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ENCYCLOPAEDIA JUDAICA, Second Edition, Volume 11 Sponsa kalm sponsa. Mordecai’s brother, BARUCH (d. 1597), who also stud- The term Kalām, which represents the use of dialectics in ied under Aaron ben Ḥason, was rabbi of Siderocapsa, near theology, probably has antecedents in Greek (as derived from Salonika. Mekor Barukh contains 61 responsa which consist of logos or dialexis) and Syriac (as derived from both mamlā, i.e. halakhic discussions with his teacher, and with Solomon Levi dialexis and mamlūt allāhūtā, i.e., theology). Kalām is usually the Elder, in addition to those with his brother. He also wrote translated as “theology,” although this rendering is inaccurate, Arba Shitot, on four tractates of the Talmud, and left an un- and it is best to use “speculative theology.” The theological published volume of sermons on Sabbaths and festivals. arena in Sunnite *Islam consisted not only of the Muʿtazilite Bibliography: Conforte, Kore, index; I.S. Emmanuel, mutakallimūn, who used logical argumentation, in order to Maẓevot Saloniki, I:1 (1963), 296f.; M.D. Gaon, Yehudei ha-Mizraḥ prove some of the principles of religion (= ʾuṣūl al-dīn), but be-Ereẓ Yisrael, 2 (1938), 627, 749; Rosanes, Togarmah, 3 (1938), 172–4, mainly of traditionalist theologians, who were, and still are, 194. the central trend of Islam. While Kalām gives precedence to [Simon Marcus] human reason (= ʿaḳl) in the process of perceiving God and the world, Islamic traditional theology declares to draw its au- KALAI, SAMUEL BEN JOSEPH (d. 1754), Karaite scholar thority solely from divine revelation and tradition (= naḳl) and of Chufut-Qaleh, Crimea. He was the head of the study-house the teachings of the ancestors (= salaf ) of the Muslim commu- in Chufut-Qaleh. After his demise Simḥah Isaac *Luzki oc- nity. It should be noted, that even the Muʿtazilite mutakallimūn cupied his place. could not be considered pure rationalists, because they rely to He wrote Me’il Shemu’el (which survived in several mss. some extent upon divine revelation. in St. Petersburg, NY, Oxford, and Cambridge), a supercom- Kalām is commonly identified with two rival schools Sefer ha-Mivḥar mentary on by *Aaron b. Joseph; the work re- in Sunnite Islam: the Muʿtazila, flourished as two separate mained unfinished and was later edited by S.I. Luzki. schools in *Baṣra and *Baghdād from the first half of the 8t Bibliography: J. Fuerst, Karaeerthum, 2 (1865), 241; J. Mann, century until the middle of the 11t century, and the Ashʿariyya, Texts, 2 (1935), 1326–27, 1429; A. Neubauer, Aus der Peterburger Bib- founded in Baṣra in the first half of the 10t century. The ep- liothek (1866), 49; 142. [Isaak Dov Ber Markon] onym of the Ashʿariyya, Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī (d. 935) was a former Muʿtazilite, who used the rationalistic tools of the KALAI (Kal’i), SAMUEL BEN MOSES (16t century), Muʿtazila in order to defend the doctrines of traditional Is- Turkish rabbi. Kalai may have been born in Corfu. He was a lam and to defeat the Muʿtazila. Another important theologi- son-in-law of Benjamin ibn Mattathias, author of Binyamin cal school is the Māturīdiyya-Ḥanafiyya, probably founded in Ze’ev. At first he lived in Salonika and subsequently in Arta. central Asia in the 11t century. In consequence of a dispute he left the town and stayed for a The beginning of Kalām is by all means connected to the time in Trikkala, but later returned to Arta where he served Arab conquests of *Iraq and *Persia in the 7t century, when as rabbi. In about 1560 he was appointed rabbi of Vidin in the relatively young Muslim community came into contact Bulgaria. He was compelled to leave Vidin because of a dis- with Hellenistic philosophical thought, both Christian and pute that broke out between him and other rabbis as a result non-Christian, and with other religious doctrines, mainly of his prohibiting the use of a certain cheese. He was among Mazdaean and Manichaean. Public debates with holders of the signatories of the ban against the David (Da’ud), who well-established faiths increased the need to use various ratio- had opposed Don Joseph *Nasi. In his old age Kalai settled nalistic tools in order to defend Islamic doctrines and articles in Salonika where he served as rabbi of the Keianah commu- of faith (ʿaḳīda pl. ʿaḳāʾid), whose origins are to be found in the nity. He was regarded as the talmudic authority for the whole Koran and Ḥadīth (= prophetic traditions), and to uproot what country and problems were addressed to him from various was perceived as heretical concepts (= zandaḳa), infiltrated Balkan towns. He was the author of the responsa Mishpetei into Islamic thought. According to al-Tahānawī (d. circa 1745): Shemu’el (Venice, 1599). “[ʿilm al-kalām] is the science, which enables one to assert the authenticity of religious beliefs and [discredit] others by giving Bibliography: Rosanes, Togarmah, 1 (19302), 158; 2 (1937–382), 112f.; M.D. Gaon, Yehudei ha-Mizraḥ be-Ereẓ Yisrael, 2 proofs and dispelling doubts” (al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 22). (1938), 627 n.1. The mutakallimūn comprehended their occupation as [Simon Marcus] two-fold: on the one hand, Kalām is a process of a pure intel- lectual speculation in search of the ultimate truth, that is “to KALĀM, meaning ʿilm al-kalām (the science of Kalām), is grasp the unity of God, and study the essence of God and His one of the branches of Islamic religious science. The common attributes” (al-Ghazālī, Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm al-dīn, vol. 1, p. 25); on the use of the word kalām is word, words, or speech. The *Koran other hand, Kalām is a system of defense and attack. Defeat- is called kalām Allāh, i.e., the speech of God, and so, it was ing the adversary by using various dialectical instruments suggested, ʿilm al-kalām is “the science of the word [of God].” is the main feature of Kalām. Alongside the use of analogy The exponent of Kalām is called mutakallim (lit. speaker, pl. (= ḳiyās), one of the prominent methods of Kalām is ilzām, mutakallimūn). The Hebrew designationha-medabberīm and which means forcing the adversary to admit heretical or ab- the Latin loquentes are equivalent to mutakallimūn. surd views, drawn from his own set of arguments. ENCYCLOPAEDIA JUDAICA, Second Edition, Volume 11 729 kalm Most of the activity of the mutakallimūn was in the inner ability to “acquire” them. Designed to provide for man’s re- circles of Islam, mainly against Sunnite traditionalist theolo- sponsibility for his actions, this doctrine is not far removed, gians. Nevertheless, the boundaries between the two groups if at all, from complete determinism. were never definite. Although traditionalist scholars pro- The Kalām manuals discuss in length various topics re- hibited practicing Kalām and debating with mutakallimūn, garding theodicy, eschatology and the status of prophecy. A Kalām’s methods had a huge impact upon them. For example, major issue concerns the created or uncreated character of Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), who belonged to the ultra-tradition- the Koran, and whether it exists as a divine attribute from alist Ḥanbalite movement, used Muʿtazilite theses and argu- all eternity. mentations in his dispute with the Ashʿarites about predesti- Shiʿite Islam embraced Muʿtazilite theses as part of its nation and free will. doctrine from the 9t century, so in a sense they are current to Another group challenged by Kalām and labeled as her- some extent even nowadays. The Ashʿarite manuals are being etics were the Muslim philosophers, in spite of the resem- studied in Sunnite madrasas (= religious boarding schools) blance between Kalām’s areas of interest and that of falsafa alongside the works of the traditionalists. (= Muslim philosophy). The most elaborate endeavor in that [Livnat Holtzman (2nd ed.)] direction is Tahāfut al-Falāsifa (= The Incoherence of the Phi- Influence on Jewish Philosophy losophers) by the Ashʿarite theologian *al-Ghazālī (d. 1111). The influence of Kalām, in its Muʿtazilite version only, on Jew- The philosophers, on their part, attackedʿ ilm al-kalām and ish thinkers, both *Karaite and Rabbanite, during the Middle refuted its tenets and methods, as reflected in Ibn Rushd’s (= Ages was considerable. The earliest Jewish philosopher who Averroes, d. 1198) Tahāfut al- Tahāfut (= The Incoherence of was also influenced byKalām was David ibn Marwan al-*Mu- the Incoherence). kammis (first half of ninth century), who may have received Main Themes in Kalām it from his Christian teachers. It also had a great impact on All Kalām manuals, after introducing the sources of knowl- *Saadiah Gaon. Muʿtazilite influence is visible from the very edge of God and the world, viz. human reason and divine opening of Saadiah’s Book of Doctrines and Beliefs, which be- revelation, prove the existence of God and the creation of the gins with a demonstration of the createdness of the world and world by using the proof from accidents, which is based on the proceeds to deduce from this the existence of a creator. The doctrine of atoms. According to this doctrine, reality is made very structure of Saadiah’s theological masterpiece follows the up of indivisible atoms with concomitant accidents, which ex- order of the five Muʿtazilite theses previously mentioned. Most ist only for an instant. Therefore, in every instant God is cre- of his proofs of the noneternity of the world are derived from ating the world anew; there are no intermediate causes. This the Kalām, except that Saadiah did not hold the theory of at- Islamic occasionalism allows for creation from nothing. omism. Saadiah uses Kalām arguments, as well, in proving the A point of dispute between the Muʿtazila and the unity of God, and his doctrine of attributes is similar to that Ashʿariyya is the denial of anthropomorphism (= tashbīh).
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