Impact of Ethic Identity and Acculturation on Consumer Behaviour: Evidence of Generation Y from Rural India

Manish Das* Assistant Professor, Department of Business Management, Tripura University (A Central University).

Abstract This study uncovers the association of ethnic identity and acculturation and their collective impact on consumer behaviour spanning across multiple items in different product categories for gen-Y consumers in rural India. While following emic approach, this empirical study collected 385 rural gen-Y consumers’ opinion on acculturation and ethnic identity through survey. Study also recorded consumption preference/liking/importance of gen-Y consumers’ across 65 items in product categories like foods/ vegetables, fashion, luxury, appliances/durables, electronics /technology and networking platforms. Study concludes that though rural gen-Y Indians are bi-cultural in nature, ethnic identity is yet the dominating force. Items with modernity and global image associates negatively with ethnic identity and positively with acculturation. Older product categories associate positively with ethnic identity and technologically superior items positively with acculturation. The findings will be a great help for existing/potential MNC’s to target rural gen-Y while positioning their offerings/communication design/strategy formulation. On limitations front, generalization of these findings needs more empirical evidences as the present study is confined to the rural parts of a particular state in India (Tripura). Keywords: Culture, Ethnic Identity, Acculturation, Consumer Behaviour, Rural India.

1. Introduction and capital markets gradually to convert to a globally linked, market economy. One of the popular mechanisms Consumer behaviour deals with the study of buying to measure consumer culture is to assess the possessions of behaviour of consumers and culture undoubtedly plays a significant and prominent role in determining it. The material objects to express cultural meaning as identified by McCracken (1986), Arnould (1989), Belk, Sherry and importance of culture in assessing consumer behavior increases manifold for a country like India with 29 Wallenderf (1988), Oswald (1999), Arnould and Price (1993) and Calgar (1995). culturally different states and 7 union territories totaling 1.3 billion populations. Hofstede (1984) defined culture as Globalization drives acculturation (Craig and Douglas, “a system of value and norms that are shared among a 2006; Cleveland and Laroche, 2007; Cleveland et al., 2009) group of people and that when taken together constitute a and researchers all over the world have presented different design for living.” findings on globalization impact on consumer culture. Assessment of available contributions put forth different Consumer culture is a form of material culture facilitated observations: the emergence of a standardized global by the market by creating a particular relationship between consumer culture (Alden et al., 1999; Firat, 1995; Hannerz, the consumer and the goods or services they consumes. 1990; TerHofstede et al., 1999; Craig and Douglas, 2006; Study of consumer culture has an important implication in assessing the acceptability of the market economy among Cleveland et al.,2009; Riefler et al., 2012), dominance of local consumer culture over the global (De Mooij, 2004), masses in a particular nation. It is vital for a country like India that started its journey as a socialist economy with and situational consumption behaviour based on collective influence of global and local culture (Craig and Douglas, highly centralized economic planning and 1991 onwards 2006; Cleveland et al., 2015). Thus, it is undoubtedly an area started Structural Adjustment Reforms (SAR) in fiscal, that requires more and more empirical evidence and industrial, trade, public sector, and infrastructure policies

*E-mail: [email protected], Tel: +91 9774325006/ 9863498734

IMJ 01 Manish Das Volume 10 Issue 1 January-June 2018 present research is one such attempt confining to Schaninger et al., 1985; Wallendorf and Reilly, 1983; generation Y consumers in rural India. Cultural impact is Laroche et al., 2005). assessed from the perspective of consumers’ ethnic 2.2 Consumer Acculturation identity, acculturation tendency and collective impact of these constructs on consumer behaviour for this study. Trimble (2003) viewed acculturation from the perspective Consumer behaviour is measured by relative probability of socio-cultural change and thus acculturation basically and/or frequency of purchase/consumption of different deals with changes in existing culture. Thus, consumer products/items spanning across different categories. acculturation can be defined as the phenomenon of changing consumer culture due to multiple environmental 2. Literature Review factors. Among all these factors, globalization is perhaps 2.1 Ethnic Identity (EID) the most crucial one and researchers (Lysonski et al, 2012; Lysonski, 2014; Craig et al., 2009; Yaprak, 2008; Venkatesh, Identity is one’s perception regarding his/her own 1995) are of opinion that local cultures in the developing characteristics and values (De Mooij, 2004). Thus ethnic countries are exhibiting rapid changes. Globalization is identity is identity in relation to one’s own ethnic group changing the cultural beliefs by adoption of products, based on shared individual or socio-cultural experiences lifestyles and rituals of other culture (Craig and Douglas, (Driedger, 1978) as well as ethnic attitudes and values 2006) and the change is towards cultural homogenization (White and Burke, 1987). Ethnic identity also reflects (Levitt, 1984) by adopting life styles and culture of the identity based on sense of belonging and obligation developed nations by the consumers’ of the developing (Laroche et al., 1996) to own ethnic group. Ethnic identity is countries (Ger and Belk, 1996). Though initially it was formed during childhood through socialization activities believed that acculturation happens through first hand of parents by learning of cultural values and behaviors’ contact with another culture (Redfield et.al., 1936), (Rosenthal and Cichello, 1986). Ethnic identity is subsequent research (Anderson,2012; Craig et al., 2009; multidimensional concept (Phinney et al, 2001). Available Steeenkamp,2001) proved that acculturation can be literature highlights self attachment and identification as through other indirect exposure also like exposure through an ethnic group member, urge to maintain own culture, mass media, trade, education, telecommunication etc ethnic involvement through customs, rituals etc., extent of (Berry, 1980). Acculturation study from consumer ethnic langue use, ethnic media consumption, ethnic behaviour perspective (Chattaraman, 2010; Cleveland et interpersonal relationship as most dominant dimensions of al., 2011) reveals that the popularity towards ethnic ethnic identity (Laroche et al., 2005; Cleveland and Chang, consumption may be reduced and popular cultural 2009; Mendoza, 1989; Penaloza, 1994; Driedger, 1978; products consumption may increase. Available study of Cleveland et al., 2011). Ethnic identity has relationship acculturation concentrates on two routes for measurement with economic and social transformation and research as behavioral changes and attitudinal changes (Gentry et indicates that rapid changes in economic and social al., 1995; Gupta, 2013; Anderson, 2012). structure propel people to incline towards their ethnic identity more strongly due to associated uncertainty and 2.3 Generation anxiety (Taylor et al., 2011). Thus, for a country like India, Three different approaches used frequently to define there is a possibility for stronger ethnic identity due to generation in research are kinship based approach rapid social and economic transformation post (Bengston et al., 2005; Wade-Benzoni, 2002), cohort based globalization of 1991. Numerous literatures also approach (Rosow, 1978; Ryder, 1965; Easterlin, 1987; highlighted relationship of consumption (especially food) Kertzer, 1983) and age based approach (Egri and Ralston, with ethnic identity (Driedger, 1978; Phinney, 1990; 2004; Strauss and Howe, 1991; Thau and Helfin, 1997) with Rosenthal and Feldman, 1992) which subsequently majority inclining towards age based or cohort based. expanded across all categories of consumption in the Present study applied the cohort based approach. A cohort domain of marketing and consumer behaviour research based approach assumes that people born and grow up in (Hoyer and Deshpande, 1982; Cleveland et al., 2011;

IMJ 02 Manish Das Volume 10 Issue 1 January-June 2018 the same time, sharing similar historic and significant highlighted that acculturation is also possible without events and experiences will demonstrate similar values, losing own ethnic identity (bi-cultural). Interestingly, beliefs and attitudes. These psychological underpinnings Webster (1994) opined a third view that ethnic identity and of one generational cohort is different from other cohorts acculturation are the same construct due to the fact that due to the differences in their birth and grow up times and similar factors (language, food, and preferences) are used different significant events associated with that time to identify both of them. Berry (1980) identified four (Strauss & Howe, 1991). The notion of similarity in possible outcome as an interaction of ethnic identity and attitudes and behaviors in one cohort and dissimilarities consumer acculturation as Integration (keeping part of with another cohort was also supported by Shuman and both culture), Separation (keeping original culture by Scott (1989). Multiple researchers classified generational rejecting the host culture), Assimilation (adopting the host cohorts in multiple ways from both American as well as culture and rejecting the own) and Marginalization Asian socio-historical context for different countries (intension to reject both). Thus it can be concluded that (Cekada, 2012; Dwyer, 2009; Lester et al., 2012; Srinivasan, there can be (in) significant association and if significant, 2012; Erikson, 2009; Roongrerngsuke, 2010; Ghosh and then also there can be either positive or negative Chaudhari, 2009; Hole et al., 2010). Presently study association is possible. Hypothesized relation for this considers the cohort segmentation by Erikson (2009) that study is highlighted four cohorts as Traditionalists (Born from 1928 H1: there will be a negative association amongst ethnic to 1945), Boomers (Born from 1946 to 1960/1964), identity and consumer acculturation in the context of Generation X (Born from 1961/1965 to 1979) and generation Y. Generation Y (Born from 1980 to 1995). This classification is considered due to the fact that it is applicable for both 4.2 Impact on consumption Indian as well as the U.S. generations (Erikson, 2009). This Multiple researches highlighted a significant association of research concentrates on Generation Y (Born from 1980 to both the constructs with various product items and 1995) from India as a subject matter. categories. Askegaard et al. (2005) observed a positive 3. Objectives of the Study association of ethnic identity with traditional/cultural foods/instruments. In the similar line, De Mooij (2004) also This study is commissioned to fulfill the following concluded that older the product category stronger the objectives: cultural impact. The same notion is also echoed in the I. To evaluate the association of ethnic identity and research by Fieldhouse (1995), Uhle and Grivetti (1993). consumer acculturation for the generation Y consumers’ in Like food, clothing and personal care items also has rural India. cultural expression rather than only style or social class II. To assess the combined impact of ethnic identity statement (De Mooij, 2004; Penaloza, 1994). Consumer and consumer acculturation on consumption behaviour of electronics serves somehow similar universal need and the generation Y consumers’ in rural India spanning across demands superior technology worldwide (Alden et al., multiple product items and categories. 1999; Levitt, 1983) symbolizing modernism and cosmopolitanism indicting a possible positive association 4. Hypotheses Development with consumer acculturation and negative association Following hypotheses are proposed in relation to the with ethnic identity. Luxury goods consumption also formulated objectives for the study: found to have stronger positive inclination towards 4.1 Ethnic identity and Consumer acculturation cultural change/acculturation (Dubois and Duquesque, 1993) due to their associated status. Study by Alden et association al.(1999) reported that global consumer culture positioning In the context of association of ethnic identity and (hence acculturation) strategy is extensively used for items consumer acculturation, Penaloza (1994) in her study belonging to high-tech durables, low-tech durables, observed a negative association whereas, Hui et al. (1992) personal durables, household non-durables, food non-

IMJ 03 Manish Das Volume 10 Issue 1 January-June 2018 durables and finally consumer services in a descending possible inclination towards the constructs. Relative order. The results are also more or less in the same line by probability and/or frequency of purchase/consumption some other international studies (Cleveland et al., 2009; are used while designing the statements. Product items are 2015). Thus, in relation to the product categories and items, taken into consideration rather than brand name to the following relationships are hypothesized: neutralize possible bias arising from associated strong H2: Consumer acculturation will a) positively predict brand loyalty (Elliot and Roach 1993). All the items are consumption/importance of 1) luxury items, 2) global picked based on their availability and familiarity in the foods 3) global fashion 4) technology and networking survey area i.e. Tripura. platforms; b) indifferently predict a) the importance of 5.2 Instrument owning appliances/durables; b) personal/hygiene care A questionnaire is designed by incorporating the items and c) negatively predict consumption of 1) acculturation scale (Cleveland and Laroche, 2007) and local/culture bound food items and vegetables and 2) ethnic identity scale (Cleveland, 2006) to measure the local fashion. respondents’ opinion regarding these tendencies. H3: Ethnic identity will a) negatively predict Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is applied for pre- consumption/importance of 1) luxury items, 2) global testing of the original scales to ensure their applicability for foods 3) global fashion 4) technology and networking this study. Samples approached for pre-testing of the platforms; b) indifferently predict a) the importance of instruments are 126 for ethnic identity and 192 for owning appliances/durables; b) personal/hygiene care acculturation. CFA (path analysis) for acculturation scale items and c) positively predict consumption of 1) yielded following fit statistics: Chi-square = 670 with 271 local/culture bound food items and vegetables and 2) degrees of freedom, local fashion. (CFI) =.806, root mean square of index approximation 5. Research Methodology (RMSEA) =.088, Incremental fit index (IFI) =.809, Tucker Lewis index (TLI) =.785. For ethnic identity, the fit statistics 5.1 Research Design The present study is a mixed design in nature combining = 1.57, Comparative fit index (CFI) =.905, root mean square descriptive and diagnostic research. Survey method was of index approximation (RMSEA) =.068, Incremental fit employed to collect respondents’ opinion. All the index (IFI) =.907, Tucker Lewis index (TLI) =.894. All the fit respondents belonged to generation Y i.e. those born statistics indicate a decent fit though not perfect (Hu & between 1980 to 1995 and respondents’ selection is Bentler, 1995; Kline, 1998; Marsh et al., 1988) for the random. All the construct items are measured in seven (7) instruments. The CFA measurement model for point likert scale (1= “strongly disagree” to 7=”strongly acculturation and ethnic identity is given in figure 1 & 2 agree”). Acculturation tendency is measured by respectively. The complete instrument for measuring Acculturation to the Global Consumer Culture (AGCC) acculturation and ethnic identity is given in the Scale (Cleveland and Laroche, 2007). Ethnic identity is Annexure 1. measured by ethnic identity scale used by Cleveland (2006) in his PhD dissertation. Item finalization for both the instruments were carried out through pilot testing of the scales. A total of 65 consumption related statements are designed to capture generation Y consumers’ behavior across 65 product items in different categories: Foods and vegetables, Fashion items, Luxury items, Appliances/Durables, electronic items and technology and networking Platforms. Items are picked based their

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Figure 1: CFA measurement model during pilot test of 5.3 Sample, Sampling and Data collection acculturation (AGCC) scale Total sample size for the final study is 385 respondents from generation Y (born between 1980-95). The sample selection is random and both one to one surveys as well as mail questionnaire method are used for data collection. A total of 300 questionnaires were mailed and 86 complete filled-in responses are received ensuring a response rate of 28% (approx.). Remaining responses were collected by one to one survey. The responses are obtained between February 2017 to October 2017. Collected data are coded and tabulated appropriately for the purpose of data analyses. 5.4 Data Analysis Technique Coded data were analyzed through SPSS (V.17) and AMOS (V.22) software. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) are used for data analysis. 6. Data Analysis and Results Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) procedure using maximum likelihood fitting in AMOS 22 was run to assess the model fit and inter relationship of ethnic identity and acculturation. The model yielded the following fit Figure 2: CFA measurement model during pilot test of statistics: Chi-square = 4319 with 1212 degrees of freedom, ethnic identity (EID) scale

mean square of index approximation (RMSEA) =.082 and goodness fit index (GFI) =.670, AGFI=.639, PCFI=.711. Though the obtained indices are not perfect fit as suggested in multiple researches (Hu & Bentler, 1995; Kline, 1998; Marsh et al., 1988), they can be still considered as decent fit (Wheaton et al., 1977; MacCallum et al., 1996). The correlations between acculturation and ethnic identity is observed as positive and significant (r=.540, p=001) contradicting the findings (Cleveland et al., 2009; Penaloza, 1994) as well as accepting the findings of Hui et al. (1992). The factor loadings and other values of the CFA association is given in Figure 3.

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Figure 3: CFA representing association amongst acculturation and ethnic identity

Thus, the formed hypothesis H1 is rejected. One sample T test results for overall mean difference of ethnic identity & acculturation reveals that the mean ethnic identity score of (4.48) is significantly higher than mean acculturation score of 3.9 (mean difference=.57, p=.000) confirming that ethnic identity is more dominant amongst the two constructs supporting the previous finding of Taylor et al. (2009). The associated statistics is given in the below Table 1.

Table 1: Mean difference of Ethnic identity and acculturation (considering ethnic identity mean score as base)

Test Score (mean ethnic identity score=4.48) T value Degrees of freedom Sig. Mean difference Mean AGCC -15.56 384 .000 -.575

Source: Author’s Calculation

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A total of 65 consumer items spanning across six (6) different product categories are analyzed to evaluate the impact of ethnic identity and acculturation on gen-Y’s consumption behaviour. The consumer behavior analyses are done in partition due to the large number of items under consideration and also the size of the sample. The groupings of the items are done based on the characteristics and purpose served by these items. The defined categories are fashion category (11 items), luxury category (8 items), consumer durable category (15 items), food and vegetable category (16 items), personal care category (7 items) and technology and networking category (8 items). Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was performed for all categories separately. For illustration, the model associated with fashion category is depicted in Figure 4

Figure 4: SEM fit statistics for fashion items

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The model fit statistics for all the product categories are given in the Table 2. Table 2: SEM model fit statistics for six product categories

Category 2 Fashion Items 3.11 .641 .722 .613 .074 .688 .721 Appliances/Consumer Durables 3.31 .646 .720 .606 .078 .689 .725 Technology items and Networking 3.42 .640 .728 .609 .080 .695 .730 Personal Care 3.67 .634 .729 .603 .083 .695 .731 Luxury Items 3.47 .639 .723 .607 .080 .691 .709 Food and vegetable Items 3.07 .640 .707 .605 .074 .676 .708

Source: Author’s Calculation

The measurement model indices can be considered as decent fit (Wheaton et al., 1977; MacCallum et al., 1996). Among the 65 consumer behaviors assessed, 36 items are observed to have the impact of both acculturation and ethnic identity, 2 items only ethnic identity, 14 items only acculturation and 13 items are observed to have no impact of any of the constructs. Individually, 38 items are observed to have only ethnic identity impact and 50 items only acculturation. Ethnic identity is observed to have a significant negative association with 34 items and positive association with 4 items. Acculturation tendency is observed to have significant negative association with 5 items and positive with 45 items. The standardized regression weights and associated significance for all the consumer behavior items with acculturation and ethnic identity is given in Table 3.

Table 3: Product items’ association with acculturation and ethnic identity

ITEMS Acculturation Sig(p) Ethnic Identity Sig(p) (Standardized (Standardized Regression Weights) Regression Weights)

TV .085 .171 -.052 .400 Music Player .459 .001 -.383 .001 Computer .344 .001 .040 .480 Smart phone .367 .001 -.071 .227 Microwave .302 .001 -.075 .063 Gas Oven .185 .003 -.140 .024 Hair Dryer -.381 .001 -.085 .139 Vacuum Cleaner .869 .001 -.001 .975 Washing Machine -.007 .903 -.040 .517 Mixer Grinder .223 .001 .028 .638 Videogame Console .145 .020 -.162 .009 Two Wheeler .215 .001 -.216 .001 Car .174 .005 -.116 .061

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Digital Camera .307 .001 -.285 .001 Refrigerator .174 .005 -.161 .010 Tie/Scarf 3.645 .016 -3.249 .031 Athletic Shoes .705 .098 -.925 .031 Denim Trouser .555 .153 -.711 .068 Tattoo 4.930 .016 -4.721 .020 Hat 4.873 .016 -4.761 .020 Leather Jacket 2.461 .020 -2.340 .026 Traditional Dresses -.282 .392 .071 .828 T-Shirt 1.668 .026 -1.588 .036 Bermuda 1.333 .035 -1.30 .030 Sunglass .181 .577 -.147 .650 Suit 1.906 .023 -1.816 .030 Burger .337 .001 -.244 .016 Pizza .796 .001 -.631 .001 Popcorn .857 .001 -.883 .001 Coffee .897 .001 -.653 .001 Carbonated Drinks .645 .001 -.568 .001 Tea .357 .001 -.307 .003 Birayani .754 .001 -.495 .001 Samosa -.633 .001 .430 .001 Fish Curry -.870 .001 .774 .001 Momo -1.03 .001 .794 .001 Bhangui -.657 .001 .438 .001 Sweets -.113 .250 .064 .501 Broccoli -.046 .634 -.087 .356 Carrot .105 .287 -.148 .123 Bottle Guard -.080 .413 .008 .931 Brinjal -.089 .361 -.009 .921 Boxed Chocolates .300 .054 -.146 .344 Fragrances .155 .300 -.130 .385 Wine .284 .069 -.320 .040 Designer Jewel .151 .312 -.211 .157 Expensive Cosmetics .642 .001 -.687 .001

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Antique Furniture .853 .001 -.812 .001 Sculpture 2.364 .001 -2.196 .001 Painting 2.519 .001 -2.357 .001 Internet Surfing 1.070 .001 -.750 .001 Social Networking 1.548 .001 -1.211 .001 Online Shopping 1.276 .001 -1.004 .001 Video Calling 1.261 .001 -.981 .001 Mobile Banking .504 .001 -.081 .475 Debit Card .033 .760 -.114 .291 Credit Card .451 .001 -.210 .072 E-mail .311 .007 -.217 .056 Tooth Paste .753 .001 -.047 .312 Hand Wash .991 .001 -.083 .016 Soap .918 .001 -.036 .336 Shampoo .180 .003 -.105 .083 Deodorant .223 .001 .044 .460 Mouth Wash .230 .001 .044 .452 Tissue Paper .181 .003 -.019 .749

Source: Author’s Calculation

Among 15 durable items, 12 items are recorded significant association is significant and negative for global food, positive association with acculturation, 1 negative (hair positive for local food and insignificant for vegetables. dryer) and for 2 items no association. In case of ethnic Thus, hypotheses H2a2 and H3a2 are accepted and H2c1 identity impact on durables, 8 items are observed to have and H3c1 accepted for local food but rejected for vegetable significant negative association and remaining 7 items with items. In case of luxury items, 6 out of 8 items are observed no significant association rejecting hypothesis H2b1 and to have significant positive association with acculturation H3b1. Among 11 fashion items, acculturation had and remaining 2 insignificant associations where as for significant positive association with 7 global fashion items ethnic identity, 4 out of 8 recorded significant negative and insignificant association with remaining 4 fashion association and remaining 4 insignificant associations. items including traditional/local fashion. In case of ethnic Thus, hypotheses H2a1 is mostly accepted where as H3a1 identity, 9 global fashion items recorded significant is accepted for 4 items out of 8. Out of 7 personal care items, negative association and 2 items with no significant all are observed to have significant positive association association including traditional/local fashion. Thus, with acculturation and insignificant association with hypotheses H2a3 and H3a3 are accepted where as H2c2 ethnic identity (except hand wash; significantly negative). and H3c2 are rejected. Acculturation showed significant Thus, hypothesis H2b2 is rejected and H3b2 is accepted positive association with all the global food items, negative mostly (except one item). Thus, at an overall level it can be association with the local food items and no association concluded that the findings of acculturation and ethnic with the vegetable items. For ethnic identity, the identity impact of consumption behaviour for this research

IMJ 10 Manish Das Volume 10 Issue 1 January-June 2018 is also accepting the findings of Askegaard et al. , 2005; de as well as networking platforms; marketers can use Mooij, 2004 ; Alden et al., 1999; Cleveland et al., 2009; 2015. acculturation/global cultural association as the theme of 7. Discussion the communication appeal towards generation Y. These findings also indicate that firms need to use glocalization 7.1 Inter relationship of the constructs approach in their business strategy if the item in Analyses reveals a positive association amongst ethnic consideration is global, technologically superior and identity and acculturation for generation Y consumers modern in nature. meaning that the consumers of this generation are 8. Conclusion and future Scope bicultural in nature and they are accepting both local and Present study concludes that generation Y consumers’ in host culture in a varied degree in their daily life. Berry rural India are bi-cultural in nature and their approach (1983) talked about integration (become bicultural by towards acculturation is ‘integration’ of both own and host maintaining aspects of their own group and selectively culture manifesting the associated higher tolerance level of acquiring some of the host culture) as one of the four generation Y towards cultural change. Though, they are bi- possible acculturation pattern and present paper cultural in nature, study also highlights that ethnic identity concludes that generation Y consumers’ in rural India is the dominant construct among the two for generation Y. approaching acculturation in an integrative manner. A clear impact of acculturation and ethnic identity on Though the relationship is bi-cultural in nature, consumption behaviour is also evident. Acculturation comparative assessment of mean acculturation and ethnic tendency is observed to have positive association with identity score highlights a significant mean difference with majority items (technology, luxury, global foods and high ethnic identity score clearly indicating that in bi- fashion etc.) representing modernity, materialistic success cultural association also, ethnic identity is the more and global trends where as ethnic identity recorded a dominating construct. positive association with items (local food etc.) 7.2 Consumer behaviour findings representing locality, traditionalism and culturally bound Though generation Y consumers’ are bi-cultural, this does nature. not reflect when impact of the two constructs on consumer The sampling frame for this study is confined to generation behaviour is assessed for 65 items from 6 product Y consumers’ of one particular state (Tripura) of India, thus categories. A clear consumption behaviour pattern is generalization of these findings require more evidences emerged. Majority local foods are observed to have from other states and demographics creating one future significant positive association with ethnic identity and improvement scope for the study. Constructs like negative with acculturation and vice-versa for global food. materialism, ethnocentrism, status consumption, social For global fashion, a negative association with ethic comparison, need for uniqueness is of paramount identity and positive with acculturation is also identified. importance in marketing and consumer behaviour studies For luxury items, technology and networking items as well due to globalization impact. Thus, future scope for this as durable items also, in most cases the association with study includes assessment of association of ethnic identity acculturation is either positive or insignificant where as and acculturation with these constructs mentioned and with ethnic identity it is either negatively significant or collective influence of these on consumer behaviour. insignificant. The same trend is also observable for References personal care/hygiene care items. These findings are clear indicators for marketers’ that ethnic identity as well as Alden, D.L., Steenkamp, J-B.E.M. and Batra, R. (1999), acculturation can be clearly used as market segmentation “Brand positioning through advertising in Asia, variable. Local food item marketers can design their North America, and Europe: The role of global communication appeal for rural generation Y based on consumer culture”, Journal of Marketing, 63 (1), 75-87. ethnic appeal whereas for items like global good, global Anderson, B.B. (2012), “Indian Cultural values and fashion, technology items, electronics items, durable items Economic Development: An Exploratory Study”,

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Dwyer, R. J. (2009), “Prepare for the impact of the Hannerz, U. (1990), “Cosmopolitans and locals in world multigenerational workforce”, Transforming culture. Theory, Culture and Society”, 7(2/3), 237- Government: People, Process and Policy, 3, 101-110. 251. Easterlin, R.A. (1987), British and fortune: The impact of Hofstede, G. (1984), “Culture's consequences: numbers on personal welfare, Chicago: University International differences in work-related values”, of Chicago Press. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Egri, C.P. and Ralston, D.A. (2004), “Generational Cohorts Hole, D., Zhong, L. and Schwart. J. (2010), “Talking about and Personal Values: A Comparison of Chaina and whose generation? Why western generational The United States”, Organization Science, 15 (2), 210- models can’t account for a global workforce?” 220. available at: Elliott, K. M. and Roach, D. W. (1993), “Service quality in http://www.deloitte.com/view/en_US/us/Insig the airline industry: Are carriers getting an unbiased hts/Browse-by-Content-Type/deloitte- evaluation from customers”? Journal of Professional review/5d6e2bb18ef26210VgnVCM100000ba42f00 Services Marketing, 9(2), 71-82. aRCRD.htm Erickson, T.J. (2009), “Generational Issues between India Hoyer, W.D. and Deshpnde, D. (1982), “Cross Cultural and The U.S.”, available at: Influences on Buyer Behaviour: The Impact of hbr.org/2009/02/global-generations-focus-on-in. Hispanic Ethnicity”, B.J. Walkar et al. (Ed.), Chicago, the AMA Educators’ Conference, pp. 89- Fieldhouse, P. (1995), “Social functions of food”, available 92. at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-3256-3_4. Hu, L. T. and Bentler, P. M. (1995), “Evaluating model fit’, Firat, A.F. (1995), “Consumer Culture or Culture Hoyle, R.H. (Ed.), Structural Equation Modeling: Consumed”? Costa, J. A. and Bamossy, G.J. (Ed.), Concepts, Issues, and Applications, Thousand Marketing in a Multicultural World, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. 76-99. Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 105-123. Hui, M. K., Annamma, J., Kim, C. and Laroche, M. (1992), Gentry, J.W., Sunkyu, J. and Tansuhaj, P. (1995), “Acculturation as a Determinant of Consumer “Consumer acculturation process and cultural Behavior: Conceptual and Methodological Issues”, conflict: How generalizable is a North-American Allen, C.T. et al. (Ed.), Chicago: American Model for marketing globally”? Journal of Business Marketing Association, pp. 466-473. Research, 32(2), 129-139. Kertzer, D.I. (1983), “Generation as a sociological Ger, G. and Belk, R. W. (1996), “Cross-cultural differences problem”, Turner, R.H. and Short Jr., J.H. (Ed.), in materialism”, Journal of Economic Psychology, Annual Review of sociology, Palo Alto, CA: Annul 17(1), 55-77. Review Inc, pp. 125-149. Ghosh, R. and Chaudhuri, S. (2009), “Intergenerational Kline, R. B. (1998), Principles and practice of structural differences in individualism/collectivism equation modeling, NY: Guilford Press. orientations: implications for outlook towards HRD/HRM practices in India and the United Laroche, M., Kim, C., Tomiuk, M. A. and Bélisl, D. (2005), States”, New Horizons in Adult Education and Human “Similarities in Italian and Greek Multidimensional Resource Development, 23(4), 5-21. Ethnic Identity: Some Implementation in Food Consumption”, Canadian Journal of Administrative Gupta, N. (2013), “Understanding Acculturation of Sciences, 22 (2), 143-163. Consumer Culture in an emerging market: An analysis of urban, educated middle class Laroche, M., Kim, C., Hui, M. and Joy, A. (1996), “An consumer”, International Journal of Emerging Markets, Empirical Study of Multidimensional Ethnic 8(1), 24-40. Change: The Case of the French-Canadians in

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Quebec”, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27 (1), crossings: A critical ethnographic exploration of the 114-131. consumer acculturation of Mexican immigrants”, Lester, S. W., Standifer, R. L., Schultz, N. J., and Windsor, J. Journal of Consumer Research, 21(1), 32-54. M. (2012), “Actual versus perceived generational Peñaloza, L. (1989), “Immigrant consumer acculturation”, differences at work: An empirical examination”, Srull, T.K. (Ed.), Advances in Consumer Research, 16 , Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 19, 351- Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, pp. 354. 110-118. Levitt, T. (1983), “The Globalization of Markets”, Harvard Phinney, J. S. (1990), “Ethnic identity in adolescents and Business Review, 61(3), 92-102. adults: review of research”, Psychological Bulletin, Levitt, T. (1984), “The globalization of market”, McKinsey 108(3), 499. Quarterly, 3, 2-20. Phinney, J.S., Horenczyk, G., Liebkind, K. and Vedder, P. Lysonski, S. (2011), “Receptivity of Young Chinese to (2001), “Ethnic identity, immigration, and well- American and Global Brands: Psychological being: An international perspective”, Journal of Underpinnings”, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Social Issues, 57(3), 493-510. 31(4), 250-262. Redfield, R., Linton, R. and Herskovits, M. J. (1936), Lysonski, S., Durvasula, S. and Madhavi, D.A. (2012), “Memorandum on the study of acculturation”, “Evidence of a secular trend in attitudes towards the American Anthropologists, 38(2), 149-152. micromarketing environment in India: pre & post Riefler, P., Diamantopoulos, A. and Siguaw, A.J. (2012), economic liberalization”, Journal of Consumer “Cosmopolitan consumers as a target group for Marketing, 29(7), 532-544. segmentation”, Journal of International Business MacCallum, R.C., Browne, M.W., and Sugawara, H.M. Studies, 43(3), 285-305. (1996), "Power Analysis and Determination of Roongrerngsuke, S. (2010), “Attracting and retaining Sample Size for Covariance Structure Modeling", multigenerational workforce in China, India, and Psychological Methods,1(2) ,130-49. Thailand”, available at: Marsh, H. W., Balla, J. R. and McDonald, R. P. (1988), http://sapphire.shrm.org/annualconferenceonde “Goodness-of-fit indexes in confirmatory factor mand/2010-annual-conference/6292010- analysis: The effect of sample size”, Psychological attracting-retaining-multigenerational-workforce- Bulletin,103, 391-410. china-india-thailand.aspx. McCracken, G. (1986), “Culture and Consumption: A Rosenthal, D.A. and Cichello, A.M. (1986), “The Meeting theoretical account of the structure and movement of Two Cultures: Ethnic Identity and Psychological of the cultural meaning of consumer goods, Journal adjustment of Italian-Australian Adolescents”, of consumer research,13(1), 71-84. International Journal of psychology, 21, 487-501. Mendoza, R.H. (1989), “An Empirical Scale to Measure Rosenthal, D. A. and Reldman, S.S. (1992), “The nature and Type and Degree of Acculturation in Mexican- stability of ethnic identity in Chinese youth: Effects American Adolescents and Adults”, Journal of Cross- of length of residence in two cultural contexts”, Cultural Psychology, 20(12), 372-385. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 23(2), 214-227. Oswald, L.R. (1999), “Culture swapping: Consumption Rosow, I. (1978), “What is a cohort and Why”? Human and the ethnogenesis of middle-class Haitian Development, 21, 65-75 immigrants”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. Ryder, N.B. (1965), “The cohort as a concept in the study of 25(4), 303-318. social change”, American Sociological Review, 30 , 843- Peñaloza, L. (1994), “Atravesando fronteras/border 861.

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Schaninger, C.M., Bourgeois, J.C. and Buss, W.C. (1985), Umaña-Taylor, A.J., Gonzales-Backen, M.A. and “French-English Canadian Subculture Guimond, A. (2009), “Latino adolescents’ ethnic Consumption Differences”, Journal of Marketing, identity: Is there a developmental progression and 49(2), 82-92 does growth in ethnic identity predict growth in Schuman, H. and Scott, J. (1989), “Generations and self-esteem”? Child Development, 80 , 391–405 Collective Memories”, American Psychological Venkatesh, A.P. (1995), “Ethnocentrism: A New Paradigm Review, 54(3), 359-381. to Study Cultural and Cross-Cultural Consumer Srinivasan, V. (2012), “Multigenerations in the workforce: behaviour”, Costa, A.J. and Bamossy, G. (Ed.), Building collaboration”, IIMB Management Review, Marketing in a Multi-Cultural World, Thousand 24, 48-66. Oaks: sage, pp. 26-67. Steenkamp, J-E.B.M. (2001), “The Role of National Culture Wade-Benzoni, K. A. (2002), “A golden rule over time: in International Marketing Research”, International Reciprocity in intergenerational allocation Marketing Review, 18(1), 30-44 decisions”, Academy of Management Journal, 45 , 1011–1028. Strauss, W. and N. Howe. (1991), Generations: The History of America’s Future, New York: William Morrow. Wallendrof, M. and Reilly, M.D. (1983), “Ethnic Migration, Assimilation, and Competition”, Journal of Consumer TerHofstede, F., Steenkamp, J-B., E.M. and Wedel, M. Research, 10(3), 292-302. (1990), “International Market Segmentation Based on Consumer-Product Relations”, Journal of Webster, C. (1994), “Effects of Hispanic ethnic Marketing Research, 36(1), 1-17 identification on marital roles in the purchase decision process”, Journal of Consumer Research, Thau, R.D. and Heflin, J.S. (1997), Generations Apart: Xers 21(2), 319–31. vs. Boomers vs the Elderly, Prometheus Books, Amherst, NY. Wheaton, B., Muthen, B., Alwin, D., F. and Summers, G. (1977), "Assessing Reliability and Stability in Panel Trimble, J.E. (2003). “Introduction: Social Change and Models", Sociological Methodology, 8 (1), 84-136. acculturation”, Chun, K.M., Balls, P. and Marin, G. (Ed.), Acculturation: Advances in theory, White, C. and Burke, P. (1987), “Ethnic Role Identity among measurement and applied research, Washington White and Black College Students: An DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 3-13. Internationalist Approach”, Sociological Perspective, 30, 310-331 Uhle, A. F. and Grivetti, G.E. (1993), “Alpine and Brazilian Swiss Food Patterns After a Century of Isolation", Yaprak, A. (2008), “Culture Study in International Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 29, 119- 138. Marketing: A Critical Review and Suggestions for Future Research”, International Marketing Review, Umaña-Taylor, A.J., Updegraff, K.A. and Gonzales- 25(2), 215-229. Backen, M.A. (2011), “Mexican-origin adolescent mothers’ stressors and psychosocial functioning: Examining ethnic identity affirmation and familism as moderators”, Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40 , 140–157.

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Annexure 1: Measuring Instrument for acculturation and Ethnic Identity

Acculturation (AGCC Scale, Cleveland and Laroche, 2007)

Dimension Item Code Statement Cosmopolitanism COS 1 I am interested in learning more about people who live in other countries COS 2 I like to learn about other ways of life COS 4 I like to try restaurants that offer food that is different from that in my own culture COS 5 I enjoy exchanging ideas with people from other cultures or countries COS 6 I like to observe people from other cultures, to see what I can learn from them English language Usage ELU1 I feel very comfortable speaking in English ELU2 I speak English regularly ELU3 I speak English regularly ELU4 Many of my favorite shows of TV are in English ELU5 My parents and I never communicate in English (Reversed) ELU6 Many of the textbooks and articles I read are in English Exposure to Marketing EXM1 When I am watching TV, I often see advertising for products that are Activities of MNC from outside my own countries EXM2 Ads for foreign of global products are everywhere EXM3 In my locality, there are many billboards, and advertising signs for foreign and global products EXM4 When I read a newspaper, I come across many advertisements for foreign or global products EXM5 When I am watching Television, it seems that the number of advertisements for foreign brands is quite high compared to number of advertisements of local brands EXM6 I often watch TV programming with advertisements from outside my countries EXM7 When shopping, I am often exposed to foreign or global brands EXM8 Many of the TV commercials I see are placed by multinational companies EXM9 The magazines I read, are full of global/foreign advertisements Global Mass Media Exposure GMM3 Some of my favorite actors/actresses are from Hollywood GMM4 I am listening to music that is popular in the United States

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GMM5 In general, I do not like American Television (reversed) GMM6 I often watch American television programs GMM7 I like the way that Americans dress. Ethnic Identity (EID Scale, Cleveland, 2006) Feelings towards Local Culture FLC4 I feel very proud to identify with my local culture FLC5 I consider the local culture rich and precious FLC6 I am very attached to all aspects of my local culture Local Inter Personal LIR1 I have many members of my local culture group with whom I am very Relation close LIR4 Most of the people at the places I go to have fun and relax are members of my local culture group LIR5 I like to go to place where I can find myself with members of my local culture group Association with Local Culture AC1 I always celebrate my local cultural holidays AC2 I like to celebrate birthdays and weddings in my local cultural tradition AC3 I like to cook my local cultural dishes/meals AC4 I like to eat my local cultural foods regularly AC5 I like to listen my local cultural music regularly AC6 Participating in local cultural holidays and events is very important to me Local Language Use L1 I speak my local language regularly L2 I always speak my local language with other family members L5 The songs I listen to are almost all in my local language L6 Many of my favorite television shoes are in my local language L7 I mostly carry on conversations in my local language everyday L9 I mostly speak in my local language at family gatherings Preserving Local Culture PC1 Although I believe that I might acquire some elements of other culture(s), it is important for me to hold on to my own culture PC2 I believe that it is very important for children to learn the values of their own culture PC3 I was to live elsewhere; I would still want to retain my own culture Local Media Usage LM2 The movies/videos that I watch are always in my local language LM3 The television programs that I watch are always in my local language

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LM4 The newspapers that I read are always in my local language Family Role in Local Culture FRLC2 It is highly preferable to marry someone from one’s own culture FRLC6 The acquisition of family/local culture values is must

Manish Das is currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Business Management, Tripura University. He has obtained his masters in marketing management from Pune University. He has completed his NET in Management conducted by UGC, GoI and pursuing his Ph.D. in cultural impact on consumer behaviour. Consumer Culture, Globalization, and Business Ethics in particular and Marketing Management in general are his interested areas of concern for research. He is also a recipient of major project by ICSSR. Some of his studies are published in journals recognized by UGC for quality publication considerations in higher education.

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