The Role of Rural Electrification in the Development of Sarawak Jacqueline Randell A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy WMIr AP IN N 1992 Abstract The introduction of electricity is widely perceived to bring socioeconomic and infrastructural improvements to the rural areas of developing countries. In Malaysia the rural electrification programme is a high profile demonstration of the Government's commitment towards socioeconomic development of the rural areas. Following substantial achievements in the rural electrification of Peninsular Malaysia, attention is now focussed on the economically and infrastructurally less- developed states such as Sarawak, on the island of Borneo. The thesis of this study J was that the present form of rural electrification is largely inappropriate for the rural development of Sarawak. In response to a perceived need for specific policy-directed rural development research, the consequent aims of this study were to examine the developmental role of rural electrification in the, state of Sarawak. Data collected during two extended field trips are presented and discussed in context. The progress of the various programmes is analysed and the significance of the introduction of electricity for life in the rural areas investigated. In addition, priorities and perceptions of the government, implementing authorities, local development administrators and villagers with respect to rural electrification are assessed. The study concludes that, despite government initiatives, acquisition of an electricity supply is a fairly low priority concern for many rural communities. However, the increase in self-esteem and confidence of the community which accompanies a perceived narrowing of the gap between standards of living in town and in the village, is more apparent than predicted. As an outcome of the study specific recommendations are proposed to tackle the electrification of remote settlements in Sarawak. II Declaration of originality I hereby declare that this thesis is based on my own research work and has been composed by myself. IL & It )4't2. II' ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to the Socioeconomic Research Unit (SERU) of the Prime Minister's Department and the Institute of Strategic and International Studies (ISIS) Malaysia for their invaluable assistance in arranging my study visit, and to the UK Science and Engineering Research Council for providing the funding. I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks to: the staff of the State Secretary's Office; the State Development Office and State Planning Unit, especially Dr Hatta Solhee, Walter Chambers and Jayl Langub; the General Manager and all the SESCo staff, especially those in the RES and Mini Hydro Sections, including Yao Sik Heng, Sia Yuk Siew, Sim See Sheng, Yusuf Abdul Wahab and Gabriel Adit Demong; Dr Joseph Ko of the Department of Statistics, Sarawak Branch; Lucas Chin, the Director of the Sarawak Museum, and the Museum Library staff; the District Officers and Staff of the following Districts: Lundu Serian Lubok Antu Sarikei Belaga and Lawas; Iv and to Rose Sendal in Kuching for looking after me so well. Special thanks are due to all the people in the many kampungs and longhouses I visited during the course of the study, for making me so welcome, and answering my questions and entering into discussion so willingly. Thanks are also due to: Dr Noordin Sopiee, Abd. Rauf Salim, Analysts and Staff at ISIS; Dr Rozali, Dr Salim Sairan, Ir. Ahmad Rasidi and staff of the recently privatised LLN Mini Hydro and R&D Departments; Dr Mohd Noh of the Physics Department of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia; Dr James Masing, anthropologist and Political Secretary to the Prime Minister of Malaysia; Mr K.V. Ramani of the Asia Pacific Development Centre; and the many Researchers at the Institute of Development Studies (IDS) Sabah for providing me with advice and encouragement during the initial stages of my fieldwork. Finally, I must mention my University supervisors, Dr Bert Whittington, Dr Ewen Macpherson, Dr Robin Wallace and especially Teresa Anderson for all their support. VA Table of Contents List of Figures ............ lx List of Tables .............. xi Abbreviations and Acronyms ....... xii Note on currency ........... xiv Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Rural electrification as a development issue 3 1.2 Analytical framework ....... 19 1.3 Thesis organisation ......... 30 Chapter 2: SOCIOECONOMIC CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT IN SARAWAK 31 2.1 Historical and political background .............32 2.2 Demographic profile .................38 2.3 Economy and natural resources ..............47 2.4 Infrastructure ....................53 2.5 Present-day development issues .............. 56 2.6 Summary .....................60 Chapter 3: ENERGY AND ELECTRICITY IN MALAYSIA ......61 3.1 Energy resources ..................62 3.2 Energy policy and planning ................67 3.3 Malaysia's electricity profile ...............69 3.4 Electric power development in Sarawak ...........82 3.5 Summary .....................87 vi Chapter 4: RURAL ELECTRIFICATION IN SARAWAK . 89 4.1 Forms of supply ................... 89 4.2 Goals and objectives of the rural electrification initiative ...... 90 4.3 Government programmes ................ 91 4.4 Other generation projects for remote villages ......... 98 4.5 Importance of rural electrification ............. 100 4.6 Progress made by the rural electrification initiatives ....... 102 4.7 Extent of electrification ................ 106 4.8 Implementation problems ................. 109 4.9 Perceptions of officials towards the rural electrification initiatives . 112 4.10 Summary ..................... 115 Chapter 5: ELECTRICITY IN THE VILLAGE .......... 117 5.1 Important characteristics of the villages studied ......... 118 5.2 Degree of involvement in the cash economy .......... 119 5.3 Organisation and leadership forms ............. 123 5.4 Development initiatives ................ 124 5.5 Energy needs in villages ................ 125 5.6 Electricity supply .................. 126 5.7 Public electricity supply • ................ 128 5.8 Government-provided village generators... ......... 130 5.9 Commercial generators ................ 134 5.10 Private electricity supplies ............... 135 5.11 Bakelalan micro hydro scheme .............. 136 5.12 Costs of alternatives to electricity for lighting ......... 140 5.13 Uses of electricity .................. 140 5.14 Perceptions regarding the role of electricity in the village . . 142 5.15 Summary ...................... 144 vii Chapter 6: COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL USE OF ELECTRICITY IN R1JRALSARAWAK .................... 146 6.1 District profiles ................... 147 6.2 Industrial development of the rural areas ........... 151 6.3 Energy requirements of industry ............. 156 6.4 Electric power supply infrastructure ............. 159 6.5 Commercial and industrial consumption of electricity ....... 162 6.6 Planning for infrastructural development ........... 166 6.7 Summary and future prospects ............... 167 Chapter 7: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ............169 7.1 Questioning rural electrification ...............169 7.2 Strategic considerations for rural electrification in Sarawak .....176 7.3 Recommendations .. 184 Chapter 8: CONCLUSIONS .................190 & 1 Priorities and perceptions ................190 8.2 Problems with existing RE programmes ...........192 8.3 Recommendations for the electrification of remote settlements in Sarawak 194 8.4 Recommendations for further research ............195 Glossary .......................197 References ... 200 APPENDIX A: Proposal for a study of rural electrification in Sarawak. APPENDIX B : List of persons and organisations visited APPENDIX C : Settlements and projects visited APPENDIX D : Executive summary of report submitted to the Sarawak Government. viii List of Figures Fig. 1. Map of Southeast Asia . 2 Fig. 2. Map of Sarawak showing the six Administrative Districts focussed upon in the study ...................... 22 Fig. 3. Map of Sarawak showing Administrative Divisions and main towns 35 Fig. 4. Map of Sarawak showing the main river systems . . . . . . . 39 Fig. 5. Map of Sarawak showing the terrain regions. ......... 40 Fig. 6. Map of Sarawak showing population density in 1980 . ..... 42 Fig. 7. Photograph of a typical traditional longhouse . . . . . . . . 45 Fig. 8. Barchart to show change in structure of exports from 1963-1989. 49 Fig. 9. Barchart to show change in structure of imports from 1963-1989. 51 Fig. 10. Map of Sarawak showing the trunk road ......... 54 Fig. 11. Malaysian energy movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Fig. 12. Fuel mix for electricity generation, 1987-1988 ....... 70 Fig. 13. Rise in electricity demand over the ten year period 1978-1988. . 73 Fig. 14. Map of Peninsular Malaysia showing the liv transmission system. 77 Fig. 15. Map of Sarawak showing major power stations and the 275 kV transmission system ........................... 85 Fig. 16. Map of Sarawak showing rural power stations and mini hydroelectric installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Fig. 17. Layout of the village of Long Jawe on the Balui River in Belaga District. ..................... 120 Fig. 18. Photograph of the village generator (75 kW Petter) at Rumah Pak, . Bintangor. ......... ........... 132 Fig. 19. Photograph of the micro hydro plant in operation, Bakelalan. . . 138 Fig. 20. Photograph of the first transformer to be installed at Buduk