sign in sign up
<<
Home , Cryogenics

Appendix!

Glossary of Terms for and List of Organizations

Adiabatic Compression and Expansion: Thermodynamic process of volume, pressure, change, and also adiabatic process change that occurs without heat transfer to or from the system. Aftercooler: Water- or air-cooled heat exchanger used to cool compressed fluid leaving a compressor. Axial Compressor: A type of fluid compressor with a rotor carrying blades arranged radially on a drum or disks; corresponding blades are arranged on the stator. The fluid flows through the compressor in the axial direction increasing in pressure and density during the compress• ion process. Beale Free-Piston : A type of Stirling engine in which the piston and displacer move entirely under the action of fluidic forces. There are no connecting mechanisms between the piston and displacer. The load is direct coupled to the piston. Brayton Cycle: See Joule-Brayton cycle. Bucket Brigade Loss: Finkelstein's term for shuttle heat transfer. Centrifugal Compressor: A type of fluid compressor with a high-speed rotating impeller which accelerates fluid to a high centrifugal velocity, the energy of which is subsequently transformed to pressure energy in a volute casing. Claude, Georges: French scientist who conceived the combination of expansion engine and Joule-Thomson valve for liquefaction. Claude Cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle in which a fraction of the high-pressure fluid is expanded in an expansion engine and the remainder in a Joule-Thomson valve. The , low-pressure fluid from the engine cools the remaining high-pressure fluid passing to the JT valve. All the fluid is compressed adiabatically at ambient temperature and is cooled (at high pressure) prior to expansion in

375 376 Appendix I

contraflow recuperative heat exchangers by the low-pressure return stream. Clearance: The amount by which a cylinder is greater in diameter than a piston or a bearing than the shaft rotating in it. Clearance Space: (a) The minimum volume of the compression and expansion spaces of Stirling or Vuilleumier engines. (b) The small volume in the cylinder above the piston at the end of compression (in a compressor) or at the start of admission in an expander. Coefficient of Performance (COP): The ratio of heat transferred to input work. For the COP = heat (refrigeration efiect)/work supplied. For a heat pump the COP = heat rejected/work supplied (i.e., the inverse of thermal efficiency). Coldfinger: The long, thin cylinder of a containing a displacer, or regenerative displacer. Refrigeration is generated at the end of the cold finger. Also cold sting. Collins, Samuel: American cryogenic engineer of the 20th century best known for development of liquefiers working on the Claude cycle. Collins : A helium liquefier working on the Claude cycle. Compound Working Fluid: The working fluid of a Stirling engine that consists of two or more components and which may exist as a liquid gas, vapor, or dissociated elements. Compression Space: The variable volume of the working space in a Stirling engine where the working fluid is principally concentrated when the total system volume is decreased, the pressure rises, and heat is rejected to the cooling medium. In a prime mover, the compression space is cooler than the expansion space. In a refrigerator or heat pump, the compression space is warmer than the expansion space. Compressor: A machine used to elevate the pressure of the fluid; may be a reciprocating, rotary, or screw compressor. Constant-Enthalpy Process: Thermodynamic compression or expansion at constant enthalpy--e.g., a Joule-Thomson expansion. Constant-Entropy Process: Thermodynamic compression or expansion process that occurs reversibly with no transfer of heat and hence no change in entropy. Constant-Pressure Process: Thermodynamic heating or cooling process that occurs at constant pressure. This mayor may not be regenerative. Constant- Temperature Process: Thermodynamic heating or cooling process that occurs at constant temperature. This mayor may not be regen• erative. Constant- Volume Process: Thermodynamic heating or cooling process that occurs at constant volume. This mayor may not be regenerative. Cooler: The heat exchanger provided to facilitate the transfer of thermal Glossary of Terms/List of Organizations 377

energy from the working fluid to the cooling medium, water, air, or some other fluid. Crank Drive: One form of kinematic drive consisting of a crank and connecting rod used to convert reciprocating to rotary motion and to convey power between pistons and drive shaft. Cryocooler: Any device, system, or ensemble capable of generating refriger• ation at cryogenic , i.e., less than 120 K. Cryogenerator: A cryocooler capable of achieving refrigeration at cryogenic temperatures (less than 120 K). Dead Volume Ratio: That part of the total working space not included in the variable volumes of the expansion and compression spaces, expressed in terms of the variable volume of the expansion space. Direct Heating: A system in which the hot products of combustion pass directly over the heater tubes in which the working fluid flows, so that heat is transferred directly from the combustion products to the heater tube walls and hence to the working fluid. Discontinuous Piston Motion: The nonsinusoidal motion of the piston and displacers required to achieve the necessary volume variations of the idealized thermodynamic cycles. Displacer: A lightweight structural reciprocating element in a Stirling engine characterized by a large temperature difference but a negligible pressure difference across the upper and lower transverse faces. Double-Acting Engines: A family of Stirling engines having a single reciprocating element per thermodynamic system. There is a minimum number of two cylinders but no maximum number. Dual-Pressure Cycle: A thermodynamic cycle with two or more stages of expansion in engines or JT valves. Many variations are possible involv• ing several stages of expansion and intermediate pressure separation of saturated liquid and vapor. Duplex Stirling Engine: Two Stirling engines arranged so that one, operating as a prime mover, receives heat at a high temperature and produces work to drive the second Stirling engine, acting as a cooling engine, refrigerator, or heat pump. Ericsson Cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle consisting of isothermal compression and expansion processes at different temperatures bounded by constant-pressure regenerative processes. Exhaust Gas Heat Exchanger: See Regenerative Cycle. Expansion Space: The variable volume of the working space in a Stirling engine where the working fluid is principally concentrated when the total system volume is increased, the pressure falls, and heat is ab• sorbed. In a prime mover, the expansion space is hotter than the compression space. In a refrigerator or heat pump the expansion space is cooler than the compression space. 378 Appendix I

Finkelstein Adiabatic Cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle for Stirling engines with no heat transfer in the compression and expansion spaces and infinite rates of heat transfer in the heat exchangers. Free-Displacer Engines: A form of Ericsson regenerative engine (Bush type) where the displacer moves under the action of fluidic forces. Used principally as a pressure generator or pump. Freezer: The heat exchanger provided in a refrigerator or heat pump to facilitate the transfer of heat to the working fluid from an external low-temperature source. Gifford-McMahon Engine: A regenerative expansion engine to generate refrigeration at cryogenic temperatures. Valves regulate flow of com• pressed gas to and expanded gas from the expansion cylinder. Harmonic Piston Motion: The near sinusoidal motion of the pistons and displacers used in practical Stirling engines. Heater: The heat exchanger provided in a prime mover to facilitate the transfer of thermal energy from an external source to the working fluid. Heat Pipe: A device used in an indirect heating system in which an intermediate fluid is used to transfer heat from an external energy source to the working fluid. Usually the intermediate fluid a liquid metal, i.e., soli urn) is evaporated at the thermal inlet and condenses at the thermal outlet. Large rates of heat transfer can be effected with minimal temperatures differences. Heat Pump: A machine driven from external power supply absorbing heat at ambient temperature and rejecting the heat at some higher tem• perature. Heylandt Crown: The addition of an extension to a reciprocating piston to remove the hot or cold fluid from the region where the piston rings and seals operate. Hybrid Free-Displacer-Crank-Controlled Piston Engine: A form of Stirling engine where the reciprocating piston has kinematic coupling to a rotating shaft but the displacer is oscillated under the action of fluidic forces. Indirect Heating: A system in which thermal energy from an outside source heats an intermediate fluid (i.e., sodium) which conveys the energy to the heater tubes and hence to the working fluid (see Heat Pipe). Intercooler: Water- or air-cooled heat exchanger used to cool compressed fluid between stages in a multistage compressor. Intermediate (Capacity) Cryocooler: Cryocooler having a refrigerating capacity less than 25 W at 1 K, 100 W at 4 K, 1 kW at 20 K, or 15 kW at 80 K. Isentropic Process: Thermodynamic process of volume, pressure, and tem• perature change that takes place at constant entropy. Glossary of Terms/List of Organizations 379

Isobaric Process: See Constant-Pressure Process. Isometric Process: See Constant-Volume Process. Isothermal Compression and Expansion: The process of volume and pressure change that occurs without change in the temperature of the system. Isothermal Process: See Constant-Temperature Process. loule, I.P.: English scientist of the 19th century best known for understand• ing that energy can be transformed from one type to another, but not created or destroyed. louie-Brayton Cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle comprising adiabatic compression and expansion separated by constant-pressure heating and cooling processes. louie Cycle: See Joule-Brayton cycle. loule-Thomson Expansion: Expansion of fluid to a low pressure constricted so that it occurs slowly with much frictional dissipation of energy. An irreversible thermodynamic process occurring at constant enthalpy. Much used for the final stage expansion in gas liquefaction. IT Valve: A valve designed to accomplish isenthalpic J oule-Thomson expansion. Kapitza, Peter: Russian cryogenic scientist of the 20th century. First used gas-lubricated piston in Claude cycle helium liquefier and discovered thermal boundary resistance to . Kinematic Drive: A system of cranks, connecting rods, levers or swash• plates used to regulate and control the reciprocating motion of pistons or displacers and to convey power between the pistons and drive shafts. Large (Capacity) Cryocooler: Cryocooler having a refrigerating capacity exceeding 25 W at 1 K, 100 W at 4 K, 1 kW at 20 K, or 15 kWat 80 K. Linde, Karl von: German scientist of the 19th century best known for first liquefaction of air in quantity. Linde Cycle: See Linde-Hampson cycle. Linde-Hampson Cycle: A cryocooler process for gas liquefaction with isentropic compression and isenthalpic (JT) expansion separated by constant pressure heating and cooling in recuperative contraflow heat exchangers. Metallurgical Limit: The maximum temperature of operation for the materials used in the hot spaces of the engine. Microminiature (Capacity) Cryocooler: Very small cryocooler having a refrigerating capacity less than! W at 20 K or 1 W at 80 K. Miniature (Capacity) Cryocooler: Small cryocooler having a refrigerating capacity less than t W at 4 K, 2 W at 20 K, or 8 W at 80 K. Multifuel Capacity: The ability of an engine to operate on various fuels or energy sources. 380 Appendix I

Oil-Flooding: The process of adding oil to a compressor to prevent over• heating and to assist cooling. Phase Angle: The angle by which volume variations in the expansion space lead those in the compression space. Piston: A heavy structural reciprocating element of a Stirling engine charac• terized by a large pressure difference but a negligible temperature difference across the upper and lower transverse faces. Porosity: The total volume of void volume expressed as a fraction of the volume envelope of the porous solid (frequently expressed also as a percentage). Postle, Davy: Nineteenth century Australian inventor of the Postle refrigerator. Postle Engine: A form of regenerative free-displacer refrigerator with self-acting valves regulating admission and exhaust of fluid in the expansion cylinder (invented about 1873). Precooled Cycle: The process of adding supplementary refrigeration from an external source to assist the cooling of compressed fluid en route to an expansion engine or JT valve. Used in multistage gas liquefiers operating on the Linde-Hampson or Claude cycles. Pressure Drop, Pressure Loss: The difference in pressure that arises when fluid flows through a duct or heat exchanger because of aerodynamic friction effects. Pressure Excursion: The range of variation of the cylical pressure change of the working fluid in the cylinder. Pressure Ratio: The ratio of the maximum and minimum pressures of the working fluid. Prime Mover: A Stirling engine used to produce mechanical work from heat supplied at high temperatures. Rallis Cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle with regenerative pro• cesses that occur partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure. The process of compression and expansion may occur isother• mally or adiabatically. Reciprocating Machine: Compressor or expander with reciprocating pistons operating in cyclinders. Recuperator (Recuperative Heat Exchanger): A form of heat exchanger (tube and shell, or finned tube) with separate channels for the hot and cold fluids. Usually the flow is continuous and constant in the channels. Refrigerating Capacity: The rate of refrigeration generated by a cryocooler measured in watts. Refrigeration Load: The extra refrigeration required following the addition of a detector element and its associated leads to the coldfinger of a cryocooler. Glossary of Terms/List of Organizations 381

Refrigerator Temperature: The temperatures at which the refrigeration generated by a cryocooler is available. Regenerative Annulus: A narrow annular gap between the displacer and cylinder through which the working fluid passes en route from the expansion or compression spaces. There is a temperature difference along the length of the annulus and as the gas passes through, a measure of regenerative heat exchange is accomplished. Regenerative Cycle: A thermodynamic cycle in which some attempt is made to utilize the heat in the fluid being rejected from the cycle at low temperatures to heat the incoming fluid and so reduce the amount of "new" heat required and hence improve the efficiency of the cycle. The regenerative action may take place periodically as in the Stirling engine or continuously as in the Brayton cycle gas turbine. In the latter case, the heat transfer unit which accomplishes the regenerative action may be either a regenerative or a recuperative heat exchanger. Great care must be exercised to avoid confusion when discussing exhaust gas heat exchangers for regenerative thermodynamic cycles. Regenerative Matrix: A porous volume of finely divided material (usually metallic) contained in the working space between the compression and expansion spaces. It acts as a reservoir of thermal energy. Regenerator (Regenerative Heat Exchanger): A form of heat exchanger consisting of a porous solid mass with a single set of flow passages through which pass periodic, alternate flows of hot and cold fluids. Regulation: The process of temperature or power control used to regulate the output of a Stirling engine. Reitlinger Cycle: Generalized thermodynamic ideal cycle with isothermal compression and expansion processes at different temperatures bounded by regenerative processes of any nature. Rhombic Drive: A special kinematic drive for Stirling engines which regu• lates the motion of the piston and displacer in single-acting-type engines. It is possible to achieve perfect dynamic balance while operat• ing the reciprocating elements at the required phase difference. There are no side forces on the cylinder walls. Roll-Sock Seal: A rolling diaphragm seal developed by Philips for contain• ing the working fluid in the working space. Rotary Machine: Compressor or expander with no reciprocating parts. Schmidt Cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle for Stirling engines with sinusoidal volume variation of the isothermal compression and expansion spaces at different temperatures. Screw Compressor: A form of fluid compressor with two long contrarotating rotors with meshing lobes. Shuttle Heat Transfer: Heat transfer similar in effect to conduction heat 382 Appendix I

transfer arising from the displacer reciprocating in a cylinder with the result that surfaces at different temperature levels are put close together and heat flow facilitated. Siemens, Karl Wilhelm: An inventor extraordinaire, born German and became naturalized English, Sir Charles William Siemens. Credited with conception of the contraflow heat exchanger, the multiple-cylinder Stirling engine with adjacent cylinders coupled, and much else. Siemens Cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle with isothermal com• pression, isentropic expansion separated by constant-pressure cooling and heating processes in contraflow recuperative heat exchangers. Siemens Engine: An arrangement of three or more cylinders for a Stirling engine in which the cylinders are interconnected so that only one reciprocating element is required per Stirling system. Single-Acting Engine: A family of Stirling engines with two reciprocating elements per thermodynamic system. Small (Capacity) Cryocooler: Cryocooler having a refrigerating capacity less than 1 W at 1 K, 10 W at 4 K, 100 W at 20 K, 0.8 kW at 80 K. Space Power System: An energy conversion device used to provide power for spacecraft. Sting: See Coldfinger. Stirling Cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle consisting of isothermal compression and expansion processes at different temperatures bounded by constant-volume regenerative processes. Swash-Plate Drive: A system used in double-acting Siemens-type Stirling engines for regulating the motion of the displacer pistons and transmit• ting power to the drive shaft. The pistons are connected to an inclined disk on a rotating shaft which causes the pistons to reciprocate as the disk rotates. Swept Volume Ratio: The volume variation in the compression space expressed in terms of the volume variation in the expansion space. Temperature Ratio: The ratio of the temperatures of the working fluid in the compression and expansion space. Thermal Efficiency: The fraction of total heat supplied that is converted to useful work. Thomson, William (later Lord Kelvin): renowned English scientist of the 19th century. Total Working Space: See Working Space. Turbocompressor: Rotary compressor of the centrifugal or axial flow variety. Turboexpander: Rotary expander of the centrifugal or axial flow variety. Two-Phase Two-Component Working Fluid: See Compound Working Fluid. VM Cooler: A Vuilleumier engine. Glossary of Terms/List of Organizations 383

Void Volume: The total volume of the void spaces in the working space of a Stirling engine including the porous volume of the regenerator and the associated heat exchangers and connecting ducts or ports. Volume Compression Ratio: The ratio of the maximum and minimum volumes of the total working space. Vuilleumier, Rudolph: Inventor of the engine which bears his name. An American citizen, resident in New York at the time his patent was granted in 1918. Vuilleumier Engine (also VM engine): A regenerative cryocooler sometimes described as a Stirling engine with a thermal rather than mechanical compressor. Pressure perturbations are generated in a large hot cylin• der by the motion of a displacer. Refrigeration is generated in a small cold cylinder connected to the hot cylinder and utilizing the pressure perturbations. Wobble-Plate Drive: See Swash-Plate Drive. Work Done: The work done by or on the working fluid during a change in volume. Working Fluid: The gas, liquid, or vapor which experiences periodic com• pression and expansion at different temperatures in the working space of a Stirling engine. Working Space: The ensemble of variable volumes and constant volumes comprising the Stirling engine system, including an expansion space, a compression space, void volumes of the regenerator, heater, cooler, and the volumes of clearance spaces and connecting ducts or ports. Appendix II

Organizations Having Substantial Interest in Cryocoolers and Cryocooler Manufacturing

ORGANIZATIONS

AFFDL: Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory at WPAFB. ERDA: Energy Research and Develcpment Administration (now the Department of Energy), Washington, D.C. GSFC: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland. IPL: Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. NASA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NEL: Naval Engineering Laboratory, Washington, D.C. NVL: U.S. Army Night Vision and Electro-Optics Laboratory, Fort Bel- voir, Virginia. NWRL: Naval Weapons Research Laboratory, China Lake, California. RRE: Royal Radar Establishment, Malvern, Worcester, England. SAMSO: U.S. Air Force Space and Missile Systems Command, Los Angeles, California. WPAFB: U.S. Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio.

MANUFACTURERS

ADL: Arthur D. Little Incorporated, Cambridge, Massachusetts. AiResearch Manufacturing: Torrance, California. CTI: Cryogenic Technology Incorporated, Waltham, Massachusetts. Cryomech: Jamestown, New York. ERG: Energy Research and Generation, San Francisco, California.

385 386 Appendix II

HAC: Hughes Aircraft Company, Culver City, California. MM: Martin Marietta Corporation, Orlando, Florida. Malakar Labs: now defunct, High Bridge, New Jersey. Magnavox: Philips Company in the United States. Hymatic Engineering Ltd: Redditch, Worcester. NAP: North American Philips, Briarcliff Manor, New York. PRL: Philips Research Laboratories, Briarcliff Manor, New York; also Eindhoven, Holland. SBRC: Santa Barbara Research Center, Santa Barbara, California. TI: Texas Instruments, Dallas, Texas. Appendix III

Guide to the Cryogenic Engineering Literature

INTRODUCTION

The literature of cryogenic engineering is surprisingly diverse and much is concerned with cryocoolers. It can be divided into two principal groups: (a) government reports and (b) open literature. It is important to have access to both, for many government reports are never summarized in the open literature. Furthermore, many of the reports, although unclassified, are restricted in circulation to agencies of government and their contractors. Still others are classified at various levels of restriction.

GOVERNMENT REPORTS

Government reports on cryocoolers are, in the main, those of contrac• tors to the government agencies, principally, NASA, the Army, the Navy, the Air Force, and the Department of Energy. These are concerned mos'tly with small or miniature cooling systems for infrared thermal sensing and other electronic applications. The main contractors include: Hughes Air• craft Co., Texas Instruments Inc., Martin Marietta Co., Cryogenic Tech• nology Inc., Philips Laboratories, R.c.A., AiResearch Manufacturing Corp. United States government reports can sometimes be obtained simply by requesting a copy from the contractors or the department of government concerned. This only works when the request is made soon after the report is published and spare copies are likely to be on hand. One must, therefore, know the report is due, but one then is probably already on the distribution list and receives the report anyway. An unofficial approach is always worth 387 388 Appendix III a try, particularly where a report is required urgently, but the chance of a favorable response declines exponentially with elapsed time following publication. The official sources of United States government reports are (a) National Technical Information Service (NTIS) U.S. Department of Commerce Springfield, Virginia 22161 (b) Defense Documentation Center (DDC) Defense Logistics Agency Cameron Station Alexandria, Virginia NTIS handles the distribution of copies of all U.S. government unclassified, unrestricted reports in all fields. DDC supplies copies of reports on defense and security related matters at all levels of security classification to approved requesters. Only approved "DDC Users" will likely have success in requesting material from DDC. One becomes a "DDC User" by working for U.S. Government agency or government contractor on defense related matters.

NTISearches In addition to simply filling orders for copies of reports, NTIS provides another important service. They will generate bibliographies on specified topics of reports that they have on file. The NTIS data base includes over 800,000 document/data records covering U.S. government sponsored research from 1964. Several hundred bibliographies have already been assembled and are listed in the NTISearch Subject Index, obtainable on request from NTIS. In the subject field of our interest here, cryocoolers, three NTISearches already exist: Reed 1975, 1977, and 1978. All are by William Reed and entitled Cryogenic Refrigeration-A Bibliography with Abstracts. Volume 1 covers the period 1964 to 1972. Volume 2 covers the period 1973 to 1977. Volume 3 covers the period 1977 to 1978.

Superintendent of Documents (SupDocs) Another U.S. government agency responsible for the dissemination of government information is the Superintendent of Documents. This is the sales organization of the U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO). Various reports from government research laboratories are published by the GPO and distributed through SupDocs. They do not handle government contractor reports nor is there any obligation to maintain stocks of particular Guide to the Cryogenic Engineering Literature 389 items, so that frequently one's requests are met with an "out-of-print" response. NTIS handles the same material as SupDocs plus of course the government contractor reports.

The Cryogenic Data Center Another U.S. government source that was important to those inter• ested in cryogenic information was the Cryogenic Data Center at the laboratories of the National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce, Boulder, Colorado. Over the past 20 years the Cryogenic Data Center had amassed the world's best collection of cryogenic literature. The material was all included in a computerized data base system organized to facilitate subject, author or chronologic searching. This system has been recently turned over to Prof. H. Weinstock, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois, for continuance.

Conference Proceedings From time to time agencies of the U.S. government organize conferen• ces dealing with cryocoolers on matters relating thereto. The most recent open meeting (October 1977) was held at the National Bureau of Standards, sponsored jointly by the Bureau and the Office of Naval Research, Arlington, Virginia. The proceedings (Zimmerman, 1978) of the conference, edited by James Zimmerman and Thomas Flynn, both of the Boulder laboratories, have been published as NBS Special Publica• tion 508, available from the superintendent of Documents, and NTIS (or simply by writing to the editor at NBS, Boulder). These proceedings are required reading for anyone interested in the contemporary status of cryogenic cooling systems for small superconducting or other low-capacity electronic applications. Infra-Red Information Symposia (IRIS) are held annually (about May /June) at various centers in the United States. The symposia are a joint service-classified meeting organized by the Office of Naval Research devoted to military applications of infrared radiation. The proceedings of the symposia are edited by the Infrared Information and Analysis Center, Environmental Research Institute of Michigan, P.O. Box 8618, Ann Arbor, Michigan. The proceedings of the 1977 San Francisco IRIS meeting (Zissis, 1978) were published as Proc. IRIS, Volume 22, NA V SO-P 2315, February 1978, a volume of 810 pages. Various other government-sponsored symposia have been held from time to time. Although not specific to cryocoolers the proceedings do contain significant contributions of interest. The Office of Naval Research 390 Appendix III organized a workshop on naval applications of in Novem• ber 1970 at Panama City, Florida. The proceedings (Cox and Edelsack, 1971) contain an authoritative review of cryogenic refrigerators by John Daunt, Professor of Physics, at the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey.

Foreign Government Sources The above review of government reports and information sources refers entirely to U.S. government activities. This comes about because of my close proximity to that country and the wonderfully refreshing American characteristic of frank, open disclosure. I know there must be corresponding efforts in cooler developments taking place in other parts of the world for both military and civil applications but am unaware of the details. I shall, therefore, be grateful to readers if they would send me any information or otherwise draw my attention to these deficiencies that I may seek to rectify in a subsequent edition (should the Editors believe it worthwhile!)

OPEN LITERATURE SOURCES

Advances in Cryogenic Engineering The principal body of cryogenic engineering literature is exceedingly well organized. The jewel in the crown is the 25 or so volumes entitled Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, edited by Klaus Timmerhaus, Associ• ate Dean of Engineering at the University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, and, more recently, by Ronald Fast of the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois. These volumes are well presented, uniformly bound books containing the proceedings of the annual (now biannual) Cryogenic Engineering Conference extending back to the first conference in 1954. Volume 20 contains a complete subject/author index for the series up to that time. It is the first reference to be consulted when approaching a new topic in cryogenic engineering.

Cryogenics The other important reference collection is the international journal Cryogenics published in Great Britain. This started in 1960 under the guidance of Professor K. Mendelssohn of the University of Oxford Claren• don Laboratory. Cryogenics publishes a broad range of papers on research topics, general topical and book reviews, reports of conferences, and notices of interest to the cryogenics community. Guide to the Cryogenic Engineering Literature 391

International Cryogenic Engineering Conference The proceedings of the biannual International Cryogenic Engineering Conferences are sufficient in number (6 volumes in 1979) to be an important reference source, particularly for material emanating from sources outside the United States. The conference schedule now appears to have settled down to a harmonious relationship with the U.S. based Cryogenic Engineer• ing Conference. Both are now biannual events, one occurring in years alternate to the other.

Applications of Cryogenic Technology Proceedings of the conferences of the Cryogenic Society of America are published as Applications of Cryogenic Technology, volumes 1 through 7 (in 1979). The books are edited by Robert W. Vance of the Aerospace Corporation in Los Angeles. They are very well presented, and the papers contained therein are of exceptional interest for they tend to be lengthy reviews written by experts in their field.

International Institute of Refrigeration The International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR), located in Paris, is the oldest organization devoted to refrigeration technology. Presently the main meetings of the Institute are held every four years and are called the International Congress of Refrigeration. The proceedings are published (in three or four volumes) under the title of Progress in Refrigeration Science and Technology. The IIR is organized in ten interest groups, called Commissions, as follows: 1. Cryophysics and Cryoengineering 2. Heat and Mass Transfer 3. Refrigerating Machinery 4. Refrigeration of Perishable Produce 5. Cold-Storage Facilities 6. Air Conditioning 7. Refrigerated Land Transport 8. Refrigerated Sea Transport 9. Applications of Refrigeration to Chemical, Civil, and Industrial Engineering 10. and Freeze Drying For the XIII Congress, the Proceedings were organized in four volumes. 392 Appendix III

Volume 1 dealt primarily with low-temperature applications and contained the papers of Commissions 1 and 9. Volume 2 consisted of the papers of Commissions 2 and 3. Volume 3 covered the papers of Commissions 4,5, and 10. Volume 4 contained the papers of Commissions 6, 7, and 8. In addition to the regular quadrennial Congress meetings, the various Commissions meet either singly or in combinations having mutual interests to consider specific topics or a range of topics. For example, one meeting of Commission 1 in 1970 addressed itself to: measurement of temperature, He3 /He4 refrigeration, heat transfer to liquid , superconductivity, and experimental techniques. In London in 1969, one meeting of Commission 1 was concerned with liquid ; simultaneously, but at another separate meeting in London, the topic was low temperature and electric power. The proceedings of all these meetings are published by the IIR as a supplement or annex of the Bulletin, a regular bimonthly publication of about 250 pages including review papers, original studies, information on current research in refrigeration, information on forthcoming meetings of interest, and the program abstracts of papers of the next Congress. In addition to all these, the IIR has many other important publications including three Bibliographic Guides to Refrigeration for the periods 1953- 1960, 1961-1964, and 1965-1968, an international dictionary of refriger• ation, and many different charts and tables of thermodynamic properties. The veritable plethora of activities, interests, and publications with many variations due to the input of local characteristics makes recovery of publications somewhat more difficult. To obtain a list of publications or further information, application may be due to: Institut International du Froid (International Institute of Refrigeration) 177 boulevard Malesherbes F 75017 Paris France

Low-Temperature Physics The cryogenics field has been a playground of the physicist for a hundred years, four or five times as long as it has been a topic of substantial engineering interest. Therefore, one should not overlook the physics sec• tions of the library. Many choice items of great interest to cryogenic engineers will be found there. For example, Daunt has given an excellent and very comprehensive treatment, 136 pages, a book in itself, in the Handbuch der Physik, Vol. XIV on "The Production of Low Temperatures down to Temperature." Guide to the Cryogenic Engineering Literature 393

Then there are the proceedings of the Conference of Low Temperature Physics. Meetings are held at three-year intervals in different parts of the world, with the proceedings of the conference produced by the local organizing group. The proceedings and sources known to the author are LT 14 (1975) (Otaniemi, Finland) Ed. M. Krusius and M. Vuorio, American Elsevier Publishing Co., New York. LT 13 (1972) (Boulder, Colorado) Ed. K. Timmerhaus, W. H. Sul• livan, and E. F. Hammel, Plenum Press, New York. LT 12 (1971) (Kyoto, Japan) Ed. E. Danda, Academic Press of Japan, Tokyo. LT 11 (1968) (St. Andrews, Scotland) Ed. J. F. Allen, D. M. Finky• son, and D. M. McCall, University of St. Andrews, Printing Dept. LT 10 (1967) (Moscow, USSR) Ed. unknown, USSR Academy of Sciences. LT 9 (1964) (Columbus, Ohio) Ed. J. G. Daunt, D. O. Edwards, and Y. M. Milford, Plenum Press, New York. LT 8 (1962) (London, England) Ed. R. D. Davies, Butterworths Press Ltd., London. LT 7 (1960) (Toronto, Canada) Ed. G. M. Graham and A. S. Hollis• Hallett, University of Toronto Press.

Books, Monographs and Course Notes In addition to the above, many excellent books too numerous to mention on cryogenics and experimental techniques may be found on the shelves of a good technical library. One volume of exceptional interest to the cryogenics engineer is the Russian work translated and published by Pergamon Press, entitled Plant and Machinery for the Separation of Air by Low-Temperature Methods, Ed. I. P. Usyukin. Occasionally the proceedings of summer courses or workshops may be published in book form. One example of great interest is The Science and Technology of Superconductivity, Ed. W. D. Gregory, W. N. Mathews, and E. A. Edelsack, published by Plenum Press, New York, 1973, based on a summer course held in August 1971 at Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. The proceedings of the 1968 summer study on superconducting devices and accelerators was published by the Brookhaven National Laboratory Associated Universities Inc. as BNL 50155 (C-55) under contract with the United States Atomic Energy Commission. 394 Appendix III

Again the proceedings of a Cryogenic Workshop, March 1972, were published by the NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center. This is an excellent summary of contemporary cryogenic matters with particular reference to spacecraft.

House Journals Two house journals have, over the years, contributed very substantially to the cryogenic engineering literature, particularly with regard to cryogenic cooling systems. One of these two journals is the Philips Technical Review. Since the first publication, by J. W. L. Kohler in 1954, of two articles about the new Philips Stirling cooling engines, there have been many other papers dealing with subsequent developments and improvements. The Philips Technical Review is an excellent journal devoted to research topics and new product development in the Philips groups of companies. Subscriptions or single copies of the Review may be obtained on application to N.V. UITGEVERSMAATSCHAPPIJ CENTREX (Centrex Publishing Co.) N.W. Emmasingel9 P.O. Box 76 Eindhoven, Netherlands Another journal of exceptional relevance and interest to the field of cryocoolers is the Linde Reports in Science and Technology. This monthly publication contains six to ten articles describing recent Linde developments and plant construction in the field of cryogenic gas processing and chemical engineering. An index to the articles or copies of the reports may be obtained on application to Pressestelle der Linde Aktiengesellschaft Wiesbaden, Hildastrasse 2-10 West Germany. Name Index

A. D. Little Company,[I] 10, 12, 14,237-240 Energy Research and Generation AEG-Telefunken A. G., [I] 14 Incorporated (ERG), [I] 20 Ai Research Manufacturing Company, [I] 16, 199-202; [2] 387 Air Products and Chemical Incorporated Fairchild Space and Electronics Company, (APCI), [I] 15, 77, 238, 240, 293 [I] 150 American Motors, [I] III Finkelstein. Theodore, [I] 109, 131, 142, 147 Flight Dynamics Laboratories, [I] 13 Ford Motor Company, [I] III Baumann Institute of the Moscow High Franchot, Charles Louis, [I] 109 Technological School, [2] 262 Beale, William, [I] 52, 166 British Company, [I] 8,19 Bush, Vannevar, [I] 188 General Motors, [1] 111 Gifford, William, [I] 14,237-263 Gorrie, John, [I] 8 Carnot, Sadi, [I] 39 Chellis, Fred, [I] 171 Claude, Georges, [I] 8, 9, 322, 323; [2] 375 Hampson, W, [I] 8 Collins, Samuel, [I] 9,10,326-329; [2] 376 Harwell Atomic Energy Establishment, [I] Cowans, Ken. [I] 14 108 Crummett, Charles, [I] 9 Herschel, John, [I] 6, 95 Crummett, Orin, [I] 9 Heylandt, D., [I] 8 Cryogenic Data Center, U.S., [2] 389 Higa, Walter, [I] 16, 171 Cryogenic Society of America, [2] 391 Horn, Stuart, [I] 171 Cryogenic Technology Incorporated (CTI), Hughes Aircraft Company, [I] 14, 103, [I] 10, 12, 14, 15, 100, 103,238; [2] 387 191-193; [2] 387 Cryomech Incorporated, [I] 14,238 Hughes Santa Barbara Research Center, [I] 14 Hymatic Engineering Limited, [I] 19, Daniels, A., [I] 101 288-290 Daunt, John, [I] 14 Davis, Harvey, [1] 9 Defense Documentation Center (DOC), U.S., [2] 388 International Institute of Refrigeration, [2] du Pre, F. K., [I] 96,101 391-392 395 396 Name Index

Japanese National Railways, [2] 306 Parsons, Sir Charles, [I] 9 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, [I] 16, 150 Perkins, C., [I] 265 Johnson, Joseph, [I] 9 Philips Company, [I] 11,12,20,96-101,106, Joule, J. P., [2] 379 144, 172-176, 179; [2] 43 Pictet, R., [I] 7 Postle, Davy, [I] 7, 237-238, 261-263; [2] 380 Kapitza, Peter, [I] 9, 20, 326; [2] 379 Kinergetics Incorporated, [I] 14 Kirk. Alexander, [I] 6, 95 Rayleigh, Lord, [I] 9 Kohler, Jan W. L., [I] 11,52,96; [2] 43 Reitlinger, J., [I] 44 Rinia, H., [I] 96 l.'Air l.iquide l.imitee, [I] 8, 19,323 l.a nda u, L., [2] 258 Schmidt, Gustav, [I] 126, 131 Linde, Karl von, [I] 7; [2] 379 Siemens, Sir Charles William (also l.inde Company, [I] 7, 9,19; [2] 91 Karl Wilhelm Siemens), [I] 8; [2] 382 Longsworth, Ralph, [I] 15,240 Siemens, Sir William, [I] 110; [2] I Solvay, E., [I] 7 Stirling, Robert, [I] 6, 95; [2] I Magnavox Company, [I] 14 Submarine Systems, Incorporated, [I] 14 Malaker Corporation, [I] 14, 103 Sunpower Incorporated, [I] 148-150 Martini, William, [I] 152 Martin-Marietta Corporation, [I] 14, 103; [2] 387 Taconis, T. W., [I] 188 McDonnell Douglas; Richland Energy Texas Instruments Incorporated, [I] 14, 103; l.aboratory, [I] 108 [2] 387 McMahon, Howard, [I] 237 Thermo-Electron Corporation, [I] 108 Mechanical Technology Incorporated, [I] Thomson, William, [2] 382 III Thrupp, Edgar, [I] 9 Meijer, Rolf, [I] 179 Trevethick, Richard, [I] 6

NPO Cryogenmash, [2] 262 National Aeronautics and Space United Stirling, [I] III Administration (NASA), [I] 13, 16.20, Urieli, Israel, [I] 147-148 187, 199; [2] 226 U.S. Air Force, [I] 13, 191, 195; [2] 387 NASA Lewis Research Center, [I] 151; [2] U.S. Army Night Vision and Electro-Optics 387 Laboratory, [I] 13, 103, 192, 198;[2]387 National Bureau of Standards Cryogenic U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), [I] III, Engineering Laboratory, [I] 13 150; [2] 387 National Engineering Laboratory, [I] 13 U.S. National Institutes of Health, [I] 20 National Technical Information Service (NTIS), U.S., [2] 388 Naval Engineering Laboratory, [I] 13 van Weenan, F. L., [I] III North American Philips Laboratories, [I] 12, Vuilleumier, Rudolph, [I] 188; [2] 383 13,101,195-199; [2] 387

Werkspoor, N. V., [I] 176-179 Office of Naval Research, [I] 13 Onnes, Kamerlingh, [I] 8 Oxley, A. J., [I] 53 Zerkowitz, Guido, [I] 9 Subject Index

Active volume, [I] 210 Blockage, [I] 345 Adiabatic compression, [2] 375 Blow period, [2] 38, 41-42 Adiabatic-cycle simulation programs, [I] Boiling heat transfer, [2] 281 142-145,151,152 Bounce space, [I] 166 Adiabatic demagnetization rotating frame Boyles law, [I] 270 (ADRF), [2] 247-249 Brayton cycle, [I] 258; [2] 262, 375, 379 Adiabatic expansion, [2] 375 Brushless direct-current motors, [2] 108-109 Adsorption pumping, [2] 183-185 Bubble point, [I] 34 Advanced Surveillance Technology Bucket brigade loss: see Shuttle heat transfer program, [I] 195 (loss) Aftercooler, [2] 375 Air compressors, [I] 349 Air cooling, [2] 104-105 Calrod-type sheathed heater, [I] 229 Air liquefaction, [1]7, 8, II, 12, 18, 19,26, Carbon-filled fluorocarbon piston rings. [I] 309-3 II, 314; [2] 2 324 Air Products Co. coolers, [I] 293 Carnot cooling engines, [1] 41 Air separation, [2] 259, 277 Carnot efficiency, [2] 132 Ai Research Vuilleumier cryocoolers, [1] Carnot thermodynamic cycle, [I] 1, 39-42, 199-202 44.47,238; [2] 103-104, 130-134 Applications, [1] 2, 3,10-12,16,17,24,26, Carryover loss, [1] 311; [2] 30,33 52,53,111,187-188,191,201 Cascade-cycle refrigeration, [1] 162, 179, 180; Artificial hearts, [1] 20; [2] 52 [2] 30 Automotive applications, [1] 52, 53, 111 Cascade system, [I] 277-280 Auxiliary refrigerating system, [I] 278-279 Casting leaks, [2] 121 Axial flow compressors, [1] 350; [2] 375 Centrifugal flow compressors, [1] 350; [2] 375 Axial flow dynamic heat exchangers, [2] Charcoal, [2] 35 30-32 Charcoal adsorption pumps, [2] 183-184 Axial heat conduction, [2] 22-24 Check valving, [2] 124 Chemical cooling system, [2] 163-165 Claude cooling engines, [I] 5,179,180,257. Balancing, [2] 68-69 297-350 Ball and roller bearings, [2] 81-82 Claude cycle, [1] 84, 257, 302-307; [2] 286, Bearing rings, [2] 80 375 Bearings, [1] 200-201; [2] 79-88 Claude stepped piston two-stage expander, Bellows, [2] 96 [1] 316-318 Bellows expansion engines, [I] 339-342 Clearance, [2] 376 397 398 Subject Index

Clearance space, [2] 376 Crowned piston, [I] 8 Close tolerance seals, [2] 96-98 Cryocoolers, [I] I; [2] 377 Closed-cycle refrigeration, [2] 130 Cryogenerator, [2] 377 Cluster heat exchanger, [2] 5, 19 Cryogenic engineering, [I] I Coefficient of performance (COP), [I] 42, 43; Cryogenics, [I] I; [2] 392-393 [2] 376 Cryomatic gas balancing, [I] 251-255 Coiled foil regenerator, [2] 53 Cycle simulation, [I] 145-146; [2] 266-272 Coiled tubular exchangers, [2] 6-9, 283-284 Cylinder walls, [2] 93, 99 Cold finger, [2] 62-68 heat loss through, [I] 222 Coldfinger seal, [I] 199; [2] 376 Cold string: see Cold finger Collins cooling engines, [I] 5, 309-311 dc brush-type motor, [I] 230 Collins helium liquefier (or cryostat), [I] 10, Dead space, [2] 44 318, 326-344; [2] 376 Dead volume ratio, [I] 156; [2] 377 Collins low-pressure air liquefier, [I] Dense mesh wire screens, [2] 47 309-311, 329 Design, machine: see Machine design Combination Stirling engine: see Duplex Design charts, [I] 157-159 Stirling engine Dew point, [I] 34 Composite regenerative heat exchanger, [2] Diamagnetic materials, [2] 220 34-36 Diaphragm compressor, [I] 339 Compound working fluid, [2] 376 Diaphragm expansion engine, [I] 9 Compression space, [I] 46, 140; [2] 376 Diaphragms, [2] 96 Compressors, [I] 87-90, 344, 347-350; [2] Dichlorodifluoromethane (CChF2), [2] 141 295-298, 376 Dielectric materials, [2] 160 Computer simulation programs, [I] 143, Differential pistons: see Stepped pistons 144-152,161,192;[2]26,28,43,266-272 Dilution refrigerators, [I] 19;[2]55, 144-145, Concentricity, [2] 51-52 146,179,187-211,244-247,259 Condensing cooling engine, [I] 41 Direct heating, [2] 377 Conduction, [I] 257 Discontinuous piston motion, [2] 377 Conduction heat leakage, [2] 64-65 Displacer, [I] 105,208; [2] 377 Contamination, [I] 345, 348-349; [2] 82-83, Displacer motion, [I] 117-123,208,255 119-120 Displacer seal, [2] 125 Continuous He] refrigeration, [2] 185-187 Displacive materials, [2] 161 Continuous magnetic refrigerators, [2] DOE! NASA Stirling Engine Automotive 185-187 Program, [I] 150 Continuous system simulation language CSSL Doll-Eder valveless expansion engines, [I] IV, [2] 26 334-339 Convection, [I] 257; [2] 282-283 Double-acting free-piston Stirling engines, Cooldown characteristics, [I] 274-275; [2] 26, [I] 180 65-66, 119 Double-acting Stirling engines, [I] 108-116, Cooler, [2] 376 119-123,180;[2] 377 Cooling, [2] 103-106 Double-bundle nuclear refrigerator, [2] Copper powder, [2] 196-198 235 Corblin diaphragm compressors, [I] 277 Double-circulation , [2] Cost, [2] 114 210-211 Counterflow, [2] 15-16 Double-expansion engines, [I] 161-164, 191 Counterflow heat exchangers, [I] 7 Drive motors, [2] 106-108 Crankcase, [2] 107 Dry heli urn compressor, [2] 295-298 Crank drive, [2] 377 Dry-rubbing bearings, [2] 87-88 Critical point, [I] 35 Dry-rubbing materials, [I] 20 I, 348-349 Cross-flow, [2] 15 Dry-rubbing piston rings, [I] 324 Subject Index 399

Dual-pressure Claude cycle system, [I] Finegold-Vanderbrug nodal analysis, [I] 314-315; [2] 377 150-151 Ductile-brittle transformation, [2] 100 Finkelstein adiabatic cycle, [I] 131-132, Duplex Stirling engines, [I] 50-53, 185-187, 142-145, 160; [2] 378 222; [2] 377 Finkelstein nodal analysis, [I] 147, 151 Dynamic nuclear polarization, [2] 247-251 First Law of thermodynamics, [I] 38-39 Dynamic regenerative heat exchangers, [2] Flame-trap construction (matrices), [2] 32, 30-33 46 Dynamic seals, [2] 91-93 Flash loss, [2] 30 I, 302 Flexibility, [I] 280 Flow maldistribution, [2] 19-22 Flow regulation, [I] 5, 246 Effectiveness, exchanger, [2] 17-19,21,47 Fluid friction loss, [2] 43 Efficiencies, regenerator, [2] 47 Fluid-lubricated bearings, [2] 80-81 Electric resistance heating, [I] 187-188 Fluidic-driven dis placer, [I] 251-255 Electrical and electronic systems, [2] 106-110 Fluon, [I] 349 Electrocaloric refrigeration systems, [I] 19; Fluorocarbons, [2] 102 [2] 160-162 Free-displacer split-Stirling engine, [I] Electromagnetic inlet valve, [2] 275 169-171; [2] 378 Electron spin systems, [2] 216-226 Free-piston Stirling engines, [I] 20,164-169, Electronic applications, [I] 169 344 Electronic controls, [2] 109-110 Freezer, [2] 378 Electrons, [2] 145-152 Friction, [I] 38,127-128,169,171,223,339; Enhancing heat transfer, [2] 30 [2] 24-25, 66, 81-82,102 Enthalpy, [I] 30, 32 aerodynamic, [I] 127-128 Entropy, [I] 30, 32; [2] 138-172, 270 Furnace-type heater, [I] 229 Entropy analysis method, [2] 270 Ericsson cooling engines, [I] 5, 75, 237-263; [2] 28 Ga p regeneration, [2] 52-53 Ericsson thermodynamic cycle, [I] 44, 48, 53; Gas liquefaction, [I] 2, 180,271-288,294 [2] 160, 377 Gas-lubricated bearings, [I] 350; [2] 82-83, ideal, [I] 59-60 84-87 pseudo, [I] 67-68, 83 Gas-lubricated pistons, [2] 83-84 Ettingshauser effect, [2] 151 Gaseous cooling engine, [I] 41 Europium sulfide, [2] 33 Generalized Finkelstein analysis, [I] 131-132 Exergy, [2] 271-272 Giaque-Hampson exchangers, [2] 7 Exhaust, [I] 247 Giff ord-Mc Mahon cooling engines, [I] 5, 15, Expanders, [I] 91-93 16,77,237-240,245-261; [2] 1l7, 378 Expansion, [I] 247 Gifford-McMahon cycle, [I] 77, 245-261 isentropic, [I] 93-94 GLAG theory, [2] 258 isothermal, [I] 93-94 Grease-lubricated bearings, [2] 81 Expansion engines, [I] 3, 4, 333; [2] 272-276 Guide rings, [2] 52, 66, 79 Expansion space, [I] 46,138-140; [2] 377 External annular regenerator, [I] 231 External regenerator, [I] 230-231 Hampson cooling engines, [I] 5 Hampson heat exchanger, [I] 128-131,265; [2] 6-7, 15 Fanning friction factor, [2] 49 Harmonic drives, [I] 211 Ferroelectrics, [2] 161 Harmonic piston motion, [2] 378 Figure of merit, [I] 283; [2] 119 Harwell Fluidyne engine, [I] 168 Film coefficient, [I] 224 Hausen regenerator, [2] 36-39 400 Subject Index

He' refrigerators, [2]179-187 Ideal regenerator, [2] 36 He4 -circulating dilution refrigerators, [2] Ideal Stirling cycle: see Stirling 207-211 thermodynamic cycle He' - He 4 dilution refrigerator, [2] 55, Ideal thermodynamic cycles, [I] 39-41,44; [2] 144-145,146,187-211,259 130-134 Heat-balance analysis, [I] 259-261 Inconel 718, [I] 228 Heat exchanger thermal potential, [I] Incorporated cascade cycle, [I] 279-280 128-129 Indirect heating, [2] 378 Heat exchangers, [1]5; [2]1-55,279-280, Infrared Astronomical Satellite (I RAS) 283-284 Program, [2] 225-226 Heat pipes, [2] 54-55, 106, 378 Infrared night vision equipment, [I] 12, 14, Heat pump, [1]48-49; [2] 378 16, 19, 169, 188, 192, 202-205, 232; [2] Heat rejection, [1]231; [2]117-118 61,92,108,114,179,184-185 Heat transfer, [2] I, 19, 279-283 Infrared telescope, [2] 225 Heat transfer losses, [1]220-225 Inherent thermodynamic and heat transfer Heater power input, [1]225 losses, [1]220-225 Heaters, [I] 229; [2] 378 Inhibited heat transfer, [2] 282-283 Helically wound wire heaters, [I] 229 Input power drive motor, [I] 160 Helium, [1]175; [2]82,120-121,139-141, Insulation, [I] 284-285 144-145,265 Integral Stirling engine, [I] 118-119; [2] 115 Helium', [2]179-180,187-190,211-215 Integrated cryogenic cooled isotope engine Helium4 , [2]187-190 (ICICLE) program, [I] 202 Helium expansion engine, [1]9 Intercooler, [2] 378 Helium-hydrogen liquefier, [1]10 Intermediate cryocoolers, [I] 2, 4,26, 109, Helium liquefaction, [1]10, 18,250,277, 172-180,238;[2] 378 326-334; [2] 257-258, 286-288, 293-294, Internal annular regenerator, [I] 231 299-302 Internal energy, [I] 30, 31 Hermetic sealing, [I] 195; [2] 95-96 Internal regenerator, [I] 230-231 Heylandt crowned piston, [1]325; [2]378 Interstage heat flow, [1]225 Heylandt cycle, [1]307, 309, 314-315 Inversion curve, [1]267 Hi-Cap Vuilleumier cooling engine, [I] Inverters, [I] 230 192-193 Isenthalpic expansion, [I] 297-302; [2] 300 Historical background, [1]6-10 Isentrope, [I] 34 Hot-end temperature controller, [1]225-226 Isentropic efficiency, [I] 88 Hot-rider ring wear, [1]230 Isentropic expansion, [1]265-267, 297-302 Hughes Vuilleumier cryocooler, [1]191-193 Isentropic process, [2] 378 Hybrid free-displacer-crank-controlled Isobar, [I] 34 piston engine, [2] 378 Isotherm, [I] 34 Hydraulic seal, [2]96 Isothermal analysis, [1]152 Hydraulic work-absorbing system, [1]326 Isothermal efficiency, [I] 88 Hydrodynamic fluid lubrication, [I] 324, Isothermal process, [I] 299-300; [2]379 326,334-339,342,349; [2]80-87 Isothermality, [I] 126-127 Hydrogen, [I] 175; [2] 82, 143 Hydrogen expansion engine, [I] 8, 9 Hydrogen liquefaction, [I] 8,18 Japanese cryocooler development, [2] Hymatic coolers, [I] 288-290 293-313 Hyperfine enhanced nuclear-spin systems, Josephson tunnel diodes, [I] II [2] 240-244 Joule-Brayton cycle liquefiers, [1]82-83, 297,333, 342-345, 347-350; [2] 379 Joule-Thomson coefficient, [I] 268-271 Ideal Ericsson cycle: see Ericsson Joule-Thomson cooling engines, [I] 5,18, thermodynamic cycle 19,265-294, 347 Subject Index 401

Joule-Thomson expander, [1]250-251 Martini design manual, [1]152 Joule-Thomson expansion, [I] 79-83, Mass distribution, [1]124, 141 250-251,265-294,297,299,300,333;[2] Material properties, [2] 264-265 379 Materials, [1]243; [2]32, 98-103,119-120 Joule's law, [1]270 cold-regenerator matrix, [1]230 regenerator matrix, [1]256 Matrix: see Regenerative matrix Kapitza hydrodynamic lubricated piston, [I] Maximum inversion temperature, [I] 326 267-268 Kapitza resistance, [2]195-201, 206-211 Mean cycle pressure, [I] 137 Kinematic drive mechanism, [1]105; [2]379 Mechanical efficiency, [1]88 Kirk cycle, [1]95 Metal bellows seal, [1]324 Krytox-AB, [2]120 Metallurgical limit, [2] 379 Methane, [2]143 Microminiature cryocoolers, [1]2,3; [2]379 Labyrinth seals, [2] 97 Microphonics, [2] 118 Large cryocoolers, [1]2, 4, 26,109, III, 180, Millikelvin temperature cooling systems, [2] 188-192; [2] 379 171-251 Leakage (gas), [I] 257, 335; [2] 33, 97, Miniature cryocoolers, [I] 2, 3, 4, 24, 103, 120-121 188, 198, 288-293, 344-345; [2] 113-128, Leidenfrost boiling, [1]16 379 Linde co-axial heat exchanger, [2] 15 Mixed refrigerant cycle, [1]346-347 Linde cooling engines, [1]5 Mixed units, [1]4 Linde dual-pressure cycle, [I] 84, 280-282, Mixtures, [2] 165-168, 187-190 287-288 Motional heat leak, [1]260 Linde-Francl system, [1]309 Motors, [1]230 Linde-Hampson cycle, [I] 83-84, 265, Multiple-element cooling systems, [I] 271-280,284-288,345; [2]261,379 116-117 Linear bearings, [2] 79, 80 MUltiple-expansion engines, [1]12, 161-164, Liquefaction process, [2] 299-302 247-250,316-322; [2]33 Liquid natural gas production, [1]280 Multiple-expansion Gifford-McMahon storage, [I] 18, 172 cycle, [I] 247-250 transport, [I] 172 Multiple mixing chambers, [2] 206-207 Liquid-piston engines, [1]168-169 Multiple reciprocating masses, [2]74-76 Literature, cryogenic engineering, [2] Multistage compression, [I] 90-91, 348 387-394 Multistage refrigerators, [2] 150 Load changing, [2] 26 Multistage Vuilleumier coolers, [1]225-227 Long engine-operation life, [1]186-187, 191; M ultistaging, [I] 249 [2]113-114,117 Low-pressure air liquefiers, [I] 309-311 Lubrication, [1]231,348-349; [2]79-87, NASA Thermal Analysis Program (TAP), 96-98 [I] 147 Net refrigeration, [I] 225 , [2] 143 Machine design, [I] 159-161, 255-257 Nodal analysis, [1]145-152, 160; [2]28, 43 Magnetic refrigerators, [2] 216-251 Nonisothermal compression and expansion, Magnetically-levitated (MAGLEV) vehicles, [1]126-127 [2] 306 NTU (number of transfer units), [2] 20, Magnetocaloric effect, [2] 160 21-22, 29-30, 41 Magnetocaloric refrigeration systems, [1]19; NTU-effectiveness method, [2]41 [2]155-160, 161 Nuclear-spin systems, [2]226-240 MAN! MWM nodal analysis, [1]151 Nusselt number, [2]48 402 Subject Index

Oil flooding, [2] 380 Precooling, [1]275-278, 312-314; [2]380 Open-cycle refrigeration, [2] 130 Pressure, [I] 30-31 Optimization of design parameters, [I] Pressure drop, [I] 127-128; [2] 5, 24, 380 153-157, 255-257; [2] 266-272 Pressure excursion, [2] 380 Optimum recirculation fraction, [I] 306-307 Pressure generator, [1]49-50 Organ nodal analysis, [I] 151 Pressure oscillation, [2] 305 Orthohydrogen, [2] 143 Pressure ratio, [I] 186; [2] 380 Oscillatory bearings, [2] 79, 80 Pressure-volume (P- V) diagram, [I] 36-37 Oscillatory flow, [2] 4, 26-30, 41-43, 302-305 Prime mover, [I] 48-49; [2] 380 Oscillatory temperature, [2] 302-305 Publications, cryogenic engineering, [2] Outer cascade cycle, [I] 279 262-264, 387-394 Overheating, [I] 228 Pulse-width modulation, [1]228 Pulsed refrigeration system, [2] 308-313 Pump work, [2] 5 Parahydrogen, [2] 143 Pumping loss, [I] 221-222 Parallel flow, [2] 15 Parallel mUltiple-expansion engine arrangement, [I] 318-322 Radiation, [I] 257 Paramagnetic materials, [2] 218-226 Rallis adiabatic regenerative cycle, [1]53, Parametric effects, [I] 71-73 62-70 Peltier heat, [2] 146 Rallis isothermal regenerative cycle, [I] 53-58 Pentaerythrityl fluoride, [2] 154 Rallis thermodynamic cycle, [1]53; [2] 380 Perfect dynamic balance, [2] 77-79 RCA Vuilleumier cryocoolers, [I] 202-206 Perforated plate exchanger, [2] 4, 11-12 Reciprocating compressors, [I] 347-349; [2] Phase angle, [I] 156,227; [2] 380 91 Phase equilibrium, [2] 136 Reciprocating cooling machines, [1]2,3,4; Philips nodal analysis, [I] 151 [2] 380 Philips Vuilleumier cryocoo!ers, [I] 195-199 Reciprocating expansion engines, [I] Phonon drag effect, [2] 152-153 322-324 [2] 298-299 Phonons, [2] 137,147,152-153 Reciprocating masses, [2] 71-79 Photon cooling systems, [2]168-171 Recuperative cycles, [I] 78-94 Piston crosshead system, [2] 94 Recuperative heat exchangers, [1]5,78,257, Piston-displacer engine, [1]50-53 346; [2] 1-30, 32, 380 Piston-displacer single-acting Stirling Recuperative system analysis, [1]85-87 engines, [I] 106 Reduced length, [2] 39-41 Piston leakage, [I] 339 Reduced period, [2] 39-41 Piston motion, [I] 117-124, 243 Redundant units, [I] 347 Piston rings, [1]324; [2]92,274 Refrigerant, [2] 139-143 Piston seals, [I] 169 Refrigeration, [I] 256 Piston side thrust, [2] 93-95 dilution refrigeration, [1]19 Pistons, [I] 105, 325-331; [2] 380 electrocaloric refrigeration, [I] 19 Plate-fin exchangers, [2] 4, 9-11 magnetocaloric refrigeration, [I] 19 Plated tube heat exchanger, [2] 23-24 Refrigeration capacity, [1]2,128,154, Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), [I] 749; [2] 157-159; [2] 380 87-88, 92 Refrigeration load, [2] 380 Polytropic process, [I] 87, 298-300 Refrigeration loss, [I] 250 Pomeranchuk refrigeration, [2] 144,211-216 Refrigeration quality, [1]1 Porosity, [2] 121, 380 Regenerative annulus, [1]131; [2]381 Postle cryocoolers, [I] 237-238, 261-263; [2] Regenerative cycles, [I] 44-77; [2] 381 380 Regenerative displacer, [1]233 Practical regenerative cycle, [1]123-131 Regenerative heat exchangers, [I] 5, 6, 257; Precooler heat exchanger, [I] 275-277 [2] I, 3, 30-54, 381 Subject Index 403

Regenerative matrix, [I] 128, 130-131, Series multiple-expansion engine 256-257; [2] 32, 43-47, 381 arrangement, [I] 318-322 Regenerator contamination, [I] 130 Shuttle heat transfer (loss), [I] 220-221, 260; Regenerator heat transfer losses, [I] 223-224 [2] 67-68, 381 Regenerator pressure drop, [I] 128,256 Siemens cycle, [I] 83; [2] 382 Regenerators, [I] 230-231, 256-257; [2] Siemens double-acting four-cylinder engine, 66-67, 283-284 [I] 109-111 Regenerator thermal saturation, [I] 130-131 Silica gel, [2] 35 Reitlinger cycle, [I] 44-45; [2] 381 Silver powder heat exchangers, [2] 199-200, Reliability, [I] 258, 347; [2] 62, 150 204 Residence time, [2] 41 Simulation programs: see Computer Reversal period, [2] 38 simulation programs Reversible mixing, [2] 166-168 Single-acting piston-displacer Stirling Reversing recuperative exchangers, [I] 311 engine, [I] 161 Reynolds number, [2] 48 Single-acting "rhombic drive" engine, [I] III Rhombic drive mechanism, [I] 179, 195; [2] Single-acting Stirling engines, [I] 105-108 7,8,94-95, 381 Single-bow transient technique, [2] 40 Rietdijk expansion ejector, [I] 282-283 Single-cycle He' refrigerators, [2] 181-185 Roll-sock seal, [I] 195; [2] 381 Sintered powder heat exchanger, [2] 196-198, Rolling diaphragm seals, [2] 95, 96 203 Rotary bearings, [2] 79-80 Sintering, [2] 45 Rotary compressors, [I] 4, 344, 347, 350; [2] Sinusoidal oscillatory flows, [2] 26-29 298 Size, [2] 114 Rotary cooling machines, [I] 2, 3; [2] 381 Small cryocoolers, [I] 3, 4, 13, 240; [2] 382 Rotary expansion engines, [I] 344 Solvay cooling engines, [I] 5, 76-77, 237-243, Rotary screw compressors, [I] 350 257 Rotary stroking engine, [I] 342-344 Solvay cycle, [I] 76-77, 240-243 Rubber seals, [2] 121 Space applications, [1]26, 187, 191,202; [2] Rulon-A, [1]349; [2]88, 92 105-106, 394 Russian cryocooler development, [2] 257-291 Spacecraft radiative cooling, [2] 105-106 Spacers, [2] 4, I I Specific heat, [2] 33-36, 100-102 Saturated liquid, [I] 33 Speed, engine, [2] 76 Saturated vapor, [I] 34 Split-Stirling cryocoolers, [I] 16, 119, 192 Saturation curves, [I] 35 Split-Vuilleumier cryocoolers, [1]192, Schmidt isothermal cycle, [I] 126, 131, 198-199,231-233 134-142,153; [2] 381 State of cyclic operation, [2] 36 Schock nodal analysis, [I] 150, 151 State properties, [I] 29-32 Schulte rotary stroking engine, [I] 344 Static regenerative heat exchangers, [2] 30, Scotch-yoke system, [2] 94 32 Screw compressor, [2] 381 Static seals, [2] 89-91 Seal rings, [2] 9 Status surveys, [I] 20-26 Seals, [I] 195,201,227,238,257,324; [2] 30, Steady enthalpy flow method, [2] 41 89-98, 121-128 Stepped pistons, [I] 316-317 Second Law of thermodynamics, [I] 38-39, Stirling cooling engines, [I] 5, II, 14,75, 42 95-180,185, 192,201; [2] 26,28,41-47, Self-acting valve arrangement, [1]261-263 115, 272, 278-279 Self-cleaning ability of regenerative heat design parameters, [I] 152-157 excha ngers, [2] 33 Stirling cycle liquefiers, [I] 26 Self-regulating Joule-Thomson coolers, [I] Stirling engine theoretical analysis, [I] 291 131-152 Semipermeable membranes, [2] 166 Stirling engines, [I] 185 404 Subject Index

Stirling Nodal Analysis Program (SNAP), Thermal leaks, [I] 257 [1] 150 Thermal load, [I] 128 Stirling thermodynamic cycle, [1] 44-50, 53, Thermal losses, [I] 160 75 Thermal regeneration, [I] 65-67 ideal, [1] 58-59, 132-134 Thermal regenerator, [I] 208-209 pseudo, [1] 68-71 Thermal resistance, [2] 230, 238 Storage battery, [2] 165 Thermal saturation, [I] 130-131; [2] 34 Storage of liquefied gas, [1] 18, 19; [2] 284, Thermal storage, [I] 52-53 288-291 Thermal wheels, [2] 32 Straight-wire heaters, [I] 229 Thermodynamic analysis, [2] 266-272 Straw regenerator, [2] 33 Thermodynamics of cryocoolers, [I] 29-94 Strength, material, [2] 99-100 Thermoelectric refrigeration, [2] 145-152, Sunpower nodal analysis, [I] 148-151 168 Superexpress trains, [2] 306 Thermomagnetic effects, [2] 151 Supercond ucting electric cable Thermophonics, [2] 118-119 transmission, [I] 172 Throttled expansion: see Joule-Thomson Supercond ucting electronic devices, [I] 18, expansion 164, 172, 238; [2] 389 Tidal flow, [2] 4 Superconducting heat switches, [2] 224-225 Toughness, material, [2] 99-100 Superconducting magnets, [2] 306, 308-312 Transient response, [2] 25-26 Superconducting quantum interference Transportation of liquefied gas, [2] 284, device (SQUID), [I] 11,26 288-291 Superconductivity, [I] II Triple-expansion Stirling engine, [I] 162 Superconductors, [2] 139 Tubular exchangers, [2] 4-9 Superheated fluid, [I] 35-36 Tubular regenerator, [I] 231 Superleak, [2] 208 Turbines, [I] 3, 9,10,231 Swash-plate, [I] III; [2] 382 Turbo compressors, [2] 382 Swept volume ratio, [I] ISS; [2] 382 Turbo expanders, [2] 272, 277-278, 382 Two-phase single-component working fluid cryocooler, [I] 18 Teflon, [I] 349; [2] 87, 88 Two-piston single-acting Stirling engines, [I] See a/so Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 105-106 Temperature, [I] 29, 31 Two-piston Stirling engine, [I] 117-118, 192 Temperature-entropy (T-S) diagram, [I] 33-36, 126 Temperature oscillation or instability, [2] Ultra low-temperature cooling systems, [2] 302-305 177-251 Temperature ratio, [I] 154; [2] 382 Underwater applications, [I] 26 Terbot mixed-refrigerant cycle, [I] 346-347 Uniflow expansion engine, [2] 272-276 Tew-Valentine nodal analysis, [I] 150-151 United Stirling nodal analysis, [I] 151 Thermal Analysis Program: see NASA Urieli nodal analysis, [I] 147-148, 151 Thermal Analysis Program USSR, cryocooler development in the, [2] Thermal buffer, [I] 162 257-291 Thermal capacity, [I] 35-36 Utilization factor, [2] 39 Thermal conductivity, [2] 100-101, 197-198 Thermal contraction coefficient, [2] 100-102 Thermal design, [2] 17-18 Valveless expansion engines, [I] 334-339 Thermal efficiency, [2] 382 Valves, [I] 5, 243-247, 255-257; [2] 275, Thermal energy input, [1] 187 298-299 Thermal fatigue, [2] 31 Van Vleck arrangements, [2] 241-244 Thermal isolation, [2] 64 Vapor compression machines, [I] 42 Subject Index 405

Void volumes, [I] 217-218; [2] 383 Vuilleumier cycle liquefiers, [1] 26 Volume, [I] 30 Volume compression ratio, [2] 383 Volume variations, [I] 5 Wall effect, [2] 18 Volumetric efficiency, [I] 89 Water cooling, [2] 105 Vuilleumier cooling engines, [I] 5, 14, Wear, [2] 66, 93 185-233; [2] 26, 383 Weld joints, [2] 121 accessories and components, [I] 228-229 Werkspoor cryocooler, [1] 176-179 power input section, [I] 209-210 Wobble-plate, [1] 111 refrigeration section, [I] 210-211 Work diagrams, [1] 124-126 Vuilleumier cycle, [1] 75-76, 191,206-220; [2] Working fluid, [1] 175; [2] 96-98, 383 116 Working space, [2] 383