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Dialect Variation and Change Among Twice Migrants : a Sociophonetic Study of the East African Indian Community in Leicester, UK

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Dialect Variation and Change Among Twice Migrants : a Sociophonetic Study of the East African Indian Community in Leicester, UK Zurich Open Repository and Archive University of Zurich Main Library Strickhofstrasse 39 CH-8057 Zurich www.zora.uzh.ch Year: 2015 Dialect variation and change among twice migrants : a sociophonetic study of the East African Indian community in Leicester, UK Rathore-Nigsch, Claudia Abstract: Dialect Variation and Change Among Twice Migrants: A Sociophonetic Study of the East African Indian Community in Leicester, UK by Claudia Rathore-Nigsch Abstract Recent years have seen a notable increase of sociolinguistic interest in the varieties of English found in the Indian diaspora, one of the major migratory movements of the modern period. The present study is a sociophonetic investigation of the English spoken by East African Indians in Leicester, a community of South Asian twice migrants who settled in Britain via East Africa in the late 1960s and early 1970s. It contributes to the field in two ways. On a descriptive level, it adds to the existing knowledge by providing insight into patterns of dialect variation and change in an Indian diasporic context that has not been investigated yet. On a theoretical level, it explores the potential of double diaspora situations, an under-researched type of contact setting, to improve our understanding of the linguistic consequences of migration and contact. Secondary diaspora situations are of considerable interest to sociolinguistic research as they raise the question of how such complex migration patterns affect the varieties of English spoken by immigrant communities. More specifically, does contact with the dialects, languages and cultures of three different societies lead to linguistic outcomes that differ from those found in primary diaspora situations? The present study investigates this question by examining variation in the production of one consonantal variable, postvocalic /r/, and three vocalic variables, FOOT, STRUT and NURSE, in a group of first- and second-generation migrants. The results indicate that, despite a strong sense of affiliation with East Africa, first-generation speakers have predominantly maintained Indian English patterns in their useof these variables, whereas second-generation speakers show accommodation to the local variety of British English. Evidence from the community’s social history accounts for the findings. Zusammenfassung Das soziolinguistische Interesse an den englischen Varietäten der indischen Diaspora, einer der wichtigsten Wanderungsbewegungen der Neuzeit, ist in den letzten Jahren deutlich gestiegen. Diese Forschungsar- beit befasst sich mit dem englischen Dialekt der ostafrikanisch-indischen Gemeinschaft in Leicester, einer Gruppe von sogenannten twice migrants südasiatischer Herkunft, die in den späten Sechziger- und frühen Siebzigerjahren von Ostafrika nach Grossbritannien auswanderten. Sie liefert einen zweifachen Beitrag an das Forschungsgebiet. Auf der deskriptiven Ebene bietet sie Einblick in die Dynamik von Dialek- tvariation und -wandel in einem Kontext der indischen Diaspora, der bisher noch nicht beschrieben wurde. Auf der theoretischen Ebene erforscht sie, inwiefern solche Gemeinschaften von twice migrants zu einem besseren Verständnis der linguistischen Folgen von Migration und Kontakt verhelfen können. Sekundäre diasporische Kontexte sind selten untersucht worden, werfen jedoch die für die Soziolinguistik bedeutsame Frage auf, welche Auswirkungen solche komplexe Wanderungsbewegungen auf die englischen Varietäten haben, die von Migranten gesprochen werden. Führt insbesondere der Kontakt mit den Di- alekten, Sprachen und Kulturen dreier verschiedener Gesellschaften zu anderen linguistischen Ergebnissen als diejenigen, die in primären diasporischen Kontexten anzutreffen sind? Dieser Frage wird nachgegan- gen, indem Variation im Gebrauch einer konsonantischen Variable, das postvokalische /r/, sowie dreier vokalischen Variablen, FOOT, STRUT and NURSE, in einer Gruppe von Migranten erster und zweiter Generation untersucht wird. Die Ergebnisse der Studie zeigen, dass Sprecher der ersten Generation beim Gebrauch dieser Variablen Merkmale des indischen Englischen beibehalten haben, während sich Sprecher der zweiten Generation an die lokale Varietät des britischen Englischen angepasst haben. Soziohistorische Faktoren bieten eine Erklärung für diese Befunde. Posted at the Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich ZORA URL: https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-164432 Dissertation Published Version Originally published at: Rathore-Nigsch, Claudia. Dialect variation and change among twice migrants : a sociophonetic study of the East African Indian community in Leicester, UK. 2015, University of Zurich, Faculty of Arts. 2 Dialect Variation and Change Among Twice Migrants A Sociophonetic Study of the East African Indian Community in Leicester, UK Thesis presented to the Faculty of Arts of the University of Zurich for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Claudia Rathore-Nigsch of St. Gallen-Tablat (SG) Accepted in the spring semester 2013 on the recommendation of Prof. Dr. D. Schreier and Prof. Dr. V. Dellwo Zurich, 2015 To my parents, Brigitte and Jürg Nigsch, who have always been there for me. To my son, Ranvir, whose smile lights up my life every day. Table of Contents List of Maps vi List of Tables vi List of Figures viii Acknowledgements xi 1. Introduction 1 1.1 The research field: English in the Indian diaspora 1 1.2 The research potential of East African Indians in Leicester 5 1.3 Indian English, East African English and East Midlands English 7 1.4 Aims and organisation of the present study 11 2. English in the Indian diaspora 14 2.0 Introduction 14 2.1 English in the Indian diaspora: Britain 14 2.1.1 Crossing and stylisation phenomena 15 2.1.2 Variation and change in British Asian Englishes 17 2.1.3 The impact of British Asians on local British English Dialects 28 2.2 English in the Indian diaspora: beyond Britain 37 2.3 Summary 39 3. Sociohistorical background 41 3.0 Introduction 41 3.1 Leicester’s ethnic diversity 41 3.2 The Indian diaspora in East Africa 46 3.2.1 Pre-colonial times 46 3.2.2 Colonial era 49 3.2.2.1 Economic significance 54 3.2.2.2 Religious composition and communalism 58 3.2.2.3 Linguistic make-up 61 3.2.3 Post-independence period 64 i 3.3 The East African Indian diaspora in Leicester 67 3.4 Summary 77 4. The linguistic variables 78 4.0 Introduction 78 4.1 Postvocalic /r/ 78 4.1.1 Postvocalic /r/ in prepausal and preconsonantal position: (non-)rhoticity 78 4.1.2 Word-final /r/ before vowels: linking /r/ and intrusive /r/ 82 4.1.3 Postvocalic /r/ in the input varieties 84 4.1.3.1 Indian English 84 4.1.3.1.1 Linguistic constraints 87 4.1.3.1.2 Social and stylistic constraints 88 4.1.3.2 East African English 91 4.1.3.3 East Midlands English 92 4.1.4 Postvocalic /r/: summary 93 4.2 The vowels: FOOT, STRUT and NURSE 94 4.2.1 FOOT 94 4.2.2 STRUT 95 4.2.3 NURSE 98 4.2.4 FOOT, STRUT and NURSE in the input varieties 100 4.2.4.1 Indian English 100 4.2.4.2 East African English 104 4.2.4.3 East Midlands English 106 4.2.5 The vowels: summary 111 4.3 Chapter summary 112 5. Method 113 5.0 Introduction 113 5.1 Data collection and participants 113 5.2 Postvocalic /r/: auditory analysis 117 5.2.1 Token selection 117 5.2.2 Coding the dependent variable 119 ii 5.2.3 Coding the independent variables 120 5.3 Vowels: acoustic analysis 121 5.3.1 Token selection 121 5.3.2 Formant and duration measurements 124 5.3.3 Vowel normalisation 126 5.3.4 Coding the independent variables 131 5.4 Statistical analysis: mixed-effects modelling 132 5.4.1 Postvocalic /r/: generalised linear (logistic) mixed-effects modelling 134 5.4.2 Vowels: linear mixed-effects modelling 136 5.5 Summary 137 6. Results: postvocalic /r/ 138 6.0 Introduction 138 6.1 Variation across generations 138 6.1.1 Results 138 6.1.2 Discussion 142 6.1.2.1 First generation 142 6.1.2.2 Second generation 146 6.1.2.3 First and second generation compared 148 6.2 Variation within the first generation 149 6.2.1 Results 150 6.2.2 Discussion 160 6.3 Summary 165 7. Results: FOOT, STRUT and NURSE 167 7.0 Introduction 167 7.1 Results 167 7.1.1 Vowel quality 167 7.1.1.1 Non-normalised data 167 7.1.1.2 Evaluation of the three normalisation techniques 173 7.1.1.3 Linear mixed-effects regression analyses for F1 and F2 177 iii 7.1.2 Vowel duration 191 7.1.2.1 Untransformed and log-transformed data 191 7.1.2.2 Linear mixed-effects regression analysis for vowel duration 195 7.2 Discussion 200 7.2.1 Vowel quality 201 7.2.1.1 First generation 201 7.2.1.2 Second generation 213 7.2.2 Vowel duration 216 7.2.2.1 Gender-related variation 216 7.2.2.2 First generation 219 7.2.2.3 Second generation 223 7.3 Summary 224 8. Dialect variation and change among East African Indians in Leicester: the broader picture 226 8.0 Introduction 226 8.1 Summary of the study’s findings 226 8.1.1 First generation 226 8.1.2 Second generation 229 8.2 Dialect variation and change among East African Indians in Leicester: the broader picture 231 8.2.1 First generation 231 8.2.2 Second generation 234 8.3 Summary 239 9. Conclusion 240 10. References 245 iv Appendix I - Number of FLEECE, FOOT, NURSE, START, STRUT and TRAP tokens by gender and generation 262 Appendix II – Boxplots of the Lobanov-normalised F1 and F2 values of FOOT, STRUT and NURSE (by gender and generation) 263 Appendix III – Mean F1 and F2 frequencies of FLEECE, FOOT, NURSE, START, STRUT and TRAP by gender and generation (Hz) 265 Appendix IV – Mean durations of FLEECE, FOOT, NURSE, START, STRUT and TRAP by gender and generation (in ms) 266 v List of Maps Map 3.1 Leicester (adapted from Google Maps 2012).
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