The history of WORSHIP from Constantine to the Reformation

christiAn history Guide #2

A supplementAl resource from the publishers of Christian history The landscape of medieval worship

4th Century 8th Century 14th Century

Who leads Bishop of the city, assisted Presbyters (priests), Similar to eighth worship in by presbyters (priests) and assisted by deacons, century. Multiple deacons. Women are not subdeacons,† and mem- Masses said by differ- a local com- ordained to these roles in bers of the minor orders ent priests may occur munity? the West (the East ordains in larger communities. at the same time in women as deaconesses) Bishop or pope presides the same church. but participate in worship over the Eucharist as readers and musicians. if present. Women’s leadership is limited to religious orders of nuns.

What are they Tunic and chasuble More extensive vest- Similar to eighth wearing? (which resembles a ments including a cha- century, but with poncho), similar to the suble for celebration of more ornamentation. everyday dress of Roman the Eucharist, an amice Bishops and cardinals citizens; stole and other (a short cloak worn may wear special signs of priestly office around the shoulders), gloves and shoes, begin to be used. a dalmatic (a long tunic, and bishops com- frequently worn by monly wear miters. deacons), and a pallium, or cloak, for bishops and higher ranks.

How often The Eucharist is offered Similar to fourth century, Similar to eighth does worship every Sunday, and although morning and century, with an even morning and evening evening prayer are greater multiplication happen? prayer are said daily. said mostly in large of feast days and spe- The high holy days of the cathedral churches and cial observances. One Lent-Easter-Pentecost and by religious orders. of the most popular Advent-Christmas-Epiph- Feast days of saints is Corpus Christi, any cycles are celebrated begin to multiply in which celebrates with special services. the church calendar. Christ’s real presence in the Eucharist.

Who attends The faithful in any The faithful in any given The faithful in any † worship? given city. Catechu- city. Catechumens are given city. Many mens,† who are not yet no longer dismissed. people come to Mass baptized and thus cannot daily if offered, to receive the Eucharist, witness the elevation are dismissed after the of the Host. service of the Word to be instructed separately.

What does Unison singing, led by A formalized type of Chant is still used, but the music choirs and cantors. This chant, called “Gregorian there is a much greater is an area where women chant” after Pope focus on polyphonic† sound like? are allowed leadership. Gregory, who helped music in which several Instruments are viewed systematize and voices are heard at with suspicion due to unify the church’s once. Organs have their association with body of music. entered worship and pagan worship. are used widely in larger churches.

2 Christian History Throughout this guide you will find both snapshots and surveys of the terrain of medieval worship. Here we pull them all together in a handy overview.

4th Century 8th Century 14th Century

What Readings from the Old An Epistle and Gospel Similar to eighth Scriptures Testament, Epistles, passage are read—the century. and Gospels. Psalms Old Testament read- are read? are sung at various ing has dropped out. points in the service. Psalms are sung at various points in the service. The Scriptures are read in Latin.

Who preaches, The celebrant presiding The celebrant preaches. The celebrant preaches and what do over the service normally Transition from preach- in the vernacular if he preaches. Preaching is ing in Latin to preaching is literate. Mendicant they say? highly vivid, allegori- in the vernacular (“begging”) orders cal, and rhetorical. occurs around this such as the Franciscans time. A more exegetical are known for their preaching style has preaching and often developed, along with hold special services. standard lectionaries Some priests hold of Scripture readings. a special preaching service called prone† with a vernacular sermon before Mass on Sunday.

What creed Creedal formulas, some The Nicene Creed begins The Nicene Creed is is said? of which later develop to be used after the used after the sermon. into the Apostles’ Creed, sermon around this time. The Apostles’ Creed are used at baptisms. The Apostles’ Creed is used for baptisms. is used for baptisms.

What is At minimum, a In addition to the “Roman Canon” now † included in remembrance of anamnesis and firmly established salvation history epiclesis,† a number of as standard. Much the Eucharistic (anamnesis†) and a other parts are included of the prayer is said prayer? request for the presence (see “Saying grace,” silently, with a special of the Holy Spirit p. 19). Standardization focus on the Words of (epiclesis†). Earlier has occurred, which Institution (“This is my prayers were often replaces many body . . .” “This is my improvised, but by geographical variations blood . . .”) as its heart. now they are coalescing with the liturgical into various families usage of Rome. of prayers used in different locations.

Who receives All who are baptized. All who are baptized. Similar to eighth † the Eucharist? Catechumens Most people receive century. By now, preparing for baptism infrequently and then most people receive do not receive. only after preparing only once a year, on themselves with serious Easter, unless they fasting and prayer. are especially devout. Receiving the Eucha- rist must be preceded by confession.

Christian History 1 A worshipful quiz & glossary

MEDiEvAL woRSHiP used bonus, once you’ve filled out the terms unfamiliar to some right answers below (you can Christians today, though some find them on p. 49), you’ll have a of these are still in use in many small glossary for this guidebook. traditions. How many of the Throughout the guide, you’ll find following words can you match boldfaced† terms with a small cross; with their descriptions? As a these refer you back to this quiz.

WORD BANK Anamnesis | Antiphon | Apse | Catechumens | Chancel | Epiclesis | Fistula | Gloria Patri | Kyrie eleison | Nave | Ordinary | Polyphony | Porters [doorkeepers], lectors [readers], exorcists, and acolytes | Pater noster | Pax board | Postils | Prone | Propers | Reredos | Rood screens | Sacristy | Secular priests | Subdeacons/subdiaconate

1. The semicircular area at one end of a Roman basilica, where the bishop and presbyters sat for Christian worship 2. The long narrow space in a basilica where people gathered for worship 3. The back wall behind the main altar, often carved and painted 4. A longer version of the apse, which developed in the medieval era and where monks and clergy often sat in choir stalls 5. Short refrain usually sung before or after a Scripture reading or psalm 6. Music in which more than one part is sung at a time 7. Unchanging portion of the Mass text 8. Texts of the Mass that change according to the day or season 9. “Deacons in training,” an order of ministry seen as a stepping-stone to the diaconate and priesthood 10. “Minor orders” of worship leadership limited to specific liturgical functions 11. Those in the early church who had expressed a desire to be baptized but were undergoing the lengthy period of preparation for joining the church and could not participate in the Eucharist 12. A small room near the front of the church where preparations for worship are made 13. The service text that begins “Glory be to the Father” 14. The service text that begins “Lord have mercy” 15. The Lord’s Prayer, and one of the texts that congregants were likely to know by heart in Latin 16. Straw by which consecrated wine was received from the chalice 17. Priests who were not members of a religious order 18. A word that can be translated “remembrance”; the portion of the Eucharistic prayer that includes a recital of God’s mighty acts throughout salvation history 19. A word that can be translated “invocation”; the portion of the Eucharistic prayer that asks the Holy Spirit to descend on the elements and on the worshiping community 20. Collections of sample sermons to help preachers 21. A vernacular preaching service observed before celebration of the Sunday Mass in an effort to better catechize people, including parts of the liturgy people would be sure to know such as the Lord’s Prayer and the “Hail Mary,” as well as a prayer of confession and a sermon 22. Elaborately carved wooden barriers in medieval churches, solid from the waist down and full of open arches from the waist up, with images from the Bible and the lives of saints carved on them, and a giant crucifix in the middle 23. A board held between congregants during the kiss of peace to prevent actual kissing

2 Christian History 20 What sorts of music did worshipers use? Singing a new song 26 Worship in the (supposed) “Dark Ages” With great solemnity, an 8th-c. pope leads a service 32 What were sacraments? The meaning and variety of early and medieval sacraments 1 The landscape of 37 Clothes fit for a bishop medieval worship Sidebar: From palliums to stoles A synoptic view of our topic . . . what the top man wore 2 Quiz & glossary 38 Worship at the eve of Can you identify these worship the Reformation words from the Middle Ages? A late-medieval English service 4 Writer’s & Editor’s notes 44 What did the worship A few words from your staff space look like? Medieval art and architecture 8 Worship in the newly legalized church 49 Of sermons and friars On its way to imperial status, the Sidebar: A taste of medieval church worshiped in new ways preaching 16 Did worship still feature 50 Who led worship? the Word? Leadership in God’s house Scripture and preaching never died out 52 A pilgrim’s Eucharist Sidebar: A late medieval lay- 19 Saying grace woman in the Holy Land Sidebar: Eucharistic prayers from the early church 53 Recommended resources More sources on our topic

Founder – Dr. A. K. Curtis Art Director – Doug Johnson Managing Editor – Dr. Chris R. Armstrong Image researcher – Jennifer Trafton Executive Editor – Bill Curtis Production Layout – Tara M. Smith Project Writer – Dr. Jennifer Woodruff Tait Production Coordinator – Deb Landis Editorial Coordinator – Dawn Moore Proofreader – Meg Moss

©2012 Christian History. Cover: Ms Lat. Q.v.I.126 f.77v Illustration of a funeral service, from the Book of Hours of Louis d’Orleans, 1469 (vellum) by Jean Colombe (c. 1430–c. 93) / National Library, St. Petersburg, Russia / The Bridgeman Art Library. Christian History is published by Christian History Institute, P.O. Box 540, Worcester, PA, 19490. Subscriptions are available on a donation basis by calling 1-800-468-0458, or at www.christianhistorymagazine.org. Letters to the editor may be sent to Chris Armstrong, editor, Christian History magazine, P.O. Box 540, Worcester, PA 19490. Permissions: Requests to reprint material should be directed to Dawn Moore, editorial coordinator, Christian History Institute, P.O. Box 540, Worcester, PA, 19490. Big Stock Photo

Christian History Find us online at ChristianHistoryMagazine.org 3 A note from the project writer

of those early Christians— among them Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Cyprian, Hip- polytus, Cyril, Perpetua, Clement of Alexandria, and the unknown authors of Christianity’s earliest known church order, the Didache—describing the ways in which Christ’s presence was made real to them in the worshiping community and sustained them in the face of persecu- tion and martyrdom. Their prayers and hymns echo through the centuries, not least this early Easter hymn: In 1993, Christian History pub- “Christ is risen: The world below lished issue no. 37 dedicated to is in ruins. Christ is risen: The the theme of Worship in the Early spirits of evil are fallen. Christ Church. At the time, associate edi- is risen: The angels of God are tor Mark Galli commented that rejoicing. Christ is risen: The when CH polled its readers as to tombs are void of their dead. what themes they most wanted Christ has indeed arisen from to read about, worship in the first the dead, the first of the sleepers. few Christian centuries “topped Glory and power are his forever the charts.” and ever. Amen.” Issue 37 remains one of CH’s most requested, and for good reason: It admirably sketches where the early Christians worshiped, how they prayed and sang, what they borrowed (and did not borrow) from the worship practices of their m Dallis f T O

pagan neighbors, and how they O

baptized (with “high drama”) The Lord’s sacramenTs. esy ia

Above left: Christ’s baptism. Above: ur T and celebrated the Eucharist O (frequently and fervently). In it His institution of the Eucharist you can read the words of many (early 15th-c., Sassetta). lic DOmain OTTO m: Wiki PeD TOP: Ph OTO c Pu B B

4 Christian history Also with good reason, issue “Preach The gosPeL aLways.” A note from the project writer 37 concludes with the legalization Preaching never stopped being of Christianity in the early fourth crucial to the church. The preaching century. But Christians did not of Bishop Ambrose of Milan turned cease worshiping “in spirit and Augustine to Christ. in truth” when their faith was legalized, only to begin again in the Reformation, in the eighteenth century, or even in the present. We do a disservice to so many in our own Christian family tree when we pass lightly over more than a thousand years of their prayers, songs, processions, sermons, statues, mosaics, baptisms, and Eucharistic celebrations. During the millennium and more between Constantine and Luther, Christian- ity moved from the margins to the center, becoming the church of the and what parts of the service never powerful as well as the powerless. varied? What did people think a It rose with stunning rapidity to sacrament was, and how many of become the dominant faith in the them were there? Who took Holy landscape of old Rome and emerg- Communion, and when? You will ing Europe. Yet Christianity never hear saints of the church from stopped trying to come to terms Augustine to Francis of Assisi, with its earthly power, nor seeking Ambrose to Bernard of Clairvaux out new ways to worship Christ, and Benedict of Nursia, John who had called it into being. Chrysostom to Peter Lombard, In this guide to Christian reflect on who Christ is and how worship from the fourth to the we best worship him. You will fifteenth century, CH travels read a nun’s diary, walk through through those years to discover worship with a pope, and stand exactly what Christians were up to in the back of an English church as they met on Sundays, on feast in the shifting light and shadow days, and for daily prayer. What filtering through Gothic windows. did preachers preach about? What This guide will take you through Scriptures were read? What did this wealth of material in two ways. choirs and congregations sing? First, there are five topical articles on m Dallis Who led worship in the front words, sacraments, worship leader- f T O

O of the assembly? In fact, where ship, church music, and church

esy was the assembly worshiping in architecture from 400 to 1400. Read ia ur T

O the first place, and what did the these to gain an overview of what buildings look like? How did worship looked like—what stayed services vary from place to place, the same, what changed, and why. lic DOmain OTTO m: Wiki PeD TOP: Ph OTO c B Pu B

Christian history 5 Three “snapshots” are interspersed among these: Jerusalem in the fourth century, Rome in the eighth century, and England in the fifteenth century. These will help you see how Christians worshiped at some specific moments along this journey. The articles in this guide focus on worship in Western Christendom as the empire begins to divide. Future guides may look at Eastern and post- Reformation worship. of evil are fallen. Christ is risen: Read on and learn with The angels of God are rejoicing. Christians of the Early, High, and Christ is risen: The tombs are Late Middle Ages to sing: “Christ void of their dead. Christ has is risen: The world below is in indeed arisen from the dead, the ruins. Christ is risen: The spirits first of the sleepers. Glory and power are his forever and ever. Amen.”

Jennifer Woodruff Tait, a frequent contributor to Christian History, teaches history at Asbury Theological Seminary, Huntington University, and United Theological Seminary. Her doctoral degree at Duke University and master’s degrees at Asbury Theological Seminary focus on the history of Christian worship. Dr. Woodruff Tait’s book The Poisoned Chalice: Eucharistic Grape Juice and Common-Sense Realism in Victorian Methodism was honoring The sainTs. Above right: In published in 2011 St.-Etienne-du-Mont Church, Paris, the rood by the University of ia screen† separates the nave from the altar, Alabama Press. ia

behind which scientist-theologian Blaise Pascal is ys / Wiki PeD ia

buried. Above: This early 15th-c. “book of hours” rak T (prayerbook) depicts the baptism of Augustine. OTTO m: Wiki PeD OTTO m: Wiki PeDia TOP: Wiki PeD B TOP: Te T B

6 Christian history A note from the mAnAging editor to anyone in the United States who requests it. We ask only that you make an annual contribution to help us cover costs. Donations can be made online at www.ChristianHistoryInstitute .org or by mail to CHI, P.O. Box 540, Worcester, PA 19490. And of course, if you love CH, please tell your friends and refer them to www.christianhis torymagazine.org. A final note: We know that over 40 percent of readers use CH in teaching. If you know of a college, seminary, school, or church whose faculty or staff would enjoy CH, we can set up This year at Christian History a bulk subscription of any size, at a promises to be a lively one, with low per-copy rate, paid either by the issues coming on Christianity in institution or by a donor. Email info@ America, early Africa, and the christianhistorymagazine.org or call modern industrial West, as well 1-800-468-0458. as a special Christmas project. Now, a very important matter: If P.S. Note the symbols at the end of several articles in this guide. These refer you want to continue to receive CH, to bonus video clips related to the article look at the blue box on the back of content. To view the clips, simply open this issue. If it contains a subscriber the online version of this guide at number, then good—you need not www.ChristianHistoryMagazine.org do anything further to keep receiving and click the button at the end of those articles. Video content is from Christian CH. If it does not, then you need to History Institute’s DVD series “The sign up by phone at 1-800-468-0458, History of Christian Worship.” or by email at info@christianhistory magazine.org, or by registering at www.christianhistorymagazine.org. We are thankful for the kind letters and generous donations that many of you have sent. We are pleased to continue to send the magazine

“. . . if necessary, use words.” ia Above: Elaborately carved scenes from Jesus’ life decorate this 14th-c. Italian ia ys / Wiki PeD ia pulpit. Right: In the 13th-c. preaching

rak T revival, friars like San Bernardino drew huge city crowds. OTTO m: Wiki PeD OTTO m: Wiki PeDia TOP: Wiki PeD B TOP: Te T B

Christian history 7 Worship in the newly legalized church

It was tHe late fourtH eastern Mediterranean, visiting century, and a nun was riding all the major cities and holy sites. along the dusty, dangerous and most fortunately for us, egeria road—almost 2,500 miles of it— kept a diary during her travels. she from Galicia in northwest spain might have created this record to to the far-off Holy land. she was store up the precious memories of fulfilling a dream: to see for herself the trip for herself, or it might have the places where her lord had been a way to share her journey lived, the roads he had walked, with her sister nuns back home. and the tomb where he was buried either way, this diary provides a and rose again. Her name was vivid picture of daily worship and egeria. the celebration of the high holy she made it there, and home days of Holy week in the newly again, and in between spent three legalized and prosperous church in years journeying around the one of the major cities of the empire. Berthold Werner / Wikipedia

8 Christian History “Next year iN Jerusalem!” When the 4th-c. nun Egeria finally got to take her much-desired pilgrimage to Jerusalem, she experienced worship in the land at the very center of the Christian imagination. Her diary of the ex- perience yields precious details of early Constantinian worship. (Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem.)

praying between each hymn. With dawn came more clergy, including the bishop: “He goes straight into the cave, and inside the screen he first says the Prayer for All (mentioning any names he wishes) and blesses the catechumens† and then another prayer and blesses the faithful. Then he comes outside the screen and everyone comes up to kiss his hand.” All of this repeated at noon and at three o’clock. At four o’clock, the Daily, hourly praise service also included the lighting of In Egeria’s day, the office—the lamps: “The fire is brought not from daily round of prayer that would outside, but from the cave—inside eventually move behind the doors the screen—where a lamp is kept of monasteries and convents—was burning night and day.” The usual still very much daily public prayer. singing and praying commenced. She reports at length the services After the service a procession was at the traditional place of the made from the tomb to Golgotha, Resurrection (called the Anastasis), where the bishop repeated a ritual beginning with early morning both in front of and behind a cross worship by the local monks and that stood on the reputed site of virgins “and also some lay men and the Crucifixion. At each place, the women, especially those who were baptized as well as the catechu- willing to wake at such an early mens† approached and kissed his hour.” Every day certain presbyters hand. There amid the shimmering and deacons from the city’s clergy glow of “great glass lanterns” and participated as well. They joined a myriad of candles, he blessed “in singing the refrains to the each of them in turn. As the last psalms, hymns, and antiphons† ” believers came for their blessings, until daybreak, with the clergy dusk was darkening into night. Berthold Werner / Wikipedia

Christian History 9 HaNds raised: Not Just for moderN cHarismatics. The early Christians often prayed while standing with arms oustretched, as this 3rd-c. fresco shows. (Catacombs of Priscilla, Rome, Italy.) rary liB rt he Bridgeman a t taly/ i ome, r riscilla, s o F p atacom B c rary rary liB rt oman (3rd century ad), r y B “The whole assembly that the lord underwent for us, and he Bridgeman a resco) groans over all the the way that they weep would move t Lord underwent” even the hardest heart to tears.” alaria ( F egeria also describes the more elabo- although some then—as s ia ondon, uk/ rate worship at the anastasis basilica now—went home to sleep after this l on sunday mornings. Before dawn early-morning service, the worship people began to gather outside the did not end: now it moved to the useum, tomb. they sat “waiting there sing- great basilica built by Constantine ing hymns and antiphons,† and they over the traditional site of Golgotha. have prayers between, since there from dawn until about 10 in the are always presbyters and deacons morning, many of the presbyters ith her arms outstretched, v there ready for the vigil.” at sunrise, preached sermons. then “the the bishop began the service. all monks escort the bishop with oman (5th century ad ), British m

stood to sing three psalms, and after hymns from the Great Church to r the clergy offered prayers, they in- the sanctuary [at the anastasis]. y censed the entire worship space “so and when the bishop arrives that the whole basilica is filled with with hymns, all the doors of the ith a veiled head praying W the smell.” then the bishop took up sanctuary basilica are opened, W the Gospel book and read aloud the and all the people enter (that is, oman story of the resurrection to a heart- the faithful; for the catechumens† felt accompaniment: “at the begin- enter not).” the baptized ning of the reading the whole as- Christians took the eucharist a young W sembly groans and laments over all together and then departed. ixion, carving, c.400–20 ad (ivory) B ruci F Figure o F c

10 Christian History egeria’s diary also gives From exorcism to the Easter vigil

rary rary us a dramatic account of how liB easter was celebrated, as well on Palm sunday, the beginning of rt as an explanation of how those “the Great week,” the bishop and catechumens,† who had spent up all the people processed down the to three years learning about their Mount of olives “with psalms and † he Bridgeman a new-found faith, prepared for antiphons, all the time repeating t baptism and full inclusion into the ‘Blessed is he that cometh in the taly/ i Christian faith. at the beginning name of the lord.’” the daily round ome, r of lent, one of the presbyters of prayer services included readings put forward the names of those about the events of the Passion. † riscilla, among the catechumens who he on wednesday “a presbyter . . . felt were ready for the sacrament. reads the passage about Judas s o F p each candidate then came to be Iscariot going to the Jews and fixing examined by the bishop seated what they must pay him to betray atacom B c in his chair in the Great Church: the lord. the people groan and “as they come in one by one, lament at this reading.” on Holy the bishop asks their neighbors thursday participants received the

rary rary questions about them: ‘Is this eucharist at the traditional place liB person leading a good life?’” If he of Jesus’ ascension, and then in a rt

oman (3rd century ad), was satisfied with the answers, singing procession took the bishop to r y

B the bishop approved them. Gethsemane. on friday the bishop he Bridgeman a resco) t alaria ( F s ia ondon, uk/ l useum, ith her arms outstretched, v oman (5th century ad ), British m r y ith a veiled head praying W W oman

it’s all about cHrist’s PassioN. This Roman ivory carving is the oldest

a young W known illustration of Christ on the cross (400–420 A.D.). It was probably made ixion, carving, c.400–20 ad (ivory) B as a panel for a box intended for Communion bread. Notice Judas at left. ruci F Figure o F c

Christian History 11 Naked as the day they aris,

was seated in a chair at Golgotha p and deacons brought him a were (re-)born ouvre, box containing “the holy wood first the candidates, in strong l 5th century 5th century F

of the cross,” which all the language, renounced sin and satan. o people—catechumens† included— this was quite possibly done out- came up to and kissed. side the baptistery itself and facing unfortunately, egeria was not westward—away from eden and so detailed about the easter vigil therefore toward the devil, for as itself, saying only, “on saturday . . . Cyril wrote, “when you renounce oman (5th century ad), oman period, 2nd hal F they keep their paschal vigil like satan you trample underfoot your us.” from other sources, however, entire covenant with him and chiefly postbaptismal homilies by abrogate your former treaty with

Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 387), John Hell. the gates of God’s para- rary

Chrysostom (d. 407), and theodore dise are open to you, that garden liB esource, ny rt of Mopsuestia (d. 428) in the east which God planted in the east.” r rt asilica, mosaic pavement, r and ambrose of Milan (d. 397) in the the candidates then, in alle- B hotos.com west, we have a fairly good picture giance to Christ, submitted to be essing / a and p l hristian he Bridgeman a le, limestone, sandstone, and pottery) r c of what she might have witnessed, stripped—candidates were baptized t oly l rich at least as far as the baptisms went. naked in areas separated by sex, as e WWW .h top: Bottom: ad (mar B France/

12 Christian History bread aNd water. Left: Bread united believers to Christ, echoing the loaves of Jesus’ miracle. (5th c.) Above: Water ushered converts into the church. (3rd-c. Roman baptism.) Below: In the basilica, the baptized were welcomed to the Eucharist. (5th-c. mosaic) aris, aris,

p a fitting symbol of new birth—and and the kiss of peace. Now for the were anointed with oil. they were first time, they could join the com- ouvre,

l then either totally immersed in the munity in the eucharist, as they had 5th century 5th century F

o font or had copious amounts of been unable to do throughout all water poured on them. Homilists the years of their catechumenate. regularly associated the act of being of course egeria is describ- baptized with dying and rising with ing an elaborately planned and Christ and thus executed worship oman (5th century ad), gaining the salvation service carried out oman period, 2nd hal F his death and resur- at Christianity’s rection had won, as chief pilgrimage Cyril said, “In his spot. But many

rary rary case all these events of these details

liB really occurred, but in were echoed, in esource, ny rt r your case there was smaller and less rt asilica, mosaic pavement, r B a likeness of death ornate ways, hotos.com and suffering, but the reality, not the wherever fourth-century Chris- essing / a and p l hristian he Bridgeman a le, limestone, sandstone, and pottery) r c

t likeness, of salvation.” the baptized tians worshipped. we see in her oly l rich

e then received new white garments story how foundational the bishop WWW .h top: Bottom: ad (mar B France/

Christian History 13 was, not only to church govern- “This is my body.” This agape ment and discipline, but also to the meal from a 3rd-c. Roman tomb be- assembly at worship. We see, at speaks both fellowship and Eucharist. the center and cornerstone of that worship, the Eucharist, celebrated weekly and in many places more cycle. (The other was the commemo- frequently than that, surrounded ration both of Christ’s birth and by many songs and prayers. of his anticipated Second Coming remembered through the cycle of useum

The “stuff” of Advent, Christmas, and Epiphany.) m early worship And, finally, we see the careful sepa- ish We see the importance of material ration of baptized believers from he Bri T m Dallis T objects—the wood of the cross, the those preparing to join the com- f urce, ny O f T O

† O

Gospel book, the lamps, the oil— munity. The catechumens could es O ees and sacred places. We see the shape stay to hear the preaching, praying, esy ur T of the Christian year—which actu- and singing, but they were ushered O

ally had two major “hinges,” though out before the Eucharist to have essing / arT r l Egeria only describes the Lent-Easter the Scriptures and the history and OTTO m: ©The Trus T rich B TOP: Ph OTO c e

14 Christian History theology of Christianity explained “i surrender all.” This late to them, and to fast and pray in 4th-c. sarcophagus again shows the preparation for the life-changing typical early Christian prayer posture. sacrament they would later undergo. We don’t know how Egeria’s sisters reacted to her travel diary. Were they amazed? Moved? Surprised? Did they make changes in their own worship practices? However her sisters responded, this fourth-century monastic pilgrim has left to us, her twenty-first-century sisters and brothers, a great gift. Her account has become for us a window into the worship of those who lived in those first generations of Christianity’s legalization in the empire. Through Egeria we can almost hear and see our fourth- century compatriots as they sing, useum m pray, breathe in the incense, kiss the ish cross, feel the baptismal waters wash over them, and emerge from those he Bri T m Dallis T f waters in gratitude to meet the urce, ny O f T O O

es O mysteries of the Holy Meal. CH R ees esy ur T O The body of ChrisT aT worship. This tableau on the wall of a 4th-c. essing / arT r l Roman villa represents the exuberance and color of early Christian worship. Note OTTO m: ©The Trus T rich

TOP: Ph OTO c B e the cross on each worshiper’s garment.

Christian History 15 ale, ale, ibliotheque Munici P chool (15th century), b s rench ) by f erson (1363–1429) (vellu M g e Did worship still feature the Word? raites Divers” by Jean D

In tHe new testament, we munities—although we do know hear many sermons preached for (acts 20:7–9) that Paul preached the conversion of unbelievers— until midnight so that eutychus Paul informing the athenians that fell asleep and out the window! ons sur la Passion et t ibrary ibrary in God we “live and move and synagogue worship featured l er M rt s a have our being” (acts 17:28) or readings of the law and prophets, “ telling his conversion story to Fes- and commentary on them, and an ge M

tus and agrippa and arguing fur- from the mid-second century there ri D b

ther “that Christ would suffer, and is evidence that Christians were he t that He should be the first who doing the same sort of thing. Por- on/ would rise from the dead” even tions of the new testament—Paul’s irau D as Festus protested that he was letters, for instance—obviously g insane (acts 26). But there is much were intended to be read aloud, rance/ less biblical evidence of what the and from the second century f earliest Christians said and read in on we know that the Hebrew their worship as gathered com- scriptures were read as well. alenciennes, Ms.230 fol.57 Monk Preaching on iM itation, fro M v

16 Christian History Escapists or EvangElists? What you didn’t know The preaching “monk” in this image about preaching in from “Sermons sur la Passion et the Middle Ages ale, ale, Traites Divers” by Jean de Gerson (1363–1429) is likely a friar. a modern stereotype insists little preaching and scripture reading went on in the churches of the The Golden Mouth later middle ages, but nothing ibliotheque Munici P and the Great could be further from the truth. Rhetorician of Hippo In fact, as preachers of the middle after the legalization of Christianity, ages worked their way through the church entered into one of its their widely available and fairly golden ages of preaching. supposedly, standardized scripture lectionar- preachers began to use the pulpit ies, they developed a new style of chool (15th century), b s when “Golden mouthed” John preaching—familiar to modern

rench Chrysostom (347–407) decided he ears—that was less allegorical would rather not preach seated in than that of the church fathers and ) by f the bishop’s chair (see “what did focused more specifically on close the worship space look like?” p. 44). readings of the assigned texts for Converts such as augustine of Hippo the day. then as now, preachers (354–430) had been trained in the great had books of sermon illustra- rhetorical schools of their day— tions—usually from the lives of the

erson (1363–1429) (vellu M augustine had indeed been a teacher saints—and collections of sample g e of rhetoric—and Christians in general sermons called postils† to help expected the same high level of rhetori- them out. the rise of the mendicant, cal skill from their spiritual leaders that or begging, orders in the thirteenth they heard from their imperial leaders. century (Franciscan and Dominican to hold up their end of this effort, friars) led to one of many medieval

raites Divers” by Jean D bishops and presiders turned to an revivals in preaching. One of the ever-increasing collection of biblical chief tasks of these wandering commentaries in their preaching and orders was to preach—indeed, for Bible study. By the fourth century, the Franciscans in particular, to lectionaries prescribing readings for preach in such a way as to arouse the days and seasons of the Christian the emotions of their listeners—and ons sur la Passion et t ibrary ibrary l year were in use throughout the they often built churches designed er M rt s a “ empire. the sixth century birthed specifically for this purpose. an a standard lectionary in Rome for meanwhile, the service of the ge M

ri D sundays and feast days that would word—the first part of worship, b

he remain central in Roman Catholi- which focuses on scripture and t cism until a new one was introduced preaching before moving into on/ in the twentieth century. Liturgical the service of the table (offering irau D g scholar James white writes, “even and eucharist)—was growing pagans came to hear the service of ever longer and more elaborate. rance/ f the word and augustine himself early sources testify that it con- was converted largely through the sisted mainly of scripture lessons, eloquence of ambrose’s preaching.” psalms, sermons, and prayers. alenciennes, Ms.230 fol.57 Monk Preaching on iM itation, fro M v

Christian History 17 The Word sung and thE glory of thE Word. preached to the people The beautiful Pisano Pulpit in Siena Cathedral, Italy, shows how the late But later centuries added to this medieval church valued preaching. part of the service more and more introductory material, including an introit (service-opening hymn addition, near the end of the middle or psalm) and musical settings ages, some priests began to add a of the scriptural phrases Kyrie vernacular preaching service called eleison† (“Lord have mercy”) and “prone.” this effort to better catechize Gloria in excelsis (“Glory to God the people was observed before the in the highest”). much of this was celebration of the sunday mass. It designed as “traveling music” to get included parts of the liturgy people everyone in place to begin worship. would be sure to know such as the white notes, “acts performed in Lord’s Prayer and the Hail mary silence, no matter how essential, (adapted from two verses in Luke: always seem to invite verbal or the angel’s greeting to mary in choral accompaniment as if we 1:28 and elizabeth’s greeting to never quite trust simple action.” her in 1:42), as well as a prayer of the rest of the service grew as confession and a sermon. Later, this well. Psalm-singing became a longer service would influence the Reformers and more elaborate part of the as they developed preaching-focused service, and while creedal statements services—although, since pews istory iMages had long been used in the baptismal were coming into vogue by the h rt liturgy, the nicene Creed came into fifteenth century, the listeners regular use after the sunday sermon were no longer in danger of ayes / a h sometime in the eighth century. In falling out the window. CH R olly @h

18 Christian History Saying grace

EuCHaristiC prayErs varied widely throughout the empire in the early days of the church. the Apostolic Tradition (most likely fourth century, not third as sometimes thought) gives a standard form, al- apse†. though it is intended as a model, not a command. By the end of the fourth century, the prayer was assumed to include certain standard parts:

• the Sursum corda, or opening dialogue (“the Lord be with you/and with your spirit/Lift up your hearts/We lift them up Pray before Partaking. to the Lord/Let us give thanks to These prayers from an 11th-c. the Lord/it is right to give him “sacramentary” are to be spoken thanks and praise.”) during preparation for Eucharist.

) by Ger Man • the preface, which contains words appropriate to the day or season • the Sanctus (“Holy, Holy, Holy • Intercessions for the world and Lord God of hosts; Heaven the church

ibrary ibrary and earth are full of your glory. • the Doxology l acramentary (vellu M rt s a Hosanna in the highest. Blessed is

an he who comes in the name of the In the fourth through sixth Lord. Hosanna in the highest.”), centuries, Eucharistic prayers, while rid GeM b

the Lorsch with appropriate material before not departing too far from this he and after it outline, began to take unique forms • the Institution Narrative, giving in certain geographical locations. the story of Christ’s institution Liturgical scholars divide them e/ Giraudon/ t of the Eucharist in words drawn into “families”: North African, ran C from the scripture passages in the Alexandrian (Egyptian), West and Gospels and i Corinthians 11 East syrian, Byzantine, roman (later • the Anamnesis,† which can be the standard for the entire Western arations for Co MM union,” fro M

re P translated “remembrance” and church), ambrosian (centered includes a recital of God’s mighty on Milan), Mozarabic (centered acts throughout salvation history on spain), Celtic, and Gallican • the Offering of the bread and wine (centered on France and Germany). • the Epiclesis† (“invocation”), By the eighth century, the roman

entury), Musee Conde, Chantilly, f which asks the Holy spirit to prayer, usually called the “roman descend on the elements and on Canon,” took on a form close to the the worshiping community one still in use today. CH Ms 40/1447 “Prayers for Mass and P sC hool (11th C

Christian History 19 What sorts of music did worshipers use?

THe early CHrisTians faCed african teacher Tertullian a musical dilemma. They were (c. 160–c. 220) argued that Christian surrounded by pagan spectacles converts should shun the “shows” featuring lavish choral singing, that had once given them such instrumental music, and dancing, pleasure. and besides, all such and these were often associated entertainments were dedicated with lust-provoking drama to pagan gods—or as Tertullian (performed in the nude) and the put it in typically blunt fashion, notorious roman blood combat. demons. To indulge in such events for obvious reasons, the north was inconsistent with a Christian’s Big Stock Photo Big Stock Photo

20 Christian History The devil’s music. Above: Because of their associations with decadent pagan festivals, musical instruments were only gradually allowed into Christian worship. (Harpist: 13th-c., Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris.)

voices from The pasT. Left: From chant to polyphony,† singing echoed through the thousand years of medieval worship.

baptismal vow to eschew all things they contain references to some belonging to the devil. musical instruments—psaltery and The bad taste left in early harp, for example—forbidden in Christians’ mouths by such cor- Christian worship. rupt amusements in turn created controversy over worship music: From unison chanting Large choruses, instruments, and to choirs and cantors elaborate musical settings seemed Instead, as far as scholars can too much like the old “shows” of reconstruct, early Christians the coliseums. As music historian either sang in unison or offered Donald Grout writes, “Until the extemporaneous solos as their feeling of pleasure attached to these musical forms of worship. The kinds of music could be somehow same Tertullian writes that during transferred from the theater and the agape meal, “each is urged to the marketplace to the church, they come into the middle and sing to were distrusted.” Even the use of God, either from sacred scriptures the psalms was controversial, since or from his own invention.” In Big Stock Photo Big Stock Photo

Christian History 21 addition to the psalms, which lead-in for phoTo capTion. despite their questionable content Right: The photo- were chanted in worship just as graph caption fills they had been in the Jewish tradi- this space. tion may tion, the early Christians sang be several long, eral hymns and antiphons† (short used. Some refrains) at both daily public w5y prayer and at the eucharist. as the fourth-century nun egeria notes rance/ rance/ f

(see “Worship in the newly legal- , ized church,” p. 8), these songs were always “appropriate to the sainT of song. Pope Gregory the place and the day.” Great (540–604; shown dictating) is after the legalization of Chris- patron saint of musicians and singers. tianity, a more formal attempt was

made to appoint choirs and cantors liotheque Mazarine, Pari S to lead congregational singing. yet despite his obvious admira- These roles were open to women, tion for sacred song, a little of the who served both as cantors and old fear of the pleasures of music in “choirs of virgins,” though lingered with augustine. He writes this, too, caused controversy since in his autobiographical Confessions: women were notoriously promi- “When i call to mind the tears i nent in pagan worship ceremonies. shed at the songs of Thy church, rench School (14th century), Bi B Boy choirs were used as well; the at the outset of my recovered faith, f y B Testamantum Domini (5th c.) refers and how even now i am moved )

to “the virgins alternating with the not by the singing but by what is ellu M boys responding to the one who sung, when they are sung with sings the psalms in the church.” a clear and skillfully modulated voice, i then acknowledge the Let’s enjoy the singing great utility of this custom...... but not too much

yet when it happens to me to be de Voragine, c.1370 ( V augustine (354–430) helped to more moved by the singing than formulate more definitive thoughts by what is sung, i confess myself about church music, as he did about to have sinned criminally, and y Jacque S

so much else, in his treatise On then i would rather not have urea B Music (387). in his commentary on heard the singing.” the psalms, he defines a hymn as But the real father of Western rary liB rt

“a song containing praise of God. if church music was ambrose (c. a you praise God, but without song, 340–397), the bishop of Milan who an Legenda Sanctorum a

you do not have a hymn. if you was so instrumental in augus- edia praise anything which does not per- tine’s own conversion. eastern he Bridge M tain to the glory of God, even if you Christians were already singing t et/ sing it, you do not have a hymn. hymns in their worship, but when ect / Wiki P regory, fro M Hence a hymn contains the three ambrose became bishop in the har M orck Pro J

elements: song and praise of God.” late fourth century, he introduced y 1729 St. g rchi VeS c he MS a t

22 Christian History rance/ rance/ f , liotheque Mazarine, Pari S rench School (14th century), Bi B f y B ) sound The harp. By the time of

ellu M that rose and fell in an attempt this image of David (1340), instru- to follow the natural pitch of the ments were accepted in worship. human voice. Chanting developed out of a form of synagogue speech these kinds of songs to the church called cantillation that attempted

de Voragine, c.1370 ( V in Milan. in fact, he composed the to heighten speech for dramatic texts to many of these himself, effect. although we often hear the including “O splendor of God’s term “Gregorian Chant,” Pope y Jacque S Glory Bright.” He writes, “They Gregory the Great (540–604, pope

urea B say that the people are led astray 590–604) did not invent Western by the charms of my hymns. chant, let alone compose all the rary rary Certainly, i do not deny it. This is music used by the Western church liB rt

a a mighty charm, more powerful as later legends insist (some icons an than any other. for what avails picture the Holy spirit in the form Legenda Sanctorum a

edia more than the confession of the of a dove dictating the melodies Trinity, which is proclaimed daily to him). However, Gregory was he Bridge M t in the mouth of all the people?” a great systematizer, wanting the et/ ect / Wiki P These hymns, and the other whole church to use the same regory, fro M har M music sung in worship, were liturgy and music for worship. To orck Pro J

y chanted, with one melodic line that end, he began a movement to 1729 St. g rchi VeS c he MS a t

Christian History 23 absorb existing Western liturgies become part of medieval music and musical traditions (Mozarabic, until the later Middle ages. Gallican, ambrosian, and Celtic) Chant only began to be regularly into the liturgy of rome, an effort notated (written down on paper) that was largely successful. in the ninth century, and organs Unison chanting ruled the appeared around the eleventh day until the late Middle ages, century but were not regularly when some churches introduced used to accompany liturgical polyphony†—music in which singing until the thirteenth. Other more than one part is sung at a instruments were sometimes used, time. Because much of polyphonic but not approved of—we know church music was based on this because rules began to appear secular tunes, it carried its share against using them.

of controversy. This, coupled with ondon, uk / © l the fact that people often had dif- Chanting the hours ficulty understanding the words, The lion’s share of singing in the rary, liB meant that polyphonic music was medieval church went on in mon- h slow to catch on. asteries and convents, where the Much of what we associate monks and nuns chanted psalms with church music today did not as they moved through their daily schedule of services, called the divine office: matins (“morning”),

lauds (“praises”), prime h School (14th century), Briti S

(“first hour”), terce ngli S e y

(“third hour”), sext B ) (“sixth hour”), none

(“ninth hour”), vespers ellu M (“evening”), and com- pline (“completion”). ter c.1325 ( V ideally this schedule rary SaL liB

would begin before rt a

dawn and continue an about every three hours until sundown; Mass the LuttreLL P he Bridge M would also be celebrated t each day. all 150 psalms ed/ er V were chanted through inging, fro M every week, each with lerk S S c † ight S reS its own antiphon. r ith ll W

Hymns were also sung c at each office and at nitial i choirs of angels. As it does today, Mass, and the scripture readings ited song connected earth to heaven in me- were chanted. all of this was in rary Board. a liB h nha B i dieval services. (A Milan psaltery, 1515.) latin, although some countries edia Wiki P f.194 Briti S

24 Christian History ondon, uk / © l rary, liB h h School (14th century), Briti S ngli S e y B ) (Poland was one) developed a melodious monks. Singing was

ellu M tradition of vernacular hymns as woven into the rhythm of each monastic well, which were, as James White day. (Luttrell Psalter, c. 1325.) puts it, something “in which ter c.1325 ( V rary rary layfolk might engage themselves SaL liB

rt while the priest went about his away from congregational song, a

an business at the altar-table.” theologians still maintained the Originally, the ordinary,† or importance of music in fostering the LuttreLL P unvarying, texts of the Mass were lay devotion; eleventh-century he Bridge M t set to simple tunes that everyone commentator John of avrances ed/ could sing, while the proper,† or writes, “at feasts, the cantor er V inging, fro M seasonally changing, texts (scrip- gives the water covered with a tures and prayers for the day, for linen cloth to the deacon, which lerk S S c ight S reS

r instance) were sung by trained the deacon mixes with wine; for ith ll W

c singers. eventually almost all the by the sweet music of the cantor, music for the Mass and the office the people are inflamed with nitial i became too difficult for any but pious devotion and divine love, ited rary Board. a trained musicians in monasteries and thus run to the lord, and one liB h nha B i edia and cathedrals. despite this shift body in Christ is made.” CH R Wiki P f.194 Briti S

Christian History 25 Worship in the abino, abino, s esource, ny r an s rt i (supposed) “Dark Ages” d attedrale c ibrary ibrary It Is tHe eIgHtH Century and dresses in his vestments (see p. l ella rt rt. iM age source: a in rome, and the pope is about to 37). now the service can begin. An a an preside over the eucharist. acolyte† arrives, carrying the gospel of a

He has ridden on horseback from book up to the altar; the basilica ridge M b

the Lateran (his cathedral) to the fills with music as the choir begins he t church where he will celebrate. It is an introit (opening music). enter

already packed full of worshipers the pope, processing solemnly with ibrary/ l who arrived in processionals from seven acolytes† and two deacons chool (11th century), Museo d he Metropolitan Museu M s icture

each of the seven regions of rome. at his side. As they pass, another p Around the altar sit all the clergy acolyte† presents a small casket that talian gostini

and bishops of rome. the pope gets contains a piece of bread consecrat- a ) by i e off his horse, enters the sacristy,† ed at the previous Mass. the pope d ari/ Miniature representing a deacon reading liturgical text Fratres carissimi , (vellu M iM age copyright © t b

26 Christian History Ceremony and deCoration. Left: Deacon read- ing a liturgical text in service (11th-c. Italian). Above: Eucharistic chalice, paten (plate), and fistula.†

bows before it from bishops to subdeacons†— and proceeds. who are also gathered in the The vivid choir; he signals that the Gloria details we Patri† should be sung. The pope know today kneels to pray, then rises, kisses about this the Gospel book, and walks to eighth-cen- his throne at the head of the tury worship apse† facing east. After the service come from the Ordo Romanus choir sings the Kyrie eleison,† abino, abino, s Primus, a book describing the liturgy the pope leads the people in the esource, ny r an s

rt as it was celebrated in Rome just Gloria in excelsis (“Glory to God i d before the time of Charlemagne. in the highest”), “and at once The Ordo became a model for the turns back again to the east

attedrale celebration of the Mass through- until it is finished. Then, after c ibrary ibrary l out the Holy Roman Empire for turning again to the people, he ella rt rt. iM age source: a a hundreds of years to come. says Pax vobis [‘Peace be with an of a you’], and once more turning

ridge M From Gloria Patri to the east, says Oremus [‘Let us b

he to Alleluia pray’], and the collect [prayer t The pope makes his way into the for the day] follows. At the end

ibrary/ upper part of the choir, near the of it he sits, and the bishops and l altar, and bows again. “He then presbyters sit in like manner.” chool (11th century), Museo d he Metropolitan Museu M s

icture †

p rises up, and prays, and makes the The subdeacons station sign of the cross on his forehead.” themselves at either side of talian gostini

a He gives the kiss of peace to all the altar, and as soon as the ) by i e d the clergy serving with him— higher clergy are seated, one ari/ Miniature representing a deacon reading liturgical text Fratres carissimi , (vellu M b iM age copyright © t

Christian History 27 Joyful noise. This 9th-c. ivory shows an archbishop amid his choir. of the subdeacons† walks into the ambo—the place where scripture is read—and reads the epistle for the day (there is no longer any Old testament reading). then a ibrary ibrary choir member sings the response l rt to the reading. If it is easter, a another sings the Alleluia. If it is an Lent, a penitential song is sung. ridge M b he t

The Gospel lesson K/ u Finally it is time to read the gospel bridge, lesson for the day. A deacon kisses ibrary l rt

the pope’s feet and whispers to him a

Dominus sit in corde tuo et in labiis tuis an (“the Lord be in your heart and on ridge M b niversity of caM

your lips”). the deacon then kisses u , he a large book with an ornate cover t containing all the gospel readings Museu M for the year. He bears it in front otoarchiv/ of him as he moves to the ambo f er

† itzwillia M accompanied by acolytes with ir M h candles and subdeacons† swinging taly/ i

incense censers, who arrange e,

themselves in front of the ambo to gospel. nor is there any creed—it roM support the gospel book for the was still not a regular part of West- ente, chool (9th century), f deacon. When the deacon is done, ern eucharistic worship, though it s le M the pope says Pax tibi; Dominus was used extensively in the bap- c an vobiscum (“Peace to you; the Lord tismal liturgy. Instead, the service be with you”). the people respond begins to move from Word to table. arolingian Et cum spirito tuo (“and with your spirit”). Meanwhile the gospel Bringing the gifts book is passed back to the subdea- An acolyte† and a deacon cover

† chool (11th century), s cons who hold it to be kissed by the altar with a corporal (a white s all the clergy in the choir in order cloth resembling a tablecloth, for the of rank. then it is carefully sealed eucharistic elements to be placed talian and carried back to the Lateran. on), one “throwing the end to the hoir, c.875 ad (ivory panel) by c Although one of many medieval second deacon so they can spread

preaching revivals was getting it out,” and the offertory begins. ong his c ent (fresco) by i

underway (see “Did worship still While the choir sings a psalm, the le M c feature the Word?” p. 16), this pope and the archdeacons accept t.

service features no sermon after the wine and bread (not wafers until rchbishop a M a n a Mass of s

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• Phone toll-free: 1-800-468-0458 (8 am to 6 pm EST) 2/12 ibrary ibrary l rt a an ridge M b he t K/ u bridge, ibrary ibrary l rt a

an Honoring a martyr pope. Above: Mass celebrated in honor of the 1st-c. martyr pope St. Clement, from the 11th-c. Roman basilica dedicated to him. ridge M b niversity of caM u , he t

several centuries later) offered by The community Museu M the nobility, namely “the chancel- in Communion otoarchiv/ f lor, the secretary, and the chief the people recite the Pater Noster† er itzwillia M

ir M counselor.” As lesser people bring (Lord’s Prayer) and exchange the h up their gifts, they are received kiss of peace: “the archdeacon taly/ i

e, by lesser clergy. Finally the pope gives the peace to the chief bishop;

roM puts his own offering of two loaves then the rest in order and the of bread on the altar, and “bow- people likewise.” now the bread ente, chool (9th century), f s ing slightly to the altar, looks at has to be broken, which takes a le M c the choir and nods to them to be while, since many loaves have an silent.” An offertory prayer is said. been brought up. the clergy assist arolingian After the Sursum corda, preface, in this, holding out little bags to and Sanctus (see “saying grace,” receive the loaves, which the aco- p. 19), everyone bows. In centu- lytes† bring to them. At the pope’s ries to come, the focus will be on signal, all of the loaves are broken. chool (11th century), s s lifting up the Host at the moment the choir sings a psalm, and the of consecration, but here the pope pope receives Communion—first talian lifts the bread and chalice as he a piece of bread, except for a hoir, c.875 ad (ivory panel) by c ends a series of prayers with a final small fragment, which he puts in doxology: “through him [Jesus the chalice and “makes the sign

ong his c Christ] and with him and in him all of the cross three times over the ent (fresco) by i

le M honor and glory is yours, almighty fragment from which he has bitten,” c

t. Father, in the unity of the Holy and then drinks the bread and wine

rchbishop a M spirit, throughout the ages of ages.” together. the people—men first, a n a Mass of s

Christian History 29 and then women—follow the cler- inspired evangelist. St. Matthew, gy. they come forward to receive, from the 8th-c. Lindisfarne Gospels. standing and taking the bread in their hands, then sipping from chal- When all who are going to ices of ordinary wine, each with a receive have done so, the table is few drops of the consecrated blood put in order. the pope sits down in it. even then, they sip through and washes his hands, then offers a fistula† to avoid spilling it. a prayer of thanksgiving. the By no means does every person deacons dismiss the people by present actually receive the eucha- saying Ite missa est (“It is time for rist. Ordinary laypeople receive the dismissal”—the word “Mass” infrequently, because to do so they comes from this phrase), and the have to prepare with consider- pope and his entourage make able fasting and prayer. In fact, their solemn procession out of the lay participation in the eucharist church and back to their horses. ipedia has by this time been reserved Despite the ornate detail of this

for great feast days such as (on ceremony, it remained, as scholar esource, ny roject / wiK r

st. Boniface’s recommendation) Bard thompson notes, “basically a rt orc K p

Christmas, easter, and Pentecost. community service of worship, its y cala / a he t s

30 Christian History corporate character being secured by augustine’s “fatHer.” the fact that it was sung in some com- Five centuries after his preaching munal setting by the celebrant, the helped convert Augustine, assisting ministers, and the choir.” Ambrose of Milan was still Over the next few centuries, though, memorialized in special Masses. there would be a move toward more and more private Masses offered for the repose of the souls of the dead, or for other prayer intentions, each performed by a single priest at one of the many side altars that churches would hurry to build in their sanctuaries to take advantage of this new liturgical trend. Kneeling to pray In the background of the Mass Benedict had laid out, continuing droned the low and steady hum to bathe the day in prayer. of the round of daily prayer that More than a thousand years later, egeria had noted (see “What sorts a poet writing in england in the of music did worshipers use?” waning days of the second World p. 20). now, however, that round War reflected back on this age and went on inside the walls of monas- on these prayers. this was Charles teries and convents more than it did Williams, a member of C. s. Lewis’s in public worship. It also took place “Inklings” circle. Williams pictured in “collegial” monasteries, where the pope privately making the secular priests† might choose to rounds of the shadowed, candlelit live together in a monastic fashion, Lateran, praying the office before praying the daily office and being the Christmas eucharist began, accountable to each other. (Many praying for the church and the cathedrals started such collegial world, invoking Christ. “the pope chapters in an effort to reform the prayed: ‘thou hast harried hell, O behavior of their associated clergy.) Blessed, and carried thence the least As the early Middle Ages token of thyself. thou hast spoken a (500–1000) moved into the word of power in the midst of hell.’” High Middle Ages (1000–1300), Williams pictures the great ceremony communal recitation of the daily of the eucharist rising as a prayer for office gave way to private prayer. peace, culminating in the hundreds Beautiful illuminated books of broken loaves. And he pictures of hours emerged to guide the the pope in all his finery, after the ipedia prayers not only of monks in eucharist is over, there again in the their cloisters but also of nobles dark: “Kneeling after the eucharist,

esource, ny in their castles. But the structure the pope said . . . Magnificat; roject / wiK r

rt of the daily office remained very prostrate, he prayed: ‘send not, orc K p CH y much the one the 7th-c. rule of st. send not the rich empty away.’” cala / a he t s

Christian History 31 What did “sacrament” mean to medieval Christians? And how many were there?

A sACrAment is at the very bush, the pillar of fire, the emblem- least an outward sign of an inward atic actions of the prophets. grace, and “it is hard to imagine a the early church, beginning on sacramental life evolving from any the pages of the new testament,

religion other than Judaism,” writes gathered around a sacred meal and edia liturgical scholar James White. the welcomed new Christians through Jewish people, after all, knew that baptism and anointing with oil—as / Wiki P their God was transcendent yet also well as other sacred acts such as, in used material objects to communi- White’s words, “laying on of hands, cate with his people: the burning healing, sealing, and forgiving.” The Yorck Projec T

32 Christian History “Not by bread aloNe.” In the matter of sacra- ments as in every other aspect of the Christian life, early and medieval church leaders looked first to Scripture, especially the New Testa- ment. (Last Supper, Sant’Angelo fresco, c. 1100.)

in Greek, these acts were called or numbered them, although mystérion, a word usually trans- baptism and eucharist were lated as “mystery,” but very much always on the list. today, roman meaning the kind of mysterious Catholics, eastern Orthodox, and act in which God shows himself Anglicans name seven rites as to us. Later, tertullian (c. 160–c. sacraments (see image and caption 220) translated this with the Latin on p. 34). Protestants other than word sacramentum, which soldiers Anglicans usually limit the list used to denote oaths they took and to baptism and eucharist. But intended to keep. for many centuries, the list and definitions were not so clear. God’s power—not edia tertullian’s On Penance and the priest’s On Baptism (c. 200) are more / Wiki P While clearly God bestowed practical handbooks about how grace through these acts, the to perform and undergo these rites church experienced them long than they are theological reflections. before it precisely defined them— Lectures for catechumens† (people The Yorck Projec T

Christian History 33 undergoing the rigorous multiyear SeveN for the ageS. process to prepare for baptism) By 1448, the likely date of by Cyril of Jerusalem, Ambrose this Rogier van der Weyden of milan, and John Chrysostom painting, the church recog- (347–407) reflect at some length nized seven sacraments: on what baptism means, but it was baptism, confirmation, Augustine (354–430) who began Eucharist, penance (confes- to get more specific. He defined a sion), anointing of the sick, sacrament memorably as “a vis- ordination, and matrimony. Can you find them all? ible word,” discussed the “invis- ible grace” that came through the “visible form,” and distinguished between the act itself and its power. in the Donatist controversy over who is entitled to perform the sacra- ments, Augustine famously argued that the sacraments communicate grace because of God’s power, not the power or the moral character of the humans who administer them. Ashes to baptism: the breadth of early sacramental practice Despite establishing categories that would define Western sacramental thought for centuries, Augustine’s list of sacraments is tremendously wide-ranging by modern standards. it includes the baptismal font, the giving of salt at baptism, the Lord’s Prayer, the nicene Creed, Christian death and burial all easter Day, and the ashes placed took on sacramental importance on the forehead in the ceremony in the early medieval church. of penance. Other writers came up But these by no means exhausted with other lists, with some over- the possibilities. even by the lap but little consensus on exactly twelfth century, as the church was what each sacrament signifies. finally formalizing its thoughts Besides baptism and the eucharist, on sacraments, Hugh of st. Victor public repentance (originally a (1096–1141) maintained that bless- one-time event), anointing of the ing palms, receiving ashes, bending sick for healing, marriage (despite the knee in prayer, monastic vows, its taking place at the door of saying the Creeds, dedicating a ource, NY the church and not inside), and church, and death and judgment some kinds of rites surrounding were all sacraments. the third edia Wiki P Scala / arT reS

34 Christian History taSte of thiNgS to come. Above: In this 3rd-c. image of the loaves and fishes miracle, the red wine in the basket symbolizes Eucharist.

are baptism, confir- mation, the bread of blessing (that is the eucharist), penance, extreme unction [anoint- ing of the dying], orders [ordination], marriage. Of these, some provide a remedy against sin and confer assisting grace, such as baptism; others are only a remedy, such as marriage; others strengthen us with grace and power, Lateran Council of 1179 named such as the eucharist and orders.” to the list both the ordination of He proceeds to describe each of the priests and the burial of the dead. seven, using Augustine’s distinc- tion between the invisible grace and Peter’s list and the the visible form but adding a third “sacramentals” concept—that a true sacrament the man who finally nailed down consists of the combination of both. this ever-evolving list was Peter Lombard’s list stuck. some of Lombard (c. 1100–1160), a professor the objects and acts not on his list of theology and the bishop of Paris, stuck too—many mentioned above, who, in about 1150, wrote the influ- as well as everything from holy ource, NY ential Four Books of Sentences. in it water to saying grace at meals, he writes, “now let us approach the giving to the poor, and saying the edia sacraments of the new law, which rosary—and began to be referred Wiki P Scala / arT reS

Christian History 35 a tight fit. This 12th-c. Italian fresco from the basilica in Aquileia shows an entire family being baptized together.

came to define roman Catholic eucharistic theol- ogy for both its proponents and its detractors— “transubstantiation.” While the church had maintained for to as “sacramentals.” these centuries that Christ was present were things good in themselves in the eucharist, this word first but lacking the dignity, and the appeared in the twelfth century to supposed foundation in the describe exactly how he was present practice of Jesus and the apostles, in terms drawn from the philosophy of Lombard’s seven. thomas of Aristotle. Christ’s blood and body Aquinas (1225–1274) refined this were actually present on the altar in list, to indicate that each sacrament substance, but they still looked like must have the proper matter (the bread and wine on the outside, in material object such as water, what were called the accidents. Later, rar Y bread, wine, or oil) and form (the in the reformation, this term would h ce NTur Y) words of the traditional formula, give rise to much controversy. such as “i baptize you” or “this it is unlikely that every person ema N arT liB is my body”). each must also be in the congregation understood the School (12 T performed by the proper minister, finer points of these definitions. iTalia N who in the act of presiding has the they did understand—and they co) BY intention to do what the church came to church to experience— oarchiv/ The Brid G foT does in the sacraments—as White that Christ was truly present in (fre S puts it, “A priest does not perform a these acts and that he touched their irmer h famil Y sacrament while acting in a play.” lives and their world, physically as / d hi S

well as spiritually: in bread, wine, N a Christ present in oil, and water; in hands, ashes, or Y

ordinary things quileia, iTal Y rosaries, art, and alms; and, above a One of the most important aspects all, in the Word made flesh who ilica, m of Gre G of this refining was the word that made all sacraments possible. CH R BaPT iS The Ba S

36 Christian History Clothes fit for a bishop Cloak, Cap, and staff. Left: Pope Innocent III (1161/2–1216) in his pallium (cloak) and mitre (episcopal cap). Right: A crosier (pastoral staff) decorated with a lion and a snake. The crosier was reserved for prelates at the highest levels of the church.

A bisHop of tHe eleventH and elaborately decorated band century could expect to spend a sig­ of cloth worn on the wrist. . . . nificant amount of time in preparation next, the bishop would put on a for the celebration of Mass. each action series of “pontifical” vestments, those of preparation, including the donning reserved for episcopal use. some of each separate vestment, would be vesting orders called for the donning accompanied by a specific prayer, of special pontifical stockings (caligae psalm verses, or other short versicle. or udones) and soft shoes or slippers After the bishop entered the church (sandalia or campagi). others listed and prayed for a short time at the prayers for the bishop to recite as he altar, he would enter the sacristy .† put on special gloves (chirothecae), the vesting rite would begin with his episcopal ring (annulum), [and] a ritual handwashing, and then his pallium (a special white circle of the removal of his ordinary outer­ cloth, often embroidered with crosses, wear. He would then don a series worn around the neck, granted to of liturgical vestments in layers. certain bishops by the pope). . . . the first was the amice (amictum other vestments might include or ephot), a rectangular piece of the mitre (a . . . stiff cloth cap, often cloth worn around the neck and pointed at the top) and the crosier held in place by thin strings tied (baculus or pedum, a staff of pastoral around the body. next came the alb, office, often made of precious and then the cincture [belt]. . . . metals and curved at the end like next, the bishop put on the stole, a shepherd’s crook). the vesting and then the three overtunics: the rite could conclude with one or two tunicle, the undecorated sleeved “general vesting” prayers, and a tunic worn by subdeacons† at Mass; series of verses and responses. CH the dalmatic, the more elaborately decorated sleeved tunic worn by The Oxford History of Christian deacons; and the priestly chasuble. Worship, by Geoffrey Wainwright : Wikipedia

: Wikipedia the final vestment worn by all and Karen b. Westerfield tucker, priests was the maniple, a stylized “vestments and objects,” p. 843. Top lef T Top righ T

Christian History 37 F hurch o F

Worship at the eve ibrary l rt a chool (15th century), c of the Reformation s nglish ridgeman b he t It Is early sprIng at the begin- could be the feast day of a saint. ning of the fifteenth century. there is no end of celebrations olk, uk/ or F along an english country lane, to draw people to the church. n the people of the village are the villagers greet each other, ixion (stained glass) by e arling,

walking to church. It could be exchange small talk, wander h ruci F a sunday, although Mass by no on, and listen for the sound of ast e means is said only on sundays; the church bell. they are going aul, p

there are frequent daily Masses, to church to hear, to taste, to t. chnell / Wikipedia especially in large and wealthy smell, and most especially, most s depicting the c

churches with many priests. It crucially, to see. eter & s p t. Francois Windo W s

38 Christian history A feast for the senses very body of god’s son as they Upon arrival, the faithful find closed their lips.” much in the church to delight Walking into the church, their senses. reformation scholar dipping fingertips in the holy susan Karant-nunn writes, water font, the worshipers look “going to church before the up to see stained glass windows reformation was a sensuous depicting scenes from the Old experience . . . even in rural testament and from the lives churches and chapels, the of Jesus, Mary, and the saints. devout heard the sound of the On the walls are paintings, bell, the intoning of the ritual sculptures, tapestries, frescoes, prayers—mesmerizing in their unintelligible, monotonous latin—and the special words of consecration, Hoc est corpus meum and Hic est sanguis meus [“this is my body” and “this is my blood”], by which the mundane elements of the altar underwent transubstantiation. they often saw the altar with its cloths and retable [raised shelf above the altar for cross and candlesticks], the corpse-laden crucifix, the sheen of paten [bread plate] and

F hurch o F chalice, the glint of candlelight, the ceremonial vestments sometimes even in simple Art of A lost Age. Unlike this parishes worked by nuns in French madonna statue and British flowers or scenes of the savior’s

ibrary ibrary crucifixion window, much medieval l life, the transfixing motion of the rt devotional art did not survive Refor- a chool (15th century), c s priest’s hands as he raised up the mation iconoclasm (objection Host and by god’s permission to sacred imagery as idolatrous). nglish ridgeman

b effected a miracle. they smelled he

t the sweat of their neighbors and at the same time the heavenly and mosaics. sacred objects

olk, uk/ fragrances of beeswax and such as woodcarved nativity or F

n incense. they felt holy water scenes or a wooden donkey for on their fingertips and the very palm sunday sit on the floor or ixion (stained glass) by e arling,

h flesh of Christ sacrificed as the on small tables or stools. though ruci F

ast priest placed the wafer into their they are made of plain wood or e mouths at the rood screen† or marble, they are painted with aul, p

t. the altar steps. and they tasted, vivid colors. the scent of incense chnell / Wikipedia s besides the plume inhaled as the and burning candles pervades depicting the c † eter & s acolyte swung the censer, the the church. p t. Francois Windo W s

Christian history 39 Quite likely, those entering All eyes forwArd. By the Late the church have made some Middle Ages (1300–1500), the contribution to these decora- focus of the Mass had long since tions. guilds gave money to en- shifted from the congregation’s dow statues and artwork; local reception of the elements to the craftsmen sculpted and painted; priest’s enacting of a holy drama, women in the church sewed and as in this 14th-c. Italian Mass. embroidered vestments, altar cloths, tapestries, and drapings those with a great number of and veils for statues. monks or secular priests† at- tached to them and worshiping in At the crux: Jesus and the choir space, often erected rood his saints screens† between the people’s at the center of everything, space and the choir and altar firmly attached to the back wall space. these were elaborately esource, ny of the church, is the high altar. carved wooden barriers, solid r Most likely, a saint is buried from the waist down and full of rt

beneath it; most certainly, relics windows from the waist up, with allis d ibrary / a l

are stored inside it. the smaller images of saints and biblical fig- om the church, the more likely the ures carved on them, and a giant organ average person is to be able to crucifix in the middle. (Rood is an m see the high altar fully. larger Old english word for the cross, ierpont and wealthier churches, and and the screens got this name p hoto courtesy o F t he t p

40 Christian history from their central crucifix.) Body, Blood, And Book. Rood screens† were, as histo- Through Latin Scripture read- rian eamon Duffy has remarked, ings and, where the priest was both “a barrier and no barrier.” literate, vernacular preaching, late-medieval Masses continued While they screened the activity at to emphasize the scriptural Word the high altar from the laity, some- along with the Incarnate Word. times the activity spilled out to meet the laity as the gospel book, holy water, or (on easter) the eucharistic elements themselves were carried out into the nave† by the priests and deacons. at other occasions, such as Candlemas, the feast day honoring the presenta- tion of Jesus in the temple, the people processed with candles through the door of the rood screen† and into the altar space. Many screens had “elevation squints”—eyeholes cut into them at convenient places to allow the people to see the high altar and priests at different altars to see people, with the poor standing each other. though sunday Mass closer to the back. Women and would be said at the high altar, elderly or ill men might bring the average weekday Mass was their own collapsible stools and just as likely to be performed at set them up in convenient places. one of the innumerable side cha- pels and altars that crowded the The action shifts from nooks and niches of the wealthier Word to Table churches—or in front of the rood and so the people watch. In screen† where altars were often essence, the form of the service is installed for the purpose. not all that different from the one and, of course, even on we visited in the eighth century sunday, people moved around (see “Worship in the [supposed] to get a better view because there ‘Dark ages,’” p. 26), although, if were no—or at least very few— this is a relatively simple country esource, ny r pews; Karant-nunn comments church, it occurs with far less rt that in this era, “only princes, pomp and ceremony. there is

allis city counselors, and other august a processional, a greeting, the d ibrary / a l

om personages had pews.” they confession of sin, the gloria, would not become widespread for prayers, and readings for the day organ m several more centuries. still, she from the epistle and gospel. If notes that certain standing places the priest is literate, he preaches, ierpont p became customary for certain not in latin but in the language hoto courtesy o F t he t p

Christian history 41 of the congregation. then the the sacred Host into his hands and action shifts from Word to table, raises it high so that all may see with the creed, the offering, the the body of the lord. Most people priest’s washing of his hands in receive the bread (rarely the wine) preparation for the into their mouths es/ ol M Holy Meal, and the only yearly, at easter, h long eucharistic after confessing their eil prayer, with its sins to a priest during prayers for the Holy Week. this K/ Photo © n u living and the dead. annual ritual was often , the acolytes† swing referred to as “taking a thurible (a large one’s rights.” there uffol K metal container on a were certainly those chain), and incense who received more fills the space frequently— fifteenth- around the altar. century mystic hurch, Kersey, s the priest faces the Margery Kempe (see

altar, not the people, p. 52) was well known t. Mary’s c s and the prayers for for receiving the

the most part are silent. eucharist weekly—but most of chool, s a bell is rung when the words the faithful tasted the body of the

of consecration are said so that, lord only at easter. However, nglish wherever they are in the church, each week—even every day— the people will know that the they can see the eucharistic meal (wood) by e holy moment has arrived—the take place, and the devout hunger † ibrary moment for which many people to do so. the people hold up their l rt come in fact daily to church. now hands and recite their prayers. a the priest, facing the altar and For a moment, they are of one an esource, ny rood screen r

beyond it (figuratively) the east of mind and one spirit. everything rt ridge M b

morning and resurrection, takes else falls away. tockphoto he t hip / a is Medieval

42 Christian history Shoving forward to But soon again they will receive return. they will come for the those who have been to confession next Mass. they will arrive during the week before are allowed in a torch-lit procession—or es/ es/ to come forward quietly, on their ol M h (often pushing and own—to adore eil jostling each other) to the consecrated receive the elements. Host as it sits in Once the select few its monstrance, a K/ Photo © n u , have been served, large and ornate the communion container, on the uffol K vessels are cleaned, altar. Or, when the lord’s prayer services are not said, and the kiss of occurring, they’ll peace shared. In the come with members hurch, Kersey, s Middle ages, the of their guild to passing of this kiss repair that window

t. Mary’s c didn’t involve actual that needs fixing s kissing. Instead, a or paint that statue †

chool, pax board was held between the that really could use it or tighten s attendees, and each person kissed that floorboard that creaks. Or

nglish one side of the board. they’ll come with other women the Mass closes with prayers of the parish, because didn’t you and a dismissal. the priest, notice that one of the altar cloths † (wood) by e

† deacons, and acolytes process has a hole in it? Or they’ll come ibrary l out of the church, and the Mass to make sure fresh candles are rt a comes to an end. slowly, the burning in front of the paintings an faithful file out again into the and statues. In short, they’ll esource, ny rood screen r

rt sunlight and travel home along come to maintain the house of ridge M b

tockphoto the lane. the lord and to meet him there. he hip / a t is Medieval summer will come, and autumn, and winter, and year will turn to year and decade to decade. A feAst fit for A king. But this devoted pilgrimage The dramatic elevation of the won’t last. Within 150 years, host (above left), diffusion after theses are nailed to a door of pungent incense (above in Wittenberg, the crucifixes right), and rich artworks will be torn down, the candles throughout the sanctuary (left) made medieval worship extinguished, the vessels stolen, a feast for the senses. (The and the faces of the saints and rood screen† at left shows angels and the Virgin Mary will the 9th-c. Anglo-Saxon king be scratched out of paintings and St. Edmund along with two scraped off of statues. But the other kings and three Old faithful who labor here for their Testament prophets.) lord do not know that now. CH

Christian history 43

seier+seier / Wikipedia Left: top right: Wikipedia

44 Christian History What did the worship space look like?

Of THe maNy CHaNgeS Con- stantine’s conversion brought to the church, perhaps none was more dramatic than the shift in the archi- tecture of worship spaces. Before Constantine, few buildings were erected specifically for worship. The church historian eusebius mentions that by the late third century there were “churches of spacious founda- Roman law court. Some basilica tions in every city”—but many were churches were actually former destroyed by enemies of the grow- secular basilicas, now occupied by ing Christian movement. the very same Christian worship- Intense persecution led to ers who had once been tried within most Christians meeting in house them as criminals against the state. churches. The best-preserved example, at Dura europos on the The body of Christ in euphrates River, featured a large the body of the basilica room for the eucharist, with a small Whether repurposed or new, platform on which sat an altar table basilicas possessed a uniform and the bishop’s throne. a separate floorplan: a rectangular “body” room served as a baptistery, com- capped with a semicircular “head” plete with baptismal font. called the apse.† This is where the Constantine changed all that. He Roman judge had been seated on a sought to establish his new-found throne. Now the Christian bishop faith more firmly by giving money replaced him, surrounded by to build nine new churches in Rome presbyters (ordained elders/priests) and others in Jerusalem, Bethle- sitting in chairs on either side. hem, and Constantinople. These The people gathered for magnificently appointed buildings worship in the long, narrow, looked almost nothing like the old rectangular body of the building, house churches. Instead, they were called the nave.† There, until the based on the plan of a basilica, or fourteenth century when pews

were invented, worshipers simply moved about to follow the action Constantine prayed here. of the service: Scripture read- Left: Santa Constanza Church, ings, prayers, processionals, Rome, built by Constantine as a the sermon, and increasingly, mausoleum for his daughter. seier+seier / Wikipedia the consecration of the Host on Above: Dura Europos. Left: top right: Wikipedia

Christian History 45 various altars throughout the sanCtifying seCular spaCe. church. Platforms for singers Santa Pudenziana was a civil basilica extended out of the apse† into the turned into a church. Note the nave.† One end of these featured Constantinian buildings in its mosaic. Below: Rood screen,† 12th-c. a pulpit, and a prominent altar Venetian. table occupied the middle. Oddly enough, the pulpit was not originally used for preach- reminder that Christians came into ing. While Scripture readers god’s church through baptism. and other worship leaders used the pulpit, the bishop preached Altar & pulpit divide from his seat. This arrangement Throughout the Western middle lasted until the golden-tongued ages, the rectangular body of but soft-voiced John Chrysostom (347–407) moved closer to the people to preach. The bishop also presided over the eucharist, facing the people across the altar table. In the fifth century, as the relics of saints became more popular, many saints’ bodies were actually mages buried directly under altar tables. i Baptismal fonts could appear istory anywhere—even in a separate h rt building. most usually, however, the font stood at the entrance to ayes / a h

the church building—a physical LLy op: Wikipedia t Bottom: Wikipedia @ho

46 Christian History faCe to faCe. Chancel† of the 12th-c. Tewkesbury Abbey, England. Monks sat in the stalls on each side, chanting psalm verses in turn. In parish churches (which Tewkesbury later became), noble families sat in these seats.

the basilica grew longer and large and ornate) moved out into more ornate. (eastern Orthodox the nave† so that congregations architecture moved instead toward could better hear the preacher. featuring large domes over square The trendsetting worship buildings.) The altar moved farther spaces of the High and Late and farther away from the nave† middle ages, however, were the and was eventually attached chapels of monasteries, which to the back wall of the apse.† had the architectural plan every This accompanied a signifi- other church wanted to copy. In cant change in the way a bishop this layout, the apse† became a presided over the eucharist—no long chancel,† with stalls on either longer did he face the congrega- side where the monks could tion as he spoke the eucharistic chant the psalms antiphonally† prayer. The altar was changed (alternating from side to side). from a table to a square box so Large cathedrals took this that it could contain saints’ relics. plan and added side chapels Side altars—which became entire to the chancel.† even small mages i side chapels for private masses, parish churches adopted the including requiem masses for plan, installing the clergy and istory h the dead—were installed along the local noble family in the rt the nave† (relics ended up here monastic stalls while the rest

ayes / a too). extending the trend set by of the congregation continued h †

LLy Chrysostom, pulpits (increasingly to worship in the nave. op: Wikipedia t Bottom: Wikipedia @ho

Christian History 47 A womb of “Many Mansions.” Chartres sacred imagery Cathedral, France, with its charac- teristically soaring Gothic arches. While we tend to think of ornate art as the purview of wealthy churches, the average medieval church held an ample share screen,† or panel, with a picture of visual imagery and sensory of Judgment Day above or behind stimulation. However, fervent it. These greeted the worshiper’s Reformation-era Protestants eyes as she raised them during removed the art and images the fulcrum of the Eucharistic from so many Western European liturgy when the priest elevated churches—and in most cases the Host for everyone to see. today these have been imperfectly Many of these images were restored—that it is hard for donated and cared for by guilds modern observers to grasp just and members of the parish, who how much there was to see. also bore the not inconsiderable Walking into a medieval church expense of candles and lamps was like entering a womb of sacred to illuminate all that visual imagery. Carved and painted richness! The well-off commonly reredos† (the back wall behind willed items to the church with the main altar); statues, paintings, very specific instructions about and tapestries along the walls how and when these items and in side altars; stained-glass should be displayed. Just before windows; mosaics, paintings, and the Reformation, one English mages even tombstones on the floors all congregant left instructions that spoke of divine things as loudly her second-best rosary be hung rt History i as the Word or sacraments. on a statue of St. Anne all year, Above all loomed the great but her best rosary was to be crucifix, or rood, over the rood used on St. Anne’s feast day. CH @Holly Hayes / a

48 Christian History Of sermons and friars

ibrary ibrary “UsefUl and edifying.”

arT l A friar preaches to a rapt group. an

ridge M it he placed as a relic the bridle of that most wicked priest. (Caesar of Heisterbach, Dist.

iraudon/ The b VIII, Cap. LXX. [Vol. 2, p. 140], in g e/ Translations and Reprints from the

ran C Original Sources of European History) f ouen,

r Anecdotes such as this appeared in This excerpt is from the Franciscan collections of sermon illustrations: Rule of 1223, which still governs ipale, the Franciscan order. It lays down some A certain knight loved most guidelines for the friars’ preaching: ardently the martyr St. Thomas of heque Muni C Canterbury, and sought everywhere The friars must not preach in the iblio T b to obtain some relic of him. When a diocese of any bishop if they have

ury), certain wily priest, in whose house been forbidden to do so by him.

en T he was staying, heard of this he And no brother should dare preach C h said to him, “I have by me a bridle to the people unless he has been which St. Thomas used for a long examined and approved by the time, and I have often experienced minister general of his brotherhood h sC hool (14 T its virtues.” When the knight heard and the office of preaching has been ren C this, and believed it, he joyfully paid conceded to him. I also admonish

) by f the priest the money which the latter and exhort the brothers that in their demanded and received the bridle preaching their words be studied with great devotion. and chaste, useful and edifying to God truly, to whom nothing is the people, telling them about vices egouais (vellu M l impossible, wishing to reward the and virtues, punishment and glory; ien faith of the knight and for the honor and they ought to be brief, because of his martyr, deigned to work many the Lord kept his words brief when miracles through the same bridle. he was on earth. CH The knight seeing this founded a (http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/ ralise by Chre T church in honor of the martyr and in source/stfran-rule.asp.)

Ovide M O Answers tO quiz (pAge 2) 1. Apse 8. Propers and acolytes 17. Secular priests on” fro M 2. Nave 9. Subdeacons/ 11. Catechumens 18. Anamnesis er M 3. Reredos subdiaconate 12. Sacristy 19. Epiclesis 4. Chancel 10. Porters 13. Gloria Patri 20. Postils 5. Antiphon [doorkeepers], 14. Kyrie eleison 21. Prone 6. Polyphony lectors [readers], 15. Pater noster 22. Rood screens 7. Ordinary exorcists, 16. Fistula 23. Pax board Ms 1044 fol.67 “The s

Christian History 49 ibrary ibrary l rt a ridgeman b iraudon/ tHe g rance/ f aris, p onet, m armottan m usee century), m

Who led worship? ool (14t H renc H scH

In tHe new testament and including caring for the sick in early church writings such as and poor. the Didache, we see a variety of church leadership roles—including Entering leadership wandering prophets. But sometime the Apostolic Tradition document, op, c.1320–30 (vellum) by f in the first or second century, a which appears to describe early threefold ordained ministry began third-century practice, though it may to emerge: bishops, presbyters be as late as the fourth century, gives (priests), and deacons. the bishop a model for ordination. the church was the governmental and sacra- first approved those candidates who e ordination of a bis H mental center of the church in any had the gifts and graces for their given location—the chief preacher ministries. then the bishop and, in and administrator of the eucharist. some circumstances, other leaders depicting t H Presbyters administered the sacra- laid hands on the candidates and ments under the bishop’s direction. prayed over them. Interestingly, Deacons assisted in the sacraments those “confessors” who had been and in acts of mercy and outreach imprisoned on account of their Historiated initial C Wikipedia

50 Christian History Top man. Left: A bishop’s ordi- Limiting women nation, 14th c. Below: Some argue women participated in various roles this 9th-c. “Episcopa Theodora” in worship leadership, including mosaic shows a woman bishop.

ibrary ibrary serving as musicians, readers, l

rt and deaconesses. several of the a faith during periods of persecution heretical groups that grew up on received no further ordination early Christianity’s fringes allowed ridgeman b rites unless they desired to become women full sacramental powers, bishops; their “ordination in and this led the orthodox Catholic blood” and sacrifice was enough. Church to limit the roles women iraudon/ tHe

g Deaconesses, who were especially could take in leading worship. important in preparing female con- the move from house churches rance/ f verts for baptism and in performing under persecution to churches in acts of mercy to women and children, public spaces under Constantine aris, p were ordained for this role in the also contributed to this shift. a onet, east although not in the west. Roman matron might exercise great m this does not, however, mean authority over a church gathered that ordained clergy were the only within her household, but there armottan m people involved in worship. the were certain ways Roman women

usee Apostolic Tradition distin- were expected to behave, guishes the roles in church and not behave, in public. leadership—liturgical and Increasing attention was

century), m otherwise—of “widows, paid to how women readers, virgins, sub­ arrived at church, acted † ool (14t H deacons and healers.” In in worship, dressed, and addition, almost any ser- wore their hair: one syrian vice would have featured church order forbade renc H scH church musicians (see women from wearing “what sorts of music did worship- jewelry to worship or receiving the ers use?,” p. 20). soon four “minor eucharist if their hair was artificially orders”—porters† (doorkeepers), curled. ambrose (d. 397) told virgins lectors†, exorcists†, and acolytes†— not to sigh, clear their throats, cough, began to develop, largely with litur- or laugh during worship services. op, c.1320–30 (vellum) by f gical functions, and ordination rites the later middle ages brought were developed for them. Originally little change to these basic struc- these rites simply consisted of giv- tures of church order, only greater ing the ordinands tools symbolic of ceremony in the methods of ordina- their trades: keys, books of lessons, tion and the continued growth of e ordination of a bis H books of exorcisms, and candles. monasteries and convents, where the “major orders” comprised much daily medieval worship was subdeacons† (basically deacons- centered. while laypeople might depicting t H in-training), deacons, and priests. attend services in a monastery Ordination to these orders included or (less likely) convent chapel, a pledge of celibacy as well as the they would not have engaged in act of tonsure (cutting of the hair). leadership roles in the services. CH Historiated initial C Wikipedia

Christian History 51 A pilgrim’s Eucharist

In this excerpt from her autobiography, mystic and pilgrim Margery Kempe tells of her visit to the Holy Land and her desire to receive the Eucharist at various holy sites. Afterwards she was houselled [received the Eucharist] on the Mount of Calvary, and then she wept, she sobbed, she cried so loud that it was a wonder to hear it. She was so full of holy thoughts and meditations and holy contemplations on the Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ, and holy dalliance that Our Lord Jesus Christ spoke to her soul that she could never express them after, so high and so holy were they. Much was the grace that Our Lord shewed to this creature whilst she was three weeks Heartland of faitH. Pilgrims in Jerusalem. wend their way to the Holy Land in Another day, early in the morn- this 15th-c. travelogue image. ing, they . . . came to Mount Sion. And ever this creature wept abun- the time of two masses, Our Lord dantly . . . for compassion of Our Jesus Christ said to her: Lord’s Passion. On Mount Sion is a “Thou comest not hither, daughter, place where Our Lord washed his for any need except merit and reward, disciples’ feet and, a little therefrom, for thy sins were forgiven thee ere He made His Maundy [Last Supper] thou came here and therefore thou with His disciples. comest here for the increasing of thy And therefore this creature had reward and thy merit. And I am well great desire to be houselled in that pleased with thee, daughter, for thou holy place where Our Merciful Lord standest under obedience to Holy Christ Jesus first consecrated His pre- Church, and because thou wilt obey cious Body in the form of bread, and thy confessor and follow his counsel gave it to His disciples. And so she who, through authority of Holy was, with great devotion and plente- Church, hath absolved thee of thy ous tears and boisterous sobbings. . . . sins. . . . Notwithstanding all this, And when this creature came to I command thee in the Name of the place where the apostles received Jesus, daughter, that thou go visit the Holy Ghost, Our Lord gave her these holy places and do as I bid great devotion. Afterwards she went thee, for I am above Holy Church, to the place where Our Lady was and I shall go with thee and keep buried, and as she knelt on her knees thee right well.” CH

Wikipedia

52 Christian History Recommended resources

I. Overview histories History, contributors come from and reference books across the Christian spectrum.

Oxford Introduction History of to Christian Christian Worship Worship, by James F. ed. Geoffrey White. This is Wainwright frequently used and Karen as a seminary Westerfield textbook Tucker. Excel- in classes lent one-volume scholarly overview on worship. It opens with a of Christian worship across the discussion of what is meant by centuries and around the globe. worship and proceeds topically Articles written by Roman Catholic, through liturgical time and space, Protestant, and Eastern Ortho- church music, the service of the dox authors focus on theological, Word, and the sacraments. historical, and geographical topics. A Brief History The Complete Library of Chris- of Christian tian Worship, ed. Robert Weber. Worship by Probably best described as an James F. White. encyclopedia, these seven volumes Written in the feature discussions of worship from same readable scriptural, historical, theological, style as his and practical angles. Includes many Introduction, primary-source texts. Emphasizes this is a short recapturing the richness of liturgi- but clear survey of how Christians cal tradition for contemporary use. have worshiped from New Testament times to the present. The Study of Liturgy, Liturgical ed. Cheslyn Literacy Jones et al. by Dennis Features many Smolarski, short essays on S. J. A historical eras useful short of Christian dictionary to worship have on hand and on important topics: ini- when trying tiation, the Eucharist, ordination, to navigate unfamiliar liturgical the daily office, music, and the terms. It focuses on their Christian year. As with the Oxford use in current practice.

Christian history 53 Bibliography of Christian worship spaces. Arranged Worship by Bard Thompson. topically rather than by era to Although now over 20 years correspond to White’s Introduction. old, this was at the time of its compilation the most complete Liturgies of the Western Church guide to books and articles by Bard Thompson. Includes on the subject of worship and services of Word and Eucharist for remains an excellent window into a number of eras older literature on the topic. and traditions, from Justin II. Liturgical theology Martyr to John Eucharist: Christ’s Feast with Wesley’s Sunday the Church; Baptism: Christ’s Service, with a Act in the Church; and Calendar: helpful historical Christ’s Time for the Church introduction to by Lawrence Hull Stookey. each service. These books discuss their respec- tive topics both historically and Prayers of the Eucharist: practically, with an eye toward Early and Reformed by R. C. D. improving current church practice. Jasper and G. J. Cuming. Eucharistic prayers from the early Sunday Dinner: The Lord’s church to the Supper and the Christian Life and later Middle Remember Who You Are: Baptism Ages, and as a Model for Christian Life by (despite the “Reformed” in the title) from Lutheran, Anglican, and Calvinist liturgies from the Reformation until the eighteenth century.

William Willimon. Bishop Willimon IV. The early church focuses on these two sacraments and the Early practically and devotionally. Middle Ages The Shape of the Liturgy by III. Primary sources Dom Gregory Dix. This is a Documents of Christian Worship classic, and by James F. White. highly detailed, Presents a broad account of how cross-section of the Eucharist documents from developed all Christian during the first eras, as well as few Christian photographs centuries. and plans of

54 Christian history Women in the Early Church by an evocative Elizabeth Clark. This book discusses and detailed all aspects account of of women’s exactly what roles in early it felt like to Christianity, be a medieval including English their roles in worshiper, worship. and why.

The Reformation of Ritual: An Interpretation of Early The Early Church by Henry Modern Germany by Susan Chadwick and Western Society Karant-Nunn. Like Duffy, and the Church in the Middle Karant-Nunn prefaces her Ages by R. W. Southern. These story of Reformation changes with a thorough picture of pre-Reformation practice. VI. Church music The Story of Christian Music by Andrew are the first two volumes of the Wilson- Penguin History of the Church Dickson. series, and both devote consider- Detailed able space to issues of worship. historical account of V. The High and church music from the New Late Middle Ages Testament to the twentieth The Forms and Orders of century, full of pictures and Western Liturgy from the Tenth primary-source excerpts. to the Eighteenth Century: A Historical Introduction and A History Guide for Students and Musi- of Western cians by John Harper. Exten- Music by sively detailed orders of service, Donald Jay with a special emphasis on how Grout et al. music was used in the liturgy. Now in its eighth edition, The Stripping of the Altars: this is a classic Traditional Religion in England, music history 1400–1580 by Eamon Duffy. textbook that, due to the centrality Although the second part of this of the church to Western musical book focuses on changes made due tradition, extensively discusses to the Reformation, the first part is the use of music in worship. CH

Christian history 55 A History of Christian Worship on DVD

For followers of Jesus Christ, worship has spanned over two thousand years and included a long and diverse history of sacred practices. A History of Christian Worship is a six-part series that explores centuries of worship practices, as seen through the eyes of Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox churches. These programs feature some of today’s most recognized and respected scholars and leaders on the subject of Christian worship, including Dr. James Hart, Dr. Lester Ruth, and Dr. Joyce Ann Zimmerman, among others. Viewers will discover the significant people and events that have shaped history and learn how some modern worship practices are rooted in the earliest foundations of the Christian faith. Each DVD includes two half-hour programs.

Part 1: The Word explores how the written and spoken word, consisting of Scriptures, sermons, and creeds, has celebrated God’s story throughout centuries of Christianity, including • what early church documents reveal about ancient worship, • how stained glass has been used to tell the stories of Scripture, • why influences such as the printing press dramatically changed how Scripture is used in worship, • how great preaching movements of the church have influenced the development of sermons, and • why creeds are an important tool for teaching the essentials of the Christian faith. DVD - #501367D

Part 2: The Body explores how individuals are joined with the body of Christ through baptism and how Christian community is essential to the worship experience, including • what early church documents and practices teach us about how baptism is celebrated today, • why there are different forms of baptism among various Christian traditions, • how the Scriptures and church history support the community of believers as an important part of worship, and • how one unique contemporary community of believers celebrates worship through its western-themed cowboy church. DVD - #501381D

Part 3: The Feast explores the significance of Communion in worship and reveals how the observance of special days and seasons of remembrance and anticipation such as Advent and Lent is essential to the worship experience, including • what early church documents and practices teach us about how Communion is celebrated today, • why the feast of the Table is called by different names: Eucharist, Communion, the Lord’s Supper, • what the different methods of celebrating Communion are among various Christian traditions, and • how Old Testament feast days and festivals have formed a pattern for the current Christian calendar. DVD - #501386D “Worship proclaims, enacts, and sings God’s story” ~ Worship scholar Robert Webber

Part 4: The Music explores how liturgy and music have enriched the celebration of God’s story throughout centuries of Christianity, including • why time, place, structure, and symbols are significant components of worship, • how church music has evolved, from plainsong and chant to hymns and modern praise songs, • what the history of liturgy and music teaches us about the debate over worship style, and • how Jason Houser, a singer/songwriter and country music producer, helps families learn Scripture through music. DVD - #501405D

Part 5: The Expression explores how visual art, drama, and media have been used in various times and places in Christian worship for the creative expression of the faith, including • how paintings, sculptures, stained glass, and icons visually convey God’s story, • why worship space and architecture influence and enhance the worship experience, • what types of media have been used at various times in Christian worship, and • how the digital age and the advent of advanced technology have impacted worship. DVD - #501440D

AVAILABLE APRIL 2012 Part 6: The Embrace explores the inward worship practices of prayer and contemplation and the outward acts of worship found in service and ministry, including • how beloved prayers such as the Lord’s Prayer have become an essential part of our ongoing dialogue with God, • why public and private prayer are essential to Christian worship, • how the church throughout the centuries has carried its message to the world through missions and caring for the poor, imprisoned, sick, and dying, and • how a ministry called Broken Chains reaches out to the biker subculture with the Gospel message. DVD - #501451D $19.99 each / Special offer to CHM readers: Only $59.99 for the set of six with promo code “worship6”–save 50%! Use #97892D. www.ancientwaysfuturepaths.com Three ways to order: • Call: 1-800-523-0226–Please mention source code “CHMWorship” when ordering. • Mail: Vision Video–Dept. CHMWorship, PO Box 540, Worcester, PA 19490 • Order online: www.visionvideo.com–Please reference code “CHMWorship” in catalog source field and use promo code “worship6” at step 4 of checkout. issue of shaded account#boxbelow,thenyouareonourlistandwillreceivethenext Christian Worship. to providethisbonusbooklet tell yourfriends! the amountuptoyouandaskforyourprayerfulconsideration.Weinvite We askthatyoumakeanannualdonationtohelp 468-0458, orwritingusat You cansubscribeatwww.ChristianHistoryMagazine.org,bycallingus800- our a subscriberto yet not you are in theblue-shadedboxbelow, A bonuspublicationfrom Christian HistoryInstitute,publisherof hristian How doyougetfuturepublications?Ifanaccountnumberappearsintheblue-

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