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Adaptation to Climate Change: Effects of Productivity University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE: EFFECTS OF PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVING STRATEGIES ON COCOA FARMERS' LIVELIHOODS IN THE CENTRAL REGION, GHANA BY KOFI NHYIRA ASARE 10288699 THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF Ph.D. IN AGRICULTURAL ADMINISTRATION DEGREE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS AND AGRIBUSINESS, COLLEGE OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES. UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON July, 2019 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, KOFI NHYIRA ASARE, author of this thesis do hereby declare that with the exception of other peoples’ work, which has been duly acknowledged, the work presented in this thesis, “ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE: EFFECTS OF PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVING STRATEGIES ON COCOA FARMERS' LIVELIHOODS IN THE CENTRAL REGION, GHANA”, was done entirely by me in the Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, University of Ghana, Legon. This work has never been presented in part or whole for any degree in this University or elsewhere. …………………… Kofi Nhyira Asare (Student) This thesis has been submitted for examination with our approval as supervisors. Prof. Irene S. Egyir Prof. Daniel B. Sarpong (Major Supervisor) (Co-Supervisor) Date Date Dr. Seth D. Boateng (Co-Supervisor) Date I University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my Godfather and guardian, Apostle Prof. Ing. Kwadwo Safo, for supporting me financially and spiritually. II University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To God be the glory for making it all come true. I wish to express my profound gratitude to Dr. Irene Susan Egyir, Prof. Daniel Bruce Sarpong, and Dr. Seth Dankyi Boateng my supervisors for their support, constructive criticisms, excellent supervision, patience, encouragement and above all their high degree of tolerance without which this work would not have materialized. I also wish to express my gratitude's to the Staff of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Ghana COCOBOD, Ministry of Local Government, the Produce Buying Company, the Ghana Commercial Bank, the Environmental Protection Agency, Nyonkopa Cocoa Buying Limited, the Forestry Commission, Nyakrom Rural Bank and Akoti Rural Bank for their support during the data collection stage of the research. I thank Dr. George T-M. Kwadzo (formerly of Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness) for the fatherly role he played to ensure the successful completion of my studies. Special thanks to Prof. Ramatu Al-Hassan, Dr. J.B.D. Jatoe, Mr. D.P.K. Amegashie and all the senior members of the Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness for their contribution to this work during seminar presentations. I also thank Lawyer Owusu Badu and the national staff of Kristo Asafo Church for the financial support. I wish to thank Nana Yaa Safowaa, Ohemaa Akosua Safowaa, Nana Kofi Safo, Stephen Oduro Addo, and Juliana Frimpong for their encouragement throughout the four year study period. Kofi Nhyira Asare III University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT The thesis assessed the capacity of cocoa farmers to adapt to climate change and adopt productivity-improving strategies. It also determines the effect of the adoption of productivity-improving strategies on farmer's livelihoods in the Central Region of Ghana. The key issues addressed in this thesis were: what are the key adaptation strategies; what is the level of farmers' capacity for adopting productivity-improving strategies (PIS); magnitudes in the factors influencing adoption of productivity-improving strategies and the effects of the adoption of PIS on enhancing their livelihoods. Semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data from 443 cocoa farmers and 11 local institutions. The adaptation strategies known and employed by cocoa farmers were analyzed using relative frequencies. The level of adaptive capacity of farmers was estimated and the Logit model was used in analyzing the magnitudes in the factors of adopting PIS. Ordinary Least Square was used to analyze the effects of PIS on farmer's livelihoods. The results from the study showed that on- farm adaptation strategies known and employed by farmers included the use of improved hybrid seed varieties, changing planting dates as well as the application of chemical fertilizer. Although half (50%) of the farmers were categorized as having moderate adaptive capacity, many adopted the productivity-improving strategies (PIS). The most important factors influencing the adoption of PIS were age, gender, total on-farm income, institutional support, and adaptive capacity. Adoption of PIS had a positive effect on their livelihoods (income). The study recommends that local institutions (cocoa LBCs) should be encouraged to provide support in the form of training and education to improve the low capacity for the key crop management practices required to mitigate climate change resources to farmers to enhance their capacity. Institutions and stakeholders should provide support ( credit, training, and technology transfer) to enhance their adaptive capacity (assets) and also to enhance their technology adoption. IV University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS Contents Page DECLARATION I DEDICATION I ACKNOWLEDGMENTS III ABSTRACT IV TABLE OF CONTENTS V LIST OF TABLES IX LIST OF ACRONYMS XI CHAPTER ONE 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background of the Study 1 1.2 Problem Statement 6 1.3 Conceptual Framework of the Study 13 1.4 Main thesis 14 1.5 Objectives of the thesis 15 1.6 Relevance of the Study 16 1.7 Organization of the Report 16 CHAPTER TWO 18 LITERATURE REVIEW 18 2.1 Introduction 18 2.2 Conceptual Explanations on Climate Change and Agriculture 18 2.2.1 Definition of climate change 18 2.2.2 Causes of climate change 19 2.2.3 Evidence of Ghana's climate change 19 2.2.4 Evidence of climate change and its effects in Central Region 22 2.2.5 Climate change impact on agriculture 24 2.3. Climate Change Adaptation Strategies 26 2.3.1 Adaptation defined 26 V University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.2 Adaptation strategies 28 2.3.3 Barriers of adaptation to climate change 30 2.4 Adaptive Capacity: Definitions, Concepts and Determinants 32 2.4.1 Definitions and concepts in adaptive capacity 32 2.4.2 Determinants of adaptive capacity 34 2.4.2.1 Social capital 34 2.5. Institutions and Adaptation to Climate Change 40 2.5.1 Perspectives on concepts and applications 40 2.5.2. Institutions and adaptation in Ghana 43 2.5.3. Institutional support and smallholder farmer's ability to adapt 44 2.6 Factors Affecting Adoption of Technology 46 2.7 Livelihood 48 2.7.1 Strategies 48 2.7.2 Factors that influence livelihood diversification 49 2.7.3 Livelihood Outcomes 50 CHAPTER THREE 51 METHODOLOGY 51 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Theoretical Framework 51 3.2.1. Theory of Perception 51 3.2.2. Capability Theory 52 3.2.3. Diffusion and Utility Maximization Theory 52 3.3 Method of Data Analyses 54 3.3.1 Describing the climate change adaptation strategies known and employed by cocoa farmers in the study area 54 3.3.2 Determining the level of farmers adaptive capacity to climate change adaptation strategies and adaptive capacity of farmers based on the capital assets 54 3.4.3 Estimating the magnitudes in the factors influencing adoption of Productivity Improving Strategies (PIS) 57 3.4.4. Estimating the extent to which adoption of productivity-improving strategies (PIS) impact the livelihoods of cocoa farmers 65 3.5. Method of Data Collection 66 VI University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.5.1 The study area of the thesis 66 3.5.2 Sampling procedure and sample size determination 68 3.5.3 Source of data 69 3.5.4 Software applications used for data analysis 71 3.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study 72 CHAPTER FOUR 73 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 73 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2. Background of Respondents 73 4.2.1 Personal characteristics 73 4.2.4 Institutional characteristics 78 4.2.5 Farmers’ awareness of changes in climate 80 4.3. Climate Change Adaptation Strategies of Cocoa farmers in the Central Region 83 4.3.1. On-farm adaptation strategies known to and employed by cocoa farmers in the study area 83 4.3.2. Off-farm adaptation strategies known to and employed by cocoa farmers in the study area 87 4.4 Cocoa farmers' level of adaptive capacity to climate change adaptation Strategies 90 4.4.1 The situation of the five capitals (physical, social, human, financial and natural) of farmers in the study area 95 4.5. Estimating the magnitudes in the factors influencing adoption of productivity improving strategies (PIS) 102 4.6. Effects of Productivity improving strategies (PIS) on the Livelihoods (income) of Farmers 108 CHAPTER FIVE 111 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 111 5.1 Introduction 111 5.2 Summary and Major findings 111 5.3 Conclusions of the Thesis 113 5.4. Recommendations 115 VII University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES 117 APPENDICES 138 VIII University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 2.1: Average projected change in precipitation (%) for Ghana's ecological zones 20 Table 2.2: Average projected change in temperature (%) for Ghana's ecological zones 21 Table 3.1. Explanation of variables employed in the thesis 59 Table 3.2: Distribution of sample by community 71 Table 4.1: Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of farmers 78 Table 4.2 Number of years spent in an institution by institutional respondent 79 Table 4.3 Farmers awareness of climate change
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