kalm sponsa. Mordecai’s brother, BARUCH (d. 1597), who also stud- The term Kalām, which represents the use of in ied under Aaron ben Ḥason, was rabbi of Siderocapsa, near , probably has antecedents in Greek (as derived from Salonika. Mekor Barukh contains 61 responsa which consist of logos or dialexis) and Syriac (as derived from both mamlā, i.e. halakhic discussions with his teacher, and with Solomon Levi dialexis and mamlūt allāhūtā, i.e., theology). Kalām is usually the Elder, in addition to those with his brother. He also wrote translated as “theology,” although this rendering is inaccurate, Arba Shitot, on four tractates of the Talmud, and left an un- and it is best to use “speculative theology.” The theological published volume of sermons on Sabbaths and festivals. arena in Sunnite * consisted not only of the Muʿtazilite Bibliography: Conforte, Kore, index; I.S. Emmanuel, mutakallimūn, who used logical argumentation, in order to Maẓevot Saloniki, I:1 (1963), 296f.; M.D. Gaon, Yehudei ha-Mizraḥ prove some of the principles of (= ʾuṣūl al-dīn), but be-Ereẓ Yisrael, 2 (1938), 627, 749; Rosanes, Togarmah, 3 (1938), 172–4, mainly of traditionalist theologians, who were, and still are, 194. the central trend of Islam. While Kalām gives precedence to [Simon Marcus] human reason (= ʿaḳl) in the process of perceiving God and the world, Islamic traditional theology declares to draw its au- KALAI, SAMUEL BEN JOSEPH (d. 1754), Karaite scholar thority solely from divine revelation and tradition (= naḳl) and of Chufut-Qaleh, Crimea. He was the head of the study-house the teachings of the ancestors (= salaf ) of the Muslim commu- in Chufut-Qaleh. After his demise Simḥah Isaac *Luzki oc- nity. It should be noted, that even the Muʿtazilite mutakallimūn cupied his place. could not be considered pure rationalists, because they rely to He wrote Me’il Shemu’el (which survived in several mss. some extent upon divine revelation. in St. Petersburg, NY, Oxford, and Cambridge), a supercom- Kalām is commonly identified with two rival schools Sefer ha-Mivḥar mentary on by *Aaron b. Joseph; the work re- in Sunnite Islam: the Muʿtazila, flourished as two separate mained unfinished and was later edited by S.I. Luzki. schools in *Baṣra and *Baghdād from the first half of the 8t Bibliography: J. Fuerst, Karaeerthum, 2 (1865), 241; J. Mann, century until the middle of the 11t century, and the Ashʿariyya, Texts, 2 (1935), 1326–27, 1429; A. Neubauer, Aus der Peterburger Bib- founded in Baṣra in the first half of the 10t century. The ep- liothek (1866), 49; 142. [Isaak Dov Ber Markon] onym of the Ashʿariyya, Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī (d. 935) was a former Muʿtazilite, who used the rationalistic tools of the KALAI (Kal’i), SAMUEL BEN MOSES (16t century), Muʿtazila in order to defend the doctrines of traditional Is- Turkish rabbi. Kalai may have been born in Corfu. He was a lam and to defeat the Muʿtazila. Another important theologi- son-in-law of Benjamin ibn Mattathias, author of Binyamin cal school is the Māturīdiyya-Ḥanafiyya, probably founded in Ze’ev. At first he lived in Salonika and subsequently in Arta. central Asia in the 11t century. In consequence of a dispute he left the town and stayed for a The beginning ofKalām is by all means connected to the time in Trikkala, but later returned to Arta where he served Arab conquests of *Iraq and *Persia in the 7t century, when as rabbi. In about 1560 he was appointed rabbi of Vidin in the relatively young Muslim community came into contact Bulgaria. He was compelled to leave Vidin because of a dis- with Hellenistic philosophical thought, both Christian and pute that broke out between him and other rabbis as a result non-Christian, and with other religious doctrines, mainly of his prohibiting the use of a certain cheese. He was among Mazdaean and Manichaean. Public debates with holders of the signatories of the ban against the David (Da’ud), who well-established faiths increased the need to use various ratio- had opposed Don Joseph *Nasi. In his old age Kalai settled nalistic tools in order to defend Islamic doctrines and articles in Salonika where he served as rabbi of the Keianah commu- of faith (ʿaḳīda pl. ʿaḳāʾid), whose origins are to be found in the nity. He was regarded as the talmudic authority for the whole Koran and Ḥadīth (= prophetic traditions), and to uproot what country and problems were addressed to him from various was perceived as heretical concepts (= zandaḳa), infiltrated Balkan towns. He was the author of the responsa Mishpetei into Islamic thought. According to al-Tahānawī (d. circa 1745): Shemu’el (Venice, 1599). “[ʿilm al-kalām] is the science, which enables one to assert the authenticity of religious beliefs and [discredit] others by giving Bibliography: Rosanes, Togarmah, 1 (19302), 158; 2 (1937–382), 112f.; M.D. Gaon, Yehudei ha-Mizraḥ be-Ereẓ Yisrael, 2 proofs and dispelling doubts” (al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 22). (1938), 627 n.1. The mutakallimūn comprehended their occupation as [Simon Marcus] two-fold: on the one hand, Kalām is a process of a pure intel- lectual speculation in search of the ultimate , that is “to KALĀM, meaning ʿilm al-kalām (the science of Kalām), is grasp the unity of God, and study the essence of God and His one of the branches of Islamic religious science. The common attributes” (al-Ghazālī, Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm al-dīn, vol. 1, p. 25); on the use of the word kalām is word, words, or speech. The *Koran other hand, Kalām is a system of defense and attack. Defeat- is called kalām Allāh, i.e., the speech of God, and so, it was ing the adversary by using various dialectical instruments suggested, ʿilm al-kalām is “the science of the word [of God].” is the main feature of Kalām. Alongside the use of analogy The exponent of Kalām is called mutakallim (lit. speaker, pl. (= ḳiyās), one of the prominent methods of Kalām is ilzām, mutakallimūn). The Hebrew designationha-medabberīm and which means forcing the adversary to admit heretical or ab- the Latin loquentes are equivalent to mutakallimūn. surd views, drawn from his own of arguments.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA JUDAICA, Second Edition, Volume 11 729 kalm

Most of the activity of the mutakallimūn was in the inner ability to “acquire” them. Designed to provide for man’s re- circles of Islam, mainly against Sunnite traditionalist theolo- sponsibility for his actions, this doctrine is not far removed, gians. Nevertheless, the boundaries between the two groups if at all, from complete . were never definite. Although traditionalist scholars pro- The Kalām manuals discuss in length various topics re- hibited practicing Kalām and debating with mutakallimūn, garding theodicy, eschatology and the status of prophecy. A Kalām’s methods had a huge impact upon them. For example, major issue concerns the created or uncreated character of Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), who belonged to the ultra-tradition- the Koran, and whether it exists as a divine attribute from alist Ḥanbalite movement, used Muʿtazilite theses and argu- all eternity. mentations in his dispute with the Ashʿarites about predesti- Shiʿite Islam embraced Muʿtazilite theses as part of its nation and free . doctrine from the 9t century, so in a sense they are current to Another group challenged by Kalām and labeled as her- some extent even nowadays. The Ashʿarite manuals are etics were the Muslim philosophers, in spite of the resem- studied in Sunnite (= religious boarding schools) blance between Kalām’s areas of interest and that of falsafa alongside the works of the traditionalists. (= Muslim ). The most elaborate endeavor in that [Livnat Holtzman (2nd ed.)] direction is Tahāfut al-Falāsifa (= The Incoherence of the Phi- Influence on losophers) by the Ashʿarite theologian *al-Ghazālī (d. 1111). The influence of Kalām, in its Muʿtazilite version only, on Jew- The philosophers, on their part, attackedʿ al-kalām and ish thinkers, both *Karaite and Rabbanite, during the Middle refuted its tenets and methods, as reflected in Ibn Rushd’s (= Ages was considerable. The earliest Jewish philosopher who , d. 1198) Tahāfut al- Tahāfut (= The Incoherence of was also influenced byKalām was David ibn Marwan al-*Mu- the Incoherence). kammis (first half of ninth century), who may have received Main Themes in Kalām it from his Christian teachers. It also had a great impact on All Kalām manuals, after introducing the sources of knowl- *Saadiah Gaon. Muʿtazilite influence is visible from the very edge of God and the world, viz. human reason and divine opening of Saadiah’s Book of Doctrines and Beliefs, which be- revelation, prove the of God and the creation of the gins with a demonstration of the createdness of the world and world by using the proof from accidents, which is based on the proceeds to deduce from this the existence of a creator. The doctrine of atoms. According to this doctrine, is made very structure of Saadiah’s theological masterpiece follows the up of indivisible atoms with concomitant accidents, which ex- order of the five Muʿtazilite theses previously mentioned. Most ist only for an instant. Therefore, in every instant God is cre- of his proofs of the noneternity of the world are derived from ating the world anew; there are no intermediate causes. This the Kalām, except that Saadiah did not hold the theory of at- Islamic occasionalism allows for creation from nothing. omism. Saadiah uses Kalām arguments, as well, in proving the A point of dispute between the Muʿtazila and the unity of God, and his doctrine of attributes is similar to that Ashʿariyya is the denial of (= tashbīh). of the Muʿtazilah. In treating the commandments, Saadiah This theme is derived from numerous Qurʾānic verses, which distinguishes between rational and revealed commandments, ascribe human properties to God. The Muʿtazila denied the thus sharing the Muʿtazilite distinction. In positing a future figurative interpretation and applied allegorical interpretation world in which children and animals will find reward for suf- to these verses. TheAsh ʿariyya for their part used the doctrine fering in this world, Saadiah merely repeats a doctrine based of bi-lā kayfa, which means believing the Qurʾānic formulae on the Muʿtazilite sense of . In general, one may say that without trying to explain them. through Saadiah the Muʿtazilite Kalām exercised enormous The question of the unity of God (=tawh ̣īd), which is influence on Jewish thought throughout the Middle Ages. actually a cluster of problems, such as proving the existence *Samuel b. Hophni (d. 1013) followed closely the Muʿtazilite of God, proving the creation of the world and explaining di- system in its Basran version. His son in law *Hai Gaon, did vine attributes, set out numerous points of dispute between so to a lesser extent. Traces of the speculation of the Kalām the Muʿtazila and the Ashʿariyya. In the question of divine are to be found in *Baḥya ibn Paquda and Joseph ibn Ẓaddik’s attributes (= ṣifāt), for example, the Muʿtazila denied their proofs of creation. *Maimonides expounded and refuted ka- real existence, while the Ashʿariyya stressed their indepen- lamic doctrine in detail in the Guide of the Perplexed (1:73–76), dent status. although he did mention that his own point of view resembles TheMu ʿtazila asserted man’s free will, while stating that the Kalām in certain respects (ibid., 2: 19). The influence of man creates his own good and bad actions, due to the power Kalām on Karaite thinkers was very pronounced. Its earliest God grants him beforehand, and therefore he is liable to re- attestations are found in the formulation of normative beliefs ward and punishment. TheAsh ʿariyya, on the other hand, em- by al-*Qumisi (late 9t century). It had become accepted by phasized that God, as a creator of all things, creates all human most medieval Karaite thinkers. Joseph b. Abraham ha-Kohen actions. Man’s responsibility over his actions is maintained *al-Baṣīr wrote theological works that follow closely the Bas- by using the doctrine of kasb (lit. acquisition), according to ran Muʿtazilah both in structure and in contents, and so did which, when God creates man’s acts he also creates in him the his disciple *Jeshua ben Judah. They even accepted the doc-

730 ENCYCLOPAEDIA JUDAICA, Second Edition, Volume 11 kalb, bernard trine of atoms. As late as the 14t century, *Aaron ben Elijah Period of Islamic Thought (1973); idem, Free Will and Predestination the Younger of Nicomedia defended the Kalām outlook in his in Early Islam (1948); idem, Islamic Creeds – A Selection (1994); A.J. Eẓ Ḥayyim, which was intended to be the Karaite counterpart Wensinck, The Muslim Creed (1965); H.A. Wolfson, The Philosophy of the Kalam (1976). INFLUENCE ON JEWISH PHILOSOPHY: H. Ben- of Maimonides’ Guide. Shammai, in: D.H. Frank and O. Leaman (eds.), History of Jewish [Lawrence V. Berman / Haggai Ben-Shammai (2nd ed.)] Philosophy (1997), 114–15; idem, in: Jerusalem Studies in and Bibliography: H. Corbin, Histoire de la philosophie is- Islam, 6 (1985), 243–98; H. Davidson, Proofs for Eternity, Creation and lamique (1964), 152–78; M. Fakhry, Islamic Occasionalism… (1958); the in Medieval Islamic and Jewish Philosophy (1987); L. Gardet and G.C. Anawati, Introduction à la théologie musulmane M. Schwarz, in: Maimonidean Studies, 2 (1991), 159–209; C. Sirat, A (1948), 21–93; G. Vajda, Introduction à la pensée juive du moyen âge History of Jewish Philosophy in the Middle Ages (1985); G. Vajda (ed. (1947), 23–37, 45–65; Guttmann, , 61–84, index. Add. and tr.), Al Kitāb al-Muḥtawī par Yūsuf al-Baṣīr (1985); H.A. Wolfson, Bibliography: PRIMARY SOURCES: ʿAbd al-Jabbār ibn Aḥmad The Philosophy of the Kalam (1976); idem, Repercussions of the Kalam al-Asadabādī, Al-Mughnī fi ̄ abwāb al-tawḥīd wa`l-ʿadl (1960–69); Al- in Jewish Philosophy (1979). Ashʿarī, Abū al-Ḥasan, Al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl al-diyāna (n.d.); Al-Baghdādī, Abū Manṣūr, Uṣūl al-dīn (1928); Al-Bāḳillānī, Abū Bakr, Kitāb al- KALARASH (Rom. Caˇlaˇrași, formerly also Tuzora), town tamhīd (1957); Al-Ghazālī, Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad b. Aḥmad, Iḥyāʿ in Bessarabia, Moldova. Jews began to settle there in the first ʿulūm al-dīn (1998); Ibn Taymiyya, Abū al-ʿAbbās Aḥmad, Minhāj half of the 19t century. They numbered 4,593 in 1897, forming al-sunna al-nabawiyya fi ̄ naḳḍ kalām al-shiʾa al-ḳadariyya (1986) 89 of the population. Most were engaged in trade, primarily Al-Jurjānī, ʿAli b. Muḥammad, Kitāb al-taʿrīfāt (1978); Al-Māturīdī, in agricultural produce, and some in agriculture. Most of the Abū Manṣūr, Kitāb al-tawḥīd (1970); al-Tahānawī, Muḥammad Aʿlā Jews were ḥasidim and spoke Yiddish. The wave of pogroms in ibn ʿAlī, Mawsūʿat kashshāf iṣṭilaḥāt al-funūn (1996). SECONDARY SOURCES: B. Abrahamov, “Ibn Taymiyya on the Agreement of Rea- Russia in October 1905 also hit Kalarash, where 60 Jews were son with Tradition,” in: The , 82:3–4 (1992), 256–72; killed, 300 were injured, and over 200 houses were burned idem, Islamic Theology – Traditionalism and (1998); down. After Bessarabia passed to Romania in 1918, commu- idem, “Necessary in Islamic Theology,” in:British Journal nal life flourished in Kalarash. The community had welfare of Middle Eastern Studies, 20 (1988), 20–32; G.C. Anawati, “Kalām,” organizations and educational institutions, including a hos- in: The Encyclopaedia of Religion, vol. 8, 231–42; R. Arnaldez “Apo- pital (founded in 1890), a talmud torah, a library, and a loan ries sur le prédestination et le libre arbitre dans le Commentaire and savings fund. In 1930 the Jewish population numbered de Rāzī,” in: Melanges de l’Institut dominicain d’études orientales du 3,631 (76 of the total population). Israel *Giladi was born in Caire, 6 (1959–60), 123–36; R. Brunschvig “Devoir et pouvoir,” in Stu- dia Islamica, 20 (1964), 5–46; M.A. Cook, “The Origins of Kalām,” Kalarash. Zionist organizations were also active. in: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 43 (1980), [Eliyahu Feldman] 32–43; J. van Ess, Theologie und Gesellschaft im 2. und 3. Jahrhundert Holocaust Period and After Hidschra: eine Geschichte des religioesen Denkens im fruehen Islam When World War II broke out, some of the community man- (1990); idem, Zwischen und Theologie. Studien zur Entste- hung praedestinatianischer Ueberlieferung (1975); idem, “The Logical aged to escape from Kalarash, apparently to the Soviet Union. Structure of Islamic Theology,” in: G.E. von Grunebaum (ed.), Those caught on the way were either killed on the spot or de- in Classical (1970), 21–50; R.M. Frank, “Kalām and ported to Transnistria. In July 1941 Romanian troops assem- Philosophy, A Perspective from One Problem,” in: P. Morewedge bled all the remaining Jews in Kalarash and took them to a for- (ed.), Islamic Philosophical Theology (1979), 71–95; L. Gardet, “‘Ilm est not far from the city, where a deep ditch had been prepared. al-Kalām,” in: Encyclopaedia of Islam2, vol. 3, 1141–50; L. Gardet and Some 250 Jews were thrown into the ditch and killed. This ac- G.C. Anawati, Introduction à la théologie musulmane (1948), 21–93; tion had been ordered by the commander of the gendarmerie L. Gardet, Les grands problèmes de la théologie musulmane: Dieu et la legion in the Lāpuşna district, Lieut. Col. Nicolai Caracas. The destinée de l`homme (1967); D. Gimaret, Théories de l`acte humain en théologie musulmane (1980); G.F. Hourani, Reason and Tradition in local Kalarash gendarmerie commander also took part in the Islamic (1985); D.B. Macdonald, “Kalām,” in: H.A.R. Gibb and slaughter and looted Jewish property. In 1970 the Jewish pop- J.H. Kramers (eds.), Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam (1995), 210–14; W. ulation was estimated at about 750. The only synagogue was Madelung, “The Late Muʿtazila and Determinism: the Philosophers’ closed down by the authorities in 1961 and converted into a Trap,” in: Yad-nama in memoria di Alessandro Bausani, vol. 1 (1991), public library. The baking of matzah was stopped in 1962. In 245–57; idem, “The Origins of the Controversy Concerning the Cre- 1964 seven Jews were arrested for economic crimes allegedly ation of the Koran,” in: Orientalia Hispanica, 1 (1974), 504–25; M.E. committed 20 years earlier. Marmura. (ed.), Islamic Theology and Philosophy: Studies in Honor of G.F. Hourani (1984); S.H. Nasr and O.Leaman (eds.), History of Islamic Bibliography: Judenpogrome in Russland, 2 (1909), 97–102; Philosophy (1996); E.L. Ormsby, Theodicy in Islamic Thought (1984); P. Cowen, Memories of an American Jew (1932), 212–24; Y. Yakir, in: M.S. Seale, Muslim Theology (1964); J.M. Pessagno, “Irāda, ikhtiyār, Eynikeyt (Dec. 3, 1946). Add. Bibliography: Sefer Kalarasch qudra, kasb: The View of Abū Manṣūr Al-Māturīdī,” in: Journal of the (1966). [Jean Ancel] American Oriental Society, 104:1 (1984), 177–99; J.R.T.M. Peters, God’s Created Speech (1976); Sh. Pines, “A Note on an Early Meaning of the Term Mutakallim,” in: Israel Oriental Studies, 1 (1971), 224–40; idem, KALB, BERNARD (1922– ), U.S. journalist. Born in New Studies in Islamic Atomism (1997); G. Vajda, Introduction à la pensée York, the son of immigrants from Poland and Russia, Kalb juive du moyen âge (1947), 23–37, 45–65; W.M. Watt, The Formative graduated from the City College of New York in 1942. He then

ENCYCLOPAEDIA JUDAICA, Second Edition, Volume 11 731