U.S. RELATIONS WITH CENTRAL ASIAN STATES: A STUDY WITH REFERENCE TO ENERGY RESOURCES GEOPOLITICS FROM 1991 TO 2012 HUJJATHULLAH S/O M.H. BABU SAHIB FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA KUALA LUMPUR University of Malaya 2018 U.S. RELATIONS WITH CENTRAL ASIAN STATES: A STUDY WITH REFERENCE TO ENERGY RESOURCES GEOPOLITICS FROM 1991 TO 2012 HUJJATHULLAH S/O M. H. BABU SAHIB THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, BY RESEARCH FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES UniversityUNIVERSITY of OF MALAYAMalaya KUALA LUMPUR 2018 DEDICATION This research is, humbly, dedicated to the disquieting memory of the numerous innocent ordinary victims of the Central Asian states (CAS) and the United States of America (USA) who, over the ages, have been the, unfortunate, casualties in elitist-hatched geopolitics, both internal and external. May all those innocent souls, regardless of their various convictions, find true peace! University of Malaya UNIVERSITI MALAYA ORIGINAL LITERARY WORK DECLARATION Name of Candidate: Hujjathullah s/o. M. H. Babu Sahib Registration/Matric No.: AHA 050032 Name of Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title of Thesis (“This Work”): U.S. Relations with Central Asian States: A Study with Reference to Energy Resources Geopolitics from 1991 to 2012 Field of Study: History I do solemnly and sincerely declare that: (1) I am the sole author/writer of this Work; (2) This Work is original; (3) Any use of any work in which copyright exists was done by way of fair dealing and for permitted purposes and any excerpt or extract from, or reference to or reproduction of any copyright work has been disclosed expressly and sufficiently and the title of the Work and its authorship have been acknowledged in this Work; (4) I do not have any actual knowledge nor do I ought reasonably to know that the making of this Work constitutes an infringement of any copyright work; (5) I hereby assign all and every rights in the copyright to this Work to the University of Malaya (“UM”), who henceforth shall be owner of the copyright in this Work and that any reproduction or use in any form or by any means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of UM having been first had and obtained; (6) I am fully aware that if in the course of making this Work I have infringed any copyright whether intentionally or otherwise, I may be subject to legal action or any other action as may be determined by UM. Candidate’s Signature Date SubsUniversitycribed and solemnly declared before, of Malaya Witness’s Signature Date Name: Designation: ABSTRACT Though an undefined central asian region has been around historically from time immemorial, the narrowly defined Central Asia (C.A.) of the recent past was a Russian/Soviet construct of early modern vintage. In the aftermath of the Soviet demise, the region stands variously redefined, if only analytically. Hence, the Central Asian region now, as defined by this study, constitutes the states of Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. The past two decades or so have witnessed the steady forging and gradual development of relations between these newly independent Central Asian states (CAS) and/or emergent republics of Central Asia (CARs) and the reviving United States of America (U.S.A.). The development of multi-sectoral relations between them betrays a subtle shift from one of apparent reluctance that characterized the early years to one of enthusiastic engagement subsequently. This study is, therefore, a research attempt to explain the nature of the evolving relations between most of the freed states of a redefined Central Asia (C.A.) and the U.S. and to account for the changes in these relationships, especially but not exclusively from late 1991 when most of these states got their independences from the erstwhile Soviet Union and found themselves, at last, left apparently free to develop their own foreign relations. Methodologically, by merely using printed and electronic materials available in the public domain, a number of pertinent variables are considered as likely causes for the development and evolution of these relations. Key among these is the importance of the region’s energy resources to the U.S. and by extension to the western countries and their other relatively energy-deficient allies. Other variables seen, in this study, as responsible for the perceived shift in relations include: American intervention in the neighboring states of Central Asia/Caspian; the varied nature of ties the Central Asian states (CAS) themselves maintain with Russia; and the consequent weakness of the U.S. in the broader C.A. convicinity. The basic objectives of this study then are: first, defining the C.A. region anew; second, accounting for the change in America’s relationships with the constituent states of this analytic region and; third, highlighting the primacy of strategic, especially energy resources in the evolution of these ties. It must be mentioned here that the present research, after surveying the region politico-geographically in broad-strokes and anchoring the entire region historically too, deliberately chooses to gloss over the internal factors in the CARs themselves, in order to give due stress to the importance of external events and the regional dynamics of the U.S.-Russian cooperation and competition, especially in regard to energy issues. After all it was these very external factors that were responsible for launching both these freed CARs and the new C.A. regionUniversity too, as a relatively coherent whole ofin the internationalMalaya scene. On the whole, this study found that, in the period under review, these relationships between the U.S. and the CAS have indeed evolved and there have been changes in the nature of these ties if not also in the general direction of these relationships. ii ABSTRAK Rantau Asia Tenggara yang tidak mempunyai definisi geografi moden. Rantau Asia Tengah yang belum lagi diterokai mengikut definisi geografi moden telah lama wujud dari sejak zaman pra-sejarah. Rantau ini yang didefinisikan secara sempit kebelakangan ini merupakan suatu konstruk Kesatuan Soviet. Selepas kejatuhan Soviet, secara analitikal, rantau ini diberi pelbagai definisi baharu. Justeru, rantau Asia Tengah hari ini, sebagaimana didefinisikan oleh kajian ini, meliputi negara-negara Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyztan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan dan Uzbekistan. Sepanjang dua dekad yang lalu, secara beransur-ansur berlaku perkembangan hubungan antara negara Asia Tengah (Central Asian States; CAS) yang baru merdeka ini dengan negara/Republik Asia Tengah (republics of Central Asia;CARs) dan Amerika Syarikat (AS). Perkembangan hubungan yang pelbagai sektor ini menunjukkan peralihan daripada hubungan yang agak dingin kepada hubungan yang lebih mesra. Justeru, kajian ini cuba menjelaskan sifat hubungan luar yang berkembang antara negara-negara yang bebas yang ditakrifkan semula sebagai Asia Tengah (CA) dan Amerika Syarikat (A.S.) dengan mengambil kira perubahan dalam hubungan ini terutamanya sejak lewat tahun 1991 apabila kebanyakan negara ini memperoleh kemerdekaan dari Kesatuan Soviet. Kemerdekaan ini membawa kepada kebebasan mereka untuk menjalin hubungan luar. Dari segi metodologi, kajian ini menggunakan bahan atas talian dan bercetak yang terdapat di domain awam. Amat jelas wujud beberapa pembolehubah penting yang harus dipertimbangkan sebagai penyumbang utama kepada perkembangan dan evolusi hubungan ini. Yang paling penting, adalah sumber tenaga rantau ini kepada A.S. dan seterusnya ke negara-negara barat lain dan sekutu mereka yang kekurangan sumber tenaga. Pemboleh ubah lain yang bertanggungjawab dalam perubahan hubungan ini termasuk; campur tangan A.S. di negara-negara jiran AsiaTengah/Caspian; hubungan pelbagai negara Asia Tengah (CAS) dengan Rusia; dan kelemahan A.S. dalam rantau Asia Tengah secara umum. Objektif asas kajian ini adalah: pertama, memberi definisi baru kepada rantau Asia Tengah. Kedua, menjelaskan perubahan hubungan A.S. dengan negara di rantau ini dan ketiga, menekankan kepentingan strategik terutamanya merujuk kepada sumber tenaga dalam evolusi hubungan luar ini. Harus disebut di sini, setelah meninjau geo- politik dan sejarah rantau ini, kajian ini secara sengaja tidak menjelaskan isu dalaman negara-negara rantau ini supaya dapat memberi penekanan kepada kepentingan peristiwa luar dan dinamika rantau ini yang merujuk kepada kerjasama dan persaingan antara A.S. dan Rusia terutamanya dalam sektor sumber tenaga. Ini kerana, faktor luaran inilah yang membawa kepada pengenalan rantau CARs yang merdeka dan C.A. ke arena antarabangsa.University Secara keseluruhan, kajian iniof mendapati Malaya dalam tempoh perbincangan ini, hubungan antara A.S. dan CAS sebenarnya telah jauh berubah dan perubahan ini dapat dilihat dalam sifat dan hala tuju hubungan ini. iiiiii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To Almighty Allah (S.W.T.) is due all praise and every shukr that can possibly emanate from my humble soul! If not for His Will, Benefactions and Sustenance, this researcher would not be able to commit anything to paper, leave alone to complete the present research work. I believe it is only through His Infinite Mercy, that I have been able to traverse this far in my educational development. Whatever intellectual attainments I can claim to have achieved is due wholly and solely to His Divine Pittance, which I hereby dutifully acknowledge to cherish and for which I gladly remain ever insolvently