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Running Head: BETTERMENT OR BELITTLEMENT Running Head: BETTERMENT OR BELITTLEMENT 20 YEARS OF BETTERMENT OR BELITTLEMENT: A REPLICATION OF COWAN AND CAMPBELL‟S 1994 CONTENT ANALYSIS ON SEXISM AND RACISM IN INTERRACIAL PORNOGRAPHY by Lukas V. Marriott Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts with Honours in Psychology Acadia University March, 2015 © Copyright by Lukas V. Marriott, 2015 BETTERMENT OR BELITTLEMENT This thesis by Lukas V Marriott is accepted in its present form by the Department of Psychology as satisfying the thesis requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts with Honours. Approved by the Thesis Supervisor _______________________________ ___________________________ Sarah Vannier Date Approved on behalf of the Head of the Department _______________________________ ___________________________ Dr. Amanda Bolton Date Approved by the Honours Committee _______________________________ ___________________________ Dr. Anthony Thomson Date ii BETTERMENT OR BELITTLEMENT I, Lukas V. Marriott, grant permission to the University Librarian at Acadia University to reproduce, loan, or distribute copies of my thesis in microform, paper or electronic formats on a non-profit basis. I, however, retain the copyright in my thesis. _______________________________________________ Signature of Author _______________________________________________ Date iii BETTERMENT OR BELITTLEMENT Acknowledgements A special thank you goes out to my parents for their never-ending support, the Psychology Faculty of Acadia University for paving the way for me to pursue this wonderful opportunity, and an extra special thank you to Ms. Sarah Vannier for winding me up and letting me go. iv BETTERMENT OR BELITTLEMENT Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................ viii Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Race in Pornography ....................................................................................................... 2 Sexism in Pornography ................................................................................................... 5 A Whole New World (Wide Web) .................................................................................. 8 Measurement of Aggression............................................................................................ 9 The Current Study ......................................................................................................... 11 Methods............................................................................................................................. 13 Results ............................................................................................................................... 16 Race ............................................................................................................................... 16 Pubic Hair ...................................................................................................................... 16 Table 1 ....................................................................................................................... 17 Context .......................................................................................................................... 18 Inequality ....................................................................................................................... 18 Physical Aggression ...................................................................................................... 19 Table 2 ....................................................................................................................... 20 Verbal Aggression ......................................................................................................... 22 v BETTERMENT OR BELITTLEMENT Intimacy ......................................................................................................................... 23 Behaviours ..................................................................................................................... 23 Racial Stereotypes ......................................................................................................... 24 Table 3 ....................................................................................................................... 25 Non-Consensual Activities ............................................................................................ 26 Comparison with Cowan and Campbell........................................................................ 26 Table 4 ....................................................................................................................... 27 Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 29 Limitations of the Study ................................................................................................ 37 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 40 References ......................................................................................................................... 42 Appendix A ....................................................................................................................... 48 Appendix B ....................................................................................................................... 51 Appendix C ....................................................................................................................... 60 vi BETTERMENT OR BELITTLEMENT List of Tables Table 1 - Descriptive Characteristics, Context, and Inequality Cues ............................... 17 Table 2 - Aggression, Intimacy, and Behaviours .............................................................. 20 Table 3 - Racial Stereotypes and Non-Consensual Behaviours........................................ 25 Table 4 - Cowan and Campbell Comparison .................................................................... 27 vii BETTERMENT OR BELITTLEMENT Abstract Cowan and Campbell (1994) conducted a content analysis of interracial pornography videocassettes to study indicators of racism and sexism. It was concluded that pornography was both racist and sexist in its portrayal of sexual activity. The current study replicated Cowan and Campbell to examine identical behaviours in internet pornography. One-hundred videos were selected from 10 free online pornography websites (50 interracial, 50 control) and were coded using Campbell and Cowan‟s criteria. Rates of physical and verbal aggression were consistent with Cowan and Campbell but yielded fewer racial differences. Racial compliments and insults were less common in the current study and there was no difference in mention of verbal penis size, but there was a higher rate of visual penis size cues in interracial videos. Intimacy cues including kissing, caressing, talking, and sex face-to-face were now portrayed more often. Non-consensual acts were rare, occurring in 5% of the total sample. The current study adds to the growing body of research exploring trends in web-based pornography. viii BETTERMENT OR BELITTLEMENT 20 Years of Betterment or Belittlement: A Replication of Cowan and Campbell’s 1994 Content Analysis on Sexism and Racism in Interracial Pornography The majority of individuals have viewed pornography (Ramlagun, 2012; Wodda, 2011). Rates of exposure range between 38% to 90%, with an increasing trend of exposure occurring via the internet (Häggström-Nordin et al, 2006; Lo & Wei, 2005; Peter & Valkenburg, 2006). Throughout the 1980‟s and 1990‟s, the sales of hardcore pornographic videos grew exponentially increasing from an estimated 75 million dollars in revenue in 1986, to 665 million dollars by 1996 (Stack et al, 2004). When including all other forms of sexually explicit material such as magazines, internet porn, phone sex, peep shows, and pay-per-view cable pornography, total profits grew to over eight billion dollars, more sales than all of Hollywood‟s movie profits combined (Fisher & Barak, 2000). However, the rise of the internet has allowed pornography to become more accessible than ever before (Döring, 2009; Downing et al, 2014; Gossett & Byrne, 2002; Mehta, 2001), supplanting magazines and videocassettes as the primary means of distribution (Woida, 2009). From this point, the debate arises about the effects of pornography on behaviour. Some research has found negative effects, correlating exposure to pornography among adolescents with less progressive gender roles, becoming more likely to engage in sexual harassment, and engaging in sexual intercourse at an earlier age (Brown & L‟Engle, 2008; Döring, 2009; Primack et al., 2008). By contrast, other research has found neutral or positive effects suggesting that consuming pornography does not result in adverse thoughts, behaviours, or treatment of others, and its growing prevalence relates to a decrease of sex crimes being committed (Diamond, 2009; McKee, 2014; Scott & 1 BETTERMENT OR BELITTLEMENT Cuvelier, 1993). However, the content of pornographic videos remains an important area of research for determining prevailing trends and stereotypes that continue to be portrayed in this medium. A primary concern about the use of pornography is that it promotes harmful
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