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Copyright by Juan Guillermo Yunda 2017 The Dissertation Committee for Juan Guillermo Yunda Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: “Juntos Pero no Revueltos:” The Influence of the Social Stratification System on Urban Densification Patterns in Bogotá, Colombia Committee: Bjørn Sletto, Supervisor Junfeng Jiao, Co-Supervisor Fernando Lara Jacob Wegmann Clara Irazábal “Juntos Pero no Revueltos:” The Influence of the Social Stratification System on Urban Densification Patterns in Bogotá, Colombia by Juan Guillermo Yunda, B.Arch; M.S.; M.Arch. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin May 2017 Dedication I would like to dedicate this work to my mother, Amanda Lozano, who devoted her life to the academia. She taught for more than thirty years soil chemistry at the National University in Bogotá. Thanks to her commitment and hard work over the years, my brothers and I had access to a higher education while enjoyed her love and council for all the important decisions of our life. ¡Gracias Mamá! Acknowledgements I want to first thank my supervisor, Dr. Bjørn Sletto. This work could have not been possible without his advice and support during all the unexpected incidences during my PhD studies. Thanks to Bjørn’s tireless dedication throughout the last four years to review my writing, I can say now that I finally learnt to write (something very unusual for an Architect). Secondly, I want to thank my co-supervisor and all the committee members for their reviews and insights during the writing of this dissertation. Without their different points of view and criticism, this work will not have been as compelling and insightful. I also want to thank my colleagues of the PhD program and the faculty and staff at the School of Architecture for their friendship and council over the years. Finally, I want to thank the support of the Colombian Science and Technology Institute (Colciencias) which sponsored my PhD studies at The University of Texas at Austin, and the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy that funded the research associated with this dissertation. “Juntos Pero no Revueltos:” The Influence of the Social Stratification System on Urban Densification Patterns in Bogotá, Colombia Juan Guillermo Yunda, PhD The University of Texas at Austin, 2017 Supervisor: Bjørn Sletto Co-Supervisor: Junfeng Jiao From the 1950s to the 1970s, Bogotá, Colombia was one of the fastest growing cities in the world. During this period, the city became characterized by extreme social and geographic polarization between rural migrants and urban elites. This polarization was caused by a lack of development control as well as planning policies that encouraged social and spatial segregation. Social elites primarily lived in suburban neighborhoods in the north of Bogotá, which were well served by municipal infrastructure and enjoying easy access to services and employment opportunities. Low-skilled rural migrants settled in informal neighborhoods in the south that had poor municipal services and were close to environmentally polluted areas and far from the central business districts. Faced with the prospect of continuing, ungovernable urban sprawl led by both the formal and informal sector, in 1979 the city implemented a set of growth control and densification policies. However, thirty-five years later these policies have failed to halt or reverse the uneven development of the city. I argue that the unintended outcomes of the growth management policies are largely due to private sector interests and actions, which in turn v are influenced by social equity policies. To demonstrate this, I correlated the recent densification projects with the so-called Stratification system. This system separates the city into six levels based on built form characteristics to identify groups with different income levels, providing a proxy for the analysis of socio-spatial segregation patterns. In addition, I explored the behaviors and attitudes of urban development agents through interviews and analysis of planning documents. I found that there is a statistically significant correlation between the Stratification zones and the densification patterns shaped, in part, by the influence of the private sector over local land-use and density regulations. This influence of developers has led to a transformation of the built form that is distinguished by uneven density levels, access to services and employment, and concentrations of poverty. Because of this complex articulation of planning and social policies with private sector interests and actions, Bogotá’s low income residents are experiencing unpredictable patterns of disinvestment, overcrowding, revitalization or dislocation in their neighborhoods. vi Table of Contents List of Tables ......................................................................................................... ix List of Figures ..........................................................................................................x List of Acronyms ................................................................................................. xiii Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................1 Introduction to Bogotá and its social and spatial divisions .............................1 A history of urban growth shaped by social and spatial segregation ..............6 The current urban crisis and persistent imbalances ......................................11 The role of public policy and the private sector in the inequalities ..............15 Densification and private sector in growth management policies ................18 Summary review of chapters ........................................................................21 Chapter 2: Two illustrative cases of densification from Bogotá ............................24 Densification in Cedritos: Success or unplanned urbanization? ...................24 Densification in Los Olivos: Dislocation or social improvement? ...............34 Chapter 3: Growth management, densification, and private sector .......................42 Densification and growth management in urban planning and design .........42 Criticism of densification policies within growth management ...................47 The study of growth patterns in Latin American cities.................................51 The powerful role of the private sector in Latin American planning ...........60 Chapter 4: Research methods.................................................................................63 Definitions, research questions and methods proposed ................................63 The mixed-methods approach in urban planning research ...........................73 The quantitative and qualitative methods used .............................................79 My positionality as planning practitioner and community member .............83 Chapter 5: Historical planning policies and socio-spatial segregation ..................89 1920s to 1940s: Normative ideas of urbanism and foreign practitioners .....92 1950s to 1970s: Social segregation through density and land-use norms ....96 1980s to 1990s: Growth management and incremental densification ........104 vii 2000s: POT and the UPZs, bottom-up against top-down planning ............113 Arrangements and social segregation in Bogotá’s urban planning .............118 Chapter 6: Stratification system reinforcing historical spatial trends ..................129 The Stratification system origins and policy design ...................................129 Criticism of the Stratification system .........................................................136 Stratification system and urban planning ....................................................141 Chapter 7: Correlation Stratification, densification and segregation ...................150 Analysis of the data .....................................................................................152 Correlation Stratification and incremental densification ............................169 Linear models.....................................................................................169 Log-log models ..................................................................................172 Alternative models: Poisson regression and GWR ............................179 Model comparison .............................................................................184 Correlation incremental densification and social segregation ....................185 Chapter 8: Stratification in private sector and housing markets ..........................194 The importance of social divisions in setting land values ..........................194 Market failures in the housing production in relation to Stratification .......200 Different developers and densification markets across the strata ...............211 Chapter 9: Conclusions ........................................................................................222 References ............................................................................................................229 Vita .....................................................................................................................241 viii List of Tables Table 1: Historical population, area and density in Bogotá 1950–2011 ..............125 Table 2: Direct variables of Stratification according to