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The London School of Economics and Political Science Tamils and The The London School of Economics and Political Science Tamils and the nation: India and Sri Lanka Compared Madurika Rasaratnam A thesis submitted to the Department of Government of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, May 2012 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 102,245 words. MADURIKA RASARATNAM 2 Abstract This dissertation examines the divergent trajectories of ethnic and national politics in the Tamil speaking regions of India and Sri Lanka. Despite comparable historical experiences and conditions, the south Indian Tamil speaking areas were peaceably accommodated within a pan-Indian framework whilst Sri Lankan politics was marked by escalating Tamil-Sinhala ethnic polarisation and violent conflict. The dissertation explains these contrasting outcomes by setting out a novel theoretical framework that draws on the work of Reinhart Koselleck and his analysis of the links between concepts and political conflict. It argues that in the era of popular sovereignty the nation and ethnicity have become central and unavoidable concepts of political order, but concepts that can be deliberately constructed through political activity in more or less inclusive ways. Setting out the conceptual connections between the nation, ethnicity and popular sovereignty, the dissertation shows how the conceptual tension between a unified national identity / interest and ethnic pluralism becomes a central and unavoidable locus of political contestation in the era of popular sovereignty. Tracing the politics of ethnicity and nationalism in India and Sri Lanka from the late nineteenth century to the late 1970’s, the analysis shows that the accommodation of Tamil identity within Indian nationalist frameworks and the escalation of Tamil – Sinhala ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka cannot be linked to differences in ethnic demography, political system, historical experiences or the structure of economic incentives. It reveals instead that these divergent outcomes are best explained as effects of contingent and competitive processes of political organisation and mobilisation through which deliberately more or less ethnically inclusive national identities are asserted, established and then contested. 3 Declaration .......................................................................................................................... 2 Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. 8 List of abbreviations .......................................................................................................... 10 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 11 1.1 The Argument ......................................................................................................... 16 1.2 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................... 18 1.3 The Contribution ..................................................................................................... 24 1.4 Structure ................................................................................................................. 28 2. Ethnic politics in India and Sri Lanka: comparable and connected, yet divergent ....... 31 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 31 2.1. British colonial rule and conceptually modern politics .......................................... 33 2.2 Framing ethnic diversity in India and Sri Lanka ...................................................... 46 2.3 National and ethnic politics: an outline .................................................................. 58 3. Literature Review .......................................................................................................... 63 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 63 3.2 Realist approaches .................................................................................................. 66 3.3 Constructivsm ......................................................................................................... 77 3.3.1 Constructivism: post colonial subjectivities ..................................................... 86 3.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 91 4. Ethnic and national as working concepts...................................................................... 93 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 93 4.2 The sources of modern ethnicity ............................................................................ 95 4.3 The nation and the conceptual basis of modern political life................................. 97 4 4.4 The nation, the general will and the problem of ethnic pluralism ....................... 107 4.5 Accounting for success and failure ....................................................................... 117 4.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 122 5. Tamils, Muslims and Congress’ pan ethnic nationalism in colonial India ................... 125 5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 125 5.2 Context .................................................................................................................. 128 5.2.1 Congress and pan-ethnic Indian nationalism ................................................. 128 5.2.2 India as a Hindu / Aryan nation...................................................................... 134 5.2.3 Muslim nationalism ........................................................................................ 137 5.2.4 Tamil as Dravidian and Tamil as Indian .......................................................... 140 5.3 Process .................................................................................................................. 144 5.3.1 Political History of the Congress movement .................................................. 144 5.3.2 Congress in the Tamil speaking areas ............................................................ 151 5.3.3 Congress, Muslims and Hindu nationalism .................................................... 162 5.3.4 Ethnic Demography, Ideology and Political Process ...................................... 167 5.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 171 6. Ethnic and National Politics in Colonial Sri Lanka ....................................................... 173 6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 173 6.2.Context .................................................................................................................. 176 6.2.1 Sinhala Buddhist nationalism ......................................................................... 176 6.2.2 Tamil Revivalism ............................................................................................. 181 6.3 Process .................................................................................................................. 185 6.3.1 Ethnic and national politics up to 1920 ......................................................... 185 6.3.2 1920-1947: Towards independence .............................................................. 197 6.3.3 British perceptions and the transfer of power .............................................. 206 6.3.4 British policy and pan-ethnic politics ............................................................. 208 5 6.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 211 7. Tamil identity and the Indian nation in the post-independence era .......................... 214 7.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 214 7.2 Congress party dominance and framing Indian national identity ........................ 216 7.3 Tamil cultural nationalism and Tamil Nadu electoral politics ............................... 226 7.4 Tamil identity and interests in Congress and Dravidian ideology ......................... 233 7.5 Ideology and Congress decline in Tamil Nadu ...................................................... 242 7.6 Tamil
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