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STUDIA ROSENTHALIANA 36 (2002-2003) A Longing for India: Indophilia among German-Jewish Scholars of the Nineteenth Century GREGOR PELGER1 […] when several years ago in Berlin a kind lady showed me the pretty pictures that her father – who had been a governor of India for many years – had brought back with him, the tenderly painted and quiet saintly faces seemed so familiar to me, and it was as if I was looking at my own ancestral gallery. Franz Bopp […] gave me some information about my ancestors, and I know exactly now, that I sprang from Bramah’s head and not from the corns of his feet […].2 URING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY a metaphysical thirst for all D things Indian spread across Europe, captivating writers, philoso- phers and philologists. Since the end of the eighteenth century the search for the ‘cradle of mankind’ and the discovery of ancient Oriental texts caused a shift in scholarly attention to the East.3 This re-orientation reduced and marginalised the importance of Judaism and Jewish monothe- ism in the history and cultures of the West. By constructing an Indo- European narrative, scholars gave European societies an instrument with 1. My thanks to Brad Sabin Hill who continuously supported my research, to Annette Meyer for her enlightening advice and to Andrea Schatz for her remarks on additional literature. 2. ‘[…] als vor einigen Jahren eine gütige Dame in Berlin mir die hübschen Bilder zeigte, die ihr Vater, der lange Zeit Gouverneur in Indien war, von dort mitgebracht, schienen mir die zartge- malten, heiligstillen Gesichter so wohlbekannt, und es war mir, als beschaute ich meine eigene Familiengallerie. Franz Bopp […] gab mir manche Auskunft über meine Ahnherren, und ich weiß jetzt genau, daß ich au dem Haupte Brahmas entspossen bin, und nicht aus seinen Hühneraugen; […].’ H. Heine, ‘Reisebilder. Zweyter Theil. Ideen. Das Buch Le Grand, 1826’, in: M. Windfuhr, Hein- rich Heine: Historisch-kritische Ausgabe der Werke, vol. 6 (Düsseldorf 1973), p. 178. 3. Jürgen Osterhammel, Die Entzauberung Asiens: Europa und die asiatischen Reiche im 18. Jahrhundert (Munich 1998), p. 11-21. 254 GREGOR PELGER which to deny the historical importance of Judaism and their dependence on it.4 The study of ancient Hindu texts supplied a basis for European myths of exclusive identities, providing a stepping stone for the modern anti-Semitism that developed in the nineteenth century.5 With the bene- fit of hindsight and historical distance, Indophilia can therefore be seen to have established a momentum of extreme exclusivity directed not only against Oriental cultures – as post-colonial criticism has shown – but against Europe’s Jews as well. From today’s perspective it seems odd that German Jews, such as Hein- rich Heine (1797-1856), developed a fascination for India.6 Is it possible to explain why German Jews were interested in this field of study, while they failed tragically to anticipate the subsequent direction it took? The fascina- tion with India developed in the atmosphere of the Romanticism and Ideal- ism that evolved in the wake of the German Nationale Bewegung (national movement). The discovery of India as the ‘cradle of mankind’ and the foun- dation of the scientific study of language tended to create a parameter of affinity in European and especially German society. Since it was a new field of research, however, it was not immediately clear who stood on which side of the fence. I believe that the experience of the Oriental Enlightenment was a powerful impetus toward integration among German-Jewish scholars dur- ing the period of emancipation and acculturation. So although Indology and the scientific study of language were later misused for the construction of an 4. Voltaire was fascinated by the Sanskrit text Ezour Vedam – Friedrich Max Müller later described it as a ‘very coarse forgery’ – with which he displaced ‘the Jews from a favoured position in the Christian tradition’ and accused ‘the Jews of stealing both the myth of Creation and the Fall from the Indians’. D.M. Figueira, Aryans, Jews, Brahmins: Theorizing Authority through Myths of Identity (New York 2002), p. 13; 17-18. 5. G.L. Mosse, Towards a Final Solution: A History of European Racism (London 1978) p. 35- 49; L. Poliakov, Der arische Mythos: Zu den Quellen von Rassismus und Nationalismus (original title: Le Mythe aryen) (Hamburg 1993). 6. I refer here to German-Jewish Orientalists such as Julius Fürst (1805-1873), Julius Oppert (1825-1905), Gustav Salomon Oppert (1836-1908), Theodor Aufrecht (1821-1907), Theodor Gold- stücker (1821-1872) and Theodor Benfey (1809-1881). Other Jewish scholars were also fascinated with Indology and comparative linguistics, even if it was not necessarily their only field of study. For example the famous Hebrew bibliographer and Hebraist Moritz Steinschneider (1816-1907) studied under Franz Bopp in Berlin, see: A. Marx, ‘Steinschneideriana II’, in: S.W. Baron and A. Marx, Jew- ish Studies in Memory of George A. Kohut (New York 1935), p. 497; likewise Hermann Heymann Steinthal (1829-1899) the founder of the Völkerpsychologie, see: J. Leopold, ‘Steinthal and Max Müller: Comparative Lives’, in: H. Wiedebach, A. Winkelmann, Chajim H. Steinthal: Sprachwis- senschaftler und Philosoph im 19. Jahrhundert (Leiden 2002), p. 32. A LONGING FOR INDIA 255 exclusive racial myth of biological superiority, German-Jewish scholars only participated in this coincidentally, as an aspect of integration into non-Jewish society. To demonstrate this, I shall describe the specific German fascination with India and then present three hypotheses that may explain why Jewish scholars became so prominently involved in it.7 Emergence of Indophilia Western research into Indian culture began in earnest in 1784 with the foundation of the Asiatic Society of Bengal under the British lawyer William Jones (1746-1794), a civil servant at the supreme court in Cal- cutta.8 Jones provided the first major translations of Sanskrit texts, such as the epic Shakuntala in 1790.9 It was in Germany, however, that Indophilia reached its cultural climax. Germany had not developed as a maritime trading power and had no political interests in the Orient, so this fascination with India emerged as a purely Romantic phenomenon, the province of poets and philosophers.10 The search for pantheism and a philosophy of literature – presented by scholars such as Johann Gott- fried Herder (1744-1803) – coincided with the discovery of the knowl- edge and wisdom contained in ancient Sanskrit texts.11 As a pre-Romantic, 7. On German-Jewish classics scholars in the late nineteenth century see: J. Bollack, ‘Juden in der Klassischen Philologie vor 1933’, in: Jüdische Intellektuelle und die Philologien in Deutschland 1871-1933 (Göttingen 2001), p. 165-185. 8. British political and commercial strategies resulted in the systematic takeover of India. In the 1780s British civil servants in Calcutta became increasingly interested in ancient Hindu culture. ‘Many of the early English Orientalists in India were, like Jones, legal scholars, or else, interestingly enough, they were medical men with strong missionary learning. So far as one can tell, most of them were imbued with the dual purpose of investigating “the sciences and the arts of Asia, with the hope of facilitating ameliorations there and of advancing knowledge and improving the arts at home”.’ E.W. Said, Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient (London 1999), p. 79. 9. In 1785 Charles Wilkins (1749-1836) translated the great Hindu epic Bhagavad Gita for the first time into English, ‘which was to exercise enormous influence on the mind of Europe and Amer- ica’. E. J. Sharpe, The Universal Gita: Western Images of the Bhagavad Gita (La Salle 1985), p. 10. 10. L. Willson, A mythical Image: The Ideal of India in German Romanticism (Durham 1964); Said, 1999, p. 19; R. Schwab, The Oriental Renaissance: Europe’s Rediscovery of India and the East 1680-1880 (New York 1984), p. 53. 11. R. Inden, Imagining India (Oxford 1990), p. 67. 12. ‘Alle Völker Europas, woher sind sie? Aus Asien. […] Wollt ihr Sprachen, deren großer, fast überfließender Reichtum auf sehr wenige Wurzeln zusammengeht, so daß sie mit einer sonder- baren Regelmäßigkeit und dem fast kindischen Kunstwerk, durch eine kleine Veränderung des Stammlauts einen neuen Begriff zu sagen, Mannigfaltigkeit und Anmuth verbinden: so seht den Umfang Südasiens von Indien bis Syrien, Arabien und Aethiopien hin.’ J.G. Herder, ‘Ideen zur 256 GREGOR PELGER Herder was one of those who created a German vision of the Orient, especially of India.12 He saw the different peoples and traditions as organically connected within a single body. He, and others like him believed that the peoples of the world had branched out from the Ori- ent, from East to West. As such, the Oriental cultures had their own geo- graphical origins and their own right to a place in the world.13 His famous Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit appeared in the same year of the foundation of the Asiatic Society of Bengal – so that the development of German philosophical interest in the Orient paral- lelled the investigation into Sanskrit texts in India. Herder’s fascination for India was triggered by the appearance in 1791 of a German translation of the Shakuntala by Georg Forster (1754-1794).14 It caused a remarkable rise in interest in Indian philology and the emer- gence of a new discipline of comparative historical linguistics in Germany. Scholars began tracing affinities of thought and language between East and West, which remained the driving force of German Indian studies.15 Friedrich Schlegel (1772-1829) encountered the Shakuntala as a young nine- teen-year-old during his studies in Leipzig and managed to find a compe- tent Sanskrit scholar in Alexander Hamilton (1765-1824) while residing in Paris (1802-1807).
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  • O Papel Da Edubba Na Sociedade Suméria

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    Universidade de Lisboa Faculdade de Letras A ESCOLA E A EDUCAÇÃO NA SUMÉRIA O PAPEL DA EDUBBA NA SOCIEDADE SUMÉRIA André Gonçalo Azevedo Pedro Dissertação Mestrado em História História Antiga 2015 Universidade de Lisboa Faculdade de Letras A ESCOLA E A EDUCAÇÃO NA SUMÉRIA O PAPEL DA EDUBBA NA SOCIEDADE SUMÉRIA André Gonçalo Azevedo Pedro Dissertação orientada pelo Prof. Doutor António J. Ramos dos Santos Mestrado em História Antiga 2015 Aquele que sabe, porque há-de tê-lo escondido? - Provérbio sumério i AGRADECIMENTOS Ainda que a redacção de uma dissertação seja um trabalho solitário, devo, por gratidão e inspiração, registar os merecidos agradecimentos e dedicatórias às pessoas que durante todo o meu período de investigação e de escrituração me ajudaram e me inspiraram. Apraz-me também dizer que, apesar de reservar esta secção da dissertação para agradecimentos e dedicatórias, o seu espaço limitado não me permite, como deveria, referir todas as pessoas que, de forma directa ou indirecta, me apoiaram na criação desta tese. As palavras que, portanto, dirijo serão sempre insuficientes para tamanha gratidão para um momento tão marcante na vida escolar como é a criação de uma tese de mestrado. A todos, deixo desde já, de forma geral, a mais sincera das gratidões. Por contubérnio, devo dirigir as minhas primeiras palavras de gratidão aos meus pais e às minhas irmãs. À minha mãe, que sempre foi, e sempre será, a pessoa mais querida da minha vida, e por em qualquer circunstância acreditar em mim e no que faço. Ao meu pai, pela camaradagem e apoio. Às minhas duas irmãs, pela cumplicidade, amizade e alegria que sempre caracteriza a nossa relação.