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Home , Psilocybe mexicana, Psilocybe semilanceata, Psilocybe stuntzii, Psilocybe zapotecorum

J. AL TERE-O STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS, Vol. 3(1),1977-78

PSYCHOTROPIC AND THE ALTERATION OF CONSCIOUSNESS, I: THE ASCENT OF PSILOCYBIAN CONSCIOUSNESS

STEVEN HAYDEN POLLOCK University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio

ABSTRACT Psilocybian mushroom consciousness is considered initially from a historical perspective in Mesoamerica, which includes a resume of events leading to the discovery of modern Mexican sacred mushroom rites. The subsequent course of psychotropic mushroom use in is documented and its spread to other areas of Latin America described. Attention is then focused on Australia, where magic ingestion reached epidemic proportions and incited strong governmental attempts to curb the phenomenon. The surge of psilocybian mushroom awareness in Canada and the United States is explored along with the ecological relationship between these fungi and man.Finally, the recent impact of psilocybian mushrooms on mycophobia is noted.

Prelude This article is the first of a series that will focus on psychotropic mushrooms as they relate to the alteration of consciousness. Future communications will be directed to such aspects as a consideration of the psychoactive with their intriguing but relatively little studied properties and an in depth look at psilocybian psychopharmacognosy. Psilocybian mushrooms are sporophores of fungi which biosynthesize the psychopharmacologically active compound psilocin (4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine). Psilocin is usually stored in the mushrooms as the phosphate derivative (4-phos- phoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine), and indeed "psilocybin" is the vernacular name by which most people know these mushrooms. But let's reflect way back, aeons ago, to some remote period in man's evolutionary history. It is not known when Homo sapiens first began to consume mushrooms as

15 16 / STEVEN HAYDEN POLLOCK part of an omnivorous diet, but an important lesson in survival was forth- coming. Primitive man had to become selective in mycophagy, for some mushrooms nourished his body while others violently poisoned his protoplasm. Still others unleashed profound effects on man's burgeoning consciousness, transporting his psyche to extraordinary experiential realms. The impact of these psychotropic mycoflora, with their great ability to induce visionary experiences, at the very least may have contributed to the formulation of religious ideas by primitive peoples [1] and probably served as a powerful impetus in the development of man's higher consciousness.

Psychotropic Mushroom Use in Mexico

SACRED MUSHROOM USE IN PRECONQUEST TIMES

Aztec (Mexica), Mixtec, Nahua, Maya, and to a lesser extent Otomi and Tarascan civilizations painted written records of their respective cultures on paper made from fig tree bark or on strips of scraped deerskin [2]. These codices, containing pictographic writing, ideographic symbols, and phonetic characters, comprise along with various other archaeological remains the main source of information about the life of these ancient indigenous Mesoamerican peoples. With the discovery of contemporary mushroom rites in Mexico, mushrooms portrayed in the codices assume spiritual Significance. The Vindobonensis, the most beautiful and important Mixtec codex, has obvious mushroom motifs, some in juxtaposition with maguey plants (Agave species) from which the indigenous fermented beverage pulque is made. An interpretation from this codex is that the important mythological deity Quetzalcoatl gave sacred mushrooms to man as food for psychogenic development just as he gave maize to man to sustain his corporeal existence [3]. It is noteworthy that a Mexican sacred mushroom, caerulescens Murrill, commonly grows in corn fields, and vital for growth of both maize and mushrooms is rain. Tlaloc, a deity of water in all its forms, was thus a principal part of the ancient Mexican pantheon. Teotihuacan was an early religious center in the Valley of Mexico and frescoes have been found in the ruins depicting mushrooms. For instance, the fresco of Tepantitla ' from the epoch of Teotihuacan III (300-600 A.D.) represents Tlaloc making rain with an inflorescence of mushrooms nearby [4]. The Aztecs were one of the great civilizations of Mesoamerica in preconquest times. They were astute botanists and made use of a multitude of psychoactive plants. Especially important to these Nahuatl speaking peoples

1 A simulated reconstruction of this pre-Toltec fresco as envisioned by an artist is on a wall of the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City. PSILOCYBIAN MUSHROOM CONSCIOUSNESS / 17 were the intoxicating teonaruicatl ("God's mushrooms" or more figuratively "God's flesh"). The 16th Century Aztec Codex Magliabecchiano clearly portrays a scene in which a man who is partaking of mushrooms sits before a cluster of the sacred fungi with a demon behind him. These mushrooms were employed at the coronation festival of Moctezuma II in 1502 and as part of a show of good will were even offered to strangers allowed to attend the extravaganza. In 1519 Cortes conquered the Aztecs and an official province of the Spanish Inquisition was established in Mexico in 154l. Although the missionary Fray Bernadino de Sahagun was sufficiently interested in native beliefs, customs, and traditions to write a His to ria de las Casas de Nueva Espana (the "Florentine Codex"), Franciscan clergy with a general disregard for native heritage ardently began to convert the Aztecs and other indigenous peoples to Christianity. Festivals involving consumption of sacred mushrooms nevertheless apparently continued for awhile, commencing at night out on the plains and avoiding inspection by outsiders [5]. With severe religious persecution including a ruthless auto-de-fe in 1574, it is no wonder that surviving mushroom cults subsided into obscurity, not to be rediscovered until the Twentieth Century.

ANCESTRAL MUSHROOM CULT PROBABLY OCCURRED AMONG THE MAYA

There is no telling how much information about Maya culture was forever lost as a result of religious persecution during the Spanish Inquisition, but it appears to be considerable. Fray Diego de Landa conducted an infamous auto-de-fe in Mani, Yucutan in 1562 in which he set ablaze or otherwise destroyed with fervor Maya manuscripts, signs and scrolls of hieroglyphs, alters, and allegedly thousands of idols. This zealous prelate later wrote a Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan, which presents information about the Maya and has served as a "Maya Rosetta Stone" for glyph decipherment of the three Maya codices which are known to have survived the conflagration: the Codex Paris, the Dresdensis, and the Tro-Cortesianus (Codex Madrid). In addition, a copy of part of the Madrid Codex has been discovered and designated the "Galindo Codex" [6]. Curiously, there are glyphs in the "Galindo Codex" which do not correspond to the appropriate pages of the Madrid Codex and vice versa. Although psilocybian mushroom motifs have not been observed in Maya codices, a symbol which looks somewhat like a large mushroom with stylized wart-like protuberances is prominently featured in the Madrid Codex and "Galindo Codex" and a similar one occurs in the Dresden Codex.Lowy [7] has suggested that these symbols represent the fly-agaric, muscaria (1. per Fr.) Hooker, which is a common mushroom in the Guatemalan highlands, and that they may reflect past religious use of this fungus. 18 / STEVEN HAYDEN POLLOCK

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Figure 1. An "early preclassic" mushroom stone from the collection of R. G. Wasson as rendered by Robin Klause.

Despite the scant mushroom imagery noted in surviving Maya codices, unique archaeological evidence exists which strongly suggests that an ancestral mushroom cult once flourished in the culture of the highland Maya. Mushroom stone artifacts (Figure 1) have been found in the highlands of , San Salvador, and Tabasco and Veracruz in Mexico. Many of these appear to have been sculptured in the "middle pre classic" period (ca. 1000-300 B.C.) and some have been dated back even to the middle of the "early preclassic" period (ca. 2000-1000 B.C.) [4, 8, 9]. The quality of mushroom stone sculpturing degenerated after the "middle preclassic" period and by the end of the "late classic" period (ca. 600-900 A.D.) production of these stones ceased. The of a mushroom stone frequently contains a human effigy or portrays an animal such as the jaguar or toad. Some of these effigies provide still further clues that sacred mushrooms may have been utilized by the Maya. In Mexico a practice typically employed for preparation of sacred morning glory seeds (ololiuhqui) has been observed by Wasson in which a virgin sometimes grinds Heim on a metate and water is added prior to consumption [10]. There happens to be a mushroom stone which displays a young woman kneeling before a metate; another depicts a reclining human head in which the "face is striking because of its trance-like expression and the suggestion cannot escape us that the subject may be dreaming or hallucinating" [9]. PSILOCYBIAN MUSHROOM CONSCIOUSNESS / 19

It is intriguing that no contemporary mushroom cult has been found among the Maya, but Guzman has recently discovered four new presumably psycho- tropic species of Psilocybe in one valley of tropical rain forest in Veracruz [11] . This is an important, unprecedented find. All the indigenous Psilocybes previously described from Mexico are known to occur only in the mountains at much higher elevations, and this valley happens to be in a Maya zone. Remote villages in surrounding mountains offer great promise for future exploration.

EXTANT MUSHROOM RITES DISCOVERED

In 1915 Safford [12] proposed that the sacred mushrooms of Mexico did not exist and that the Sixteenth Century Spanish chroniclers had mistaken dried peyote buttons for mushrooms. Because of Safford's prestige as a botanist, his hypothesis was widely accepted. Bias Pablo Reko, a physician who did not agree with that hypothesis, began to search for remnants of a mushroom cult, which he believed was still in existence. In 1936, the anthropologist Roberto Weitlaner obtained sacred mushrooms at the village of Huautla de Jimenez in the Sierra Mazateca of northeastern Oaxaca and sent the specimens to Reko, who forwarded them to the Harvard Botanical Museum. Unfortunately, the mushrooms were in such poor condition that they could not be identified. In 1938, Reko and Schultes, an ethnobotanist studying native medicinal plants, collected the first useful specimens of teonandcatl near Huautla [13, 14]. Some of these fungi happened to be the cosmopolitan sphinctrinus (Fr.) Quelet, while the remainder of the collection was eventually determined to be Stropharia cubensis Earle, which is also known as (Earle) Singer. Also in 1938, the anthropologist Jean Bassett Johnson and his party in Huautla became the first outsiders to witness ritual ingestion of Mexican sacred mushrooms in modern times [15]. In 1953, a banker by the name of R. Gordon Wasson received a letter about the divine mushroom rites from Eunice Pike, a missionary who had been living in Huautla. That summer Gordon and Valentina Wasson commenced monumental field research in Mexico with Weitlaner as a guide. A ceremony was observed and voucher specimens of teonandcatl obtained. On a subsequent excursion during the night of June 29, 1955, R. G. Wasson and his photographer participated in a mushroom velada, being the first Caucasians in recorded history to ingest sacred mushrooms. Five evenings later V.P. Wasson and the Wassons' daughter sampled the mushrooms without the structure of a ritual setting. Expeditions continued and Roger Heirn, the renowned mycologist with whom the Wassons collaborated, began to publish the findings that most of the Mexican hallucinogenic mushrooms were previously un described species of Psilocybe [16-19]. Other mycologists soon 20 / STEVEN HAYDEN POLLOCK contributed to our knowledge about these mushrooms [20-22] and it became doubtful that Panaeolus was actually a sacred mushroom [4, 22] . By fall of 1957, compelling evidence had been obtained that rites were practiced not only by Mazatecs but also by contemporary descendents of the Aztecs in the Valley of Mexico, Chatinos, Chinantecs, Mijes, Nahuas, and Zapotecs [4]. The Mixtecs were also soon found to utilize divine mushrooms [23]. Sacred mushrooms are ritualistically consulted for a variety of purposes, such as to remove a hex or to determine the prognosis of illness, the location of missing or stolen articles, or the health of a distant loved one. In some ceremonies only the curandero or curandera ingests the mushrooms to serve as a medium through which the fungus can speak, whereas in others the shaman and his congregation eat mushrooms together. Observed modern rites have been strongly affected by acculturation; they represent a blending of ancient native beliefs and Christian doctrine [4, 24-26] .

PSILOCYBIAN MUSHROOM CONSCIOUSNESS SWEEPS THE WORLD AND MOMENTUM BUILDS IN MEXICO

Little could anyone have anticipated that what began as a humble enquiry into the role of mushrooms in human cultures would lead to a Twentieth Century worldwide renaissance in psychoactive mushroom consciousness. In 1957, an opus entitled Mushrooms Russia and History appeared in which the Wassons revealed the fruits of some thirty years of pioneering ethnomycolog- ical research and described some of their experiences in Mexico [8]. Coinciding with this classic tome, which unfortunately never received wide circulation due to the fact that it was published as a limited edition, the Wassons released accounts of their Mexican adventures for the general public [27, 28] . In Life magazine R. G. Wasson described the visions of his first psychedelic mushroom agape as follows [27] : We were never more wide awake, and the visions came whether our eyes were opened or closed. They emerged from the center of the field of vision opening up as they came, now rushing, now slowly, at the pace that our will chose. They were in vivid color, always harmonious. They began with art motifs, angular such as might decorate carpets or textiles or wallpaper or the drawing board of an architect. Then they evolved into palaces with courts, arcades, gardens-resplendent palaces all laid over with semiprecious stones. Then I saw a mythological beast drawing a regal chariot. Later it was as though the walls of our house had dissolved, and my spirit had flown forth, and I was suspended in mid-air viewing landscapes of mountains, with camel caravans advancing slowly across the slopes, the mountains rising tier above tier to the very heavens. The Wassons received many letters in response to these publications, PSILOCYBIAN MUSHROOM CONSCIOUSNESS / 21

including three descriptions of mushroom "poisoning" cases from Colorado, the Fiji Islands, and Poland which had features in common with their Mexican sacred mushroom experiences [29]. Indeed a diverse audience had been reached. Word of divine mushrooms was further spread abroad by magazines that took material from the feature in Life. One such magazine reprinted the piece in French, even duplicating in color the watercolor paintings of sacred fungi by and photographs which R. G. Wasson had used to illustrate his article [30]. Another, in an Italian story about the First Inter- national Conference on Psychopharmacology and Parapsychology, reproduced the painting of Psilocybe zapotecorum Heim and some of the photographs from the Life article [31]. Awareness in technologically advanced societies that certain mushrooms can catapult the human psyche into a fantastically beautiful and fascina ting realm of experience inspired an avant-garde adventuresome segment of the populace to explore mushroom induced alterations of consciousness. Sacred mushrooms of Mexico became legendary and gained an international reputation for excellence as hallucinogens. Foreign and domestic tourists began to visit remote areas of Mexico in search of mystical experience. By the early sixties, psychotropic mushrooms obtained from indigens in montane villages were being consumed in Mexico City. Magic mushroom quests usually included an excursion to the now classical village of Huautla de Jimenez, located over a mile high in rugged sierras. So many outsiders began to convene in Huautla seeking hallucinogenic mushrooms that the great economic potential of the sacred fungi became apparent to Mazatecs. The once revered sacraments soon became important items of tourist trade, and both genuine shamans and farceurs alike began performing mushroom ceremonies as a tourist attraction. By the mid-sixties, so many foreigners were journeying to the environs of Huautla that the phenomenon came to the attention of Mexican officials.Some despicable authorities eventually launched a campaign of harassment, even jailing some members of the Mazatec popula- tion in Huautla for catering to the foreign mushroom demand. In spite of the unfavorable political climate in Mexico, information about magic fungi continued to diffuse. , who had first ingested psychoactive mushrooms in Cuernavaca in 1960, later published a book describing his experiences and quoting extensively from Mushrooms Russia and History [32]. Leary, who as a proselytizer for the use of hallucinogenic drugs had gained a large popular following, thus contributed to this diffusion. At approximately the same time a book appeared by Castenada about his apprenticeship to a Yaqui sorcerer, Don Juan [33]. Castenada among other things was allegedly instructed in the use of "humito ," smoke resulting from combustion of magic mushroom dust, to alter consciousness. Although this and a subsequent book making use of "humito" do not appear to be based on actual ethnobotanical evidence and may be only fictional accounts, the public 22 / STEVEN HAYDEN POLLOCK fancy became enthralled with the spirit of Don Juan and a "separate reality" reachable via psychobotanicals [34]. Great numbers of people continued to flock to Huautla, the mecca for magic mushroom enthusiasts, "braving imprisonment and fines to penetrate this mushroom paradise ... [35]." Although the majority of tourists encountering the magic of the mushrooms were "hippies" [35], interested academicians also ventured to partake of the sacred fungal agape [36]. Mushroom tourism spread to other areas of Mexico as well and even became the saga of a fanciful book [37]. San Jose del Pacifico and Puerto Angel in the Zapotec zone, for example, became thriving mushroom centers. Presumably in an effort to promote tourism, the Mexican government for all practical purposes finally abandoned attempts to control mushroom use in Huautla and other areas of Oaxaca. Today, Huautla remains the "mushroom capital of the world," the mushrooms being a veritable symbol of the tourist trade. During the rainy season tourists are besieged by Mazatecs and mestizos, young and old, who want to sell mushrooms or arrange a ceremony. Also for sale is clothing embroidered with mushroom motifs and postcards with photographs of the sacred mushrooms and of native curers who employ them in magico-religious rites. The mushrooms most frequently for sale in Huautla are "derrumbes" (Psilocybe caerulescens Murill and its varieties), "pajaritos" (usually P. mexicana Heim and P. yungensis Singer & Smith), and San Isidro (S. cubensis Earle). Psilocybe zapotecorum Heim and P. candidipes Singer & Smith are also available. Nowadays, the term "pajarito" has become corrupted to signify any small specimen of a sacred mushroom save San Isidro, which seems to maintain a distinct identity. But there are nevertheless vendors who sell inactive species, sometimes under the name of San Isidro, to neophyte consumers. Mushrooms are usually sold by the "viaje" ("trip") and in September, 1976, the going rate in Huautla for a dose of mushrooms was about thirty pesos (at that time worth approximately a dollar and a half). The aging Maria Sabina was charging eighty pesos per "viaje" for "derrurnbitos" and ceremonies have been performed for as much as two-thousand pesos. In nearby villages prices for mushrooms are as a rule considerably less expensive. San Isidro, which has no known Mazatec name, appears to have been introduced to Mexico with cattle after the conquest. This species has been regarded in the Mazatec zone as inferior to indigenous sacred mushrooms with actual Mazatec names. The prestige of San Isidro, which is often much larger and sometimes more abundant than other sacred mushrooms, has increased markedly in recent years because of its economic value in mushroom tourism. This mushroom is also sold in other areas of Mexico, e.g., Xalapa, Veracruz, and is voraciously gathered by tourists near the Maya ruins at Palenque, Chiapas. Another coprophilous psilocybian species, Panaeolus cyanescens (Berkeley & Broome) Saccardo, is also collected in Chiapas by PSILOCYBIAN MUSHROOM CONSCIOUSNESS / 23 psychedelic mushroom hunters [38]. Mushroom tourism is still gaining momentum in Mexico.Psychomycological field studies by the author during the summer of 1976 in the Valley of Mexico have revealed that still another species, Psilocybe aztecorum Heim, has entered vendition. Also, it is now hunted by descendents of the Aztecs and tourists alike.

Latin American Expansion

It is uncertain how widespread psychotropic mushroom consciousness was in the New World in preconquest times, but as late as the Eighteenth Century it was noted by a Franciscan missionary that the Zurimaguas of the Peruvian Amazon utilized intoxicating fungi that grew on fallen trees with a red oil that was found nearby [4, 39]. Psilocybe yungensis is a reasonable candidate for the mushroom [39], but the nature of the red oil has remained a total mystery. Despite extensive Amazonian field studies, there are still no clues as to what became of the practice [40]. Because of the coprobious nature of San Isidro, this tropical and sub- tropical mushroom flourishes from sea level to well over a mile high in pastureland over much of the globe. First described from Cuba, this species had also been cited from such diverse areas as Tonkin (now North Vietnam), Florida, and prior to modern awareness of its psychoactive properties outside of Mexico. People who had become acquainted with San Isidro in Mexico had little difficulty recognizing it elsewhere throughout Latin America. In like Mexico, for example, word of the magic mushroom spread and multitudes of young persons left home in search of peace, love and a higher consciousness. Magic mushroom use became rampant throughout the country and many people shared communal living experiences in such idyllic settings as La Miel ("Honey") [41]. Weil enjoyed the pleasures of hongos Colombianos but failed to retain any voucher material for positive species identification, which requires expert microscopic examination [42]. In June, 1974, an excursion was taken to Colombia by the author complete with psychomycological field trials of San Isidro [43]: In the region of the tres fronteras, i.e., where Colombia, and converge on the magnificent Rio Amazonas, several of us bicycled to a local mushroom site after a torrential nocturnal rain (a frequent occurrence in the jungle) and found a fine crop of beautiful Stropharias .... We consumed mushrooms with a loaf of fresh bread and cheese we had brought along for the breakfast occasion. Soon after the mushrooms began to take effect, we went for an au naturel swim in a secluded lake. The setting was splendidly serene and tall exotic trees partially shaded us from the bright equatorial sun. By the time we made it back to 24 / STEVEN HAYDEN POLLOCK

Leticia, the intensity of intoxication induced by the fourteen tropical hongos I had eaten was so great that it became a major decision whether to sit in the sun or the shade. The phantasmagoria of color flashes superimposed on a panorama of solar diffraction produced by clouds blowing over the mighty Amazon was awesomely beautiful. After four and a half hours of a pleasant psychedelic experience, the tremendous exaltation passed as quickly as it had appeared, but my exhilarated mood lingered throughout the day. One mycophile had spent many years in Brazil and assured us that the use of these fungi was quite widespread there. We later met an Argentinean who had consumed similar mushrooms with milk, honey and bananas in a blender-made beverage in Iquitos, a jungle city in Peru. Thus it seems that people from many parts of South America are now enjoying these exquisitely natural delights.

The next morning I consumed a dozen freshly collected mushrooms in an omelet with tomatoes and other vegetables. The omelet was superb, but I was surprised that the transcendence from homeostatic to ecstatic consciousness was turbulent and even momentarily bewildering. Despite the strange psycho- dysleptic impact of the mushrooms, my new bearings were promptly secured and a powerful analeptic experience ensued. The psychedelic afterglow again persisted for the duration of the day. Although it had dissipated by twilight, that evening I particularly enjoyed the spectacle of bioluminescent flashes from myriads of fireflies which filled the tropical sky. Later in the itinerary, on the way to the picturesque archaeological zone at San Augustin, San Isidro exceeding eighteen centimeters in pileus diameter and Panaeolus cambodginiensis Ola'h & Heim were gathered [43], the latter hallucinogenic species only previously known from Cambodia. New magic mushroom species are turning up in Latin America too. For instance, Guzman [personal communication] has an undescribed bluing Psilocybe species from Bogota, Colombia and another from Sao Paulo, Brazil, but there is no indication that these have been employed by psychomycophiles for the alteration of consciousness.

An Eruption in Australia

San Isidro was reported for the first time from Australia in 1958 and appears to have been the cause of a number of accidental cases. In 1969 a bumper crop of this marvelous fungus sprang forth in southern Queensland following unusually heavy out of season rains. The legendary magic mushroom suddenly became a reality along the Gold Coast as an alert surfing community quickly began to reap the harvest. An epidemic of voluntary cerebral mycetismus soon erupted since transport businesses began supplying many major Australian cities with magic mushrooms from southern Queensland. Part of the bemushroomed surf cult apparently consumed too PSILOCYBIAN MUSHROOM CONSCIOUSNESS I 25

much of a good thing and slumped into a state of apathy toward life [44]. The epidemic waned but magic mushroom use became an endemic practice throughout Australia and many nearby land masses. The Queensland Governor in Council on May 8, 1971, thus proscribed Psilocybe cubensis and thereby placed this mushroom species per se under the same of restrictions as Cannabis sativa Linnaeus (one of the three species of marijuana) and Papaver somniferum Linnaeus (the opium poppy) [45]. Also in 1971,Australia's Central Crime Intelligence Bureau commenced a program to identify forensic samples of hallucinogenic mushrooms and to secure chemical analyses of the specimens as evidence for prosecution in court of persons charged with possession of psilocybin, a controlled drug. In spite of numerous convictions, psychoactive mushroom consciousness continued to grow. In Hobart, Tasmania, for example, dried psychedelic mushrooms were crushed and placed in gelatin capsules for retailing at six dollars each. The "ready availability of this hallucinogenic material effectively reduced the illicit market for LSD to the point where few, if any LSD sales were taking place in Hobart early in 1972 [45]." "Gold Tops" (S. cubensis, P. subaeruginosa Cleland, and a Psilocybe species probably erroneously identified as P. collybioides Singer & Smith) appear to be the most frequently employed hallucinogenic mushrooms in Australia and Tasmania. Panaeolus cyanescens mushrooms are also widely collected and sold for their psychotropic effects in Australia and nearby mushroom paradises such as Bali, Indonesia. Australian users call them "blue meanies," referring not only to the fact that they turn blue readily upon handling but also to their potency. It has been related "that about six of the blue meanies were enough for a good trip, and they were sometimes eaten straight, or in curry etc. [46]."

A Powerful Surge in Canada and the United States

The obvious macroscopic similarity of (Fries) Kummer (Figure 2) to P. mexicana Heim could not have gone unnoticed indefinitely by enthusiasts returning from Mexican magic mushroom quests. By the early sixties, persons in Vancouver, British Columbia began experimenting with Liberty Caps (P. semilanceata), and in 1965 some of these delicate little brown mushrooms were even seized from college students by Royal Canadian Mounted Police and forensic characterization performed [47]. In Liberty Caps grow in exuberance from the Queen Charlotte Islands in British Columbia south through Washington and Oregon west of the Cascades.They reputedly grow in northern California as well, but this has not yet been established with voucher specimens. Although Liberty Cap citings from New York and Nova Scotia appear to have been in error, additional field work may prove rewarding [48]. The habitat of P. semilanceata is 26 / STEVEN HAYDEN POLLOCK

Figure 2. Psi/ocybe semi/anceata (Fr.) Kumm. portrayed by Robin Klause. terricolous in grassy areas with rich soil, particularly pastureland but also fields, , parks, and even suburban and urban . Word of mouth stories suggest that some Oregonians discovered the psychotropic properties of Liberty Caps by accident at the beginning of the previous decade and began employing them for the recreational alteration of consciousness. In 1970, Enos [49] published a booklet on hallucinogenic mushrooms in which various line drawings from the work of Singer and Smith [21] appear to have been copied but then portrayed very poorly in color.The 1972 British Columbia-Access publication [50] included an article on magic mushrooms of B.C. in which much of the contents and drawings were taken from Enos's booklet. These predominantly inaccurate guides nevertheless aided novices in tracking down some hallucinogenic species in the U.S. and Canada. Contrary to statements such as that magic mushroom ingestion in Canada has been limited to "only a few exceptional experimenters" [51], the use of hallucinogenic fungi has increased by leaps and bounds. Psilocybe semilanceata is probably the most commonly employed psycho- active mushroom in British Columbia, Oregon and Washington, and yet taxonomically it is still poorly understood. In addition to the typical variety, there occurs a P. semilanceata var. microspora Singer. This small spored variety is perplexing in that microscopically it appears indistinguishable from PSILOCYBIAN MUSHROOM CONSCIOUSNESS I 27

Psilocybe pelliculosa (Smith) Singer & Smith with which synonymy has recently been proposed [52]. Both P. semilanceata var. microspora and the typical variety, however, have been chemically observed to contain substantial quantities of , a monomethyl analog of psilocybin, whereas collections of sylvan P. pelliculosa have been found to lack this metabolite [53]. P. pelliculosa, which is probably conspecific with P. sylvatica (Peck) Singer & Smith cited from New York, Michigan and Ontario and which is very similar in macroscopic features to P. semilanceata, has also become widely used as an hallucinogen in the Pacific Northwest [52]. Psilocybian mushroom consciousness is definitely on the rise. Some of these psychotropic mycoflora and man have even entered into a symbiotic relationship sensu lato, each benefitting from the other. As man alters a landscape, sometimes he inadvertently creates a suitable environ men t for these fungi. This ecological phenomenon is especially apparent in the Pacific Northwest, where the application of mulches and fertilizers to gardens, lawns, and other landscaped areas is frequently followed by a luxuriant fruiting of psychoactive mushrooms. Such has been the case with Psilocybe stuntzii Guzman & Ott, a newly described species [54]. Even in the midst of extensive study of mushrooms from Washington, Oregon, and British Columbia, P. stuntzii escaped attention until recent years. In 1962 and presumably in 1961/ this species was collected on a suburban in Seattle along with another species. The P. stuntzii was somehow completely overlooked but the other species was identified at the time as P. cyanescens Wakefield [55]. After field studies in the Pacific Northwest in 1975, I received some specimens of the remaining material and immediately noticed that two species were present, one with a distinct annulus and the other without this feature. Material was therefore sent for taxonomic study to Guzman, who identified the annulated species as the novel P. stuntzii [52, 54]. In 1973, this fungus began to fruit heavily on bark mulch in landscaped areas of the University of Washington in Seattle. Students quickly discovered that it possesses psychoactive properties and a surge of recreational use swept the campus. In the fall of 1974, utilization of this species for altering consciousness became even more extensive in Washington as abundant fruitings were discovered notably in Olympia and Tumwater. Some students from the Evergreen State College in Olympia began calling the mushrooms "Blue Veils" and introduced this species to Weil, who noted the persistent annulus but nevertheless declared that it "may be " [56]. Afterwards, it was called to Weil's attention that Psilocybe cyanescens does not possess an

2 Part of a 1962 collection was erroneously listed by Guzman & Ott [54 J as "Benedict & Brady 1961." This sample was collected, however, from the same site as the 1961 material used for chemical assay [55 J. 28 / STEVEN HAYDEN POLLOCK annulus and that the "Blue Veils" were actually an undescribed new species [57]. Weil subsequently suggested that the new annulated species "may be Psilocybe caerulescens, related to the derrumbe ("landslide") mushroom of Oaxaca [58]." In reality P. caerulescens, which also lacks an annulus, is the "derrumbe" of the Oaxacan sierras. It too happens to benefit from man's activity; the planting of corn disturbs the earth producing a suitable habitat for the "derrumbe." In the fall of 1976, psychomycological field studies were undertaken by the author in the Pacific Northwest. This included conducting a five day foray in blitzkrieg fashion with Guzman, Leslie, and Stamets after the First International Conference on Psychotropic Fungi held in Washington on the weekend of Halloween. Extensive collections were made, some of which include a newly discovered variety of P. stuntzii from pastureland in northern Washington and southwestern Oregon [personal communication from Guzman] which has been in recreational use for at least a few years. Incidentally, about the time of the conference the Tumwater High School soccer field, which had been covered with a sawdust mulch, became a giant spawning ground for P. stuntzii. Hundreds of students and other magic mushroom fanciers, neophytes and veterans alike, picked and sampled to their hearts' content, apparently with neither significant mishaps nor coercive administrative intervention.Also collected in Washington and Oregon during the foray were Psilocybe baeocystis Singer & Smith and Psilocybe cyanescens Wakefield, psilocybian species highly prized by connoisseurs in the Pacific Northwest for their fleshiness and reputed potency. In Vancouver, British Columbia P. stuntzii was observed to be one of the most common mushrooms on lawns and was being hunted along with P. baeocystis and P. cyanescens by many psychomycophiles. The latter two species also grow on lawns and mulched areas of landscaping and thus like P. stuntzii clearly make use of habitats provided by man. Mushrooms are actually a reproductive structure, in some ways analogous more to a flower than to a fruit. Especially significant is that meiosis (sexual cell division) is carried out both by the mushroom and a flower. The micro- scopic produced by the mushroom are analogous to the microspores (pollen) of a flower but sexually are more complex. Whereas pollen corresponds to a mass of male gametes, the mushroom spores germinate into hyphal cells with multiple mating types. The hyphae then join together to form the diploid vegetative fungal organism. If care is taken in harvesting the mushroom "flowers" not to destroy their habitat, the somatic organism remains viable in the substrate as a mycelial network to make more mush- rooms. For many species, such as Psilocybe semilanceata, stuntzii, and baeocystis, the somatic organism in nature usually cannot be seen in the substrate with the naked eye, whereas other species such as Psilocybe cyanescens and S. cubensis characteristically have fluffy or stringy mycelia which is luxuriant and readily perceived when probing the substrate. S. cubensis is the species widely used along the Gulf Coast and surrounding PSILOCYBIAN MUSHROOM CONSCIOUSNESS / 29 areas. By the fall of 1972, this mushroom had become a popular intoxicant at college fraternity parties in Gainesville, Florida and use had become endemic throughout that state. It is not known whether Panaeolus cyanescens, once reported from Florida, has been consumed there, although use of this species and Panaeolus tropicalis O1a'h is common in Hawaii [38, 59] . In 1972, Ghouled published a pamphlet with color photographs of cubensis, thereby aiding many hunters in Louisiana and elsewhere around the Gulf Coast to recognize this mushroom [60]. The pamphlet, however, contained much erroneous information. For instance, it referred to a photograph of cubensis in the primordial stage as "young stage of Pn. subbalteatus. Choice and edible [60] ." Jacobs, who proclaims that "Mississippi and adjacent states are rapidly receiving a reputation in the drug culture as the 'mushroom capital' of the United States," consulted this pamphlet as a reference and announced that Panaeolus subbalteatus is "the second native hallucinogenic mushroom" in Mississippi [61]. Panaeolus subbalteatus (Berkeley & Broome) Saccardo is in fact often employed as a recreational euphoriant in Washington and Oregon [38, 52, 62] and may be consumed for its effects in New England [38]. This species serves as another example of a psilocybian fungus which has developed a symbiotic relationship with man. It grows aggressively in a variety of man-made habitats such as rotting hay piles, manured gardens, compost heaps in which manure is a component, and also lawns. In 1975, I even observed deliberate cultivation of this species in Washington on composted manure. Weil [56, 58] seems to have experienced some dysphoria after eating Panaeolus, presumably of this species, and denounces the quality of altered consciousness which it induces. I have sampled P. subbalteatus on two occasions and have found it to be superb as a psychotropogen. Certainly there are strain differences in the psychoactive potency of mushrooms [38], but Weil appears to have been the victim of an inappropriate set toward Panaeolus. For psychomycophiles a magic mushroom quest is like a treasure hunt. The search itself can be quite a thrilling adventure, and nature's bounty is especially rewarding for psychedelic mycophagists who have done their own collecting. So many people have been foraging for psychoactive mushrooms in recent times that trespassing has become a significant problem for property owners. Sensationalist accounts of this sociological phenomenon continue to be prevalent in local newspapers, for example from Florida [63], Texas [64], and Washington [65-67]. Such stories often alert additional magic mushroom fanciers to good collecting sites producing an exacerbation of the vexation. One solution to this trespassing problem has been discovered by farmers in Oregon who charge admission to hunt magic mushrooms in their fields. The price per enthusiast varies from a bargain rate of a dollar per day to an exorbitant twenty-five dollars per day. One farm even issues blue buckets as registration for mushroom hunters. The trespassing situation may also be alleviated by an increasing interest in 30 / STEVEN HAYDEN POLLOCK magic mushroom cultivation. Many potential trespassers would probably do their collecting right at home if they knew how easy it is to grow some species of psilocybian mushrooms. A technique of growing S. cubensis spawn on rye grain was published in 1968 [68] with similar information appearing in 1970 [49] , but home cultivation of cubensis in the U.S. did not seem to capture the public fancy at that time. In 1975, cubensis cultivation was reported from San Francisco, California [62]. Finally in 1976, with publication of a book devoted entirely to the growing of San Isidro on rye grain [69], home cubensis culture became quite popular in the U.S. With interest spurred by still other books [70, 71] , magic mushroom cultivation will no doubt continue to increase as the future unfolds.

A Sensible Precedent for the Future

Even before the explosive international rise of psilocybian mushroom consciousness which has transpired during the past two decades, diverse mycophilic peoples appear to have been culturally cognizant of such psycho- active mushrooms. In Japan, for instance, the Konjaku Monogatari ("Tales of Long Ago") recount an alleged Eleventh Century episode involving Buddhist nuns and woodcutters who were lost in the woods and became compelled to dance after eating some toadstools. The mushrooms became designated first as maitake ("dancing mushroom") and later as waraitake ("laughing mushroom") [72, 73]. The Chinese similarly have ancient expressions (hsiao chien and hsiao i hu) for a "laughter mushroom"; Hungarians have the bolond gomba ("fool's mushroom"); Slovakians have the zalene huby ("mad mushroom") and in German there is the Narrenschwamm ("fungus of fools") [8, 29, 73] . Mycophobic cultures, which historically have tended to regard mushrooms as repulsive loathsome objects unfit for human consumption, seem to be lacking in traditional awareness of psychogenic fungi [8]. Now that psilocybian mushroom use has become a worldwide transcultural phenomenon, the aroused state of consciousness which these mushrooms induce has become a significant component of man's collective consciousness. Moreover, although mycophobia is strongly rooted in the unconscious, psilocybian mushrooms have commenced in modern times to imbue a new awareness of "toadstools" in mycophobic cultures and thus to quench mycophobia itself. This change in mushroom consciousness has become noticeably manifest in Great Britain, where last year a landmark case occurred. Two persons who had gathered Liberty Caps (P. semilanceata), which flourish and are probably consumed in numerous European countries, were charged with possession of a controlled substance under England's 1971 Misuse of Drugs Act since psilocybin and psilocin were detected in the seized mushrooms [74). The presiding judge, Peregrine BlomefieId, ruled with great wisdom in Reading Crown Court that "psilocybin is a chemical and mushrooms are mushrooms," thereby PSILOCYBIAN MUSHROOM CONSCIOUSNESS / 31 acquitting the psychomycophiles [75]. The case, not surprisingly, received considerable publicity in local news media [76-80]. This appears to be the first legal decision involving psychotropic mushrooms in Europe and ought to serve as a sensible precedent for the rest of the world.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people provided assistance and warm hospitality during the course of these psychomycological studies and to all of them I am grateful. Rather than listing individuals at the present time, I acknowledge the great collective effort with deep appreciation and hearty thanks.

REFERENCES

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54. G. Guzman and 1. Ott, Description and Chemical Analysis of a New Species of Hallucinogenic Psilocybe from the Pacific Northwest, My cologia, 68:6, pp. 1261-1267, 1976. 55. R. G. Benedict, L.R. Brady, A. H. Smith and V. E. Tyler, Jr., Occurrence of Psilocybin and Psilocin in Certain and Psilocybe Species, Lloy dia, 30, pp. 150-157, 1962. 56. A. T. Wei1, in Oregon, Parts I-IV, Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 7: 1, pp. 89-102, 1975. 57. 1. Ott and S. H. Pollock, Mushroom Hunting in Oregon V: The Psycho- mycological Perspective, Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 8: 1, pp. 81-82, 1976. 58. A. T. Wei1, Mushroom Hunting in Oregon, Journal of Altered States of Consciousness, 2:3, pp. 275-294,1976. 59. S. H. Pollock, A Novel Experience with Panaeolus: A Case Study from Hawaii, Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 6: 1, pp. 85-89, 1974. 60. F. C.Ghouled , Field Guide to the Psilocybin Mushroom-Species Common to North America, Guidance Press, New Orleans, 1972. 61. K. W. Jacobs, Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mississippi, Journal of the Mississippi State Medical Association, 16:2, pp. 35-37, 1975. 62. J. Ott, Notes on Recreational Use of Hallucinogenic Mushrooms, Boletin de la Sociedad Mexicana de Micologia, 9, pp. 131-135, 1975. 63. J. Perian, Deputies Upset Mushroom Fanciers Over Trespass, Illegal Species, Palm Beach Times, p. CI0, September I, 1976. 64.R. White, Advice to Mushroom Pickers: Don't, San Antonio Express-News, pp.IAand 14A,May 16, 1976. 65. 1. Wilson, "Magic Mushroom"-Risky Fungus Among Us?, Seattle Times, p. AI, September 21,1976. 66. S. L. Sanger, Mushrooming Fix on a Suburban Lawn, Seattle Post Intelligencer, pp. A-I and A-16, September 30,1976. 67. T. Egan, Down on the Farm With the Slugs, Cows and Magic Mushrooms, University of Washington Daily, pp. 2 and 3, October 29,1976. 68. The Psychedelic Guide to Preparation of the Eucharist in a Few of Its Many Guises, R. E. Brown & Associates, (eds.), Linga Sharira Incence Company, Austin, Texas, 1968. 69. o. T. Oss and O. N. Oeric, Psilocybin: Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide, And/Or Press, Berkeley, California, 1976. 70. The Compleat Psilocybin Mushroom Cultivator's Bible, Hongero Press, Miami, Florida, 1976. 71. B. Harris, Growing Wild Mushrooms: AComplete Guide to Cultivating Edible and Hallucinogenic Mushrooms, Wingbow Press, Berkeley, California, 1976. 72. J. H.Sanford, Japan's "Laughing Mushrooms," Economic Botany, 26, pp. 174-181,1972. 73. R.G. Wasson, Mushrooms and Japanese Culture, Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, 11, pp. 5-25, 1973. 74. S. H. Pollock, Liberty Caps: Recreational Hallucinogenic Mushrooms, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 1:6, pp. 445-447. PSILOCYBIAN MUSHROOM CONSCIOUSNESS / 35

75. M. Carter, Will the Legal Liberty Cap Cause Home Office ?, New Scientist, 171:1018,p. 599, 1976. 76.Plano, The Wild Drugs that the Law Can't Touch, Evening News, April 13, 1976. 77. Anon., Drug Peril in Gardens, Daily Sun, April 13, 1976. 78. Anon., Man in Court Over Mushroom Drug, Daily Telegraph, April 13, 1976. 79. Anon., We Found Drugs Fungi, Couple Tell Court, Northern Echo, April 13,1976. 80. Anon., When a Mushroom Can Be a Drug, Daily Express, April 13, 1976.

*

Steven Hayden Po/lock received his M.D. from the Medical College of Wisconsin in 1974. He also received an M.S. in pharmacology from the same institution in 1975. Dr. Pollock completed an internship in anesthesiology at the Bexar County Hospital, San Antonio, in 1975. He is the author of a number of articles on hallucinogenic mushrooms.

Direct reprint requests to: Steven Hayden Pollock, M.D. Division of Drug and Alcohol Abuse Department of Pharmacology University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio 7703 Floyd Curl Drive San Antonio, Texas 78284

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