the malformation of green mussels cultured in Muara Kamal waters, Jakarta Bay, Indonesia. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 133, 664-670. Sarong, M.A., Jihan, C., Muchlisin, Z.A., Fadli, N., and Sugianto, S., (2015) Cadmium, lead and zinc contamination on the oyster Crassostrea gigas muscle harvested fromthe estuary of Lamnyong River, Banda Aceh City, Indonesia. AACL Bioflux, vol. 8 issue 1. Siswoyo, E., Qoniah, I., Lestari, P., Fajri, J.A., Sani, R.A., Sari, D.G., and Boving, T., (2019) Development of a floating adsorbent for cadmium derived from modified drinking water treatment plant sludge, environmental Technology and Innovation, 14, 1-9. Stuart, B.H., 2004. Infrared Spectroscopy: Fundamentals and Applications. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., ISBN: 978-0- 470-85428-0, 244. Xu, M., Hadi P., Chen, G., and McKay, G. (2014) Removal of cadmium ions from wastewater using innovative electronic waste-derived material, J. Hazard. Mater. 273, 118–123.

283 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

THE DEVELOPMENT OF MIWABS TOWARDS WATER DEMAND MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIA

Nurul Sa’dah Bahar1, Zainura Zainon Noor2, Azmi Aris3 and Nurul Ashikeen

Binti Kamaruzaman4

1 Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA [email protected] 2,3 Centre for Environment Sustainability and Water Security (IPASA), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA [email protected], [email protected] 4 National Water Services Commission (SPAN) [email protected]

ABSTRACT Industrialization is one of the drivers for development as it will shift one country towards urbanization and economic expansion. Although industrialization increases productivity, jobs and better income, valuable resources such as water is at risk to accommodate the water demand based on the population growth. Along with the sustainable development goal initiated by United Nation, manufacturing water demand will increase 400% by 2050. Since Malaysia is among the top 20 ranking of manufacturing countries, it is crucial to consider water conservation and efficiency in manufacturing. This is to ensure that the water demand can meet the production and do not disrupt other sectors since the water resources are shared among all sectors. This paper demonstrates an indicator framework known as MIWABS that has been developed as a scorecard tool to monitor the performance of manufacturing water use in Malaysia. Result shows that factories can improve in their water recycling and dependency to potable water by water utility company. These efforts of manufacturing and policy direction by the government and water stakeholders can help towards a better water demand management in Malaysia.

Key words: Manufacturing water use, water demand management, MIWABS, water recycling, water utility.

INTRODUCTION Urbanization and economic development have created pressure to water resources management. It is estimated that, water demand will increase to 55% by 2050 (United Nations, 2015). One of the factors of the increasing water demand is industrialization. United Nations World Water Development Report 2015 projected, manufacturing water demand increases by 400% during 2000 to 2050, highest as compared to the other sector.

Malaysia has shown significant growth in the manufacturing sector. The average annual growth of manufacturing sector between 1996 to 2005 is 6.2%. As reported by Department of Statistics Malaysia, manufacturing sector contributes 23% of share Gross Domestic Product in 2016. The Third Industrial Master Plan targeted a shared of GDP in 2020 for manufacturing sector is 28.5%. By next year, Malaysia is projected to rank at 13 in the Global Manufacturing Competitive Index (Limited, 2016). Water consumption trend between 2011 to 2018 as reported in Malaysia Water Industry Guide indicated that, non-domestic water consumption increased together with the total

284 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 water consumption as shown in Figure 1. The average usage is 37% for non-domestic where manufacturing sector is one of non-domestic major users.

Figure 1. Total water consumption for 2010 to 2017 (MWIG, 2018)

With the trend and projected competitiveness of manufacturing sector in Malaysia, SPAN collaborates with IPASA UTM to develop Malaysian Manufacturing Industry Water Benchmarking System (MIWABS). It serves as a scorecard for manufacturing facility to evaluate their effort in water conservation and effectiveness within the factory. MIWABS is develop based on indicator framework under various aspects namely economic, environmental, technological and social. Indicator framework method has been proven successful in performance measurement such as Water Poverty Index (Sullivan, 2002), Watershed Sustainability Index (Chaves & Alipaz, 2007), Sustainable Cities Water Index (Arcadis, 2012) and West Java Water Sustainability Index (Juwana et. al., 2016).

RESEARCH FLOW The development of MIWABS consists of six (6) steps as shown in Figure 2. As scope is defined, the aspects of research were identified. Horizon scanning for possible indicators was carried out. Then, these indicators were screened and filtered through workshop attended by the relevant stakeholders. Based on established aspects and indicators, data collection was collected in order to demonstrate the indicator-framework. After that, normalization of data was done through Proximity-to-Target method. Weightage assignment was gathered using AHP method and the questionnaire was distributed to water experts in Malaysia. Subsequently, the aggregation of MIWABS indicators is used to express the performance of manufacturing factories in term of score.

Figure 2. Research flow for development of MIWABS RESULTS Based on the horizon scanning and indicator filtration steps, the indicator framework for MIWABS is produced as shown in Figure 3. The aspects are based on sustainability pillars which are economic, environmental and social. Then, to suit the manufacturing

285 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 industry, technical is added as one of the aspects in MIWABS Indicator Framework. Nine (9) indicators was established for MIWABS namely % of water in production in term of cost, cost to treat 1m3 of wastewater, % of recycling water, wastewater per product, water per product, employee water use, water conservation effort, % utility water and % process water.

Figure 3. MIWABS Indicator Framework

Based on this indicator framework, data were collected based on 2 pilot manufacturing industry which are rubber glove and semiconductor manufacturing factories. The result for MIWABS score for all manufacturing factories are shown in Figure 4. For semiconductor industry (Factory 10 to Factory 15), the scoring is more uniform as compared to rubber glove manufacturing (Factory 1 to Factory 9). This may be contributed by those manufacturing factories that follow the same practices as their parent international company overseas. On the other hand, rubber glove manufacturing is mostly Malaysian companies. Based on the feedback of the questionnaires, water usage within the factories in those rubber glove manufacturing varies from one another in terms of water per product, wastewater per product, and employee water usage.

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Rubber Glove Semiconductor

Figure 4. MIWABS Score

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION As to date, there is no policy or specific guideline on water use in manufacturing factories in Malaysia. Through the observation from questionnaires and interviews feedback from manufacturing personnel, water use in factory has not been the primary parameter for conservation or optimization as compared to energy or other resources for production. As they agreed that the tariff has not been of any issue, water has yet been treated as a precious commodity in the manufacturing production. However, the interruption in water supply is more of their concern. Looking at the aggregation of nine MIWABS indicators (Figure 5), it shows that improvement can be made in manufacturing factories based on the total percentage of recycling water (En1) and percentage of utility water in factory (T1). As mentioned in the water demand management strategies, it is suggested that water recycling in manufacturing sector to be up to 30% (ASM, 2016). Recycling water can help to minimize the water intake as it can be reused for suitable manufacturing activities. Therefore, support and comprehensive policy direction on recycling water in manufacturing sector should be introduced.

Figure 5. MIWABS Pie radar Chart

Apart from that, manufacturing factories can also improve their water use in term of their dependency to potable water by the water utility company. This can help to reduce the competitiveness of shared potable water with commercial and domestic sectors. Besides that, it gives lower change of water interruption that can affect production. This initiative had been carried out by one of the rubber glove manufacturing factories where water intake is 100% comes from the river. By setting up their own water treatment plant, the

287 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 cost to purchase water is much lower than potable water from the water operator. Few factories also have opted taking up water from groundwater which helps to reduce potable water intake.

By improving these indicators in manufacturing water use, more effective water demand management in Malaysia can be achieved. Moreover, it will support the action plan in line with Sustainable Development Goal as follows:

SDG Description 6.4 By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity. 9.4 By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make them sustainable, with increased resource-use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking action in accordance with their respective capabilities 12.2 By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources

Acknowledgment: The authors would like to acknowledge the support of University Technology Malaysia (UTM), Johor Bahru, and National Water Service Commission (SPAN).

REFERENCES

Arcadis. (2012). Sustainable Cities Water Index. Which cities are best placed to harness water for future success? ASM. (2016). Strategies to Enhance Water Demand Management in Malaysia. https://doi.org/10.15713/ins.mmj.3 Chaves, H. M. L., & Alipaz, S. (2007). An integrated indicator based on basin hydrology, environment, life, and policy: The watershed sustainability index. Water Resources Management, 21(5), 883–895. Juwana, I., Muttil, N., & Perera, B. J. C. (2016). Application of west Java water sustainability index to three water catchments in west Java, Indonesia. Ecological Indicators, 70, 401–408. Lawrence, P., Meigh, J., & Sullivan, C. (2002). The Water Poverty Index: An International Comparison. Keele Economics Research Papers, 19(October), 17. Retrieved from www.keele.ac.uk/depts/ec/web/wpapers/kerp0219.pdf Limited, D. T. T. (2016). Global Manufacturing Competitiveness Index. MWIG. (2018). Malaysian Water Industry Guide. United Nations. (2015). The United Nations World Water Development Report 2015.

288 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

ESTIMATING WATER FOOTPRINT OF PALM OIL PRODUCTION: CASE STUDY IN MALAYSIA

Noor Salehan Mohammad Sabli1,2, Zainura Zainon Noor1,2*, Kasturi Devi A/P Kanniah3, Siti Nurhayati Kamaruddin1,2, Nurul Sa’dah Bahar4

1Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security (IPASA), Research Institute of Sustainable Environment (RISE), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor Darul Takzim, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 2School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, MALAYSIA 3Department of Geoinformation, Faculty of Geoinformation & Real Estate, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected] 4Faculty of Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Technology Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected]

ABSTRACT Malaysia is currently facing the issues in fulfilling high demand in palm oil production thus inevitably led to rapid expansion of palm oil industry in Malaysia. Therefore, water- related problems have become a major concern in environmental and social issues associated to palm oil industries. Inevitably, water consumption in this sector is very important to be analyzed. Water footprint is one of the methods that can be used as a tool for the sustainable appropriation of freshwater resources. The main purpose of this study is to evaluate water footprint at palm oil mill from fresh fruit bunches to the production of crude palm oil. Water footprint concluded that the main potential impacts within the system boundary were dominated by water usage at the process through producing crude palm oil and waste water effluent. In this stage, total water input mainly come from the nearest water resources such as river and lake. Meanwhile, from the result, it shows that total WF at selected mills is 18.55 m3/ton. At the end of this paper, strategies to optimized the use of water in palm oil mill will be proposed.

Key words: Agricultural Industry, Water degradation, Water footprint, ISO 14046, Sustainable Palm Oil Plantation

INTRODUCTION In Malaysia, oil palm plantation area production has increased markedly from 5.23 million ha in 2013 to 5.85 million ha in 2018 (MPOB, 2019). Currently, Malaysia is the second largest oil palm producer in the world after Indonesia with an oil palm planted area is 5.85 million ha. The oil palm industry has been a strong contributor to the nation’s economic growth with annual high exports was RM77.85 billion in 2017, increased from RM 67.92 billion in 2016 (Kushairi, 2018). Freshwater reduction and pollution are become major problems related to oil palm industries. To assess and communicate the performance of an oil palm industries under the perspective of three “sustainability pillars” (i.e, economic, social and environmental pillar), quantitative indicators have been proposed as a suitable and effective mean. Among the indicators concerning the assessment of environmental

289 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 impacts, the water footprinting, describing the impacts of a system or product on water resources from both a quantitative and qualitative perspective.

The water footprint (WF) is a useful indicator to report on total water consumption, water scarcity levels and reductions achieved after the implementation of response strategies. This concept was firstly proposed by Hoekstra et al (2011) and was implemented through Water footprint Assessment (WFA). The objectives of this study is to investigate the water footprint in milling process in crude palm oil production at selection palm oil mills. In addition, this paper is the sequence from previous study of WF at cultivation stage by Sabli et.al, (2019).

MATERIALS AND METHODS This study assess the Water Footprint (WF) of crude palm oil production according to the ISO 14046 standard, which adopts an LCA approach as the framework. The LCA framework consists of goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, environmental impact assessment and interpretation of the result (ISO, 2006). The whole process of this study is shown as in Figure 1. This study adopt a functional unit of water required to produce 1t crude palm oil.

Figure 1. LCA Framework including the Relevant Steps for Water Footprint

In determining WF at mill the methods have been divided into two categories, total water consumption in each stage of CPO process = WF process (WFPr) and total quantity and quality of wastewater = WF wastewater (WFw). Total consumption from both method will be combined as total WF at mill (WFM) as in Figure 2.

Ʃ water consumption in Ʃ quantity and quality of each stage of CPO wastewater production

WF Production (WFPr) WF Wastewater (WFW)

WF of Palm Oil Mill

Figure 2. The Calculation method of WF in Palm Oil Mill

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The water footprint (WF) of the production (WFPr) is predicted by using data of water consumption in each step of palm oil mill. It was analyses by using water balance approach from Chukalla, et.al (2015). In estimating this data, material balance from Ropandi, et al (2017) was also been used. For indirect water use in palm oil mill, secondary data from Vijaya, et.al (2008) was been used. Meanwhile, at palm oil mill, there is nil use of water from rainwater or evapotranspiration. Usually, these water source are been used during nursery and plantation stage.

Boundary of Study Figure 3 show the diagram process in palm oil mill. Hence the boundary of this study is until the production of crude palm oil (CPO). Therefore, flow process starts from the fresh fruit bunch go to the sterilization process where bunches are cooked whole, the wet heat weakens the fruit stem and makes it easy to remove the fruit from bunches on shaking or tumbling in the threshing machine. Then go to the stripper, to separate the fruit, nut and the fiber. After that, the fruit will go to digester. Digestion is the process of releasing the palm oil in the fruit through the rupture or breaking down of the oil- bearing cells. At the clarification tank, fine suspended solids are separated and removed from crude oil. Raw crude oil from the settling tank (top oil) is combined with recovered oil from the treatment of the settling tank underflow. The flow process have been highlighted with red arrow in Figure 3. Data for water input are been given from the respondents during the questionnaires and interview session.

Figure 3. Palm Oil Mill Flow Process Diagram

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The input and output of materials for the process is represents in the material balance. Figure 4 shows material balance for 1t of CPO in palm oil mill. Table 1 shows the water related life cycle inventory (LCI) for the production of 1t CPO at the palm oil mil.

291 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

FFB 100% (10.3ton)

Condensate 12% Fruit Bunches 66% EFB 22%

Press Cake 26% Crude Oil 40%

Fibre 14% Kernel 12% CPO 25% Drab Water 15%

Palm Kernel 7% Shell 5% Figure 4. Material Balance for 1t CPO Production

Table 1. Life Cycle Inventory (water related data) For the Production of 1t CPO (system boundary of palm oil mill) Inventory Unit 1t per CPO Water for milling process 8.8 m3 Diesel (startup process and 1.8 kg vehicles within mill) Electricity 2.47 kWhr POME 2.61 t

Water Footprint of CPO Production The WF through the production process is being assumed based on material balance approach. According to Ropandi et.al (2017), POME originated from three sources which are sterilizer condensate, separator sludge or sludge and hydro cyclone wastewater or clay bath used for cracked mixture separation (kernel separation). Table 2 shows the three POME sources as a percentage of the FFB processed.

Table 2. The Three POME Sources As A Percentage Of The FFB Processed % to WFPr Source of POME FFB (m3/ton) Steriliser condensate 12 1.23 Sludge centrifuge wastewater 50 5.15 Hydro cyclone/clay bath 5 0.5 wastewater Total 67 6.88

Based on the data from observation at selected mills, average FFB processed for 1t CPO is 10.3 t. Therefore, in 1t CPO, the mill will produce wastewater approximately 6.88 m3/ton. This amount is equivalent to 0.67 m3/ton of average production rate of POME for each t of FFB process. Total WFw can be summed up that value with WF from production process from direct and indirect water consumption which is approximately 11.67 m3/ton. Total WFmill = WFPr + WFw = 18.55 m3/ton

CONCLUSION This study is base on the data that are collected from selected palm oil mills. There may be other technologies or methods used by some mills to reduce water consumption which are not discussed as those systems are not widely used.

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REFERENCES

Bayart, J.B., Bulle, C.,Deschênes,L.,Margni,M.,Pfister,S.,Vince,F.,Koehler,A.,2010. A Framework for Assessing Off-Stream Freshwater use in LCA. International Journal Life Cycle Assessment.15.439- 453. Boulay, A.-M., Hoekstra, A.Y., Vionnet, S., 2013. Complementarities of Water-Focused Life Cycle Assessment and Water Footprint Assessment. Environmental Science Technology. 47, 11926–11927. Chukalla AD., Krol MS., A.Y. Hoekstra., 2015. Green and Blue Water Footprint Reduction in Irrigated Agriculture: Effect of Irrigation Techniques, Irrigation Strategies and Mulching. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 19: 4877–4891. Herda,S.D,K., Kris,R.D.L.,Chay,A., 2017. Estimating Water Footprint of Palm Oil Production in PTP Mitra Ogan Baturaja South Sumatera. International Journal on Advanced Science Engineering Information Technology. 7 : 2115- 2121 Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB); Economics & Industry Development Division. Oil Palm Planted Area. http://bepi.mpob.gov.my/index.php/en/statistics/area.html. Assessed 27.07.2019 Mohd Ekhwan, T., Mohd Khairul, A.K.,Muhammad Barzani, G., Mokhtar, J., Nor Azlina, A.A., Pan, L.L. 2012. Water Quality Status & Hydrological Analysis in Upper Tropical River Malaysia. International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences. IJACS/2012/4-2/33-39 Kushairi, D., 2018. Overview of the Malaysian Oil Palm Industry 2017. MPOB Palm Oil Statistics. Malaysian Oil Palm Board. http://palmoilis.mpob.gov.my/index.php/overview-of-industry/593- overview-of-industry-2017. Assessed 27.07.2019 FAO, 2018. Transforming Food and Agriculture to Achieve the SDGs. Ropandi,M., Astimar, A.A., Rohayu,M.H. 2017. Waste Minimisation for Palm Oil Mills: A Case Study. Palm Oil Engineering Bulletin. No.122. Sabli, N.S.M., Noor, Z.Z., Kanniah,K., Kamaruddin, S.N., Bahar, N.S. (2019). Inventory Analysis and Water Footprint Quantification of Palm Oil Plantation in Malaysia. Submitted. Silalertruksa, T., Gheewala, S. H., Pongpat, P., Kaenchan, P., Permpool, N., Lecksiwilai, N., Mungkung, R. (2017): Environmental sustainability of oil palm cultivation in different regions of Thailand: greenhouse gases and water use impact. – Journal of Cleaner Production 167(Supplement C): 1009- 1019. Vijaya,S.,MA, A.N., Choo, Y.M., Nik Meriam, N.S. 2008. Life Cycle Inventory of The Production of Crude Palm Oil – A Gate to Gate Case Study of 12 Palm Oil Mills. Journal of Oil Palm Research. WULCA, 2014. http://www.wulca-waterlca.org/footprinting.html. Assessed 05.08.2019.

293 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

MODELLING OF PREVAILING WATER DISTRIBUTION NETWORK IN PUTRAJAYA, MALAYSIA

Nur Diyana Mohamad1, Zulfa Hanan Ash’aari*1,2

1 Department of Environmental Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, MALAYSIA [email protected], *[email protected] 2 Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, MALAYSIA

ABSTRACT Water is a basic need for every human being, which is used for numerous activities such as drinking, cleaning, sanitation, etc. This indicates the fact that how vital it is to make water accessible for resident’s need, industries and other commercial organizations. Since water demand is increasing day by day, the source of water becomes limited. To solve this problem, the design of new or improvement of existing water distribution network is obligatory in order to ensure the availability of sufficient amount of decent quality of water in accordance with the demand. Hence this study is based on the assessment of existing water distribution network in Putrajaya using EPANET 2.0 software and out of all the tools offered, EPANET turn out to be the most popular and convenient for effective design of complex pipe networks. The pipe network and junction network system is simulated to comprehend its behaviour with different inputs using EPANET 2.0. Simulation has been perform for hydraulic factors such as head, pressure and flow rate. The results achieved proved that the pressures at all junctions and the flows with their velocities at all pipes are practical enough to provide adequate water to the network of study area.

Key words: Water distribution network, EPANET, Pipe, Junction

INTRODUCTION Water is a main natural resource, a basic human need and a valuable national asset (Boddu & Kumar, 2016). Its pivotal role in sustaining life and catering almost all human activities is undeniably crucial (Lungariya, 2016). The development, conservation and utilization of water appear to be one of the key elements in the development planning of a country. With the increase in population, and demand of water supply, there is a rising awareness that water resources exist in limited quantities and for that, available supply diverse considerably during the course of a year (Dave et al., 2015). Principally, the water supply should meet the user demand, and should be sufficient in quality and adequate in quantity, be readily accessible to users with pressure, and be reasonably cheap and easily discard of after it has served its purpose. Therefore, the identification of water supply sources, their conservation and optimal utilization is of uttermost importance.

Water distribution network (WDN), hydraulic infrastructure involving of elements such as pipes, tanks, reservoirs, pumps and valves, etc. is critical to supply water to the consumers (Ibrahim, 2015; Ramana et al., 2015). Components of a distribution system comprise distribution mains, arterial mains, storage reservoirs and system accessories (mainline meters, valves, service connections, hydrants, and backflow preventers). Distribution mains are the pipelines that form the distribution system. Their function is to transport water from the source or treatment works to end users. Thus, inspection,

294 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 control and planned maintenance and rehabilitation programs are essential to operate properly the existing water distribution systems. However, there is still not a favourable assessment for the reliability of water distribution systems (Yadav et al., 2015). In addition, computation of flows and pressures in a complex network has been of great challenge and interest for those involved with designs, construction and maintenance of public water distribution systems (Saminu et al., 2013). This is because, traditionally, water distribution network design is based on the proposed street plan and the topography. With that, by using commercial software, the modeler could simulates the flows and pressures in the network including flows in and out to/from the tank for requisite loading. Therefore, this study aims to assess the existing water distribution system in one of the well-planned city in Malaysia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study area Putrajaya is chosen as the study area because of its well-planned city where most of the main government offices or buildings are located and operated. It has a total land area of 49 km2 with twenty precincts. Detail description of the study area is summarized and visualized in Figure 1 and Table 1 accordingly.

Figure 1. Putrajaya water distribution network

295 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Table 1. Description of the study area Precinct Area (km2) Type of premises/buildings Residential area Precinct 5 3.17 Apartment Precinct 6 1.40 Apartment Precinct 8 3.42 Apartment, bungalow, 2-storey house, 3-storey house Precinct 9 2.58 Apartment, 2-storey house Precinct 10 1.27 Bungalow Precinct 11 5.78 Apartment, bungalow, condominium, 2-storey house, 3-storey house Precinct 14 1.64 Apartment, bungalow, 2-storey house, 3-storey house Precinct 15 4.70 Apartment, condominium, 2-storey house Precinct 16 1.23 Apartment, bungalow, 2-storey house, 3-storey house Precinct 17 1.54 Apartment Precinct 18 1.45 Apartment Industrial area Precinct 1 4.38 Government office (main), restaurant, hall, complex Precinct 2 1.87 Government office, restaurant, hall, complex Precinct 3 0.76 Government office, hall, complex Precinct 4 1.68 Government office, restaurant, park Precinct 7 0.63 Hospital, office, market Precinct 12 1.75 Construction site Precinct 13 4.08 Wetland, office Precinct 19 3.30 Water treatment plant, corporate office Precinct 20 2.55 Place of worship, cemetery, corporate office

EPANET Software EPANET is a software that executes extended period of hydraulic simulation and water quality behaviour within pressurized pipe networks. A network is comprise of pipes, nodes (pipe junctions), storage tanks or reservoirs, pumps and valves. EPANET traces the water flow of water in each pipe, the pressure at each node, the height of water in each tank, and the concentration of a chemical species throughout the network during a simulation period including of multiple time steps. Other than chemical species analysis, water age and source tracking can also be imitated. In order to analyze the WDN using EPANET, following input data files are required: 1. Junction report 2. Pipe report

Junction Report Junctions are points in the network where links connect and where water enters or leaves the network. The basic input data needed for junctions are: 1. Elevation above some reference (usually mean sea level) 2. Water demand (rate of withdrawal from the network) 3. Initial water quality

The output results computed for junctions at all time periods of a simulation are: 1. Hydraulic head 2. Pressure 3. Water quality

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Pipe Report Pipes are links that transport water from one point to another in the network. EPANET assumes that all pipes are full at all times. Flow direction is from the end at higher hydraulic head to that at the lower head. The main hydraulic input parameters for pipes are: 1. Start and end nodes 2. Diameter 3. Length 4. Roughness coefficient (for determining head loss) 5. Status (open, closed, or contains a check valve)

Computed outputs for pipes involve the following: 1. Flow rate 2. Velocity 3. Head loss 4. Hazen-Williams friction factor (head loss formula used in this study) 5. Average reaction rate (over the pipe length) 6. Average water quality (over the pipe length)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Pressure, flow and velocity data of Putrajaya distribution network have been computed in EPANET by using the methodology mentioned above. Results analysis have been performed and a total of 465 junctions and 504 pipes are included in the analysis. Pressure and flow profiles for Putrajaya water distribution network is shown in Figure 2 while the average demand of water supply of the distribution network is shown in Table 2. The water distribution network of Putrajaya drawn in EPANET is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Putrajaya water distribution network in EPANET

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Table 2. Estimation of average total demand in precinct (in residential area) Precinct Total unit of buildings (mostly residential area) Average total demand (litres) 5 2894 4330750 6 2612 3913600 8 2734 4499450 9 6963 10554000 10 267 532000 11 6124 9773800 14 2413 3787300 15 2749 4697700 16 1664 2658050 17 4892 7332200 18 2608 4166905

In summary, following findings may be drawn from the analysis. 1. Pressure head at all nodes in the study area are having sufficient pressure to extract water. 2. Flow in all pipes or links are also ample enough to tolerate the pressures at nodes. 3. Pipe’s roughness coefficient are quite adequate as the head loss due to friction is little. 4. It is recommended to install air valve at high elevation and sluice valve at low elevation.

CONCLUSION The key point of this study is to analyze the water distribution network and distinguish deficiencies (if any) in its suitability, implementation and its utilization. The results show that the resultant pressures at all the junctions and the flows with their velocities at all pipes are sufficient to provide water within the study area. Besides, this study is also beneficial to water supply developers or engineers in terms of saving time, as this process is fast and less tedious.

Acknowledgment: The authors gratefully thank and acknowledge research grant provided by Ministry of Education (MOE) for funding this work under Trans-Disciplinary Research Grant Scheme [TRGS/2016/5535713].

REFERENCES

Boddu, S. R. and Kumar, R. (2016). Design and Analysis of Pipe Network System by Using EPANET. i-Manager's Journal on Civil Engineering, 6 (2), 42-48. Dave, B. H., Rajpara, G., Patel, A. and Kalubarme, M. H. (2015). Continuous Water Distribution Network Analysis Using Geo-informatics Technology and EPANET in Gandhinagar City, Gujarat state, India. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 6 (4), 1587-1594. Ibrahim, T. A. (2015). Design of Kano Meteropolitan water distribution system using EPANET Software. International Journal for Research & Development in Technology, 4 (6), 2349-3585. Lungariya, P. (2016). Analysis of Continuous Water Distribution in Surat City using EPANET: A Case Study. GRD Journals. Global Research and Development Journal for Engineering. Recent Advances in Civil Engineering for Global Sustainability, e-ISSN: 2455-5703, 1-7. Ramana, G. V., Sudheer, C. V. and Rajasekhar, B. (2015). Network analysis of water distribution system in rural areas using EPANET. Procedia Engineering, 119, 496-505. Saminu, A., Abubakar, N. and Sagir, L. (2013). Design of NDA water distribution network using EPANET. International Journal of Emerging Science and Engineering (IJESE), 1 (9), 5-9. Yadav, V. G., Mehta, D. and Waikhom, S. I. (2015). To assess the prevailing Water Distribution Network using EPANET. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET), 2 (8), 777-781.

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RESOURCE SECURITY

Parallel Session 12

299 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

TRENDS OF WATER USE EFFICIENCY IN INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION

Siti Nurhayati Kamaruddin*1, Zainura Zainon Noor2, Che Hafizan Che Hassan3

Noor Salehan Mohammad Sabli4, Nurul Sa’adah Bahar5

1,2,4 School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 2,3 Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security (IPASA), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected] 5 School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, MALAYSIA [email protected]

ABSTRACT Freshwater is currently scarce in certain places over the globe due to agricultural, industrial and domestic usages. The amount of water used increasing each years by 64 billion m3. In that case, numerous organisations either governments or non-governments committed to reduce large water consumption related activities in the affected areas. The industrial activities consumed around 23% of the freshwater among the other usages with over 70% of it used by manufacturing and energy production industry, and estimated this 23% to be doubled in next two decades. Therefore, it is important to assess the trends of water use efficiency in industrial consumption and efforts that had been taken to improve it. The different production in industries require different processes and amount of water need. Thus, this paper is aims to provide as guidance in future in order to reduce the water demands and optimize water use in industrial context. Water use efficiency basically can be divided into quantity and quality of water where the quantity can be reduced with usages of water-saving technologies. While in other types of industry, different quality of water can be used in the process based on its characteristics.

Key words: Water Use Efficiency, Water Saving, Industrial Consumption

INTRODUCTION Water use in industry is increasing due to high goods production processes, intensive used of materials and energy, and treatment of wastewater. It is estimated the needs for current water supplies will be increased about 40% by 2030 (Sachidananda et al., 2016) with 23% of freshwater is used by industrial activities. However, several places are affected with water scarcity. Thus, United Nations had given initiative in monitoring issues related to clean water and sanitation towards achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6. The main focuses on monitoring for SDG 6 between countries are to gather country data and report on global progress mainly in SDG 6, create awareness among the national and global level, methodologies and tools development in order to monitor the global indicators of SGD 6 and to improve further the country capacity of monitoring in terms of technical and institutional. According to United Nations (2012), there is a knowledge gap mainly in manufacturing industry which create waste of available water in terms of water consumption and withdrawal due to inability of technological improvements in production processes. Figure 1 shows an example of

300 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 broad overview in industrial water system. Water particularly has different quality and quantity. Therefore, the types of water being supply and use in each industry depends on the requirements needed by the processes. There are industries which increased the water use efficiency by reuse of wastewater in other processes directly or treat the wastewater before being recycled into other processes. Thus this paper focusing on the water use efficiency and tools being used to measure. Consequently can be a guide to optimize water use and reduce water consumption of industrial activities in future.

Figure 1. Broad overview of an industrial water system (Source: Kurle et al., 2017)

MATERIALS AND METHODS Water resources had been used inefficiently and being over exploited in certain countries that cause some high populated places had issues access to clean water. There are three major phases as steps to improve water efficiency which are water data being obtained to prove transparency of current situation, attained steps to improve current situation after an analysis conducted and comprehensive assessment of the attained steps (Kurle et al., 2017). Besides, many countries had developed tools in order to reduce water use to the minimum capacity with regards of the high demands in industrial activities and also methods to analysis the water demands, flow, and availability. One of the methods being used worldwide to analyze the water availability is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). This particular method assessed on the potential environmental impacts of products of processes. However, Fthenakis and Kim (2010) had measure the impacts by applying water as an indicator in the analysis. Recent studies by using LCA had evolved into many aspects in order to determine water impacts in term of availability, distributions and regional variations, and quality. Furthermore, the integration with water footprint method broaden the analysis to calculating the direct and indirect water of certain products or processes. Through this method of LCA, a simulation being created to quantify the water flows of direct and discharge in certain processes including with impact characterization (Kurle et al., 2017). The global water database that being used with LCA such as Waterstat which introduced by Water Footprint Network (WFN) and database on agriculture from Food and Agriculture Organization CLIMWAT helps in provide details

301 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 on the products (Sachidananda et al., 2016). There is other method which is using Input- Output (I-O) table as being practiced by Shi et al. (2015). This method particularly used in analyzing changes of water use efficiency in terms of effect. Data were gathered from 2002 and 2007 which include 29 sectors of 1 from agriculture, 24 from industry, 1 from construction, 2 from transport and communication and warehousing industry, and 1 from services (Shi, et al., 2015). In order to use this method, there are two main important balances should be taken into consideration which are the value of production must similar to its use value for each sector and the other one is in terms of equal amount of income produced by the society to the national and its final used. Thus, the data needed to use this method are not only concerning on the total volume of the water use but also include the value economically. In other case study, Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is used to determine the industrial water use efficiency by evaluating the efficiency of decision making unit respectively. This method can neglect the parameters estimation or input and output functional relationship which contribute to its own advantages. In addition to improve this method, indicators were select thoroughly which include selection of input- output indicator, selection of pollutant indicator, selection of external variable indicator and data sources. By using DEA method, the data were not analyzed directly but using index system (Wang et al., 2018). This index system were measured economically and can be seen in Table 1. The methods being used depends respectively on the region, types of industrial activities or processes which require different types of quality in water use, and data sources and availability of the industry.

Table 1. Water use efficiency evaluation index system (Source: Wang et al., 2018) Index Indicator (Unit)

Input Labor (10 thousand capital)

Input Capital (100 million dollar)

Input Water (100 million m3) Undesirable output Sewage (10 0000 tons) Desirable output Per capita GDP (dollar)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Certain assessment in water use efficiency need different phases such as data acquisition, analysis, and evaluation which resulted in different measure of water use for different processes in industry. For example which following the Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), there are four main aspects to determine the indicators which affecting efficiency of water use which are factor endowment, economic, water resource utilization and environmental education and governance and can be seen in Table 2.

Table 2. Indicators of factors affecting water use efficiency (Source: Xu et al., 2019) Aspect Factor Evaluation indicator Factor endowment Factor endowment Per capita water resources Economic Economic development level Per capita GDP Scientific and technological Funds for research experimental progress development of industrial enterprises above a designated amount Industrial structure Ratio of the output value of eight major water-consuming industries to the total industrial output value

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Proportion of foreign investment Ratio of the total assets of foreign capital to the total assets of Chinese enterprises Water resource Water consumption per 10000 Water consumption per 10000 yuan of utilization yuan of value added by industry value added by industry Utilization rate of water Ratio of the total water consumption to the resources development total water resources Annual growth rate of industrial Annual growth rate of industrial water use water use Environmental Industrial sewage treatment Facilities for treatment of capacity of education and capacity waste water governance Educational investment Per capita education expenditure

In case study by Xu et al. (2019) also, the results are focus on average technical efficiency, average pure technical efficiency and average scale efficiency as can be seen in Figure 2. These three analysis were differentiate according to the province where the data was gathered. Certain provinces are unable to implement water-savings technologies thus the water use efficiency are much lower than in other provinces.

Figure 2. Comparison of average water use efficiency from 2007 to 2016 (Source: Xu et al., 2019)

The type of water such as recycled water being used efficiently about more than 90% in industry with the situation where water shortages problem occurred (Fujii et al., 2012). On the other hand, the method of I-O analysis resulted in different amount of water use efficiency in year 2002 and 2007 with improvement where water use efficiency in 2007 is higher than in 2002. This is the effect of the industrial structure transformation that being implemented in certain provinces in China (Shi et al., 2015). However, the industrial structure transformation had different effect on different industries. The secondary and tertiary industry had gained benefit from the changes. There are industries concerning on used of the wastewater through recycling, direct reuse, or in-plant reuse which help in reducing industrial wastewater (Saha et al., 2005) and usage of freshwater. The geographical factor also play role in the implementation of the technologies in reducing water use and consumption. Besides, the other factors such as type of processes, type of products produced and water sources in certain areas are the challenge in order to achieve higher water use efficiency. In developing countries, several case studies involved with integrating the provided electricity and gas with water with regards of economic (Cetrulo et al., 2019).

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CONCLUSION Water use efficiency beneft in industy as the freshwater can be saved and use in an efficient way. The requirements of the different industrial activities also contribute to the type of water use in the processes. Thus, this trends helps to reduce water use and consumption in certain industrial activities to achieve sustainability. Freshwater can be conserved in the future and water scarcity in other places can be prevent from being worst.

Acknowledgment: This study is being support financially from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) Research University Grant with Cost Center No. Q.J130000.2544.10H59 and the author is being sponsored by Zamalah UTM Scholarship.

REFERENCES

Cetrulo, T. B., Marques, R. C. and Malheiros, T. F. (2019). An analytical review of the efficiency of water and sanitation utilities in developing countries. Water Research. 161, 372-380. Fthenakis, V. and Kim, H. C. (2010). Life-cycle uses of water in U.S. electricity generation. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 14 (7), 2039-2048. Fujii, H., Managi, S. and Kaneko, S. (2012). A water resource efficiency analysis of the Chinese industrial sector. Environmental Economics. 3 (3), 82-92. Kurle, D., Herrmann, C. and Thiede, S. (2017). Unlocking water efficiency improvements in manufacturing – From approach to tool support. CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology. 19, 7-18. Sachidananda, M., Webb, D. P. and Rahimifard, S. (2016). A concept of water usage efficiency to support water reduction in manufacturing industry. Sustainability. 8 (12), 1222. Saha, N. K., Balakrishnan, M. Batra, V. S. (2005). Improving industrial water use: case study for an Indian distillery. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 43, 163-174. Shi, Q., Chen, S., Shi, C., Wang, Z. and Deng, X. (2015). The impact of industrial transformation on water use efficiency in Northwest region in China. Sustainability. 7 (1), 56-74. United Nations. (2018). Progress on water-use efficiency: Piloting the monitoring methodology and initial findings for SDG indicator 6.4.1. UN Water. Wang, S., Zhou, L., Wang, H. and Li, X. (2018). Water use efficiency and its influencing factors in China: Based on the data envelopment analysis (DEA) – Tobit Model. Water. 10 (7), 832. Xu, R., Wu, Y., Wang, G., Zhang, X. and Xu, Z. (2019). Evaluation of industrial water use efficiency considering pollutant discharge in China. PLoS ONE. 14 (8), 1-22.

304 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

OPTIMAL POWER GENERATION MIX USING HYBRID DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING FOR IMPROVED MULTI- OBJECTIVE: MALAYSIA ELECTRICITY SUPPLY INDUSTRY CASE

Siti Mariam Mohd Shokri*1, Nofri Yenita Dahlan2 and Mohamad Fani Sulaima3

1, 2 Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450, Shah Alam, Selangor, MALAYSIA *[email protected], [email protected] 3 Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM), 76100, Hang Tuan Jaya, Melaka, MALAYSIA [email protected]

ABSTRACT This paper presents development of Hybrid Dynamic Programming (HDP) technique to improve multi-objective optimization in dealing to the power generation mix problem. The role of Dynamic Programming (DP) is to find the optimal long-term multi-objective generation mix which simultaneously optimizes the total cost, total carbon emission and reliability index. On the other hand, artificial intelligence (AI) technique is implemented via Weighted Sum Method (WSM) approach within the HDP framework to find the optimally weighted coefficient by minimizing a weighted sum called the multi-objective index (MOI). The weighted coefficient attributes to the importance of the objective function in power generation mix planning. Four AI techniques were applied in HDP framework. The proposed HDP multi-objectives yielded a better solution in term of providing the lowest MOI as compared to the non-optimal WSM DP model. Thus, among the four HDP models, the simulation results showed that the HDP with Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) provided the best result in obtaining the lowest MOI. In this study, the results showed that Malaysia’s optimum generation mix at the end of simulation year i.e. year 18 is 45.11% from gas, 35.34% from coal, 9.82% from RE and 9.73% from hydro.

Key words: Multi-Objective Optimization, Power Generation Mix Planning, Hybrid Dynamic Programming, Artificial Bee Colony, Weighted Sum Method

INTRODUCTION Traditionally, the generation mix problem was solved at least cost such as reported by many researchers in the literature with regards to objective function (Afful-Dadzie et al., 2017; Mohd Shokri et al., 2015) However, given the adverse impact of electricity generation on environment and the demand from consumers to have a reliable system, the lowest cost objective alone is no longer appropriate (Pereira & Saraiva, 2013). The multi-objectives generation mix models have shown a better performance than the single objective model in term of its ability to; 1) identify many alternative solutions and 2) provide more realistic results (Abon et al., 2015). In multi-objective optimization (MOO), different methods are often used to generate a set of efficient solutions from which the decision maker can choose (Zhu et al., 2017) and Majidi et al, 2017). Each of the methods discussed above has advantages and disadvantages and many of them can be adapted for specific problems. However, there is still no general ‘best’ method that can be used to solve MOO problems. For the case of multi-objective, a set of solutions called Pareto-optimal solutions are also known as non-dominated solutions, from

305 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 which any final solution should preferably be chosen (Berntsson, 2008). Meanwhile, the optimal Pareto fronts confirm that the costs of electricity generation and the CO2 emissions are competing objectives on the Michigan grid. The generation mix has significant coal capacities that are cheaper but produces more emissions than natural gas capacities (Li, Peng, & Sun, 2013). Author in (Berntsson, 2008) has applied the ε- constraint method in ensuring all Pareto optimal solution by which the cost objective was optimized, when the CO2 objective was treated as a constraint. However, it requires the decision maker to select the satisfactory solution from the achieved non- dominated solutions hence the problem is looks like a single objective optimization. Thus WSM-decision technique offers better solution to close the gap where it provides a linear approximation of the preference function [127. Several researchers use WSM as a base technique to solve MOO PGE planning by manually varying the weight coefficient of each objective function, then combine it with other decision techniques to obtain a final solution. For instance Authors in (Majidi et al., 2017) and (Cacchiani & D ’ambrosio, 2016) combine WSM approach to fuzzy, and branch-and-bound algorithm respectively. Thus, the motivation for the study is to develop specific conditions for the weighted coefficients. The goal is to improve the WSM decision technique. The contribution of this study is to develop the HDP multi-objective decision technique that optimizes weighted coefficient for WSM approach of MOO problem as shown in Figure 10. Solving the HDP multi-objective generation mix reduces ‘discrimination’ when choosing the weight values. This proposed technique combines mathematical and intelligent approaches that will improve the MOO-based generation mix overall. The mathematical model of the MOO problem has been presented in the previous paper (Mohd Shokri et al., 2018). The paper is organized as follows. Section presents the overview of the HDP in multi-objective power generation mix model, the implementation of optimization algorithm via WSM approach, the computational results and discussion and finally, we draw the conclusions.

Figure 10. Research framework for development DP-based heuristic decision making multi-objective optimization generation mix model

OVERVIEW OF HYBRID DP MULTI-OBJECTIVE GENERATION MIX MODEL The results obtained from WSM were highly dependent on the weights used. The required input data for solving the generation mix problem are load growth and characteristics of new and existing units such as operation and investment cost, emission rate and forced outage rate. The more detail data input can be found in (Mohd Shokri et al., 2017). In the

306 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

DP-generation mix model, there is N unit of candidate plants that can be selected yearly in stage t for T years. The state consists of existing units plus the new units each year. At stage 1, the feasible states are built by combining the 2N. The path selected new generations each year from stages 1 to T. DP will save the combinations’ transition path 1 T-1 (e.g.a ij, a ij) of the lowest MOI with an optimal weight coefficient for each year until the last planning year. Then, it traces back from the saved feasible path to find the lowest MOI path as the multi-objective generation mix problem solution.

OPTIMIZED-WSM

The optimized-WSM flowchart within the HDP as shown in (Mohd Shokri et al., 2018). A Optimization technique is implemented via the WSM approach to find the optimally weighted coefficient of each objective function by minimizing the MOI. This minimization is an approach for the trade-offs in the objective functions that combined the total cost f1(x), carbon emission f2(x) and reliability of the system f3(x). The objective functions were independently computed. In this paper, the HDP algorithm is proposed for solving a MOO problem with both continuous and discrete control variable. The continuous control is weight coefficient while the discrete one is expansion addition unit power plants.

Four AI optimization are examined, there are EP, PSO, SFLA and ABC. The method for each AI optimization can be found in EP (Mohd Shokri et al., 2018); (Wan Adnan et al., 2017), PSO (Nasir et al., 2014), SFLA (Jadidoleslam et al., 2012) and ABC (Dinh et al., 2013).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The HDP power generation mix model has been tested on Malaysia’s Power System. The planning period was set for eighteen years. The candidates; technology for additional capacity are coal, gas, hydro and RE. The objectives are to minimize the MOI, to determine optimal weighted coefficient of each objective function and optimal power generation mix. The MOI closer to 0 indicates a better solution. The actual selection weight coefficient value depends on the utility’s strategy and preference during the planning stage. A different weighted coefficient will give different consequences to the generation mix, total cost, total CO2 and LOLE.

The resulting generation mix at eighteen year for each HDP are shown in Figure 11. As can be seen, the contribution of gas and coal in HDPPSO is higher than HDPEP with 1.65% and 1.04%. While the contribution of hydro and RE which is 1.73% and 0.95% respectively lower than HDPEP. Therefore, it reveals the changes of the optimally weighted coefficient apparently reflect the generation mix optimization. In the HDPSFLA model, the coal technology in the generation mix increased from 35.34% and 36.38% in the HDPEP and HDPPSO respectively to 44.6% in the HDPSFLA model. This is because the important objective function is highly weighted on reliability objective then cost objective rather than CO2 emission objective. The optimum generation mix for HDPABC model is seen that coal technology shares the highest fraction of the generation mix due to many years gain higher weight on the reliability objective compared to other objectives.

307 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

Figure 11. Optimal Generation Mix at Year Eighteen by a) HDPEP, b) HDPPSO, c) HDPSFLA and d) HDPABC

Table 6 shows the comparison results of the proposed HHDP models with other two DP models namely DPNPM and DPPM for multi-objective generation mix optimization. From the results, it can be seen that the four models of proposed HHDP are 1) the HDPEP provides MOI of 78.35% and 62.03%, 2) the HDPPSO provides MOI of 94.73% and 90.75%, 3) the HDPSFLA provides MOI of 98.01% and 96.51% and 4) the HDPABC provides MOI of 98.01% and 96.68% which are lower than MOI for DPNPM and DPPM respectively. This indicates that the results of the proposed HHDP models produce the lowest MOI compared to DP models. It is noted that among the four proposed HHDP models, HDPABC yields a better result than the HDPEP, HDPPSO and HDPSFLA with gain the lowest MOI and nearly equal to zero. In conclusion, the results showed that the HDPABC model provides the best result providing the lowest MOI for solving multi-objective generation mix.

Table 6. Comparison of MOI for the proposed HHDP and DP models multi-objective generation mix planning Solution Normalize Coal Gas Hydro RE Total Cost Total Carbon LOLE Method Index (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) ($) Emission (tc) (days/year) DPNPM 0.4171 15 200 12 710 2101 1030 1.04E+11 4.474E+08 0.0031 DPPM 0.2378 15 901 12 710 1201 1229 1.026E+11 4.549E+08 0.0080 HDPEP 0.0903 10 900 13 910 3000 3029 1.069E+11 4.152E+08 0.0496 HDPPSO 0.0220 11 600 14 910 2550 2829 1.063E+11 4.171E+08 0.0044 HDPSFLA 0.0083 14 000 12 500 2250 2629 1.044E+11 4.380E+08 0.0136 HDPABC 0.0079 13 500 12 910 2400 2229 1.048 E+11 4.328 E+08 0.0149

CONCLUSION A novel multi-objective decision-making framework has been presented for generation mix planning. The framework includes hybrid the optimization algorithm with DP technique. The implementation of optimization algorithm method was through the WSM approach on optimizing the weight coefficient. Four optimization methods were considered and analysed from the improved WSM decision making. The results showed evidence that development of a new efficient HDPABC method as an alternative method to solve multi-objectives generation mix problem. Thus, it is concluded that the optimization of the weighted coefficient has the greatest influence on providing an accurate decision while reducing the discrimination when choosing the weight value of each objective function.

Acknowledgment: We would like to thank Malaysia Ministry of Education and Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) who have sponsored this paper.

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REFERENCES

Abbasi, A.R., & Seifi, A. R. (2014). Simultaneous integrated stochastic electrical and thermal energy expansion planning. IET Generation, Transmission and Distribution, 8(6). Abbasi, Ali Reza, & Seifi, A. R. (2014). Energy expansion planning by considering electrical and thermal expansion simultaneously. Energy Conversion and Management, 83, 9–18. Abon, S. A., Dahlan, N. Y., & Mat Yassin, Z. (2015). Evolutionary programming based generation mix model for Malaysia considering cost, environmental and reliability factors. Journal of Electrical Systems, 2015(Specialissue3), 26–34. Adnan, W. N. W. M., Dahlan, N. Y., & Musirin, I. (2017). Development of hybrid artificial neural network for quantifying energy saving using measurement and verification. Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 8(1), 137–145. Afful-Dadzie, A., Afful-Dadzie, E., Iddrisu, A., & Banuro, J. K. (2017). Power generation capacity planning under budget constraint in developing countries. Applied Energy, (188), 71–82. Berntsson, T. (2008). Economy and CO2 emissions trade-off: A systematic approach for optimizing investments in process integration measures under uncertainty. In PRES2008. Cacchiani, V., & D ’ambrosio, C. (2016). A branch-and-bound based heuristic algorithm for convex multi- objective MINLPs. European Journal of Operational Research, 260, 920–933. Dinh, L. Le, Ngoc, D. V., & Vasant, P. (2013). Artificial bee colony algorithm for solving optimal power flow problem. The Scientific World Journal, 2013, 9. Jadidoleslam, M., Bijami, E., & Amiri, (2012). Application of Shuffled Frog Leaping Algorithm to Long Term Generation Expansion Planning. Inter. Jour. of Comp. and Elect. Eng., 4(2), 115–120. Javadi, M. S., Mashhadi, H. R., & Saniei, M., (2013). Multi-objective expansion planning approach: distant wind farms and limited energy resources integration. IET Ren. Pow. Gen., 7(6), 652–668. Li, C., Peng, H., & Sun, J. (2013). Reducing CO 2 emissions on the electric grid through a carbon disincentive policy. Energy Policy, 60, 793–802. Majidi, M., Nojavan, S., Esfetanaj, N. N., Najafi-Ghalelou, A., & Zare, K. (2017). A multi-objective model for optimal operation of a battery/PV/fuel cell/grid hybrid energy system using weighted sum technique and fuzzy satisfying approach considering responsible load management. Mavalizadeh, H., & Ahmadi, A. (2014). Hybrid expansion planning considering security and emission by augmented epsilon-constraint method. Inter. Jour. of Elec. Pow. and Ener. Syst., 61, 90–100. Mohd Shokri, S. M., Dahlan, N. Y., & Ahmad, N. H. (2015). Optimum Generation Mix Possibilities for Malaysia Power Sector in 2030. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 785, 521–525. Mohd Shokri, S. M., Dahlan, N. Y., & Mohamad, H. (2017). Multi-Objective Sensitivity Analyses for Power Generation Mix: Malaysia Case Study. Inter. Jour. on Advan. Sci., Eng. and Inform. Techn., 7(4). Mohd Shokri, S. M., Dahlan, N. Y., Mohamad, H., & Wan Adnan, W. nazirah. (2018). Hybrid Dynamic- Evolutionary Programming for. International Journal of Engineering & Technology, 7(4.19), 536–545. Nasir, M. N. M., Shahrin, N. M., Sulaima, M. F., Jali, M. H., & Baharom, M. F. (2014). Optimum network reconfiguration and DGs sizing with allocation simultaneously by using particle swarm optimization (PSO). International Journal of Engineering and Technology, 6(2), 773–780. Pereira, A. J. C., & Saraiva, J. T. (2013). A long term generation expansion planning model using system dynamics – Case study using data from the Portuguese/Spanish generation system. Elect. Pow. Syst. Res., 97, 41–50. Zhu, Q., Luo, X., Zhang, B., & Chen, Y. (2017). Mathematical modelling and optimization of a large-scale combined cooling, heat, and power system that incorporates unit changeover and time-of-use electricity price.

309 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019

EFFECT OF PHYSICO–CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTIC OF WATER IN SUB-CRITICAL CONDITION TOWARDS STRUCTURAL CONVERSION OF MESOCARP FIBER

Sanggithapriya Mahandran, Hiroyuki Yoshida, Nordin Sabli and Shamsul Izhar*

Chemical Engineering Department, Universiti Putra Malaysia, MALAYSIA [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], *[email protected]

ABSTRACT Water at subcritical state was studied as an alternative way to breakdown oil palm mesocarp fiber (OPMF). The complex structure of cellulose causes difficulty in breaking down the palm oil cell using physical industrial scale method. The decomposition of OPMF using subcritical water (Sub-CW) method has been carried out at reaction temperatures ranging from 200oC to 300oC with a constant reaction time of 5 minutes using batch stainless-steel tube as the reactor. The solid samples were viewed under SEM and found that surface of solid sample of 240oC is occupied by opened pores. The breakdown cell wall in form of monosaccharide contributes to increase in yield of total sugar from 5.81mg g-1 OPMF sample (200oC) to 22.17mg g-1 OPMF sample (240oC). However, yield of tar increase from 5.05mg g-1 OPMF sample (200oC) to 187.61 mg g-1 OPMF sample (300oC) due to pyrolysis process. Thus, particle size of OPMF after Sub CW reaction temperature elevated to 240oC to ease hydrolysis process and reduce as the sample degrade as temperature gets higher.

Key words: Oil Palm Mesocarp Fibre, Extraction, Hydrolysis, Pyrolysis, Subcritical water

INTRODUCTION

Oil palm mesocarp fiber known as lignocelluloses fiber of oil palm fruit can be obtained after the palm oil extraction process [Iberahim et al., 2013]. The complex structure of palm oil cell causes difficulty in breaking down the cellulose using physical industrial-scale method [Kalsom et al., 1997; H. Ariffin et al., 2008].

Subcritical water extraction technology is much preferable to be used for palm oil extraction process instead of solvent as extraction medium due to its capability to extract high-quality product in less time without harming the environment. Hydrolysis of cellulose to fermentable sugars is effective in water at sub-critical state compare to in supercritical state [Olanrewaju, 2012]. This extraction technology of water in subcritical state gets attention due to its behaviour of producing high ion and low dielectric constant at increased temperature.

At high temperature, water behaves as acid and base catalyst. This is because, at o + - temperature state greater than 200 C, the order magnitude of H3O and OH ion concentration in liquefied water gets higher. At temperature 250oC, the ion production goes up to 1x10-11 mol2/L2 when the temperature and pressure increased [Omid, 2010]. At temperature 250oC, the ion production is at maximum due to strong hydrolysis reaction. However, as the temperature increase from 250oC, pyrolysis reaction takes place and reduces the ion production drastically [Omid, 2010]. The dielectric constant of methanol

310 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 and ethanol at room temperature, and water are 32.5, 27.0 and 79.9, respectively [Izhar et al., 2019]. At high temperature, the hydrogen bond of water broken and the dielectric constant value decrease drastically. The dielectric constant value of water decreases from 79.9 at room temperature to 17 as the temperature increase [Pourali et al., 2009] This shows that water behaves as organic solvent as methanol and ethanol at subcritical state. The pressure increased as the temperature increase to maintain the liquid state of water in the process.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Sample preparation: In this study, OPMF prepared by manual peeling of mesocarp from fresh oil palm fruits was used and the peeled mesocarp fibre was ground manually using mortar with a pestle until sample obtained in paste form. The sample was packed in a sealed plastic bag and kept in freezer in order to prevent microbes' growth. Moisture analyser (Denver instrument, Model IR 35) was used to test moisture content of the sample by dried at 103oC for 16 min.

Sub CW reaction: Laboratory scale subcritical fluid extraction system was used to study the transformation of mesocarp fibers composition in the water at subcritical state. The batch reactor which made up of stainless steel (SUS316) with internal diameter 16.5mm and length 150.4mm was used as Sub CW reactor. Molten Salt Bath Celcius 600H, Tomasu was preheated to temperature range between 180oC and 360oC for a few minutes until desired temperature reached. The sample was centrifuged in centrifuge (KUBOTA, 2410) at 4000rpm for 10 minutes to separate the content into three phases which are oil phase, aqueous phase and solid phase.

SEM: The surface morphology of OPMF samples was observed under a scanning electron microscopy (SEM), model HITACHI S-3400N using electrons to form a 300–600x magnified picture. The raw OPMF and solid sample collected from Sub CW reaction after removal of oil and aqueous products were dried under 80 ° C for two days before SEM testing was performed.

FTIR: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR, Bruker, Billerica MA, USA) was used to examine functional groups of OPMF using an attenuated complete reflection (ATR) technique at a resolution of 1 cm-1 in a wavelength range of 4000 – 650 cm-1. Samples were oven-dried for 24 hours prior to assessment.

Particle size analysis: The Zetasize (Malvern, Worcestershire, UK) use dynamic light scattering method to evaluate particle size were used to determine the particle size of solid collected after Sub CW reaction. Samples were oven-dried for 24 hours before each assessment. The size was measured at system temperature 25oC for 70 seconds using 1.33 as dispersant refractive index.

Yield of Sugar and Tar: Ultraviolet-visible absorption spectrometer (Shimadzu, UV- 1600) was used to measure the absorbance of each standard solution at 490nm. Sugar concentration was obtained by construct calibration curve where absorbance value against sugar concentration sugar present in the aqueous sample obtained at the different reaction temperature. Solid phase undergoes air drying process to remove moisture present in it before yield of residual solid measured by weighing method.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

SURFACE MORPHOLOGY OF UNTREATED AND TREATED OPMF

Untreated OPMF 240oC 300oC

Figure 1. SEM image at 300x of untreated OPMF, Sub-CW treated at 240oC and 300oC

The surface of the solid sample of 240°C shown in was occupied by open pores, which proved that the smooth surface of the sample disrupted as hemicellulose which acts as cross-linker between cellulose microfibrils and also between cellulose and lignin was removed. Additionally, removal of silica bodies after Sub CW treatment caused micropores on OMPF. This observation is similar to other studies [Nordin, 2013; Then et al, 2014]. The surface of the solid sample of 300°C looked dense due to presence of tar as the sample degraded at a reaction temperature higher than 250°C. production of Tar at Reaction temperature 300oC is caused by the degradation of hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin [Yoshida, 2015].

CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF OPMF SUB-CW TREATED PRODUCT

Figure 2. FTIR analysis on solid sample at different Sub-CW Reaction Temperature

Absorbance peak at 3400 cm-1 shows breaking of O-H and hydrogen bond present in cellulose and hemicellulose substance. Removal of hemicellulose represented by absorbance peak 2363 cm-1, 2850 cm-1 and 2919 cm-1 which only present in OPMF treated at Sub CW water reaction temperature 200oC and 240oC. Absorbance at peak 1745 cm-1 only appears at 200oC and 240oC which shows elimination of hemicellulose. This is due to deacetylation process of converting hemicellulose into acetic acid [Nordin, 2013]. The peak at 1645 cm-1 demonstrate hygroscopic of fiber presents as Sub-CW reaction temperature increase (240oC and 300oC) crystalline cellulose and lignin represented by absorbance peak at 1434 cm-1 which only appear in sample treated at 200oC and 240oC and

312 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 peak of and 1514 cm-1 only at sample treated at 240oC. Removal of amorphous cellulose demonstrated by absorbance peak 680 cm-1 and 720 cm-1 [Then et al., 2014].

PHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF OPMF SUB-CW TREATED PRODUCT

Figure 3. Effect of Sub-CW Reaction Figure 4. Effect of Sub CW Reaction Temperature on Particle Size of Solid Temperature on Yield of Total sugar and Residue Yield of Tar

The impact of Sub-CW temperature on solid residue particle size and its relation to sugar yield and tar yield. The solid particle diameter collected at 200°C was 639.9 nm, while the particle diameter decreased to 1358 nm as the temperature of the reaction increased to 240°C. The increase in particle size with increase in reaction temperature at constant reaction time indicates that at high temperature, hemicellulose degraded and increased the hydrophobicity and thermal stability of solid content [Hosseinaei et al., 2016]. The solid phase particle size decreases as the temperature of the reaction is higher than 240 ° C as a pyrolysis reaction occurs [Omid, 2010]. Due to its fragile trait, tar formation during the pyrolysis mechanism led the solid phase to break readily. Breakdown in the form of monosaccharide of the OPMF sample cell wall leads to an increase in total sugar production. Hydrolysis reaction was optimal in water at 240°C results from high production of ion at elevated temperature. Yield of sugar at subcritical water reaction temperature 240°C recorded as 22.17 mg g-1-dry OPMF). Due mainly to the facilitated hydrolysis reaction, ion production was at maximum at temperature 250°C. However, pyrolysis reaction occurred as the temperature rises from 250°C and drastically decreased ion production [ P. Omid, 2010]. Thus, sugar yield decreased from 22.17 mg g-1 dry OPMF (240°C) to 2.53 mg g-1-dry OPMF (300°C) as the pyrolysis reaction increased [Kurnin et al., 2016]. As the temperature of the reaction increased above 240°C, the solid phase degraded the sample's cellulose and hemicellulose and produced tar as a by-product through pyrolysis reaction [Asadieraghi et al., 2014].

CONCLUSION Particle size of OPMF treated by Sub-CW follows ion production trend which shows correlation of both factors relative to hydrolysis and pyrolysis process. Involvement of these processes further supported by yield of total sugar which increase until Sub-CW reaction 240oC and drastically reduce as pyrolysis process involve which results in increase of tar production.

Acknowledgment: This work was carried out with the grant in aid by the UPM research

313 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 grant (Num: 9491400). REFERENCES

Ariffin, H; Hassan, M A; Umi Kalsom, M S; Abdullah, N and Shirai, Y (2008). Effect of physical, chemical and thermal pretreatments on the enzymatic hydrolysis of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB). J. Trop. Agric. Food Sci. 2008, 36: 259–268. Asadieraghi, M, and Daud, W M A W (2014). Characterization of lignocellulosic biomass thermal degradation and physiochemical structure: effects of demineralization by diverse acid solutions. Energy Convers. Manag., 82: 71-82. Hosseinaei, O; Wang, S; Enayati, A A and Rials, T G (2012). Effects of hemicellulose extraction on properties of wood flour and wood-plastic composites. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 43(4): 686- 694. Iberahim, N I; Jahim, J M; Harun, S; Nor, M T M and Hassan, O (2013). Sodium Hydroxide Pretreatment and Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Oil Palm Mesocarp Fiber. Int. J. Chem. Eng. Appl., 4(3): 101–105. Izhar, S., Yoshida, H., Nishio, E., Utsumi, Y., & Kakimori, N. (2019). Removal and recovery attempt of liquid crystal from waste LCD panels using subcritical water. Waste Management, 92, 15-20. Kurnin, N A A; Ismail, M H S; Yoshida, H and Izhar, S (2016). Recovery of Palm Oil and Valuable Material from Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch by Sub-critical Water. J. Oleo Sci., 65 (4): 283-289. Nordin, N.I.; Ariffin, H.; Andou, Y.; Hassan, M.A.; Shirai, Y.; Nishida, H.; Yunus, W.Z.; Karuppuchamy, S. and Ibrahim, N.A. (2013). Modification of oil palm mesocarp fiber characteristics using superheated steam treatment. Molecules, 18(8): 9132-46. Olanrewaju, K. B. (2012). Reaction kinetics of cellulose hydrolysis in subcritical and supercritical water. PhD Thesis, University of Iowa. Omid, P. (2010) Production of Valuable Materials from Rice Bran Biomass Using Subcritical Water. Doctoral Thesis at Osaka Prefecture University. Pourali, O. (2010). Production of Valuable Materials from Rice Bran Biomass Using Subcritical Water. PhD Thesis, Osaka Prefecture University. Wagner, W and Prub, A., 2002,”The IAPWS formulation 1995 for the thermodynamic properties of ordinary water substance for general and scientific use’, Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, vol. 31, no.2, pp387-535.

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PERFORMANCES OF SANDWICH MEMBRANE IN RECLAMATION OF WATER FROM FINAL DISCHARGED POME

Nurul Ain Mazlan1, Khairul Faezah Md Yunos2, Mohd Nazli Mohd Naim3, Azhari Samsu Baharuddin4

1Department of Process and Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM Serdang, MALAYSIA

ABSTRACT

An investigation was made to examine the performance of sandwich configurations of paired ultrafiltration membranes in reclamation of water from final discharged POME. Two membranes were sandwiched together in different configurations without spacer. Two types of membrane were used in this study which were PES and RC with MWCO 5kDa. The sandwich configurations were known as SS-Sandwich, SB-sandwich, where S indicates that the skin layer faces the feed and B indicates that support layer faces towards the feed. The result of single membrane was compared with both sandwich arrangement. SS-sandwich configuration showed the best permeate quality for PES MWCO 5kDa. The pollutant reduced range up to 80%-90% compared to single membrane which were 60%- 70% range. The quality of permeate obtained for total dissolved solid (TDS), suspended solid (mg/L), turbidity, BOD5, COD, were 535 mg/L, <25 mg/L, 0.88 NTU, BOD5 23.3 mg/L, and 48 mg/L. The quality of permeate from SS-sandwich membrane of 5 kDa was beyond reuse standard and approaching drinking water standard for TSS, TDS and turbidity. Therefore it can be concluded that, water reclaimed from treating final discharged from palm oil mill effluent using ultrafiltration technique with right sandwich configuration at optimum operating conditions was successfully complied with WHO reuse water standard.

Keywords: Ultrafiltration, Sandwich Membrane, Water Reclamation, POME.

INTRODUCTION

Palm oil industry is a fast growing industry in Malaysia, as Malaysia is the world’s largest producer and exporter of palm oil after Indonesia. However, the production of palm oil consumed tonnes of water and half of it end up as effluent. The raw effluent undergoes further treatment before being discharged to the river. The final discharged can be reused for the plant process and therefore reduced the consumption of fresh water and diminishing the amount of discharged effluent (Nuortila-Jokinen, 1999; Pourcelly and Aslan, 2006; Mänttäri and Nyström, Jonsson and Wimmerstedt, 1985, Afonso and de Pinho, 1995). One of the promising technology to treat and reclaim water from final discharged is UF membrane.

In the last decade, ultrafiltration (UF) is a technology experiencing rapid growth and has been recognized as one of the advanced technology. UF membrane widely implemented in various field of industry such as production of pure water, fractionation or concentration in food, pharmaceutical, biotechnology, as well as wastewater treatment (Choi et al., 2005).

Therefore UF may work as reliable tool in treating final discharged effluent and the water reclaimed from this treatment could be reused for the plant process. Thus, the main

315 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 advantage lie in reduction of cost for water supply for production process. However, based on previous study, the quality of treated POME does not clearly stated whether permeate achieved standard for water reclamation. For instance, study by Wu et al (2007) combined physical conventional treatment with ultrafiltration to treat raw POME. They successfully achieved reduction of TSS, turbidty, TDS, and COD up to 97.3%, 88.2%, 3.1% and 46.9%.

Nevertheless, the results was not clearly reported whether the permeate quality achieved standard of water reclamation. Another study by Ahmad et al. (2003) treated POME with membrane technology which were ultrafiltration (UF) and reverse osmosis (RO). They successfully achieved standard discharged regulations, as the water reclaimed can be recycled back to the plant. However, the application of RO membrane increased the cost of application and maintenance. Hence, it not suitable for industrial application. Besides, most of the literature found, treated the raw POME.

Therefore, the idea of sandwich was proposed in this study, to compensate for the imperfection of the pore size distribution of the available commercial membranes. It has been recognised at the wide pore size distribution of most commercial membrane significantly limit the resolving power of the membranes (Cherkasov and Polotsky, 1996) and the broad pore size distribution reduced the effectiveness of membrane in treatment of final discharged. Besides, as the application of UF membrane might reduce the cost compared to RO membrane. In this study, the effect of sandwich configurations of pair ultrafiltration membrane in treating final discharged to reclaim water were examined. The permeate quality and fouling study was compared with those single membrane configuration.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

POME Sample Samples of final discharged was taken from a local palm oil mill in FELDA Sungai Tengi, Kota Kubu Bharu, The effluent was collected from a pipe before being released into river. The samples was preserved and stored at a temperature of less than 4°C to avoid biodegradation due to microbial action which may affect the result of the experiment. For the analysis and experimental purpose, the temperature of the sample was allowed to reach room temperature. The characteristics of analysis of final discharged was carried out to evaluate the pH, total solid, suspended solid, dissolved solid, chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD5), and turbidity. The analytical methods were conducted based on procedures given in the APHA Standard Method for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (Hammer and JR, 2005). Each analysis was performed duplicated.

Ultrafiltration membranes Membrane used were flat sheet regenerated cellulose (RC) membrane (Merck Milipore USA) with 28.7 cm2 effective membrane area and diameter 63 mm and polyethersulfone (PES) with membrane (Sartorius) 28.7 cm2. Molecular weight cut-off of the membrane used were 5 kDa.

Experimental Set-up and procedure The experiments were mainly carried out at a fixed conditions, stirring speed 600 rpm, pressure 1.0 bar and pH 8 the. Two flat ultrafiltration membranes of same type were

316 International Conference on Environmental Sustainability and Resource Security (IC-ENSURES), 2019 sandwiched together without a spacer, in several different configurations as shown in Figure 1 below, by varying the arrangement of the skin layer (S) and support layer (B) in the sandwich. For SS-sandwich configuration both skin layer facing up, meanwhile for SB-sandwich configuration the upper layer facing up and the bottom membrane skin layer facing down.

Figure 1. Ultrafiltration membrane configurations: (a) SS-sandwich membrane (b) SB- sandwich membrane

180 ml of final discharged POME was prepared for each run in ultrafiltration treatment. The experiment performed in batch mode using stirred ultrafiltration cell (Amicon 8200, Milipore USA). For each cycle, the experiment was run in 120 min. The permeate flux was observed by collecting every 20 minutes. The permeate was then further analysed for dissolved solid, turbidity, suspended solid, COD and BOD5. The details of all analytical methods conducted were based on procedure given in APHA Standard Method for the Examination of Wastewater (Hammer et al., 2005). Each analysis was done twice.

Resistance-in-series model (Tansel et al., 2017) Darcy’s law is used to determine filtration resistance in permeate transport through porous membranes: ∆ � J = Equation (1) µ��

Where J is the permeate flux ∆P is the trans-membrane pressure (TMP), µ is the viscosity of permeate, and Rt is the total filtration resistance.

Rm is the membrane intrinsic resistance characterized by mainly the pore size and membrane thickness as determined by manufacturing process. Membrane resistance was calculated with the following equation: ∆� Rm = Equation (2) µ��

Where Rm is membrane resistance, ∆P is the trans-membrane pressure (TMP), µ is the viscosity of water and Jw pure water flux. ∆� Rf = – Rm Equation (3) µ��

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Rf is the most important because it can be reduced by proper techniques in practical application.

Where Rf is membrane fouling, ∆P is the trans-membrane pressure (TMP), µ is the viscosity of permeate and Jw flux of final discharged POME at the end of filtration.

∆� (Rm + Rp) = Equation (4) µ��

Where ∆P is the trans-membrane pressure (TMP), µ is the viscosity of permeate and Jw water flux after membrane was rinsed with distilled water and cleaned with backwash.

Pore blocking resistance was calculated using equation below: Rp = (Rm + Rp) – Rm Equation (5)

While cake resistance was calculated by following equation: Rc = Rf - (Rm + Rp) Equation (6)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Effect of sandwich configurations on permeate flux

(a) (b) Figure 2. Permeate flux of different sandwich configurations (a) PES 5kDa (b) RC 5kDa

The efficiency of the SS-sandwich and SB-sandwich to treat final discharged POME was evaluated. Figure 2 (a) and (b) compared the permeate flux changes with time between single, SS-sandwich and SB-sandwich membrane for PES and RC membrane. The trend for both configuration of both type of membrane seems to be similar as the permeate flux decreased at early stage of filtration. SS-sandwich membrane experience greater flux decline compared to SB-sandwich, for instance, permeate flux reduction from early to end stage for PES membrane were 30.29% (SS) and 20.7% (SB) respectively and for RC membrane were 31.3% (SS) and 23.2% (SB). It shows that for both type of membrane SS- sandwich experience greater flux decline compared to SB-sandwich membrane. It also suggested that fouling is most likely to occur in SS-sandwich ultrafiltration. The arrangement of SS-configurations which the skin layer of bottom membrane facing the feed increased the possibilities of the solid particles to accumulate on membrane surfaces (Azmi and Yunos, 2014).

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Meanwhile, the SB-sandwich configuration results in lower permeate flux than SS- sandwich membrane. This due to reverse direction of bottom membrane caused internal concentration polarization to occur (Field, 2009). The solid particle that build up inside the pores of membrane caused internal intermediate blocking resulted in low permeate flux (Azmi and Yunos, 2014).

Effect of sandwich configurations on fouling

Figure 3. Fouling resistance of sandwich SS-configuration and SB-configuration of top and bottom membrane

As can be seen from Figure 3, when membrane was arranged to SB-sandwich configuration, the cake resistance of upper membrane is higher than bottom membrane. Pore blocking resistance of bottom membrane was higher than top membrane. This is because of the internal concentration polarization most likely to occur when bottom membrane was in reverse direction. Besides, when the support layers with larger pores were arranged towards feed solution, there were more opportunities for the solid particles to enter through these pores (Field et al., 2009). This will caused solid particles which able to pass through the top membrane to build-up inside the pores of the second membrane which resulted in intermediate pore blocking fouling.

Meanwhile, for SS-sandwich configuration, fouling resistance of both Rc and Rp of top membrane was higher than bottom membrane. Both membrane were facing the feed. The particles tend to accumulate on the membrane surface with this arrangement. Since resistances of bottom was reduced, it indicate that the fouling also reduced. There might be some solid particles that able to pass through the membrane was accumulated on the bottom membrane, while most of them was deposited on the top membrane. This proves that the role of second membrane that acts as second barrier suppress the fouling and improve quality of permeate.

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Effect of sandwich configurations on permeate quality

Figure 4. Comparison of (a) dissolved solid and (b) turbidity in permeate of different membrane configuration

Figure 4 (a) above showed that PES membrane consistently showed lowest dissolved solid for all configurations due to hydrophobic characteristics of polyethersulfone typically shows significant surface adsorption (Saha et al., 2006). Dissolved solids tend to adsorp on membrane surface or inside the pores rather than passing through. Membrane with SS- configuration showed lowest dissolved solid concentration compared to SB-configuration. As previously discussed, some dissolved solid particles accumulate on the upper membrane surfaces, some might pass through the first membrane and will accumulate on surface of second membrane. Thus, reduced the possibilities of dissolved solid from passing through the membrane. Besides, dissolved solid concentration at the bottom membrane surface will be less than at the upper membrane surface.

Figure 4 (b) 20 shows only the difference in turbidity between single and sandwich membrane. Generally, all the configurations reduced the turbidity lower than 3 NTU. SS- configurations achieved highest rejection among single membrane and SB-sandwich configuration. From graph above, it can be seen that the lowest turbidity rejection was PES 5kDa membrane by using SS-sandwich configuration. Permeate from this configuration is much clearer if seen by naked eyes. This suggested that SS-configuration was more effective in term of rejecting suspended solid with skin-side-up orientation membrane. Even though this configuration will decreased the permeate flux, the rejection of suspended particles was improved due to the bottom membrane acts as second barrier reduced the possibility of suspended solid to pass through the membrane thus improved the quality of the permeate.

As for SB-configuration, the rejection of particles is lower than SS-configuration. For example the turbidity of PES 5kDa using SB-sandwich turbidity was 1.12 NTU while for SS-configuration was 0.55 NTU. This is due to the fouling which will reduced the flux but improved rejection. For SB-configuration, the bottom membrane in reversed direction, the particles that pass through the upper membrane were clogged throughout the support might be able to penetrate throughout the bottom membrane with the help of transmembrane pressure.

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Table 1. Comparison of permeate quality of single membrane, sandwich membrane and water reuse guideline EPA Final 5 5 PES PES Guideline 5 kDa 5 kDa Discharged Final kDa kDa 5 5 for water Parameter RC PES Limit discharged RC RC kDa kDa reuse (Single) (Single) Standard B (SS) (SB) (SS) (SB) standard Dissolved Not Not solid 890 541 538 535 536 530 533 stated stated (mg/L) Suspended solid 43 <25 <25 <25 <25 <25 <25 ≤ 50 ≤ 30 (mg/L)

BOD5 97 33.3 27.7 23.3 28.4 21.8 23.8 50 ≤30 (mg/L)

COD 170.8 96 62.8 58 62 48 55 100 Null (mg/L)

Turbidity 17.6 1.44 1.02 0.88 0.92 0.72 0.58 - - (NTU)

Table 1 represents the comparison of the quality final discharged before ultrafiltration, after ultrafiltration with final discharged limit from department of environment and water reuse standard. From the result above, sandwich membrane were effective in improving final discharged compared to single membrane. For example, PES 5kDa membrane, the percentage difference of BOD5 for permeate after SS-sandwich and SB-sandwich compare to single membrane were 24.9% and 14.08% , for RC 5kDa 30% and 14.7%, Meanwhile, COD value also reduced significantly when compared with single membrane, for instance, PES 5kDa and RC 5kDa using SS-sandwich and SB-sandwich were 23.57%, 12.4%, 39.58% and 35.4% respectively. Dissolved solid concentration which consists of natural organic matter will affected on the BOD5 and COD values (Wu et al., 2007). The lowest BOD5 and COD were 21.8 mg/L of permeate was obtained using PES 5kDa with configuration SS-sandwich.

CONCLUSION

The purpose of this research was to study the performance of sandwich membrane with SS and SB configuration in treating final discharged of POME. The effectiveness of these configurations were evaluated in terms of permeate quality such as dissolved solid, turbidity, COD and BOD5. From the results it is evident that sandwich membrane treatment process with SS-configuration of PES 5kDa showed the best permeate quality as it able improve permeate quality such as as dissolved solid, turbidity, COD and BOD5 up to 39.2%, 91.8%, 71.89%, and 77.52% respectively. As a conclusion, the sandwich membrane configuration has shown great potential in reducing some pollutant elements in final discharged compared to single membrane. Besides, the quality of permeate achieved water reused standard thus, can it be reused for many purpose in the mill. Therefore, water security can be sustained and conserved by reclaiming water from final discharge.

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