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Amazonian Dark Earths Bol. Mus. Para. Emílio Goeldi. Cienc. Hum., Belém, v. 8, n. 1, p. 11-38, jan.-abr. 2013 Amazonian Dark Earths: pathways to sustainable development in tropical rainforests? Terra Preta Arqueológica: caminhos para o desenvolvimento sustentável nas florestas tropicais? Morgan Schmidt Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi/MCTI. Belém, Pará, Brasil Abstract: Fertile dark anthrosols associated with pre-Columbian settlement across the Amazon Basin have sparked wide interest for their potential contribution to sustainable use and management of tropical soils and ecosystems. In the Upper Xingu region of the southern Amazon, research on archaeological settlements and among contemporary descendant populations provides critical new data on the formation and use of anthrosols. These findings provide a basis for describing the variability of soil modifications that result from diverse human activities and a general model for the formation of Amazonian anthrosols. They underscore the potential for indigenous systems of knowledge and resource management to inform efforts for conservation and sustainable development of Amazonian ecosystems. Keywords: Anthrosols. Terra Preta. Historical ecology. Ethnoarchaeology. Upper Xingu. Resumo: Antrossolos escuros e férteis associados a assentamentos pré-colombianos em toda a bacia amazônica têm despertado interesse por sua contribuição potencial no uso e manejo sustentável de solos e ecossistemas tropicais. Na região do alto rio Xingu, no sul da Amazônia, pesquisas sobre assentamentos arqueológicos e populações indígenas contemporâneas oferecem novos dados relevantes sobre a formação e o uso dos antrossolos. Os resultados fornecem uma base para a descrição da variabilidade de modificações no solo oriundas de diversas atividades humanas e um modelo geral para a formação de antrossolos amazônicos. A pesquisa mostra o potencial dos sistemas indígenas de conhecimento e manejo de recursos em contribuir na conservação e no desenvolvimento sustentável de ecossistemas amazônicos. Palavras-chave: Antrossolos. Terra Preta. Ecologia histórica. Etnoarqueologia. Alto Xingu. SCHMIDT, Morgan J. Amazonian Dark Earths: pathways to sustainable development in tropical rainforests? Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. Ciências Humanas, v. 8, n. 1, p. 11-38, jan.-abr. 2013. Autor para correspondência: Morgan J. Schmidt. Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi/MCTI. Coordenação de Ciências Humanas. Av. Perimetral, 1901. Terra Firme. Belém, PA, Brasil. CEP 66077-530 ([email protected]). Recebido em 02/05/2012 Aprovado em 05/11/2012 11 Amazonian Dark Earths: pathways to sustainable development in tropical rainforests? InTRoDuCTIon from analyses of ADE soil associated with these large Amazonian dark earth (ADE) or terra preta (black earth) is archaeological settlements and on soils in contemporary a critical research topic for contemporary archaeology and indigenous villages (Schmidt, 2010a, 2010b; Schmidt and historical ecology of Amazonia and potential strategies for Heckenberger, 2009a, 2009b). This study shows that sustainable development in tropical regions (Balée, 2010; ADE is forming under current activities and management Mann, 2002; Lehmann et al., 2003a; Glaser and Woods, practices in the Upper Xingu and that results from current 2004; Woods et al., 2009). Patches of human-modified, and historically abandoned villages correlate to findings fertile ADE soil associated with pre-Columbian settlements from nearby large archaeological settlements1. provide vital clues as to the nature of prehistoric agriculture, There is continuing debate over the nature and landuse, and resource management that apparently sustained extent of prehistoric human occupation in Amazonia dense populations in some regions without significantly (Barlow et al., 2012; Heckenberger et al., 1999, 2001; degrading environments or causing extinctions but rather Lombardo et al., 2012; McMichael et al., 2012; Meggers, enriching environments by concentrating fruit trees or 2001, 2003; Roosevelt, 1991). Traditional views held that creating patches of ADE (Balée, 1994; Graham, 2006). Amazonia was populated by small, mobile, and egalitarian Amazonian dark earth also provides inspiration or a model horticultural tribes with relatively little impact on the for a developing controversial technology called biochar environment and that, even on the várzea floodplains that is claimed will improve soil for agriculture and mitigate where populations were higher and social complexity human-induced climate change by sequestering carbon in the greater, the environment (unpredictable floods in the soil (Ernsting and Smolker, 2009; Lehmann, 2007; Marris, várzea and infertile soils and sparse game in the terra 2006). The study of ADE can offer insights into sustainable firme) set a ceiling on village size and social complexity environment and soil management in tropical regions (Meggers, 1954, 1996; Steward, 1946-1950). Those views mainly by revealing how ancient and modern indigenous have undergone substantial revision as archaeology has Amazonians managed/manage their resources. documented large, settled populations in several parts of In most cases, the actual mechanisms of ADE the Amazon, as suggested by 16th to 17th century accounts formation are poorly understood due to limited of dense populations in many areas (Heckenberger and archaeological research and a lack of contemporary Neves, 2009; McEwan et al., 2001; Moraes and Neves, ethnographic analogs for prehistoric agriculture and 2012; Porro, 1994; Roosevelt, 1991; Viveiros de Castro, settlement patterns (Kern et al., 2009). Research in the 1996). This indicates that much of the Amazonian tropical Upper Xingu region of southeastern Amazonia (Mato forest was substantially modified by pre-Columbian Grosso state, Brazil), however, provides one of the societies and post-1492 historical changes (Balée, 1994; clearest examples of large, densely settled pre-Columbian Balée and Erickson, 2006; Heckenberger et al., 2003; populations and intensive resource management in Schaan et al., 2008). Although some researchers have complex built environments with ethnographic analogs cautioned that the anthropogenic impact must not be from descendant populations (Heckenberger, 1996, 1998, overestimated (Barlow et al., 2012; Bush and Silman, 2001, 2002, 2005; Heckenberger et al., 1999, 2003, 2007; McMichael et al., 2012), large areas of Amazonia 2007, 2008) (Figures 1-4). Results are presented here are virtually unknown archaeologically and ongoing 1 Pedoarchaeological research was part of the Southern Amazon Ethnoarchaeology Project (Projeto Etnoarqueológico da Amazônia Meridional), directed by Michael Heckenberger of the University of Florida Anthropology Department, who has conducted research in collaboration with the Kuikuro (Xinguano) community since 1992. 12 Bol. Mus. Para. Emílio Goeldi. Cienc. Hum., Belém, v. 8, n. 1, p. 11-38, jan.-abr. 2013 Figure 1. Map of the Xingu River Basin showing the location of Xingu Indigenous Park. Source: Instituto Socioambiental. 13 Amazonian Dark Earths: pathways to sustainable development in tropical rainforests? Figure 2. Map of the Upper Xingu study area and known archaeological sites. The square in the upper center is the location of the current and historic villages (MT-FX-12). Stippled areas are floodplains and seasonally wet areas. Circles are the locations of archaeological sites and stars represent major prehistoric settlements. Soil data is presented from Nokugu (MT-FX-06), Hialughïtï (MT-FX-13) and Akagahïtï (MT-FX-18). Source: adapted from Heckenberger (1996). 14 Bol. Mus. Para. Emílio Goeldi. Cienc. Hum., Belém, v. 8, n. 1, p. 11-38, jan.-abr. 2013 nutrient-poor oxisols (Latossolos) and ultisols (Argissolos) that dominate the region and have limited agricultural use without high inputs of fertilizer or long fallow periods (Lehmann et al., 2003b; Glaser and Woods, 2004; Woods et al., 2009; Smith, 1980; Sanchez and Buol, 1975). Amazonian farmers seek out ADE to grow crops because the extraordinarily high fertility allows them to grow a more diverse range of cultivars much more intensively than on the typical upland soils (Arroyo-Kalin, 2008; Fraser, 2010; Fraser et al., 2011a, 2012; German, 2001; Hiraoka et al., 2003; Kawa et al., 2011; Lehmann et al., 2003b; Smith, 1980; Steiner et al., 2009; Woods and McCann, 1999). The long-term resilience of these soils is explained by the large amount of charcoal and rich diversity of Figure 3. Landsat TM image of the study area with overlying organisms in them (Glaser et al., 2000; Ruivo et al., 2009; map of two prehistoric sites drawn from GPS data collected Thies and Suzuki, 2003; Tsai et al., 2009; Woods and in 2002. Nokugu (MT-FX-6) in the upper left is connected to Hialugihïtï (Mt-FX-13) on the lower right by an ancient road. McCann, 1999). Two broad categories define distinctive The brighter shades in the center are a forested peninsula of ADE, including darker terra preta soils with abundant uplands surrounded by darker shades in the upper right and lower left representing floodplain areas dominated by rivers, archaeological ceramics, primarily associated with refuse lakes, and seasonally flooded savannah. The bright circle in the disposal, and lighter terra mulata with few artifacts, upper center is the current Kuikuro village. Source: adapted from Heckenberger et al. (2003). located on the periphery of ancient settlements and likely associated with agricultural practices that introduced ash, research is uncovering substantial ancient
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