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Development Team Paper No. : 11 Ecological Anthropology: Cultural and Biological Dimensions Module : 21 Role of Ecological Anthropologists in the Debate of Environmentalism Development Team Principal Investigator Prof. Anup Kumar Kapoor Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi Dr. K. R. Rammohan Paper Coordinator Department of Anthropology, Sikkim University, Sikkim Dr. Ajeet Jaiswal Content Writer Department of Anthropology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India Prof. A. Paparao Content Reviewer Department of Anthropology, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati 1 Role of Ecological Anthropologists in the Debate of Environmentalism Anthropology Description of Module Subject Name Anthropology Paper Name Ecological Anthropology: Cultural and Biological Dimensions Module Name/Title Role of Ecological Anthropologists in the Debate of Environmentalism Module Id 21 Glossary Carrying Capacity- According to Moran (1979:326), carrying capacity is "[t]he number of individuals that a habitat can support" (Moran 1979:326). This idea is related to population pressure, referring to the demands of a population on the resources of its ecosystem (Moran 1979:334). If the technology of a group shifts, then the carrying capacity changes as well. An example of the application of carrying capacity within ecological anthropology is demonstrated in Rappaport’s study of the Tsembaga Maring. Cultural Ecology- Cultural ecology is the study of the adaptation of human societies or populations to their environments. Emphasis is on the arrangements of technique, economy, and social organization through which culture mediates the experience of the natural world (Winthrop 1991). Culture Core- Julian Steward (1955) defined the cultural core as the features of a society that are the most closely related to subsistence activities and economic arrangements. Furthermore, the core includes political, religious, and social patterns that are connected to (or in relationship with) such arrangements (Steward 1955). Diachronic Study- A diachronic study is one that includes an historical or evolutionary time dimension (Moran 1979). Steward used a diachronic approach in his studies (Moran 1979). 2 Role of Ecological Anthropologists in the Debate of Environmentalism Anthropology Ecology- Ecology is the study of the interaction between living and nonliving components of the environment (Moran 1979). This pertains to the relationship between an organism and all aspects of its environment. Ecosystem- An ecosystem is the structural and functional interrelationships among living organisms and the environment of which they are a part (Moran 1990). Ecosystems are complex and can be viewed on different scales or levels. Moran’s study of soils in the Amazon is an example of micro-level ecosystem analysis. Ecosystem Approach/Model- This is an approach used by some ecological anthropologists that focuses on physical (abiotic) components. Moran (1990) claims that this view uses the physical environment as the basis around which evolving species and adaptive responses are examined. The ecosystem approach had played a central role within ecological anthropology. Environmental Determinism- A deterministic approach assigns one factor as the dominant influence in explanations. Environmental determinism is based on the assumption that cultural and natural areas are coterminous, because culture represents an adaptation to the particular environment (Steward 1955). Therefore, environmental factors determine human social and cultural behaviors (Milton 1997). Ethnoecology- Ethnoecology is the paradigm that investigates native thought about environmental phenomena (Barfield 1997). Studies in ethnoecology often focus on indigenous classification hierarchies referring to particular aspects of the environment (for example, soil types, plants, and animals). Ethnobotany- Ethnobotany is an ethnoscientific study of the relationship between human beings and plant life. During the 1960's ethnobotanical units were used in ecological comparisons (Kottak 1999). 3 Role of Ecological Anthropologists in the Debate of Environmentalism Anthropology Historical Ecology- Historical ecology examines how culture and environment mutually influence each other over time (Barfield 1997). These studies have diachronic dimensions. Historical ecology is holistic and affirms that life is not independent from culture. This is an ecological perspective adhering to the idea that the relationship between a human population and its physical environment can be examined holistically, rather than deterministically. Landscapes can be understood historically, as well as ecologically. Historical ecology attempts to study land as an artifact of human activity (Balée 1996). Latent Function- A latent function of a behavior is not explicitly stated, recognized, or intended by the people involved. Thus, they are identified by observers. Latent functions are associated with etic and operational models. For example, in Pigs for the Ancestors: Ritual in the Ecology of a New Guinea People (2000), the latent function of the sacrifice is the presence of too many pigs, while its manifest function is the sacrifice of pigs to ancestors (Balée 1996). Limiting Factor- In the 1960s cultural ecology focused on showing how resources could be limiting factors. A limiting factor is a variable in a region that, despite the limits or settings of any other variable, will limit the carrying capacity of that region to a certain number. Manifest Function- A manifest function is explicitly stated and understood by the participants in the relevant action. The manifest function of a rain dance is to produce rain, and this outcome is intended and desired by people participating in the ritual. This could also be defined as emic with cognized models. Neofunctionalism- This term represents a productive but short-lived 1960s revision of structural- functionalism. Neofunctionalism attends explicitly to the modeling of systems-level interactions, especially negative feedback, and assigns primary importance to techno-environmental forces, especially environment, ecology, and population (Bettinger 1996). Within neofunctionalism, culture is reduced to an adaptation, and functional behaviors are homeostatic and deviation counteracting, serving to maintain the system at large (Bettinger 1996:851). Neofunctional well being is measured in 4 Role of Ecological Anthropologists in the Debate of Environmentalism Anthropology tangible currencies, such as population density, that relate to fitness (as in evolutionary biology) (Bettinger 1996). Optimal forging theory- This theoretical perspective examines forging methods from the cost/benefit angle (Dove and Carpenter 2008). Analysis of this sort allows for researchers to determine the choices and logic behind changes in forging methods. Swidden agriculture/shifting cultivation- Also known as slash-and-burn agriculture, this type of farming involves burning new forest for planting. Burning the forest, which is difficult in tropic and sub-tropic regions, mixes the top layer of soil allowing for nutrients to reach the cultigens (Dove and Carpenter 2008). According to Dove and Carpenter (2008), even though there is minimal ecological destruction and people are able to generate a high rate of food production, there are still many misconceptions about the practice (Dove and Carpenter 2008). Synchronic Study- Rappaport conducted synchronic studies. These are short-term investigations that occur at one point in time and do not consider historical processes. Interesting facts There are good reasons for anthropologists to be concerned with environmental policy. The recent trend toward anthropological engagement with environmentalism was not at all inevitable there is a rather sharp discontinuity between the ecological anthropology of the 1960s and early 1970s relative to those in other disciplines, anthropologists have come rather late to the study of environmental movements. One could point to a number of other theoretical trends that have been of significance in contributing to our present interest in environmentalism. 5 Role of Ecological Anthropologists in the Debate of Environmentalism Anthropology Efforts to understand the phenomenon of globalization and the forms of articulation between ‘‘the local’’ and globalizing processes have also been of significance. The differences between the old and the new ecological anthropology involve policy and value orientation, application, analytic unit, scale, and method. Thomas R. Malthus is the author of Essay on Population (1798), which greatly influenced Charles Darwin. Steward developed the cultural ecology paradigm and introduced the idea of the culture core. White’s principle preoccupation was with the process of general evolution, and he was best known for his strict materialist approach Marvin Harris completed fieldwork in Africa and Brazil, but he was best known for his development of cultural materialism. Roy A. Rappaport was responsible for bringing ecology and structural functionalism together. Vayda, Andrew P specializes in methodology and explanation at the interface between social and ecological science. Robert McC. Netting wrote about agricultural practices, household organization, land tenure, warfare, historical demography, and cultural ecology Harold Conklin is most noted within ecological anthropology for showing that slash-and-burn cultivation under conditions of abundant land and sparse population is not environmentally destructive. Emilio F. Moran is a specialist
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