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Functions of the Nervous System Master Controlling and Communicating System of Body 1 2/27/2019 Nervous Tissue and Neuron Function Fundamentals Of The Nervous System And Nervous Tissue Learn and Understand 1. Like muscle cells, neurons use membrane polarity upset (AP) as a signal therefore keeping their membranes constantly ready (RMP). 2. Neuroglia help create and maintain the environmental conditions necessary for optimal neuron functioning. 3. In order to carry their message, some neurons have axons greater than 1 m in length. 4. Increasing the frequency of action potentials, not its strength, is how the NS controls the intensity of its message. 5. Graded potentials may sum to threshold depolarization causing AP in the neuron. The source of graded potentials is the up to 10,000 synapses with other neurons. Functions of the Nervous System Master controlling and communicating system of body 1. Sensory: Receiving internal and external sensory input. 2. Integration: Process and evaluate, coordinate and control response 3. Motor: Generate response signals A. Controlling muscles and glands B. Maintaining homeostasis Rapid and specific - usually causes almost immediate responses Establishing and maintaining mental activity, consciousness, thinking, behavior, memory, emotion 1 2/27/2019 Figure 11.1 The nervous system’s functions. Sensory input Integration Motor output Anatomic Divisions of the Nervous System 100 Billion Neurons PNS: Consists mainly of nerves that extend from brain and spinal cord. 100 Million Neurons Cranial nerves to CNS: Integration and and from brain. control center. Spinal nerves to and Interprets sensory from spinal cord. input and dictates motor output Plexus – network of sensory input, motor output and integration outside of the CNS Figure 11.2 Levels of organization in the nervous system. Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Brain and spinal cord Cranial nerves and spinal nerves Integrative and control centers Communication lines between the CNS and the rest of the body Sensory (afferent) division Motor (efferent) division Somatic and visceral sensory Motor nerve fibers nerve fibers Conducts impulses from the CNS Conducts impulses from to effectors (muscles and glands) receptors to the CNS Somatic nervous Autonomic nervous Somatic sensory fiber Skin system system (ANS) Somatic motor Visceral motor (voluntary) (involuntary) Conducts impulses Conducts impulses from the CNS to from the CNS to skeletal muscles cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, Visceral sensory fiber Stomach and glands Skeletal muscle Motor fiber of somatic nervous system Sympathetic division Parasympathetic Mobilizes body systems division during activity Conserves energy Promotes house- keeping functions during rest Sympathetic motor fiber of ANS Heart Structure Function Sensory (afferent) division of PNS Parasympathetic motor fiber of ANS Bladder Motor (efferent) division of PNS 2 2/27/2019 Histology of Nervous Tissue • Highly cellular; little extracellular space • Two principal cell types – Neurons (nerve cells)—excitable cells that transmit electrical signals – Neuroglia – small cells that surround and wrap delicate neurons • CNS: – Astrocytes – Microglial cells – Ependymal cells – Oligodendrocytes • Satellite cells (PNS) • Schwann cells (PNS) Neurons • Structural units of nervous system • Large, highly specialized cells that conduct impulses • Extreme longevity (100 years or more) • Amitotic—with few exceptions • High metabolic rate—requires continuous supply of oxygen and glucose • All have cell body and one or more processes Dendrites (receptive Soma = regions) Biosynthetic center of neuron Cell body (biosynthetic center Synthesizes proteins, membranes, and receptive region) and other chemicals Rough ER (chromatophilic substance or Nissl bodies) Most active and best developed in body Most neuron cell bodies in CNS Nuclei are clusters of neuron cell bodies in CNS Nucleus Dendrites Convey incoming messages toward cell body as graded potentials Axon (impulse- Myelin sheath gap Impulse Nucleolus generating (node of Ranvier) direction Chromatophilic and -conducting substance (rough region) Axon endoplasmic terminals reticulum) Schwann cell (secretory region) Axon hillock Terminal branches 3 2/27/2019 Structure of a Motor Neuron The Axon: Structure • One axon per cell arising from axon hillock – Cone-shaped area of cell body • In some, axon short or absent, in others most of length of cell • Long axons called nerve fibers • Occasional branches (axon collaterals) • Branches profusely at end (terminus) – Can be 10,000 terminal branches • Distal endings called axon terminals or terminal boutons, axon bulbs, presynaptic terminals The Axon: Functional Characteristics • Generates and conducts AP • Transmits AP along axolemma to axon terminal Neurotransmitters released into extracellular space • Synapsed with many other neurons at same time • Lacks rough ER and Golgi apparatus – Relies on cell body to renew proteins and membranes • Quickly decay if cut or damaged 4 2/27/2019 Schwann cell plasma Segmented sheath membrane 1 around most long or Schwann cell cytoplasm large-diameter axons Axon Myelinated fibers Schwann cell nucleus Function of myelin Protects and electrically 2 insulates axon Increases speed of nerve impulse transmission Nonmyelinated fibers conduct impulses more 3 slowly Myelin sheath Figure 11.5a Nerve fiber myelination by Schwann cells in the PNS. Schwann cell cytoplasm Myelination of a nerve fiber (axon) Figure 11.5b Nerve fiber myelination by Schwann cells in the PNS. Myelin sheath Outer collar of perinuclear cytoplasm Axon (of Schwann cell) Cross-sectional view of a myelinated axon (electron micrograph 24,000x) 5 2/27/2019 Functional Classifications: Sensory Transmit impulses from sensory receptors toward CNS Cell bodies in ganglia in PNS – ganglion is a grouping of NCBs outside of the CNS Motor Carry impulses from CNS to effectors Most cell bodies in CNS (except some autonomic neurons) Interneuron (association neuron) Lie between motor and sensory neurons Shuttle signals through CNS pathways; most are entirely within CNS 99% of body's neurons Functional Classification of Neurons • Sensory – Transmit impulses from sensory receptors toward CNS – Almost all are Unipolar – Cell bodies in ganglia in PNS – ganglion is a grouping of NCBs outside of the CNS • Motor – Carry impulses from CNS to effectors – Multipolar – Most cell bodies in CNS (except some autonomic neurons) • Interneurons (association neurons) – Lie between motor and sensory neurons – Shuttle signals through CNS pathways; most are entirely within CNS – 99% of body's neurons 6 2/27/2019 The Resting Membrane Potential • Potential difference across membrane of resting cell – Approximately –70 mV in neurons • Actual voltage difference varies from -40 mV to -90 mV – Membrane termed polarized • Generated by: – Differences in ionic makeup of ICF and ECF • ECF has higher concentration of Na+ than ICF – Balanced chiefly by chloride ions (Cl-) • ICF has higher concentration of K+ than ECF – Balanced by negatively charged proteins • K+ plays most important role in membrane potential – Differential permeability of the plasma membrane Measuring Membrane Potential in Neurons Figure 11.6 Operation of gated channels. Open and close to change which ions move across membrane and when. One stimulated by messenger; one stimulated by electrical charge Chemically gated ion channels Voltage-gated ion channels Open in response to binding of the Open in response to changes appropriate neurotransmitter in membrane potential Receptor Neurotransmitter chemical attached to receptor Membrane Chemical voltage binds changes Closed Open Closed Open Each Na+ channel has two voltage-sensitive gates • Activation gates • Closed at rest; open with depolarization allowing Na+ to enter cell • Inactivation gates • Open at rest; block channel once it is open to prevent more Na+ from entering cell 7 2/27/2019 Differences in Plasma Membrane Permeability • Impermeable to large anionic proteins • Slightly permeable to Na+ (through leakage channels) – Sodium diffuses into cell down concentration gradient • 25 times more permeable to K+ than sodium (more leakage channels) – Potassium diffuses out of cell down concentration gradient • Quite permeable to Cl– Membrane Potential Changes Used as Communication Signals • Membrane potential changes when – Concentrations of ions across membrane change – Membrane permeability to ions changes • Changes produce two types signals – Graded potentials • Incoming signals operating over short distances • Mostly arrive at axodendritic and axosomatic synapses • Collectively control the post-synaptic neuron – Action potentials • Long-distance signals of axons Action Potentials (AP) • Principle way neurons send signals • Principal means of long-distance neural communication • Occur only in muscle cells and axons of neurons • Brief reversal of membrane potential with a change in voltage of ~100 mV • Do not decay over distance as graded potentials do 8 2/27/2019 Figure 11.11 The action potential (AP) is a brief change in membrane potential in a “patch” of membrane that is depolarized by local currents. The big picture The key players Voltage-gated Na+ channels Voltage-gated K+ channels 1 Resting state 2 Depolarization Outside Outside cell cell +30 3 3 Repolarization Inside Inside Activation Inactivation 0 cell gate gate cell 2 Action Closed Opened Inactivated Closed Opened potential 4 Hyperpolarization The events –55 Threshold Potassium Sodium channel Membrane potential (mV) potential Membrane –70 1 1 channel 4 0 1 2 3 4 Time (ms) Activation gates
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