! ! Community Radio as Public Sphere: Integrating Communities of Africa for Social Change? A Dissertation by: Adeniyi Bello, B.Sc., MPA In MASS COMMUNICATION Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirement for The Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Kenton Wilkinson, Ph.D. Chair of the Committee Erik P. Bucy, Ph.D. Todd Chambers, Ph.D. Patricia Maloney, Ph.D. Bolanle Olaniran, Ph.D. Mark Sheridan, Ph.D. Dean of the Graduate School August, 2015 ! ! © 2015, Adeniyi W. K. Bello ! Texas Tech University, Adeniyi Bello, August 2015 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of this study reminds me of one of Langston Hughes (1902–1967) poems: Harlem (Collected Poems) in which he asks, “What happens to a dream deferred?” My dream of acquiring a doctoral degree was deferred for many years, but is now finally accomplished. I should, therefore, express my deep appreciation to the many kind-hearted people who helped me accomplish this dream. I begin by offering special gratitude to the members of my committee, Drs. Kenton Wilkinson, Erik P. Bucy, Todd Chambers, Patricia Maloney, and Bolanle Olaniran. I am grateful for their willingness to serve on the committee in spite of many other commitments. These are a special breed of academics with special attributes, and I was lucky to work with them. To Dr. Wilkinson, my mentor, I give immense gratitude for assisting me closely throughout the whole process, especially in reviewing and editing my research well beyond what was expected. He made me start early with my first chapter and the literature review, while he provided valuable insights that helped me in facing the challenges. For his maturity and teachings on endurance, I’m deeply grateful for his untiring efforts. He was concerned not only about my academic success, but also in the conduct of my life. Dr. Bucy’s theory class provided the insights that challenged my thinking even before beginning this study. Dr. Maloney stimulated me to reflect, even more critically than I intended to, on a number of sociological and methodological issues in this study. Even after delivering her daughter (Katherine), she devoted time to meeting with me, reading through my manuscript and providing helpful comments. Dr. Todd Chambers is the first person I met at Texas Tech, and has taken an interest in me ever ii ! Texas Tech University, Adeniyi Bello, August 2015 since. I have never met anyone so passionate about radio broadcasting, and his dexterity on the computer continues to amaze me. He’s always so excited and willing to lend a helping hand on very short notice. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. Bolanle Olaniran, a valuable source of knowledge and wisdom both at an academic and personal level. My trip to Tanzania would not have been possible were it not for the funding I received through the Thomas Jay Harris Institute for Hispanic and International Communication in the College of Media and Communication. I thank the estate of Mr. Thomas Jay Harris, a Texas Tech alumnus and former journalist, for helping to expand the frontiers of my knowledge. In addition, the Department of Blind services in Lubbock supported me financially and offered me equipment that contributed directly to the successful completion of this project. Special thanks to my counsellor, Tanya Washington, who pulled the strings to make this possible. I also feel a deep sense of appreciation to the officers and staff of the four radio stations investigated in this study. Special thanks also go to Riley Davis, Lulu Mwina, and Jacob Copple, for their assistance in inputting the data, transcribing the materials from Kiswahili to English language, and creating the map showing the location of the stations across Tanzania. Dr. Erik P. Bucy generously helped support these efforts. I also acknowledge the debt I owe to the authors I quote so extensively, especially Drs. Niamh Gaynor, her colleague, Anne O’Brien, and Mary Myers for the ideas and materials on which this dissertation is based. Finally, a note of appreciation goes to my wife, Olayinka for giving me the inspiration to continue, often, when my strengths and iii ! Texas Tech University, Adeniyi Bello, August 2015 motivations seemed to fade away. This accomplishment was made possible by God, and to Him goes my special offering of thanks. iv ! Texas Tech University, Adeniyi Bello, August 2015 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii ABSTRACT vii LIST OF TABLES viii LIST OF FIGURES ix CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. LITERATURE REVIEW 14 SECTION I: CLASSIC ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY 15 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF DEV. COMMUNICATION 19 DEVELOPMENT AS CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 21 MODERNIZATION PARADIGM 23 DEPENDENCY THEORY 41 SECTION II: THE PARTICIPATORY MODEL 43 RADIO AS THE GLOBAL MEDIUM 48 ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF COMMUNITY RADIO 49 THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT OF COMMUNITY RADIO 56 COMMUNITY RADIO AS PUBLIC SPHERE 59 RADIO AS AFRICA’S POPULAR MEDIUM 70 THE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE USES OF RADIO 73 RADIO CONVERGENCE WITH NEW MEDIA 77 COMMUNITY RADIO AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT 80 III. METHODOLOGY 91 v ! Texas Tech University, Adeniyi Bello, August 2015 RESEARCH SITE 93 DATA COLLECTION PROCESS 96 MEASURES 97 ANALYSIS STRATEGY 102 IV. RESULTS 105 V. DISCUSSION 127 VI. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 139 BIBLIOGRAPHY 143 APPENDICES A. IRB APPROVAL 169 B. PROFILE OF THE FOUR STATIONS 170 C. STATION MANAGER SURVEY INSTRUMENT 174 D. LISTENER SURVEY INSTRUMENT 179 E. SAMPLE FOCUS GROUP QUESTIONS 186 F. GEOGRAPHIC MAP OF TANZANIA SHOWING LOCATION OF COMMUNITY RADIO STATIONS 187 vi ! Texas Tech University, Adeniyi Bello, August 2015 ABSTRACT This field research conducted in the United Republic of Tanzania combines a survey with focus groups and in-depth interviews to examine the promise of community radio as ‘public sphere,’ and especially its influence in stimulating social change. The goal was to discover whether use of community radio led to higher levels of political participation and political efficacy among listeners. Managers of four radio stations (Sengeremaa, Afya, Sibuka, and Saut) and 307 listener/volunteer respondents participated in the study. This study finds community radio a useful platform for the rural communities of Tanzania, which given the country’s political development, never before had the opportunity of participating in the polity. The results indicate the community radio sector currently is providing public space for local culture, gender equality, individual productivity, human rights protections, social justice, skill building, and self- identity development. In fulfilling the information needs of the rural populace, the community radio sector in Tanzania is filling a void left for decades by commercial and public broadcasting services, and in this regard, is fulfilling the role of public broadcaster, informing the public at local levels, and representing their views. A key finding of this study is the contribution of community radio talk show to political participation and efficacy, suggesting that community radio could serve useful democratic functions in empowering citizens. Further analysis indicates strong audience support for the model’s program diversity and information value. Although community radio has not replaced private or public service stations, the sector is filling the void left by traditional media. vii ! Texas Tech University, Adeniyi Bello, August 2015 LIST OF TABLES 1. FRAMEWORK OF AUDIENCE PARTICIPATION IN MASS MEDIA...…………82 2. CORRELATIONS OF SELECTED VARIABLES…………………………………126 viii ! Texas Tech University, Adeniyi Bello, August 2015 LIST OF FIGURES 1. PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS OWNING A RADIO OR TELEVISION SET IN SOME AFRICAN COUNTRIES…...........................................................................73 2. REASONS FOR LISTENING TO COMMUNITY RADIO...……………………...107 3. PERCENTAGES OF RESPONDENTS IDENTIFYING SOCIAL BENEFITS.......108 4. TYPES OF PROGRAMS ON COMMUNITY RADIO………….………………...117 ix ! Texas Tech University, Adeniyi Bello, August 2015 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Since the early 1970s when small-scale media emerged in the Western world,1 the broadcasting landscape has not remained the same. In particular, African countries, from the 1990s on, began witnessing profound changes on their airwaves in what is largely linked to global media liberalization and political democratization processes, simultaneously followed by the advent of popular movements seeking greater freedom of expression, information and association. Liberalization of the airwaves refers to the emergence of private broadcasters and to a much lesser extent, community broadcasters operating side-by-side with state controlled stations in most of the world. A study by the BBC World Service Trust (2006) indicates that while commercial radio grew in sub- Saharan Africa by an average of 360% between 2000 and 2006, small-scale broadcasting outlets (such as community radio stations) rose on average by over 1,000% in the same period. For those familiar with Africa’s broadcasting landscape, radio was part of the system inherited from colonial administrations, which has since independence been a monopoly of the state, justified on the grounds that it was a public service critical to development, the fostering of unity and the promotion of national culture and identity (Nyman-Metcalf, et al., 2003). Thus, to some, the emergence of community radio is considered revolutionary. But, what role will the new model play in the transformation of the sub–Saharan region? Most importantly, how relevant is community radio for