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Helen Kopnina, Eleanor Shoreman-Ouimet

Ethnobiology and the New Environmental Anthropology

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315768946.ch3 E. N. Anderson Published online on: 12 Aug 2016

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:36 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781315768946, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315768946.ch3 or permission. exploitative inmorethanafew cases.Usefulplantswereadoptedwithoutcompensation of learningusefulknowledge fromothercultures.Inthecolonialperiod,thisbecame as astageofspecificityparadigm, andof“appropriation,”becauseitwaslargelyamatter had todrawheavilyonfolkwisdom fortheirmaterial.MarjaEloheimo(2013)refersto this Ethnobiology beganwiththe first detailedrecordingsofbiologicalknowledge.Earlyscholars chapter isstructuredaccordingtoHunn’susefuldivisions. uses. However,muchoftheinterestinfieldhasshifted to thelaterconcerns.Thepresent The vastmajorityofethnobiologicalaccountstodayremain documentationsofnamesand and MedinaTzuc2005;HunnSelam1990;Turneretal. 1990andotherworks). Majnep andBulmer1977)orcooperatingwithacademics incoauthoredworks(Anderson their ownethnobiologicaltexts(BernardandSalinasPedraza 1989;SaemMajnep2007; (1992). Afourthperiodemergedfromalltheabove,inwhichIndigenouspeoplesarewriting of ethnoscientificandecologicalanthropology;apioneerinthiseffortwasVictorToledo came withtheexpansionofethnosciencetoincludeethnoecology,andsubsequentfusion science” movementofthe1950s(seee.g.Conklin1957;Sturtevant1964).Athirdperiod cognitive, linguistic,andculturaltheoriestoplantanimalknowledge,inthe“ethno- a longperiodofrecordingnamesanduses.Asecondphasebeganwiththeapplication environmental science,naturalhistory,andpsychology. worldview, andontology,hastendedtomergewithorblendintopoliticalecology, environmental knowledgeandwisdom.Ithasthusexpandedtoinvestigatecosmology, with theancienttraditionsofsmall-scalesocietiestooneconcernedallaspects widely inclusive,andmultidisciplinary.Thefieldhasrapidlyevolvedfromoneconcerned Ethnobiology hasmovedthroughseveralstages:descriptive,cognitive-analytic,ecological, None ofthelaterstagesreplacedearlierones.Theysimply added newtasksandinquiries. Eugene Hunn(2007)hasdividedthehistoryofethnobiologyintofourstages.Firstcame THE NEW ENVIRONMENTAL ETHNOBIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY Collecting knowledge E. N. Anderson Introduction Introduction 3 31

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:36 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781315768946, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315768946.ch3 of “theprimitive.” However,evenatthe dawn ofmodernanthropology, thiswasnota (Malinowski 1935). thorough, excellentworkon gardeningandrelatedactivitiesintheTrobriandIslands Bronislaw Malinowskiincluded muchdatainhisgeneralworks,andwroteanentire, local loreincludedvarying,but usuallyconsiderable,amountsofmaterialonethnobiology. civilizations. Norhavealcoholicdrinksbeenneglected(McGovern 2009).. ancient Egypt(seee.g.Manniche1989),Mesopotamia,China, Greece,andotherancient archeologists recordeddata(Ford2011;Pearsall2001),with rapidlygrowingresearchon “ethno-” termswerecoinedlater,followingHarshberger’s usage.Bothethnographersand cultures. JohnHarshbergercoinedtheterm“ethnobotany” in1895(Ford2011).Theother considerable ethnobiologicalcontent. de laVega(1987,originalc.1600)andotherwritersofInca descentproducedworkswith produced agreatethnobotany(1964,fromsixteenth-century manuscript).InPeru,Garcilaso ethnobiological material.OneIndigenousMexican,theNahua writerMartindelaCruz, Alarcón (1982,originalc.1600)transcribedIndigenoustextsthatincludevaluable (1959 [1577])andSahagún(1956,1950–1969)drewheavilyonNativeadvisors.Ruizde which involvedworkingwithNativeAmericanconsultants,artists,andwriters.Hernández significant intermsofactualethnobiologicalexplorationwastheSpanisheffortMexico, European scholarswerebringingittoEurope,translatingthegreatmedicaltexts.More medicine (Li2003). Gangmu ofLiShizhen,appearedin1593,andremainsstandardtothisdayChinese Chinese undertheMongolEmpire.Thegreatestherbalinimperialtimes, subsequently; Li1979). c. 300 totally absent.Theophrastus’ancientGreekbotany(Theophrastus1916,originallywritten actually writtenaround100 description ofusefulandvaluableSoutheastAsianplantswrittenin304 early in theNearEastandlaterEurope.InChina,asimilarlyhugeliteraturefollowed times acknowledged.AvastliteraturepursuanttoTheophrastusandDioscoridesgrewup Hongjing inthesixthcentury. (“Divine Farmer”),whosupposedlylivedinthetwenty-eighthcentury folk knowledge.Thisherbalwasnamedaftertheox-headedgodofagriculture,ShenNong as theShenNongHerbal(Yang1998),China’sequivalentofDioscorides,drewheavilyon (Collins 2000). steadily increasedthenumberofherbsanddetailsrecordedabouttheirmedicaluses the mostinfluentialmedicalbotanyofalltime,inspiringtwomillenniastudiesthat local communitiesaroundtheMediterranean(Riddle1985);thisherbalwastobecome herbal inthesecondcentury,drewonhisenormousanddetailedknowledgegatheredfrom the differentvaluesoftreesforfirewoodandtimber.PedaniusDioscorides,composinghis Many colonialandsettlervoices reducedIndigenouspeopletothecategoryof“survivals” In the“GoldenAge”ofethnography,earlytwentieth century,vastcompilationsof Toward theendofnineteenthcentury,scholarsdiscovered traditionalsmall-scale At thesametimethatMongolswerebringingNearEasternmedicinetoChina, An encyclopediaofNearEasternmedicine,theHuihuiYaofang,wascompiledfor Even intheearliestrecordedhistoryofethnobotany,Indigenousvoicehasneverbeen Later Greek,Arab,Chinese,andIndiansciencedrewheavilyonfolkknowledge,some- The earlyChinesewerelesscandidabouttheirsources,butitseemsclearthatsuchworks bencao (“basicherbal”)works.AnearlyethnobotanyistheNanfangCaomuZhuang,a BC ) wasalreadyusingandcitinglocalknowledgesystems,includingsuchmattersas AD , theneditedandupdatedbythegreatChinesepolymathTao E. N. Anderson 32 AD BC (thoughupdated . Theherbalwas Bencao

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:36 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781315768946, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315768946.ch3 monumental ethnographerandethnobiologist(e.g.BarbeauBeynon1987). to rescuefromtheshadowsTsimshianchiefWilliamBeynon,whonowemergesasa the nextgenerationtotrulyIndigenousworldviews.ItwasleftMarjorieHalpin(1978) [1927]). Thisturnedouttobebasictherisingdiscipline,sinceitthoroughlyintroduced was trainedbytheDanishanthropologistKaiBirket-Smith(Rasmussen1931,1932,1999 ethnobiologists, andthegreatGreenlanderethnographerethnobiologistKnudRasmussen also J.WesleyPowell,headoftheBureauAmericanEthnology,trainedNative Studies attheUniversityofWashington(seeCoté2010;Sapir1922).NotonlyBoas,but chah-nulth, nowhasagreat-granddaughter,CharlotteCoté,teachingNativeAmerican His mostforthcomingIndigenousconsultantandcoauthor,TomSayach’apisoftheNuu- industrious ofhisstudentswasEdwardSapir,whodiedratheryoung,leavingmuchmaterial. consultants torecordthousandsmore(e.g.BoasandHunt1902–1905,1906).Themost La Flesche1906;1921–1930). ethnobiological recordingwasFrancisLaFlesche,anOmahaanthropologist(Fletcherand 1920). SeveralNativeAmericanethnographersworkedduringthisperiod;notablefor solely ofrecordingnamesanduseswithoutindigenoussystemscosmologies(seeCushing Indigenous systemsofknowledgeintheirentiretywiththesortethnobotanythatconsisted universal approach.Asearlyasthe1870s,FrankCushingcontrastedhisattemptstocapture Marvin Harris (1968). Harriscitedthestudy byDuaneMetzgerandG.Williams (1966)of negotiation anddebate,butthey canbestableforlongperiodsoftime. Hunn (1982),andotherscholars provedthatfolkclassificationsystemsdoemergefrom ambiguity (Bourdieu1977,1990). HistoricalandlinguisticresearchbyCecilBrown(1986), or lesstransientresultsofan often chaoticprocessofchange,interaction,negotiation, and anthropology asafield.Critics,however,showedthathuman thoughtstructurescanbemore oppositions andorderingswhichImmanuelKant(1978[1798]) identifiedwhenheinvented they weregettingatstructuresofthought,orleastlanguage. shifting impactsonpsychology,informationscience,andanthropology. Ethnoscientistsfelt “cognitive revolution”(Gardner1985)wastakingplaceatthis point,withenormousparad systems. Atthetime,cognitivepsychologywasdeveloping, andinfluencinglinguistics.The at leastthefulldenotationalmeanings,oftermsinlocal languages andtheirclassification thought atthetime),andstructuralanthropology(seeLévi-Strauss 1962,1963[1958]). informed bystructurallinguistics,cognitivepsychology (which emphasizedstructuresof in herthinking,butapplicablehereaswell,sincetheearlyethnoscientistswerehighly new conceptatthetime.Eloheimodefinesastructuralparadigm,morerelatedtoethnoecology this periodalso,withenormousattentiondevotedtodefiningandmodelingecosystems—a with asystemicparadigminformingit.Thedominatedecologyduring for thesubjectoftheirwork.Eloheimo(2013)seesthisasaphasestudyingclassification, Conklin (1957,2007)andCharlesFrake(1980).Thegroupcoinedtheterm“ethnoscience” studies ofbotany,zoology,andothermatters,includingpath-breakingbyHarold systems oftheMicronesians(Gladwin1995;Goodenough1953).Thesewerefollowedby Ethnoscience crystallizedafterWorldWarII.Thefirstworkwasactuallyonthenavigation Franz BoasrecordedthousandsofpagestextsandencouragedNativeAmerican Ethnoscience wascriticized at thetimeforattentiontoarcanematters,especiallyby Claude Lévi-Strauss’srelatedstructuralistprogramreduced thoughttotherational Much oftheinterestatthistimewasinfinding“nativecategories”: thefullmeanings,or Ethnobiology and environmental anthropology andenvironmental Ethnobiology Ethnoscience 33 igm- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:36 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781315768946, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315768946.ch3 Bernard 2006;Frake1980). Geertz, Ingold(2011),andotherphenomenologicalanthropologists (Andersonetal.2011; add textualanddiscourseanalysis,depthinterviewing, interpretationinthetraditionof photographs, orcomparablefielddata(forlargeranimals). biological methods,notablycollectionofvoucherspecimens (forplantsandinsects)or such asfocusgroups,fieldchecking,andtraditionalparticipant observation;andtoessential knowledge systemsingeneral.Theseareaddedtomoretraditional social-sciencemethods studies goontodevelopsomeideaoflocalclassificationsystems, cosmologicalsystems,and of usingrepeatedfieldwalksoverdesignatedroutesisnowalsostandardpractice.Most meanings ofthewordsright,usingframeelicitationandsimilarmethodology.Thetechnique serious attemptstousethemethodologydevelopedbyethnosciencepioneers:get methodology. Allrespectablestudiesoftraditionalenvironmentalknowledgenowmake Plotkin 1993,2000). plants (bioprospecting)followed,withhighhopesofmajormedicalbreakthroughs(seee.g. experimentation, hasbecomeanethnobotanyjournal.Apeakinthesearchformedicinal Economic Botany,formerlyapracticaljournalofagriculuralandhorticulturalexploration Amadeo Rea[1983,1997,1998,2007],foradifferentbiologicaltradition).Thejournal (1996) provideanexcellentintroductiontoethnobotanyfromthistradition.(Seealso of aDiscipline(1995)givesfascinatingandidiosyncraticviewthisera.BalickCox advocate AndrewWeil.ThebookbySchultesandVonReisAltschul,Ethnobotany:Evolution Robert Bye,PaulCox,WadeDavis,andMarkPlotkin,tosaynothingofalternativemedicine generation ofethnobotanistswhoarenowleadersinthefield,includingMichaelBalick, Amazon, andbecomeinterestedinmedicalpsychotropicplants.Hetrainedawhole Richard EvansSchultesatHarvardinthe1950sto1980s.hadworked ecology appearedatthistime,inventedbyEricWolfin1972. power, anddebate(Anderson1972).Becauseofsuchrealizations,thefieldpolitical functionalist harmony.Wenowseehumanecologyandethnobiologyasfieldsforconflict, to treatlocalsocietiesasiftheywereisolated,self-containedunits,slowchange,livingin best zoologicaltestimony,thestateheldandcourtruledthatwhaleswerefish. New York,whilemammalfatwasnot.Itwillsurprisenoonetolearnthat,inspiteofthe fish oramammal.Whaleoilwasmajorcommodityatthetime,andtaxedin a trialinNewYork1818(Burnett2007).Theconcernedwhetherwhalewas construction. Amorehumorousexampleofclassificationthatmadeadifferenceoccurredin scale, firewood,thenasnow,wastheleadinguseofwood—wellaheadpapermakingor occupied hoursperweek,andsometimesday,ofMayatime.Onaworldwide Tzeltal Mayafirewoodknowledge.Harriswasapparentlyunawarethatgathering which stemsfrom CarlSauer’sbrilliantwork intheearlytwentiethcentury (Sauer1963; and Hunn2010).Ethnoecology mergedwithawiderconcernplacesandlandscapes, weather andclimate,other ecologicalsubjects( Johnson andDavidson2011; studied. Ethnobiologistsnow look athowpeopleclassifyenvironmentalfeatures:soiltypes, Ethnoecology grewnaturally fromethnobiology,addingecologytothelistofthings More formalstudiesaddtechniqueslikepilesortsandLikert scales;morehumanisticones The majorlegacyoftheethnosciencephaseorperiodinethnobiologicalresearchlies The importanceofbiologytoethnosciencereachedawholenewlevelwiththework One problemwithethnoscience,asmostanthropologyatthattime,wasitstendency Ethnoecology E. N. Anderson 34

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:36 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781315768946, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315768946.ch3 Bird 2008;Bliege Birdetal.2012).Aboriginal burninghasbeenrestored insomeareas fire, andhealthyanimalpopulations dependedontheplantgrowth(seee.g.BliegeBird and from burningtheenvironment, thentheyfoundthathealthyplantgrowthdepended on reasons (Brugger2009).In Australia, whitesettlersfirststoppedtheAboriginalpeople well-to-do whitesarefarfrom safe.Theytoomaybesummarilydisplacedforbureaucratic are Indigenousorimpoverished groupsthatcanillaffordthelossoftheirlands.However, often displacedlocalcommunities(Brockingtonetal.2008;West et al.2006).Usually,these America andtwenty-first-centuryAmazonia(Anderson2014). having anobviousneedtosaveit;thisistruefromancient Polynesiatonineteenth-century 2002). Pioneersettlersinparticulararedestructive,notknowing thelocalsystemandnot Simmons 2002),andmostaresomewhereinbetween(Anderson 2014;Beckermanetal. 2013), somearetotallyindifferenttoconservation(Alvard 1995; Alvardetal.1997;Kayand with nature,”areequallywrong.Somegroupsmodelconservers (Pinkaew2001;Wang several generationsof“mere”fieldexperiencebecauseitwasn’t inthetextbook. privileged classislittlehelpwhenanewly-mintedMAinenvironmental studiesisdismissing unpublished research;Breslow2011;Hedrick2007).Itappearsthatbeingamemberof by urbanbiologists.Severalexcellentrecentstudiesreportthis(Argandoña2012and educated whitemalesoftenhavetheirfieldknowledgesubjectedtodisrespectanddisapproval Nadasdy 2004,2007).However,Indigenouspeoplearenotalone.Itturnsoutthateven expect, Indigenousknowledgeismostoftendevaluedandevenheldincontempt(e.g. with thelocalpeople’sfieldexperience(withoutbook-learning).Asonewould,sadly, people. Typically,thesecontrastthebiologists’book-learning(withoutfieldexperience) for theirenvironment(IstominandDwyer2009). important findingsincludetheextremecomplexityofmentalmapsthatlocalpeoplecanhave volume seriesDenevan2001,Doolittle2000,WhitmoreandTurner2001).Interesting traditional orpre-modernresourcemanagement(e.g.M.K.Anderson2005;andthethree- (Breslow 2011;Brugger2009).Landscaperesearchhasledtomajorregionalsynthesesof and urbanwhiteAmericanscanbealmostasdistantuncomprehendingofeachother classic it. ThisliteratureusuallycontrastsIndigenousandsettlersocieties,asinVeronicaStrang’s perceive thelandasopposedtowaysthatnewsettlersorvisitorsfromoutside overwhelming.) settlers by1920.(Thepopulationdensitiesweresimilar;wealthdifferencesnot century; thelatterledtoeasternUnitedStatesbeing90percentdeforestedbyEuropean idea wasinstrumentalinkeepingSoutheastAsia90percentforesteduntilthelatetwentieth them, ratherthanseeingthemasmeretimberorclutteronthelandscape.Theformer On theotherhand,itdoesmatterifonebelievesthattreeshavepowerfulgoodspiritswithin animal movingabout(asmanytraditionalculturesteach).Theassumedcausemaynotmatter. expanding orshrinking(asmanygeologistsusedtobelieve),agiantunderground becomes averycomplicatedmatterofintegratingperception,cognition,andaction. How peopleseethelandscapeisdeterminedbybothsocialandecologicalfactors.Management and socialproductionofspace(andsometimestime)isacriticallyimportantquestiontostudy. Tuan 1969).Landscapesaretakentobehuman-influencedenvironments,inwhichthecultural Another concerninvolvesenvironmentaljustice(Anderson 2010).Conservationistshave The viewsof“savages”aswastefulwreckers,or“ecologically noble”and“inharmony Many studieshighlightthenon-meetingofmindsbetweenurbanbiologistsandlocal An issueofinteresthasbeenthestrikingdifferenceinwaysthattraditionalpeople Earthquakes happenwhetheronebelievestheyareduetocontinentaldrift,theearth Uncommon Ground(1997)andPaulNadasdy’sHuntersBureaucrats(2004),butrural Ethnobiology and environmental anthropology andenvironmental Ethnobiology 35

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:36 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781315768946, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315768946.ch3 and metaphysics. Mostearlyanthropologists wouldhavedismissed the thoughtthat America andmodernecological actionthere(LockyerandVeteto2013). or othersocieties.Forinstance, JoshuaLockyerandJamesVetetohavestudiedAppalachian Many Westernscholarshaveturned totheirownrootsinruralAmerican,British,European practice. Westsays: (2006, 2012)hasproducedexcellent,trenchantstudiesof localecologicalknowledgeand accounts oftheNuu-chah-nulthworldview,whichisheavily involvedwiththeanimalworld. Richard Atleo(2004,2011),EarlMaquinnaGeorge(2003), andKi-Ke-Inprovidedetailed uses ittoinformbiologicalscience(e.g.Pierotti2011).TheNuu-chah-nulthanthropologists zoologist RayPierottinotonlybringsNativeAmericanknowledgeintothemainstream;he linguistic lines,takingaccountofIndigenousparadigmsandscientifictheories.NativeAmerican involves realrelationshipsbetweenpeopleworkingacrossculturesandsocial and birdknowledge(SaemMajnep2007;SaemBulmer1977). collaborator SaemMajnep,ofhighlandPapuaNewGuinea,producedbooksonmammal Salinas Pedraza1989)producedasuperbethnography,andBulmer’sfriendfield books. RussellBernard’sMezquitalValleyconsultantJesúsSalinasPedraza(Bernardand published adetailedstudyofYakamaethnoscience(HunnandSelam1990). experts (e.g.Turneretal.1990).EugeneHunnandYakamaNationleaderJamesSelam all donewithacknowledgementandmostactualcoauthorshipofIndigenous University ofVictoriainBritishColumbiahasproducedaliteral5-footshelfethnobotanies, social scientistCharlesMenziesinBritishColumbia(Menzies2006).NancyTurnerofthe minority anthropologistJianhuaWanginChina(Wang2013)totheTsimshianenvironmental without losingtheirtraditionalcultureorroleinit.ExamplesrangefromtheAkha countless Indigenouspeoplefromallpartsoftheworldwhoarefull-fledgedPhDs—often Today ethnobiologistsregularlycoauthorbookswithfieldconsultants.Therearealso “culture’s services.” Just aswearenowawareof“nature’sservices”(Daily1997),needtobe to tourists.Withoutsuchactivity,thesavannahsgrowupbrushandherbivoresdecline. stock; andMaasaiburninggrazingopenthefieldsforvastherbivoreherdssofamiliar Igoe, ongoingresearch).TheMaasaidonothuntexcepttokillpredatorsthattaketheir open, causinglossofAfricanhuntingdogsandotherwildlife(Brockington (M. K.Anderson2005;Minnich2008),butcontrolledburnsremainrare. (Anderson 2014).ThesamebasicfactsaboutfirepreventionholdforCalifornia Many nowgofarbeyondplant namelistsandintoIndigenousontology,epistemology, Many “outsider”writersonlocalknowledgedrawIndigenous accounts.PaigeWest All thisexemplifiesadevelopingparadigmthatEloheimo(2013)calls“relational”;it Ethnobiologists alsoworkwithIndigenousindividualstopublishtheirownacademic In EastAfrica,displacingtheMaasailedtodeteriorationoflandstheyhadkept and thatfailtoshowthembeaesthetic,poetic,deeply social. translate localenvironmentalunderstandingsandactionsin ways thatgenerifythem rush toshowhowexternalstructuresaffectlocalsocioecological lives—hasbegunto My worryisthatenvironmentalanthropologyintheguiseof politicalecology—inits Indigenous involvement E. N. Anderson 36 (West 2005:639) et al.2008;

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:36 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781315768946, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315768946.ch3 istic studyoftheecologically similar ShuarofPeru(2013). relatively biology-orientedstudy oftheBaríColombia(2013)withKohn’smorehuman- imagine thebenefitaccruing as scholarsinterfacestudiessuchBeckermanandLizarralde’s of “humanistic”and“scientistic” anthropologyisfataltosuchunderstanding.Onecaneasily people (whoareoftenbiologists oranthropologiststhemselves)isroutine.Theopposition many others,inmodelstudies. Collaborationofbiologists,anthropologists,andIndigenous and isnowexemplifiedbysuchscholarsasNancyTurner, GaryNabhan(e.g.1985),and pretation, withbiologicalgrounding.Thistypeoffusionhas beendonesincethefieldbegan, Spiritual Ecology(2012;seealsoAnderson2010;West2012). political ecology,FikretBerkeshasconstructedSacredEcology (2008)andLeslieSponsel to studyreligionanditsroleinconstructingmanaging thenon-humanrealms.From from thatintoethicalbehavior(Durkheim1995[1912]). Thisrealizationhasledmany in theDurkheimiansenseofcommunitycooperationgrowing intoculturalknowledgeand stand thesedeeplessons,fromtheirearlyexperience.Indigenous ontologyisoftenreligion, at thenaturalworld.Indigenouswritersclearlyhaveadvantage: theyknowandunder- rocks becausemovingfornogoodreasonisdisrespectful. even extendstorocks;ayoungMongolianfriendofminefeltguiltyaboutcollectingpretty non-human worldbecausethelatterisconsideredtobepartofsociety.Mongolshuteekh of allthesewordsisrespectforone’seldersandsocialworld;itextendedtothe “respect,” forthispurpose(Wang2013andpersonalcommunication).Thefocalmeaning Lopsan 1997;Metzo2005).TheAkhaofSoutheastAsiausethewordtaqheeq-e,alsomeaning and usage(personalresearchinMongolia;emailfromMarissaSmith,8July2013;Kenin- regard: basicallyitmeans“respect.”TheMongolshuteekhandkhundlekharesimilarinforce ship withnon-humanrealms.Atleo(2004)discussestheNuu-chah-nulthwordisaakinthis and politics. the commonreductionto“merevictims”inliteratureoninternationalaid,development, in Colombia.LikeWest,hestressestheagencyandadaptabilityoflocalcultures,decries masterful workonlocalagency,powerdisparities,andon-the-groundwisdomdifference Willerslev inSiberia(2007).ArturoEscobar(2008)hassynthesizedmanyapproaches Other noteworthyworkincludesthatofDeborahRoseinAustralia(2000,2005)andRane Eduardo ViveirosdeCastro(2015),MarioBlaser(2009,2010),andKohn(2013). breaking. FarmoreradicalistheworkonIndigenousontologiesbyrecentwriterssuchas Colombian anthropologistGerardoReichel-Dolmatoff(1971,1976,1996)waspath- Aristotle, withitssmallnearbystars,solidrocks,andPrimeMover.Theresearchofthe foretell thefuture,andvisionarysnakes.Neitherareclosetohard-headedontologyof The ShuarontologyrecordedbyKohn(2013)includesjaguarspirits,dogdreamsthat quarks, electrons,photons,andother“particles,”thequarksbeingboundupintobaryons. not, andwhatmightbe.Westernscientificontologyholdsthatrealthingsaremadeupof and fatesthereof,basicprinciplesbehindall. 1984). rather informal,setofeverydayperceptions,beliefs,andunderstandingstheworld(Kearney such asPaulRadin(1916,1927,1957)realizedit.Worldviewnormallysuggestsageneral, non-Western small-scalesocietiescouldhavesuchabstractphilosophy,thoughearlyscholars This reinforcestheneedforaunitedbioculturalfield:culturaldocumentationandinter- Among thedeepestlessonsfromtraditionalsocietyarethosethatteachushowtolook Many societiesusewordsbroadlytranslatedas“respect”toconstructtheirmoralrelation- Recently, muchattentionhasbeengiventoontology:thestudyofwhatis,is Cosmology referstobeliefsaboutthewiderenvironment—heavensandearth,origins Ethnobiology and environmental anthropology andenvironmental Ethnobiology 37

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:36 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781315768946, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315768946.ch3 Indians (M.K. Anderson2005)areasamazing and,intheirway,asbeautiful asChartres of theYucatecMaya(E.N. Anderson 2005),theAkha(Wang2013),andCalifornia remain trulycreative.Thecomplex, intricate,perfectlytunedlandscapemanagementsystems medical care,orstarvingpeople todeathasapointofpolicy(Sen1982,1992).Yetpeople There isnothingworthy, oftheHerderianhumanspirit,aboutgenocide,ordenying with modernhorrorsthatare farfromtheadmirablesmalltraditionsthatHerdervalorized. fallen intothetrapofturningitssubjectsmerevictims. Weoftenfindourselvesdealing diversity—go directlybacktoHerder. only culturalrelativity(Brown2008),butmodernmulticulturalism andcelebrationof tion, andadmirationbecauseofthat.Tomyknowledge, all statementstothateffect—not and folktraditionsareachievementsofthehumanspirit, anddeserverespect,recogni- was thefirstpersontomaintain,unflinchinglyandwithout qualifications,thatallcultures came fromanotherEnlightenmentGerman:JohannGottfried Herder(Herder2002).He View (1978[1798])basicallyinventedthefield.Thevisionthat has trulymadeanthropology Anthropology waslaunchedbyImmanuelKant,whosefromaPragmaticPointof of internationalpatentlawanddrugdevelopment. these agreementsmaynotalwaysbelegallyenforceable,inthecorruptandcut-throatworlds the UniversityofHawaii,haveworkedoutaccommodationswithlocalpeople.However, provide sourcesforimprovementstomodernpatentlaws. of protectedknowledge,taughtonlytoapprentices.Highlystructuredsystemslikethesecan displays. Thesearestructuredalongkinshiplines.TheYucatecMayahavevaryingdegrees United Stateshaveelaborateownershipsystemsforsongs,dances,ceremonies,designs,and for useandsharingofknowledge.PacificNorthwestCoastsocietiesinCanadathe is noexcusefornotmakingdataavailable.Manytraditionalsocietieshavetheirownrules majority ofpeopleworldwideareliterate,andmosthavesomeaccesstotheInternet,there community. Andlegitimatescholarsoftenfailtopublishtheirresults.Nowthatthevast untrained anthropologistsinflictannoyance,tactlessbehavior,andevenbiopiracyona such thatanyonecancallhim-orherselfan“anthropologist.”Manyself-appointed bioprospecting entirely(Hayden2003). (Soto Laveaga2009).Inconsequenceofthatandothercases,Mexicohasshutdown biopiracy, sinceMexicohadessentiallysignedoff,throughaseriesofill-consideredagreements Mexican yamandnowpossiblythemostprofitabledruginworld;thiswasnotoutright and Thompson2007;Shiva1997). patent thename“basmati”foraricethatwasnotevenrealbasmati(Aoki2008;Muchit cases: attemptstopatentneemoil(useduniversallyforthousandsofyearsinIndia)and been blockedbydesperateandexpensiveactionoftheIndianGovernmentinatleasttwo is subjecttopredatoryappropriation(Brown1998,2003;Shiva1997).This“biopiracy”has a worldofpatentingandcorporatecontrolpatents,anyIndigenouslocalknowledge One challengetoethnobiologicalresearchistheproblemofintellectualpropertyrights.In Anthropology hastodaybecomesoconcernedwithpower andpoliticsthatithasoften In manyareas,individualsandinstitutions,includingtheMissouriBotanicalGarden Problems ofbiopiracyarecompoundedbythelacklicensingwithinanthropology, In anearliercase,Mexicolosttheincomefrombirthcontrolpill,developeda E. N. Anderson A challenge What next? 38

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