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The Roots and Fruits of String Theory

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CERN Courier November 2018 Interview: Gabriele Veneziano Well-designed The roots and fruits power switches, safer electrical of string theory systems. In the summer of 1968, while a visitor in CERN’s theory division, Gabriele Veneziano wrote a paper titled “Construction of a crossing-symmetric, Regge behaved amplitude for linearly-rising trajectories”. How long does it take for the iron plunger to close the air He was trying to explain the strong interaction, but his paper wound up marking the beginning of string theory. gap? Will the magnetic power switch overheat? How will magnetic forces and induced currents impact the design? Visualization of the electric losses in the core of a power What led you to the 1968 paper for These are important questions to ask when designing switch during opening and closing operations, shown metastable state (a resonance) which, magnetic power switches. Electromagnetics software can from left to right at 50, 100, and 200 ms. which you are most famous? after a characteristic lifetime, decays help you find the answers. In the mid-1960s we theorists were stuck into c+d. In the other process the pair a+c in trying to understand the strong inter- exchanges a virtual particle with the pair The COMSOL Multiphysics® software is used for simulating action. We had an example of a relativ- b+d. In QED these two processes have designs, devices, and processes in all fields of engineering, istic quantum theory that worked: QED, to be added because they correspond to manufacturing, and scientific research. See how you can the theory of interacting electrons and two distinct Feynman diagrams, while, apply it to designing magnetic power switches. photons, but it looked hopeless to copy according to DHS duality, each one pro- that framework for the strong interac- vides, for strong interactions, the whole comsol.blog/magnetic-power-switch tions. One reason was the strength of story. I’d heard about DHS duality from the strong coupling compared to the Murray Gell-Mann at the Erice summer electromagnetic one. But even more school in 1967, where he said that DHS disturbing was that there were so many would lead to a “cheap bootstrap” for the (and ever growing in number) differ- strong interaction. Hearing this being ent species of hadrons that we felt at a said by a great physicist motivated me loss with field theory – how could we enormously. I was in the middle of my cope with so many different states in a PhD studies at the Weizmann Institute QED-like framework? We now know in Israel. Back there in the fall, a col- how to do it and the solution is called laboration of four people was formed. It intensified quantum chromodynamics (QCD). But consisted of Marco Ademollo, on leave things weren’t so clear back then. The at Harvard from Florence, and of Hector highly non-trivial jump from QED to Rubinstein, Miguel Virasoro and myself QCD meant having the guts to write a Veneziano, photographed at CERN in July, at the Weizmann Institute. We worked theory for entities (quarks) that nobody worked at CERN for more than 30 years and led intensively for a period of eight-to-nine sCMOS had ever seen experimentally. the theory division between 1994 and 1997. months trying to solve the (apparently the new intensified pco.dicam C1 No one was ready for such a logical (Image credit: CERN-PHOTO-201807-183-1.) not so) cheap bootstrap for a particularly with 16 bit dynamic range intensified jump, so we tried something else: an convenient reaction. We got very encour- sCMOS technology S-matrix approach. The S-matrix, which relates the initial and final aging results hinting, I was feeling, for the existence of a simple exact 2048 x 2048 pixel states of a quantum-mechanical process, allows one to directly solution. That solution turned out to be the Euler beta function. calculate the probabilities of scattering processes without solving a quantum field theory such as QED. This is why it looked more But the 1968 paper was authored by you alone? exposure time 34 ns promising. It was also looking very conventional but, eventually, Indeed. The preparatory work done by the four of us had a crucial with 25 mm intensifier led to something even more revolutionary than QCD – the idea that role, but the discovery that the Euler beta function was an exact hadrons are actually strings. realisation of DHS duality was just my own. It was around mid- June 1968, just days before I had to take a boat from Haifa to Venice 104 fps Is it true that your “eureka” moment was when you came and then continue to CERN where I would spend the month of July. @ full resolution across the Euler beta function in a textbook? By that time the group of four was already dispersing (Rubinstein Not at all! I was taking a bottom-up approach to understand the on his way to NYU, Virasoro to Madison, Wisconsin via Argen- enhanced strong interaction. The basic idea was to impose on the S-matrix tina, Ademollo back to Florence before a second year at Harvard). extinction ratio gating a property now known as Dolen–Horn–Schmid (DHS) duality. It I kept working on it by myself, first on the boat, then at CERN until relates two apparently distinct processes contributing to an elemen- the end of July when, encouraged by Sergio Fubini, I decided to with tary reaction, say a+b → c+d. In one process, a+b fuse to form a send the preprint to the journal Il Nuovo Cimento. interface pco-tech.com 21 CCNov18_Q&A_v3.indd 21 19/10/2018 14:04 CERNCOURIER www. V OLUME 5 8 N UMBER 9 N O V EMBER 2 0 1 8 CERN Courier November 2018 Advertising feature Interview: Gabriele Veneziano ATRON, a new technological platform Was the significance of the result already clear? in QCD. Indeed the latter is so complicated that only the most pow- Well, the formula had many desirable features, but the reaction of erful computers could shed some light on it many decades later. A dedicated to under irradiation studies the physics community came to me as a shock. As soon as I had sub- posteriori, the fact that by looking at hadronic phenomena we were mitted the paper I went on vacation for about four weeks in Italy and driven into discovering string theory was neither a coincidence nor In partnership with CNRS and CEA laboratories, hostile environments - in nuclear, space or did not think much about it. At the end of August 1968, I attended an accident. ATRON, subsidiary of the ENGIE group developed defense industries - to evaluate these effects in the Vienna conference – one of the biennial Rochester-conference a rupture technology that aims to abandon the order to establish an appropriate preventive series – and found out, to my surprise, that the paper was already When was it clear that strings offer a consistent quantum- use of radioactive sources to calibrate radiation maintenance plan. Due to its ability to irradiate gravity theory? survey meters material samples with electron beams or X-ray widely known and got mentioned in several summary talks. I had radiations and at a controlled temperature, sent the preprint as a contribution and was invited to give a parallel- This very bold idea came as early as 1974 from a paper by Joel To achieve its project and meet various irradiation ATRON allows a fine evaluation of the effects of session talk about it. Curiously, I have no recollection of that event, Scherk and John Schwarz. Confronted with the fact that the mass- needs, ATRON has developed a technological irradiation on the material. but my wife remembers me telling her about it. There was even a less spin-1 string state refused to become massive (there is no platform equipped with: witness, the late David Olive, who wrote that listening to my talk Brout–Englert–Higgs mechanism at hand in string theory!) and • an electrostatic electron accelerator with a Reliability of electronic systems changed his life. It was an instant hit, because the model answered that even a massless spin-2 string had to be part of the string spec- removable X target, Likewise, placed in a radiating environment, several questions at once, but it was not at all apparent then that it trum, they argued that those states should be identified with the • tools allowing irradiation in special conditions, electronic systems are susceptible of failures had anything to do with strings, not to mention quantum gravity. photon and the graviton, i.e. with the carriers of electromagnetic • a measurement and analysis laboratory, consecutive to the interaction of ionizing and gravitational interactions, respectively. Other spin-1 particles • a team with scientific skills, radiation at the level of their sensitive When was the link to “string theory” made? could be associated with the gluons of QCD or with the W and Z • a network of partnerships with research 3.5 MeV electron beam and an X-ray irradiation line components. In order to measure the impact laboratories. of this kind of events on components or on The first hints that a physical model for hadrons could underlie bosons of the weak interaction. String theory would then become rates allow measurements across the entire integrated systems, ATRON has a X-rays and my mathematical proposal came after the latter had been properly a theory of all interactions, at a deeper, more microscopic level. –13 Calibration of radiation survey meters energy response range of the instruments. electrons source whose characteristics can generalised (to processes involving an arbitrary number of collid- The characteristic scale of the hadronic string (~10 cm) had to be –33 ATRON calibrates radiation survey meters with be adjusted to reproduce nuclear or space ing particles) and the whole spectrum of hadrons it implied was reduced by 20 orders of magnitude (~10 cm, the famous Planck- realistic and representative fields connected to a Accelerated aging under irradiation environments.
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